TMTKI.  STATES  COMMISSION  01    i  isn  AN|,  n>M 

8J'J  '  •'•     '•'•     "A  I  HD,    COMMISSION  1. 1. 


THE  -FISHERIES 


FISHERY   INDUSTRIES 


or  TIIK 


UNITED  STATES 


PREPARED  THROUGH  THE  CO-OPERATION  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OK  FISHKIMKS 
AND  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  THE  TENTH  CENsl> 

BY 

GEORGE    BROWN    GOODE 

ASSISTANT  DIRECTOR  OF  THK   V.   S.   NATIONAL   MU.SKUM 

AND  A  STAFF  OF  ASSOCIATES 


SECTION    I 
NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  USEFUL  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

WITH  AN  ATLAS  OF  TWO  HUNDRED  AND  SEVENTY-SEVEN  PLATES 

TEXT 


WASHINGTON 

QOVERNMKNT    PRINTING    OFl'ICE 
1834 


.-•-. 

•   -: 
•     -•  •  •  .•  • : 


ASSOCIATE    AUTHORS. 


JOEL  A.  ALLEN Mnseum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge. 

TAULETON  H.  BEAN U.  S.  National  MiiHenin,  Washington. 

.JA..IKS  TEMPLE.  BROWN U.  8.  National  Museum,  Washington. 

A.  HOWARD  CLARK U.  8.  Notional  Museum.  Washington. 

JOSEPH  W.  COLLINS Gloucester,  Massachusetts. 

R.  EDWARD  EARLL U.  S.Fish  Commission,  Washington. 

KICHARD  H.  EDMONDS Baltimore,  Maryland. 

HENRY  W.  ELLIOTT Cleveland,  Ohio. 

]'. I:\KST  INOERSOLL New  Haven,  Connecticut. 

DAVID  8.  JORDAN Indiana  University,  Bloomington,  Indiana. 

LUDWIQ  KUMLIEN Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 

MARSHALL  MACDONALD  U.  8.  Fish  Commission,  Washington. 

FREDERICK  MATHER  N.  Y.  Fish  Commituiion,  Cold  S;>rin^,  New  York. 

HARNET  PHILLIPS Brooklyn,  New  York. 

KICHARD  RATHBUN U.  8.  National  Musoiiin,  Washington. 

JOHN  A.  EYDER U.  8.  Fish  Commission,  WiMhillftan. 

CHARLES  W.  SMILEY U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  Washington. 

SILAS  STEARNS Pensacola,  Florida. 

FREDERICK  W.  TRUE U.  8.  National  Museum,  Washington. 

WILLIAM  A.  WILCOX Boston,  Massachusetts. 

ill 


PREFATORY    NOTE, 


U.  8.  COMMISSION  OP  FISH  AND  FISHERIES, 

Waithington,  May  30,  1884. 

In  July,  1879,  an  arrangement  was  made  with  General  Francis  A.  Walker,  Superintendent  of 
the  Tenth  Census,  by  which  an  investigation  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States  was  undertaken 
:is  t  lie  joint  enterprise  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  and  of  the  Census  Bureau.  It  was 
derided  that  tin's  investigation  should  be  as  exhaustive  as  possible,  and  that  both  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  and  the  Census  should  participate  in  its  results.  The  preparation  of  a 
statistical  and  historical  monograph  of  the  fisheries,  to  form  one  of  the  series  to  be  presented  by 
the  Superintendent  of  the  Census  in  his  report,  was  from  the  first  the  main  object  of  the  work, 
but  iu  connection  with  this  work  extensive  investigations  into  the  methods  of  the  fisheries,  into 
the  distribution  of  the  fishing-grounds,  and  the  natural  history  of  useful  marine  animals  were 
inaugurated  and  carried  on. 

The  direction  of  this  investigation  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  G.  Brown  Goode,  Assistant 
Director  of  the  National  Museum,  who  had  already  been  engaged  for  a  number  of  years  in  a 
systematic,  historical,  and  statistical  investigation  of  the  American  fisheries,  and  who  as  early  as 
1877  had  drawn  up  a  scheme  for  an  exhaustive  exploration  of  the  coast,  quite  as  elaborate  as  that 
now  adopted  and  not  essentially  different. 

The  first  step  taken  was  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  as  many  as  possible  of  those  persons 
who  had  in  the  past  given  attention  to  the  subject  of  the  fisheries,  and  this  was  so  successfully 
accomplished  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  every  one  who  has  l»een  of  late  years  prominent  in  such 
studies  has  taken  part  in  the  preparation  of  this  report. 

The  plan  of  the  proposed  investigation  was  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Goodo  before  beginning  the  work, 
and  was  published  in  an  octavo  pamphlet  of  fifty-four  pages,  entitled  "  Plan  of  Inquiry  into  the 
History  and  Present  Condition  of  the  Fisheries  of  the  United  States."  Washington :  Government 
Printing  Office ;  1879. 

The  scheme  of  investigation  divided  the  work  into  the  following  departments : 

I.  Natural  history  of  m urine  products. — Under  this  head  was  to  be  carried  on  the  study  of  the 
useful  aquatic  animals  and   plants  of  the  country,  as  well  as  of  seals,  whales,  turtles,   !i-li«--.. 
lobsters,  crabs,  oysters,  clams,  etc.,  sponges,  and  marine  plants  and  inorganic  products  of  the 
sea  with  reference  to  (A)  geographical  distribution,  (B)  size,  (C)  abundance,  (I))  migrations  and 
movements,  (E)  food  and  rate  of  growth,  (F)  mode  of  reproduction,  (G)  economic  value  and  n.-e>. 

II.  The  fishing  ground*.— Under  this  head  were  to  be  studied  the  geographical  distribution  of 
all  animals  sought  by  fishermen,  and  the  location  of  the  fishing-grounds;  while,  with  references 


vi  PREFATORY  NOTE. 

to  the  latter,  are  considered:  (A)  location,  (B)  topography,  (C)  depth  of  water,  (D)  character  of 
bottom,  (E)  temperature  of  water,  (F)  currents,  (G)  character  of  invertebrate  life,  etc. 

III.  The  fishermen  and  fishing  toirnx. — Here  were  to  be  considered  the  coast  districts  engaged 
in  the  fisheries,  with  reference  to  their  relation  to  the  fisheries,  historically  and  statistically,  and 
the  social,  vital,  and  other  statistics  relating  to  the  fishermen. 

IV.  Apparatus  and  methods  of  capture. — Here  were  to  be  considered  all  the  forms  of  apparatus 
used  by  fishermen ;  boats,  nets,  traps,  harpoons,  etc.,  and  the  methods  employed  in  the  various 
branches  of  the  fishery.    Here  each  special  kind  of  fishery,  of  which  there  are  more  than  fifty 
in  the  United  States,  is  considered  separately  with  regard  to  its  methods,  its  history,  and  its 
statistics. 

V.  Products  of  fisheries. — Under  this  head  were  to  be  studied  the  statistics  of   the  yield  of 
American  fisheries,  past  and  present. 

VI.  Preparation,  care  of,  and  Manufacture  of  fishery  products. — Here  were  to  be  considered 
the  methods  and  the  various    devices  for  utilizing  fish  after  they  are  caught,  with  statistics  of 
capital  and  men  employed,  etc.:  (A)  preservation  of  live  fish,  (B)  refrigeration,  (C)  sun-drying, 
(D)  smoke-drying,  (E)  pickling,  (F)  hermetically  canning,   (G)  fur  dressing,  (H)  whalebone  prep- 
aration, (I)  isinglass  manufacture,  (K)  ambergris  manufacture,  (L)  fish  guano  manufacture,  (M)  oil 
rendering,  etc. 

VII.  Economy  of  the  fisheries. — Here  were  to  be  studied:  (A)  financial  organization   and 
methods,  (B)  insurance,  (C)  labor  and  capital,  (D)  markets  and  market  prices,  (E)  lines  of  traffic, 
(F)  exports,  imports,  and  duties. 

The  fishery  industry  is  of  such  great  importance,  and  is  undergoing  such  constant  changes 
that  a  visit  of  a  few  days  or  weeks  to  any  locality,  even  by  the  most  competent  experts,  has 
invariably  proved  unsatisfactory.  We  were  able  therefore  to  collect  only  the  most  important 
facts,  selected  with  special  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  report  in  contemplation,  leaving  many 
subjects  of  interest  undiscussed. 

The  field  work,  and  the  correspondence  in  connection  with  it,  was  carried  on  by  the  following- 
named  special  agents,  and  approximately  between  the  dates  below  mentioned: 

I. — Coast  of  Maine,  east  of  Portland.    Mr.  K.  Edward   Karll  and  Captain  J.  W.  Collins, 
August  1  to  October  31,  1879;  July  29  to  October  20,  1880;  January  1,  1881,  to 
January  1,  1883. 
H. — Portland  to  Plymouth  (except  Cape  Ann)  and  eastern  side  of  Buzzard's  Bay.     W.  A. 

Wilcox,  September  2,  1879,  to  March  1,  1881. 
III.— Cape  Ann.    A.  Howard  Clark,  September  1,  1879,  to  November  1,  1880;  July,  August, 

and  September,  1883. 
IV.— Cape  Cod.    Frederick  W.  True,  July  1  to  October  1,  1879;  September  1  to  October  31, 

1880;  Vinal  N.  Edwards,  October  1,  1880,  to  July  31,  1882. 
V. — Provincetown.    Captain  N.  E.  Atwood,  August  1,  1879,  to  August  1,  1880. 
VI. — Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  west  to  the  Connecticut  River.    Ludwig  Kumlien,  August 

10  to  October  16,  1880. 
Vir. — Long  Island  and  north  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  west  to  Sandy  Hook.     Frederick 

Mather,  August  1,  1879,  to  July  1,  1881. 

VIII.— New  York  City.     Barnet  1'liillips,  January  I,  1880,  to   July  1,  1881. 
IX.— Coast  of  New  Jersey.     H.  Edward  Earll,  December,  1880. 
X.— Philadelphia.     <'.  W.  Smiley  and  W.  V.  Cox,  November,  1880. 
XI.— Coast  of  Delaware.    Captain  J.  W.  Collins,  December,  1880. 


|'I;KI-ATOI;Y  NOTK.  vii 

X1J.— Baltimore  and  (lie  oyster  industry    ol   Maryland.     It.  II.  Kdmonds,  October  1,  1870,  to 

October  1,  18SO. 

XIII. — Atlantic  r.ia.st  of  Southern  States.      I;.  F.dward  Karll,  January    1   to  .Inly  :.'.">.  ISMI. 
XIV.— Gulf  coast.     Silas  Stearns.  August.  IXT'.i.  to  July,  1H80. 
XV. — Coast  of  California,  Oregon,  and   Washington.     1'n.i'c-so]   I ).  S.  .Ionian  ami  ('.  H.  Gil- 

lM>rt.  January,  isso,  to  January.  1»1. 

XVI. — Pugct  Sound.     James  (1.  Swan,  January,  1880,  to  January,  1881. 
XVII.— Alaska  tishei  ics.     Dr.  T.  H.  Beau,  June  to  October,  1880. 
XVIII.— Great  Lakes  lisbery.     Ludwig  Kuiiilieu,  August,  1879,  to  August,  ISMI. 
XIX.— River  fisheries  of  Maine.    C.  G.  Atkins,  January  1,  1880,  to  July  3, 1882. 
X\. — The  shad  and  alewife  fisheries.    Colonel  Marshall  MacDouald,  October,  1879,  to  January 

1, 1883. 

X  X  I.— <  >\ sin  lisln-rics.    Ernest  Ingersoll,  October  1,  1879,  to  July  1,  1881. 
X  X 1 1.— Lobster  and  crab  fisheries.     Richard  Rathbun,  January  1,  1880,  to  January  1,  1882. 
\  X  1 1 1.— Turtle  and  terrapin  fisheries.     Frederick  W.  True,  October  1,  1880,  to  January  1, 1882. 
XXIV.— The  seal,  sea-elephant,  and   whale  fisheries.     A.  Howard  Clark,  November  1,  1880,  to 

February  1,  1881. 

In  addition  to  the  field  assistants  already  mentioned  a  staff  of  office  assistants  were  employed 
in  carrying  on  correspondence,  searching  past  records,  and  preparing  the  report  for  publication. 
Mr.  C.  W.  Smiley,  Mr.  James  Temple.  Brown,  and  Mr.  George  S.  Hobbs  were  connected  with  the 
work  from  its  start,  and  subsequently  Mr.  J.  E.  Rockwell,  Mr.  C.  W.  Scndder,  Mr  R.  I  Geare,  Mr. 
G.  P.  Merrill,  Mr.  W.  S.  Yeates,  and  others  were  thus  employed.  A  number  of  clerks  were 
temporarily  detailed  for  this  work  by  the  Superintendent  of  the  Census;  at  one  time  as  many  as 
twenty. 

A  portion  of  the  clerical  force  was  placed  under  the  immediate  direction  of  Mr.  C.  W.  Smiley, 
who  had  in  special  charge  the  distribution  of  circulars  and  the  compilation  of  their  results,  ami  the 
compilation  of  summary  tables  from  the  records  of  the  Treasury  Department. 

The  expense  of  the  field-work  from  July  1,  1879,  to  July  1, 1881,  was  for  the  most  part  borne 
by  the  Census,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  compilation  office-work  carried  on  by  clerks 
detailed  from  the  Census  Office  in  Washington. 

The  expense  of  the  preparation  of  the  report,  final  tabulation  of  statistics  of  production,  and 
preparation  of  illustrations  has  been  mainly  at  the  cost  of  the  Fish  Commission.  Since  February, 
1881,  Mr.  Goode's  relation  to  the  work  has  been  that  of  a  volunteer,  and  his  services  in  the 
preparation  of  the  reports  and  in  connection  with  their  publication  have  been  rendered  without 
compensation,  in  addition  to  his  regular  duties  as  Assistant  Director  of  the  National  Museum. 
In  the  same  manner  a  large  share  of  the  most  important  work  upon  special  parts  of  the  report 
has  been  done  as  volunteer  labor  by  officers  of  the  National  Museum  and  Fish  Commission,  in 
addition  to  their  regular  duties.  A  number  of  employees  of  the  Fish  Commission  have  bee.n 
detailed  from  time  to  time  for  special  work  upon  this  report,  for  periods  varying  from  four  months 
to  two  years. 

The  pai  ticipat  ion  of  the  Census  Office  and  the  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  has  involved 
the  expenditure  of  probably  nearly  equal  amounts  of  money,  and  the  division  of  the  result*,  so 
far  as  they  are  represented  in  reports  ready  for  the  printer,  has  been  arranged  to  the  satisfaction 
of  both.  The  extent  of  the  material  collected  has,  however,  been  much  greater  than  was  antici- 
pated, and  the  portion  assigned  to  the  Fish  <'onmiission  being  too  bulky  for  publication  in  the  an- 
nual reports,  application  was  made  to  Coii^ic»  for  permission  to  print  as  a  separate  special  report 
an  illustrated  work  in  quarto  upon  the  Food  Fishes  and  Fisheries  of  the  United  States. 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 

This  permission  was  granted  in  a  joint  resolution,  worded  as  follows,  which  passed  tbe  Senate 
July  16,  1882: 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  (the  House  of  Representatives  concurring),  That  the  Public  Printer  be,  and 
is  hereby,  instructed  to  print,  in  quarto  form,  a  report  by  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Fish1  and  Fish- 
eries, upon  the  food  fishes  and  fisheries  of  the  United  States,  the  engravings  to  be  in  relief,  and  to  be 
contracted  for  by  the  Public  Printer,  under  the  direction  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Printing,  and  to 
receive  the  approval  of  the  Commissioner  before  being  accepted ;  the  work  to  be  stereotyped,  and 
10,000  extra  copies  printed,  of  which  2,500  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  Senate,  5,000  for  the  use  of 
the  House,  and  1,500  for  the  use  of  the  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  There  shall  also  be 
printed  1,000  extra  copies  for  sale  by  the  Public  Printer,  under  such  regulations  as  the  Joint 
Committee  on  Printing  may  prescribe,  at  a  price  equal  to  the  additional  cost  of  publication  and  10 
per  cent,  thereon  added. 

The  manuscript  for  the  entire  report  is  for  the  most  part  ready  for  the  printer,  and  several 
hundred  drawings  for  the  illustrations  arc  finished.  Part  I  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  printer 
in  August  1882,  and  would  have  been  published  more  than  a  year  ago  but  for  the  absence  of  Mr. 
Goodo  in  England.  The  contents  of  these  reports,  it  is  proposed,  shall  be  approximately  as  fol- 
lows, though  it  is  probable  that  other  topics  may  be  added  to  the  discussion  before  the  work  is 
completed : 
THE  FOOD  FISHES  AND  FISHERY  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PART        I. — The  Natural  History  of  Useful  Aquatic  Animals. 

PART      II. — The  Fishing-Grounds. 

PART    III. — The  Fishing-Towns,  containing  a  geographical  review  of  the  Coast,  River,  and  Lake  Fisheries. 

PART     IV. — The  Fishermen. 

PART       V. — The  Apparatus  of  the  Fisheries  and  the  Fishing-Vessels  aud  Boats. 

PART     VI. — The  Fishery  Industries,  a  discussion  of  methods  aud  history. 

PART  VII.— The  Preparation  of  Fishery  Products. 

PART  VIII. — Fish  Culture  and  Fishery  Legislation. 

PART     IX. — Statistics  of  Production,  Exportation,  and  Importation.     Summary  Tables. 

PART       X. — The  Whale  Fishery  ;  a  special  monograph. 

PART     XI. — A  Catalogue  of  the  Useful  and  Injurious  Aquatic  Animals  and  Plants  of  North  America. 

PART   XII. — A  list  of  Books  and  Papers  relating  to  the  Fisheries  of  the  United  States. 

PART  XIII. — A  general  Review  of  the  Fisheries  with  a  statistical  summary. 

The  report  prepared  for  the  Superintendent  of  the  Census,  the  manuscript  of  which  is  now 
for  the  most  part  in  his  possession,  is  divided  into  the  following  sections: 

A.    liKPOKT   UPON  TIIK  STATISTICS  OK   TIM:    FlsIIKIHKS   AND   FlSH   TRADE  OK  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

INTRODUCTION  (giving  a  comprehensive  abstract  of  the  matter  contained  in  the  quarto  report  referred  to  above). 
PART         I. — A  Review  of  the  Fisheries  of  the  Atlantic  Seaboard,  with  statistics  of  production  and  maimi'm-line. 
PART        II. — A  Review  of  the  Fisheries  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  with  statistics  of  production  and  manufactures. 
PART      III. — A  Review  of  the  Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes,  with  stat.stic's  of  production  and  manufactures. 
PART      IV.— A  Review  of  the  River  Fisheries  of  the  United  States.     (Prepared  by  C.  W.  Smiley.) 
PART        V. — A  Review  of  the  Consumption  of  Fish  by  Counties,  with  an  estimate  of  the  extent  and  value  of 

the  inland  fisheries.     (Prepared  l>y  C.  W.  Smiley.) 
PAKT      VI. — A  Review  of  the  Fish  Trade  of  cities  of  the  United  States  having  a  population  of  more  than  ln,(MXi 

in  1880.     (Prepared  by  C.  W.  Smiley.) 

PART    VII.— Statistics  of  Importation  and  Exportation  of  Fishery  Products  from  1730  to  1880. 
PART  VIII. — List  of  the  Fishing- Vessels  of  the  United  States  iu  1880,  giving  tonnage,  value,  number  of  crew, 

name  of  owner,  branches  of  fisheries  engaged  in,  together  with  other  important  details. 

PART      IX. — Monograph  of  the  Seal  Islands  ot  Alaska.     Hy  Henry  \V.  Elliott.     (Already  in  type;  171  pages.    4to.) 
PAIIT        X. — Monograph  of  the  Oyster  Fisheries,     lly  Ernest  Ingersidl.     (Already  in  type  : -Til  pages.) 

The  Census  volume  thus  is  arranged  to  include  all  compilations  from  circulars,  and  the  results 
of  the  work  performed  by  clerks  detailed  from  the  Census  Office,  together  with  much  derived  from 


ri;i:i  AT«)|;V  NOTK.  ix 

tlie  archives  of  the  Fish  Commission.  The  first  three  sections  are  mainly  made  up  from  the 
material  collection  by  the  special  agents  in  tlic  liclil,  and  the  form  is  as  nearly  as  pos>iMe  that  in 
which  it  was  originally  collected;  much,  however,  has  been  added  from  tin;  archives  of  the 
Couimission. 

I'.v  the  plan  just  detailed,  the  statistical  matter  gathered  by  the  joint  efforts  of  the  two 
organi/ations  is  assigned  to  the  (Vnsus,  together  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  descriptive  and 
explanatory  text  to  make  the  statistics  •fully  intelligible,  while  the  descriptive,  historical,  and 
natural  history  papers  are  taken  by  the  Fish  Commission,  these  being  enriched  by  a  sufficient 
amount  of  statistical  detail  to  render  them  as  useful  as  possible  for  the  class  of  readers  and  students 
for  whom  they  are  intended. 

The  statistical  results  of  the  investigation  have  already  been  published  in  a  preliminary  way. 
A  M-iic>  of  special  statistical  tables  appeared  in  the  Bulletins  of  the  Census  Office,  as  follows: 

1 1 . )  ( 'KXSUS  BULLETIN  No.  176. — [Preliminary  Report  upon  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories]  prepared  liy  Mr.  Ooode 
from  returns  of  Special  Agents  Jordan,  Swan,  and  Bean.  Dated  May  24,  1884.  4to.  Pp.  6  (+2). 

(2.)  CENSUS  BULLETIN  No.  ail.— Statistics  of  the  Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Prepared  by  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Tnie 
from  notes  of  Special  Agent  Kiimliuu.  Dated  September  1, 1881.  4to.  Pp.  8. 

(3.)  CKXSCS  BULLETIN  No.  278.— Statistics  of  the  Fisheries  of  Maine.  Prepared  by  Mr.  It.  E.  Earll  from  his  own  notes 
and  those  of  Capt.  J.  W.  Collins  and  Mr.  C.  G.  Atkins.  Dated  November  22,  1881.  4to.  Pp.  47  (+1). 

(4.)  CENSUS  BULLETIN  No.  281. — Statistics  of  the  Fisheries  of  Virginia.  Prepared  by  Colonel  Marshall  MacDonald. 
Dated  December  1,  1881.  4to.  Pp.  8. 

(!».)  CENSUS  BULLETIN  No.  295.  —  Statistics  of  the  Fisheries  of  Massachusetts  Prepared  by  Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark  from 
returns  of  Special  Agents  Wilcox,  Clark,  True,  Collins,  and  At  wood.  Dated  March  1, 1882.  4to.  Pp.35  -f  1. 

(('..)  CENSUS  BULLETIN  No.  291.— Statistics  of  the  Fisheries  of  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  Pre- 
pared by  Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark.  Dated  April  5,  1883.  4to.  Pp.  7(+l.) 

(7.)  CENSUS  BULLETIN  No.  297.— Commercial  Fisheries  of  the  Middle  States.  Prepared  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Earll  and  Colonel 
M.  MacDonald.  Dated  June  5,  1882.  4to.  Pp.  14. 

(8.)  CENSUS  BUU.ETIN  No.  298.— Commercial  Fisheries  of  the  Southern  Atlantic  States.     Prepared  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Earll 
and  Colonel  M.  MacDonald.    Dated  June  5, 1882.    4to.    Pp.18.    (This  bulletin  includes  statistics  of  No.  4  (C. 
B.,  No.  281). 
In  all  148  pages,  quarto.    In  addition  to  these  certain  special  tables  have  appeared. 

(10.)  STATISTICAL  TABLE.— Statistics  of  the  Fisheries  of  the  United  States  in  1880.     [Prepared  by  Messrs.  Goode  and 
Karll  from  the  reports  of  special  agents.]    Printed  in  Compendium  of  the  Tenth  Census,  p.  88.    Pp.  — . 
i;. •published  in  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  Vol.  Ill,  1883,  pp.  270-71,  and  in  Preliminary 
Catalogue,  International  Fisheries  Inhibition,  January,  p.  5. 

(11.)  STATISTICAL  TABLE.— Table  showing  by  States  the  quantity  of  Spanish  mackerel  taken  in  1880,  and  the  total 
catch  for  the  United  States.  By  R.  Edward  Earll.  Report  United  States  Fish  Commission.  Part  VIII, 
1880,  p.  4U>. 

(12.)  STATISTICAL  SUMMARY.— Statistics  of  the  Davis  Strait  Halibut  Fisheries.  By  Newton  P.  Scndder.  Report 
United  States  Fish  Commission.  Part  VIII,  pp.  190-192. 

(13.)  STATISTICAL  SUMMARY.— Statistics  of  the  Swordflsh  Fishery.  By  G.  Brown  Goode.  Report  United  States  Fish 
Commissioners.  Part  VIII,  pp.  361-367. 

(14.)  STATISTICAL  SUMMARIES.— Statistics  of  the  Mackerel  Fishery  in  1880.    By  R.  Edward  Earll.    Report  United 

States  Fish  Commission.    Part  IX,  pp.  [124]-[W7.] 

[Statistics  of  the  Mackerel  Canning  Industry.]    By  R.  Edward  Earll.    Ibid,  p.  f!31.] 
Statistics  of  the  Inspection  of  Mackerel  from  1804  to  1880.    By  A.  Howard  Clark. 

Ibid,  pp.  [1G2]-[213.] 

Vessels  in  the  Mackerel  Fishery  in  1880.     Ibid,  p.  4ia 
Catch  of  Mackerel  by  Americans  in  Canadian  waters.     1873-'81.     Ibid,  p.  [430.] 

(15.)  INTRODUCTION  to  Section  B.,  U.  8.  Catalogue  International  Fisheries  Exhibition,  Ixindon.  (Collection  of  Eco- 
nomic Crustaceans,  Worms,  Echinoderms,  and  Sponges.)  \\\  l.'i.-liaid  Itathluiu.  1'p.  [3]-[20.]  Crabs,  p.  [3]: 
Lobsters,  p.  [li] :  Crayfish,  p.  [10]:  Shrimp  ami  Prawns,  p.  [11J:  Sponges,  p.  [18],  etc. 


x  PREFATORY  NOTE. 

(16.)  INTRODUCTION  to  Section  D.,  U.  S.  Catalogue  lut.  Fisheries  Exhibition.  (Catalogue  of  the  Economic  Mollusca 
and  the  apparatus  and  appliances  used  in  their  capture  and  preparation  for  market,  exhibited  by  the  U.  S. 
National  Museum.)  By  Lieut.  Francis  Wiuslow,  U.  S.  N.,  pp.  [3]  to  [58].  Aggregate  table  of  production, 
p.  [3]:  Special  tables  and  statistical  statements  throughout. 

(17.)  INTRODUCTION  to  Section  K.,U.  S.  Catalogue  Int.  Fisheries  Exhibition.  (The  Whale  Fishery  and  its  Appliances. ) 
By  James  Temple  Brown,  pp.  [3]-[25.] 

(18.)  Statistics  of  the  Whale  Fishery.     By  A.  Howard  Clark,  in  the  preceding,  pp.  [26]-[29.] 

(19.)  A  Eoview  of  the  Fishery  Industries  of  the  United  States,  etc.  By  (.}.  Brown  Goode.  An  address  at  a  conference 
of  the  International  Fisheries  Exhibition,  June  25,  1883.  Hvo.,  pp.  84.  Numerous  statistical  statements. 
summaries,  and  tables. 

(20.)  ADMINISTRATIVE  REPORT. — Method  and  results  of  an  effort  to  collect  statistics  of  the  fish  trade,  and  consump- 
tion of  fish  throughout  the  United  States.     By  Chas.  W.  Smiley.     Bulletin  U.  S.  Fisli  Commission,  vol.  ii, 
1882,  pp.  247-52. 
Two  special  reports  have  also  been  published,  as  follows  : 

(21.)  A  Monograph  of  the  Seal  Islands  of  Alaska.  By  Henry  W.  Elliott.  4to.,  illustrated.  Pp.172.  An  edition  of  this 
report  with  substitutions  on  pp.  102-9  was  also  issued  as  a  Special  Bulletin  of  the  Fish  Commission,  No.  17(i. 

(22.)  The  Oyster  Industry.     By  Ernest  Ingersoll.     4to.,  illustrated.     Pp.  2")2. 

The  general  results  of  the  investigation,  from  the  statistician's  stand -point,  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows : 

In  1880  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  fishery  industries  of  the  United  States  was 
131,426,  of  whom  101,084  were  fishermen,  and  the  remainder  shoresmen.  The  fishing  fleet  con- 
sisted of  6,605  vessels  (with  a  tonnage  of  208,297.82)  and  44,804  boats,  and  the  total  amount  of 
capital  invested  was  $37,955,349,  distributed  as  follows:  Vessels,  $9,357,282;  boats,  $2,465,393; 
minor  apparatus  and  outfits,  $8,145,261;  other  capital,  including  shore  property,  $17,987,413. 

The  value  of  the  fisheries  of  the  sea,  the  great  rivers,  and  the  Great  Lakes,  was  placed  at 
$43,046,053,  and  that  of  those  in  minor  inland  waters  at  $1,500,000— in  all  $44,546,053.  These  values 
were  estirnatedupon  the  basis  of  the  prices  of  the  products  received  by  the  producers,  and  if  average 
wholesale  prices  had  been  considered,  the  value  would  have  been  much  greater.  In  1882  the  yield 
of  the  fisheries  was  much  greater  than  in  1880.  and  prices  both  "at  first  hand"  and  at  wholesale 
were  higher,  so  that  a  fair  estimate  at  wholesale  market  rates  would  place  their  value  at  the 
present  time  rather  above  than  below  the  sum  of  $100,000,000. 

The  fisheries  of  the  New  England  States  are  the  most  important.  They  engage  37,043  men 
2,066  vessels,  14,787  boats,  and  yield  products  to  the  value  of  $14,270,393.  In  this  district  the 
principal  fishing  ports  in  order  of  importance  are :  Gloucester,  New  Bedford,  the  center  of  the 
whale  fishery,  Eastport,  Boston,  Proviucetowu,  and  Portland. 

Next  to  New  England  in  importance  aie  the  South  Atlantic  States,  employing  52,418  men,  3,014 
vessels  (the  majority  of  which  are  small,  and  engaged  in  the  shore  and  bay  fisheries),  13,331  boats 
and  returning  products  to  the  value  of  $9,602,737. 

Next  are  the  Middle  States,  employing  in  the  coast  fisheries  14,981  men,  1,210  vessels,  8,293 
boats,  with  products  to  the  amount  of  $8,676,579. 

Next  are  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories  with  16,803  men,  56  vessels,  5,547  boats,  and  products 
to  the  amount  of  $7,484,750.  The  fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes  employ  5,050  men,  62  vessels,  and 
1,594  boats,  with  pioducts  to  the  amount  of  $1,784,050.  The  Gulf  States  employ  5,131  men,  197 
vessels,  and  1,252  boats,  yielding  products  to  the  value  of  $545,584. 

SPENCER  F.  BAIRD, 

Commissioner  of  Fisheries. 

WASHINGTON,  May  30,  1884. 


LETTER    OF    TRANSMITTAL. 


UNITED  STATKS  NATIONAL  MUSEUM, 

\\' a  xlii  iii/tii  a,  -I  it  I  n  18,  18S2. 

SIR:  I  have  the  honor  lo  transmit  herewith,  for  approval  au<l  for  publication,  Section  I  of 
a  general  work  upon  THE  FISHKRIKS  AND  FISHERY  INDUSTRIES  OK  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
ron.Msting  of  an  illustrated  history  of  the  useful  aquatic  animals  of  the  United  States.  This 
work  is  intended  especially  for  the  use  of  the  reading  public,  and  technical  zoological  discussions 
and  descriptions  have  therefore  been  intentionally  avoided. 

I  desire,  in  this  place,  to  express  my  high  appreciation  of  the  manner  in  which  the  gentlemen 
associated  with  me  in  the  preparation  of  this  work  have  performed  the  tasks  which  they  had 
undertaken,  (heir  work  having  been  in  large  degree  voluntary  and  unrenmnerated. 
I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

G.  BROWN  GOODE. 
Professor  SPENCER  F.  BAIRD, 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— MAMMALS. 

Puce 

A.— THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES.    BY  G.  BROWN  GOODE. 

1.  The  Sperm  Whale 7 

2.  The  Blacklishes  or  Pilot  Whales 11 

'.!.  The  Grampuses  or  Cowtishes 13 

4.  The  Harbor  Porpoises  or  Herring  Hogs 14 

.">.  The  Dolphins 16 

G.  The  Killer  Whales  or  Orcas 17 

7.  The  Sperui  Whale  Porpoise 18 

8.  The  White  Whale  or  Beluga 18 

!).  The  Narwhal 19 

10.  The  Greenland,  Bowheod,  or  Polar  Whale 20 

11.  The  Right  Whales 24 

12.  The  Humpback  Whales 26 

13   The  Sulphur  Bottom  Whales 27 

14.  The  Finback  Whales 28 

15.  The  Scrag  Whales 30 

16.  The  California  Gray  Whales 31 

B.— THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES.    BY  JOEL  A.  ALLEN. 

17.  The  Seal  tribe  in  general 33 

18.  The  Walruses 34 

19.  The  Sea  Lions  ai     Fur  Seals  in  general 37 

20.  TheSeaLion 38 

21.  The  Califorr.ia  Sea  Lion 44 

•-".'.  The  Fur-Seal 49 

->:!.  The  Harbor  Seal 65 

24.  The  Harp  Seal 62 

25.  The  Ringed  Seal 65 

26.  The  Ribbon  Seal 67 

27.  The  West  Indian  Seal 67 

28.  The  Hooded  Seal 68 

29.  The  California  Sea  Elephant 72 

C.— THE  HABITS  OF  THE  FUR  SEAL.    BY  HENRY  W.  ELLIOTT. 

30.  A  life  history  of  the  Fur-Seal 75 

U.— THE  MANATEES  AND  THE  ARCTIC  SEA-COW.    BY  FREDERICK  W.  TRUE. 

31.  The  Manatees 114 

J.  The  Arctic  Sea-Cow 1*8 

xiii 


xjv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PART  II.— REPTILES  AND  BATRACHIANS. 
BY  FREDERICK  W.  TRUE. 

Page. 

E.— THE  ALLIGATOR  AND  THE  CROCODILE: 

33.  The  Alligator  and  the  Crocodile 141 

F.— TORTOISES,  TURTLES,  AND  TERRAPINS: 

34.  The  Marine  Turtles  iu  general 147 

35.  The  Loggerhead  Turtle 147 

36.  The  Hawk's-bill  Turtles 149 

37.  The  Green  Turtles 150 

38.  The  Soft- shelled  tortoises  152 

39.  The  Snapping  Turtles 153 

40.  The  Musk  Tortoises 154 

41.  The  Fresh-water  Terrapins 155 

42.  The  Diamond-back  or  Salt-water  Terrapin 156 

43.  The  Pond  Tortoises 157 

44.  The  Box  Tortoises 158 

G.— THE  AMPHIBIANS: 

45.  The  Bull-frog 159 

0 

PART  III.— FISHES. 
BY  G.  BROWN  GOODE. 

WITH  DISCUSSIONS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SPECIES  BY  DAVID  8.  JORDAN  AND  TARLKTON  H.  BEAN,  NOTES  ON  THE  FISHES 
OF  THE  GUM'  OK  MEXICO  BY  8ILA8  STEARNS,  AND  CONTRIBUTIONS  FROM  JOSEPH  W.  COLLINS,  N.  E.  ATWOOD, 
MARSHALL  MACDONALD,  R.  EDWARD  EARLL,  LUDWIG  KUMLIEN,  AND  OTHER  AUTHORITIES. 

H.— THE  FILE  FISHES,  PIPE  FISHES,  AND  ANGLERS: 

46.  The  Ocean  Sun  Fishes  (Ortkayoriscidoe) 169 

47.  The  Porcupine  Fishes  (Diodontida) 170 

48.  The  Bellows-Fish  Family  (Tetrodontidas)  170 

49.  Tuc  Trunk  Fishes  (Ostraciontidw) 170 

50.  The  File-Fish  Family  (BalistuUe) 171 

51.  The  Sea-Horse  Family  (Hippocampidce) 172 

52.  The  Pipe- Fish  Family  (Syngnathidce) 172 

53.  The  Devil  Fishes  (AntennarUdas  and  Maltheidas) 173 

54.  The  Goose  Fish  (Lophiue  piseatorius) 173 

I.— THE  FLAT  FISHES  AND  FLOUNDERS: 

56.  The  American  Soles  (Soleida) 175 

56.  The  Plaice  (Paralichihya  dentatas) 178 

67.  The  Bastard  Halibut  (Paralichtltyt  maculosw) 182 

58.  The  Flat  Fish  or  Winter  Flounder  ( 1'seudopleurontctes  americanus) 182 

69.  The  Flat  Fishes  ami  Soles  of  the  Pacific  Coast 184 

60.  The  Halibut  (Hippoylotsus  vutyaria) 189 

til.  The  Sand  Dab  or  Rough  Dab  (Jlippoglomsoiden  platetioides) 197 

<tl.  The  Greenland  Turbot  (I'latijsomaticMnj*  kippoylowoideti) 197 

<>.'i.  The  Pole  Flounder  or  Craig  Flounder  (Glyplocephalua  cynogh»eua) 198 

64.  The  Spotted  Sand  Flonnder  (Lophopsetta  maoulata) 199 


l.MU.i:  OF  CONTKNTS.  XV 

.).— TUB  COD  FAMILY  AND  ITS  KINDRED: 

i,.,.  Hi,  c.iil  (Gadiumorrhua) 800 

66.  Tin'  Tom  ('ml*  ( Mil  rwjadui  lomcod  nuil  M.  proiimiu) 223 

(57.  Tin-  Haddix-k  (AfrlamMjrantnui  wglefinHt) 883 

68.  The  Pollock  (rullinhiuncarbotiariiit) 888 

IS).  The  disk  (Brotmiaa  brotme) 233 

70.  The  IIak,-  d'hycis  chun,  etc.). -'  :i 

71.  The  Burbot  (Lota  maiulosa).    By  TARLBTON  H.  BEAN 235 

72.  The  Silver  Hake  ami  tin-  Merliiecio 240 

73.  Several  1 'a  mi  lies  r»lii(««l  to  the  (iadidtu 243 

74.  Tin-  Liint.  or  Sand  Eel  (Ammodytai  lanceolalM) 244 

K.— WOLF-FISHES,  SCULPINS,  AND  WHASSES: 

7.'..  TheLycodes  Family  (Lyoodida) .- 247 

7(5.  The  \Volf-l-Vhes  or  Sea  Cat  fishes  (.limiTAickadMto) 24H 

77.  The  nit-niiy  Family  (llleni>iid(t) 250 

78.  The  Toa«l-Fi.di  (liulraclmi  lau) 251 

T'.i.  The  Lumi>-.Snek«ra:  Lump-fish  and  Sea-Snails. 863 

80.  The  Gobies  (Gobiida) 256 

81.  The  Sea-Robin  or  Gurnard  Family  ( Triglidai) . . ; -      255 

B.  The  Sculpin  Tribe  (Cottida) 258 

83.  The  Rose-Fish  or  Red  Perch  (Sebtulea  marinta) 260 

84.  The  Rock  Cods  of  the  Pacific.     By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 262 

85.  The  Rock  Trout*  ( dtirida).    By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 267 

86.  The  Tautofj:  or  Black  Fish  (Tanloga  onitit)... 

87.  The  Cbogset  or  Cnnner  (  Ctenolabru*  adiperius) 

88.  The  Parrot  Fishes  and  some  of  their  Allies 

H9.  The  Demoiselle  and  the  Cichlid  Families 

90.  The  Surf-Fish  Family  ( Embiotocida).    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 276 

91.  The  Mobarru  Family  (Gerridv) -"'•' 

•M.  The  Thread-Fish  Family  ( Polynemida) 

IK}.  The  Surgeon-Fish  Family  (Acanlkuiida) 

!M.  The  Angel-Fish  Family  (Chielorionlida) '  '" 

L.— THE  MACKEREL  AND  ITS  ALLIES: 

95.  The  Mackerel  (Scomber  scombrut) ^ 

96.  The  Chub  Mackerel  (Scomber  cotiat) 

97.  The  Frigate  Mackerel  (Aux\»  thazard) 305 

98.  The  Spanish  Mackerel  and  its  Allies 

99.  The  Hon it 0  (Sarda  mediterranea) 316 

100.  The  Horse  Mackerel,  Tunny,  or  Albicore  (Orcyniu  %»mw) 

101.  The  Little  Tunny  or  Albicore  (Orcyniw  allUeratta) 

102.  The  Silver  Moon-Fishes 

103.  The  Cavally,  the  Scad,  and  the  Jnrels 

104.  The  Pom  patios  (  Trachynottu  carotin**,  etc.) 

105.  The  Pilot  Fish  (Naucratt*  ductor) 

IOC.  The  Ainlier  Fishes  and  the  Leather  Jackets 

I(i7.  The  Dolphins  (Coryphtenida) 

108.  The  Rudder- Fish  Family  (Stromatfida)  

109.  The  I  >ory.  Hen-Fish,  and  Opah  Families 

110.  Tin-  Cutlass  Fish  (Trichiurtu  lepturut) 

111.  The  Sword  Fish  Family  (XipMida)^. 336 


xvj  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Taae. 

M.— THE  TILE  FISH  FAMILY  AND  OTHERS: 

112.  The  Tile-Fish  Family  (LatiUdce) 360 

113.  The  Red  Mullet  Family  (Mvllidai) 3lil 

114.  The  Icosteus  Family  (Icosteidai) 361 

115.  The  Beryxfamil  (Beryaidas) 301 

N.— THE  DRUM  FAMILY: 

116.  The  Squeteague  (Cynoscioii  regale) 362 

117.  The  Spotted  Squeteague  (Cynosdon  maculatum) 365 

118.  The  Silver Sqneteaguo  (Cynoscion  not/mm) 367 

119.  The  Drum  (Pogonias  chromis) 367 

120.  The  Fresh  Water  Drum  ( Haploidonotm  grunniens).    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN '370 

121.  The  Spot,  or  Lafayette  (Liostomus  xanthurus) 370 

122.  The  Eed  Fish,  or  Bass  of  the  South  (Sciasna  ocellata) 371 

123.  The  Yellow  Tail  (Bairdiella,  chrysura) 375 

124.  The  King  Fish  (Menticlrrus  nebulosus) 375 

125.  The  Whitings  (Alentleirrus  alburnue  and  M.  littoralis) 376 

126.  The  Croaker  (Micropogon  unditlatus) 378 

127.  The  Corvinas  and  Roncadors  of  the  Pacific  coast.    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 378 

O.— SHEEPSHEAD,  BASS,  BREAM,  PERCH,  ETC: 

128.  The  Sheepshead  (Diplodus  probatocephalus) 381 

129.  The  Scup  or  Scuppaug  (Stenotomtig  cliryaops  and  S.  aculeatus,  =  S.  Gardeni  of  text) 386 

130.  The  Sailors'  Choice  (Layodon  rhomboides) 393 

131.  Certain  Minor  Sparoids 394 

132.  The  Red  and  Gray  Snappers 395 

133.  The  Grunts  or  Pig  Fishes 397 

134.  The  Big-Mouth  Black  Bass  (Micropterus  salmoides),  and  the  Small-Mouth  Black  Bass  (M.  Dolomici)  401 

135.  The  Sun-Fishes  and  their  Allies.    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 404 

136.  The  Sea  Ba»s(Strranus  atrarius) 407 

137.  The  Groupers • 410 

138.  The  Serranoid  Fishes  of  the  Pacific  coast.    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 413 

139.  The  Yellow  Perch  (I'erca  americana) 414 

140.  The  Log  Porch  (Percina  corrodes).    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 417 

141.  The  Pike  Perches 417 

142.  The  Striped  Baaa(Roccm  lineatiu) 425 

143.  The  White  Bass  (Hoccus  chrysopi) 423 

144.  The  Yellow  Bass  (Hoccus  interrupt™) 431 

145.  The  White  Perch  (Roccug  americanui) 431 

14(i.  TheBluelish  Family  (I'omatomida) 433 

147.  The  Cobia  or  Crab-Eater  (Elacate  Canada) 444 

1  I-.  The  Triple  Tail  or  Black  Perch  (Lobotes  surinanensia) 444 

149.  The  Moon  Fish  (Chatodipteni'  faber) 445 

150.  The  Remora  Family  ( Eclieiicidice) ' 446 

P.— BABRACOUTA,  MULLET,  PIKE,  AND  MUMMICHOGS: 

151.  The  Barracouta  Family  (Siiliynenidai) 448 

152.  The  Deal-Fish  Family  (Trachypteridai) 449 

153.  The  Mullets  (Mugil  albula  ami  M.  brariliengis) 449 

154.  The  Sand  Smelts  or  Silver  Sides  (Alherinidtf) 456 

l.V>.  Tho  Sticklcliack  Family  (Gattirosteidas) 457 

156.  The  Silver  Gar-lmhrs  (liilonida) 458 

167.  The  !•' lying- lish  I'amily  (Scombtresocidce) 459 

158.  The  Pike  Family  (Esocidai)    461 

l.V.t.  The  Mummicuog  I'amily  (Cyprinodontidce) 466 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 
Q.— THE  SALMON  TRIBE: 

160.  The  Salmon  (Salminalar) 468 

101.  The  .Salmons  of  the  Pacific.    By  DAVIDS.  JORDAN 474 

It'.-.1.  The  Quiunat  or  California  Salmon  (OitcorAyitcAii*  diouicka).     By  LIVINGSTON  STONE 479 

163.  The  Namaycush  or  Lake  Trout  (Sali-rlinu*  namaycutk) r. 485 

11)4.  The  Speckled  Trout  (Salrrlinits  foHtinalin) 497 

165.  The  Saibliug  or  liavarian  Char  (Kalrrliiiun  alpiniu) 600 

106.  The  Dolly  Varden  Trout  (.So/r«/iii««  mo/mo).    (By  DAVIDS.  JORDAN 604 

167.  The  Qiayliiig  (Thitmallug  tricolor) 606 

168.  The  Lake  White-fob  ( Coregonut  vlupeiformit).    By  R.  I.  GBARE 607 

lf.lt.  The  Lesser  White-fishes.    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 641 

170.  The  Smelt  Group 643 

171.  Families  related  to  the  Salmouidie 547 

R.— THE  HERRINGS  AND  THE  MENHADENS: 

172.  The  Herring  (Clupea  harengun) 549 

173.  The  Herrings  of  the  Pacific  Coast.    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 568 

174.  The  Menhaden  (lireroortia  tyrannu*) 569 

IT."..  The  Gulf  Menhaden  (Breeoortia  pa(roniu) 675 

S.— THE  SHAD  AND  THE  ALEWIVES.    BY  MARSHALL  MACDONALD. 

176.  The  River  Herrings  or  Ale  wives  (Clupea  attivali*  C.  and  vernalU) f>70 

177.  On  the  occurrence  of  the  Branch  Alewifeiu  certain  Lakes  of  New  York.   By  TAKLETON  H.  BEAM..  688 

178.  The  Inland  Alewife  or  Skipjack  (Clvpta  chrysocJtlorii) 694 

179.  The  Shad  (Clupta  sapidigrima) 594 

180.  The  Hickory  Shad  or  Mattowacca  ( CUpea  medioerii) 607 

T.— FAMILIES  RELATED  TO  THE  CLUPEID.E : 

181.  The  Mud  Shad  (Dorotoma  cepedianum) 610 

182.  TheTarpum  (Megalopi  thri»»oide») 610 

183.  The  Big-eyed.Herring 611 

184.  The  Anchovies (E*graulida) 611 

185.  The  Lady-fish  Family  (Albitlidas) 618 

186.  The  Moon-eye  Family  (Hyodontida) 618 

U.— CARP,  SUCKERS,  CATFISH,  AND  EELS: 

187.  The  Sucker  Family  (Calostomida).   By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 614 

188.  The  Carp  Family  (Cyprinida).    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 616 

189.  The  Carp  (Cyprinut  carpio).   By  RUDOLPH  HESSKL 618 

189.  The  Catfish  Family  (Siluridat).   By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 687 

190.  The  Morays  (Afttranidat) 629 

191.  The  Eel  (Anguilla  ruJjorw) 630 

192.  The  Conger  Eel  (Lfptocrpkalut  conger) 666 

V.— STURGEONS,  SKATES,  SHARKS,  AND  LAMPREYS: 

193.  The  Bowfins  ( Amiidce) 654> 

194.  The  Paddle-fishes  (Volyodontidae) <KW 

195.  The  Sturgeons  (Acipmterida) 660 

196.  The  Chirnsera  Family  ( Chimaanda) 663 

197.  The  Gar  Pikes  ( Lepidosleida;) 663 

198.  The  Torpedoes  and  Skates  (Raid) -••  ** 

199.  The  Saw-fish  (Prt»(i«  prclixaliu) eee 

200.  The  Sharks  (Squali) 688 

201.  The  Sharks  of  the  Pacific  Coast.   By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 

202.  The  Lampreys  (Petromyzontida) fl77 

203.  The  Hag  Fishes  (Myiinida) ^ 

204.  The  Lancelots  (Branchiottomidtr) 688 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  IV.—  MOLLUSKS. 

Page. 

W.—  MOLLUSKS  IN  GENERAL.    BY  ERNEST  INGERSOLL. 

205.  The  Cuttles:  Cephalopoda  ............................    .......................................  687 

206.  The  Sea-snails  :  Gasteropoda  ...................................................................  693 

207.  The  Wing-shells:  Pteropoda  ......................  .............................................  702 

208.  The  Tusk-shells  :  Solenoconcha  ................................................................  703 

209.  The  Bivalves:  Lamellibranchiata  ..............................................................  703 

X.—  THE  LIFE  HISTOEY  OF  THE  OYSTEE.    BY  JOHN  A.  EYDER. 

210.  Outline  Sketch  of  the  Coarser  Anatomy  of  the  Oyster  ..........................................  711 

211.  The  Minute  Anatomy  of  the  Oyster  ............................................................  715 

212.  Sex  of  the  American  and  European  Oysters  ........................  ...  ........................  719 

213.  New  Methods  of  Distinguishing  the  Sexes  and  of  Taking  the  Eggs  of  the  Oyster  ................  722 

214.  Rate  of  Growth  of  Ostrea  virginica: 

215.  The  Food  of  the  Oysters  .....................................  ..................................  729 

216.  The  Cause  of  the  Green  Color  of  Oysters  .......................................................  735 

217.  Local  Variations  in  the  Form  and  Habits  of  the  Oyster  .........................................  742 

218.  The  Oyster  Crab  as  a  Mess-mate  and  Purveyor  .................................................  744 

219.  Physical  and  Vital  Agencies  Destructive  to  Oysters  ............................................  746 

220.  Natural  and  Artificial  Oyster  Banks  ............................................................  750 

PART  V.—  CRUSTACEANS,  WORMS,  RADIATES,  AND  SPONGES. 

BY  EIOHARD  EATHBUN. 
Y.—  OBUSTACEANS: 

221.  The  Crabs  .....................................................................................  763 

222.  The  Common  Edible  or  Blue  Crab  .............................................................  775 

223.  The  Lobsters  .............  .  ....................................................................  7£0 

224.  The  American  Lobster  .........................................................................  781 

225.  The  Cray  Fishes,  Astacus  and  Cambarng  ........................................................  812 

226.  The  Shrimps  and  Prawns  ......................................................................  816 

227.  The  Mantis  Shrimps  :  Squillidse  ...............................................................  823 

228.  TheAmphipods  ...............................................................................  824 

229.  Tholsopods  ...................................................................................  826 

230.  The  Eiitomostracans  ..........................................................................  827 

231.  The  Cirripedia  ................................................................................  828 

232.  The  Xiphosnra   ...............................................................................  829 

Z.—  WOEMS: 

233.  The  Annelids  ..................................................................................  831 

234.  The  Leeches  ...................................................................................  833 

ZA.—  THE  EADIATES: 

235.  Tin'  I'.i-liiiiodcrras  ..............................................................................  838 

236.  The  Coelenterates  .............................................................................  841 

ZB.—  THE  PORIFEES: 

237.  The  Sponges  ..................................................................................  843 

238.  The  Genus  Spongiu,  and  the  American  Commercial  Sponges  .....................................  846 

239.  Injurious  Sponges  ................................  ,  ............................................  850 


LIST    OF   PLATES. 


(Engraved  by  the  Photo-Engraving  Company  of  New  York  City.) 

[The  plates  are  bound  together  in  the  accompanying  volume.    The  figure*  at  the  right  refer  to  the  page*  of  the  text  upon  which 

the  species  illustrated  are  described.] 


1.  The  Sperm  Whale,  Phi/utter  ni<i'i-»<ry</>u/k«  L 

Outline  from  Sc.iiiiiiion'it  Mnrine  Mammilla  of  the  Northwest  Cout,  pUte  xiv. 

2.  The  Pygmy  Sperm  Whale,  Kogia  (loodei  True 11 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  ToiUl.  from  No.  13738,  0.  S.  National  Museum.    Stranded  at  8]  ring  Lakr,  Kew  Jeney,  Apt  II  27,  1883. 

The  Blacklist),  <;/../m..r;  halm  mtlas  (Traill) 11 

Prom  Transact  ions  of  the  Zoological  Soriety  of  London,  vol.  8,  plate  30. 

3.  Tlie  capture  of  a  t-chool  of  Black  lisli  in  Cape  Cod 18 

Drawing  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  a  sketch  by  John  S.  Ryder. 

4.  The  CowfiHhorGraiupns,  (Irampvn  griseui  (Less.)  Gray 13 

Ontline  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  cast  No.  12839,  U.  S.  National  Unsrum. 
The  Harbor  Porpoise,  or  "  Henim:  Hoe;,"  I'luxama  bracliycion  Cope 14 

outline  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  photograph  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 
6.    The  Skunk  Porpoise  i>r  Bay  Porpoise,  Lagenorh/nchiu  gubtmator  Cojie  (=  L.  ptrtpicillolmi  Cope) 16 

Outline  from  plate  iv,  Proceedings  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  1878. 
The  Hij;li -  tinned  Killer,  Orca  rectipinnis  Cope 17 

Outline  from  Scammon's  Marine  Mammals  of  the  Northwest  Coast. 
The  Sperm  Whale  Porpoise,  HyperaoAon  6trfen«Owen 18 

Sketch  by  James  Henry  Blake.  1869,  from  specimen  stranded  at  North  Denuia. 

6.  The  White  Whale,  or  Beluga,  DelpMnaplenii  calodon  (L.)  Gill 18 

Oulliuo  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  cast  No.  12490,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  tear  Quebec,  1K75. 

The  Narwhal,  Monotlon  monomv*  L 19 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  adapted  from  Vofrt  and  Specht'a  "Saogethlere,"  p.  236. 

7.  The  Bowhead  or  Arctic  Whale,  Hnlium  mysticetui  L S80 

Outline  from  Scammon's  Marine  Mammals,  plate  xi. 

The  Right  Whale  of  the  Pacific,  Baltma  japonira  Gray.     (Eubaltma  cnllamach') 24 

Outline  from  Scammon's  Marine  Mammal*,  plate  xii. 

-.   Diagrams  illustrating  the  nse  of  the  whalebone  plntes  in  the  month  of  the  Bowhead  Whale 88 

From  sketches  by  Captain  David  Grey  in  Land  and  Water,  December  1, 1877. 
(Upper.)    The  Bowhead  with  its  month  open. 
(Lower.)    The  Bowhead  with  its  mouth  shut 

9.   The  Humpback  of  the  Paci6c,  Mrgaplnn  rersabil'u  Cope 88 

Outline  from  St-immon's  Marine  Mammals,  plate  vii. 

The  Sulphur  Bottom  of  the  Pacific,  Sibbaldius  nulfureu*  Cope 87 

Outline  from  Scammon's  Marine  MnmmaU,  plate  xili. 

10.  Cutting  in  a  Humpback  Whale  at  Provincetuwii,  MaasachugetU 28 

From  a  sketch  by  John  S.  Ryder. 

11.  The  Finback  of  the  Pacific,  italtr  noplera  retiferg  Cope 88 

Outline  from  Scammon'H  Marine  Mammals,  plute  ii. 

The  California  Gray  Whale  or  Devil-fish,  Khavhianectet  glaucut  Cope 31 

Outline  from  Scammon's  Marine  Mammals,  plnte  ii. 

12.  The  Pacific  Walrus,  Odobanuo  obenus  (Illiger)  Allen 34 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott.  Walrus  Island.  Alaskn,  July  5,  1873. 

13.  Steller's  Sea  Lion,  Kametopiai  Slelltri  (Less.)  Peters 38 

Sketch  from  life  by  Henry  W.  Elliott 

14.  The  California  Sea  Lion,  Zalophu*  mlifurniantu  (Less.)  Allen 44 

Sketch  from  life  by  Henry  W.  Elliott. 

16.  The  Harbor  Seal,  J'hoca  rilulina  L W 

Sketch  from  life  by  Henry  W.  Elliott.  Alaska.  1872. 

Til 


xx  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Page. 

16.  The  Harp  Seal,  Phoca  groenlandica  Fnbricius 62 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  specimens  in  Ihe  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Nos.  13741,  13748,  13938,  and  13939  obtained 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  by  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam. 

17.  The  Ringed  Seal,  Phoca  fwtida  Fabricius 65 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  adapted  from  figure  in  Allen's  North  American  Pinnipeds,  p.  601. 

18.  The  Ribbon  Seal  (Male  and  Female)  HMriophoca  fasciata  (Zini  merman  n)  Gill 67 

Drawing  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  specimens  in  U.  S.  National  Museum,  No.  13284,  obtained  at  Plover  Bay,  East 
Siberia,  August  12.  1880.  by  W.  H.  Dall,  and  No.  13285,  obtained  from  lining  Sea.  1880,  by  Captain  H.  E.  Williams. 

19.  The  West  ludian  Seal,  Monachm  Iropicalis  Gray 68 

Drawing  by  Henry  \V.  Elliott,  from  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Muaenni.  No  13950,  obtained  by  Professor  Felippe  Poey 
at  Matanzas,  Cuba, 

20   The  Hooded  Seal  (adult  and  young)  Cystophora  cristata  ( Erxl. )  Nilss 68 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  specimens  in  U.  S.  National  Museum.  Nos.13742  and  13753,  collected  by  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam,  off  Labrador,  1883. 

21.  The  Gray  Seal,  Halichcema  grypus  (Fabricius)  Nilss 70 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Museum.  No.  5851,  collected  at  Sable  Island,  Nova  Scotia, 
1862. 

22.  The  Square  Flipper  Seal,  Erignathus  barbatus  (Fabricius)  Gill 70 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Museum,  No.  13755,  collected  by  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  off 
Battle  Harbor,  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  1883. 

23.  The  Sea  Elephant,  Macrorhinus  angustirostris  Gill 72 

Drawing  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Museum,  from  Santa  Barbara  Island,  California. 

24.  Map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  Projection,  showing  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  Species  of  the  Hair 

Seal  Family.     Prepared  by  J.A.Allen 33 

25.  Map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  Projection,  showing  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  Walruses,  Fur 

Seals,  Sea  Lions,  and  Sea  Elephants,  prepared  for  the  illustration  of  the  chapter  by  J.  A.  Allen.     Prepared 

by  J.  A.  Allen 33 

26.  The  countenance  of  Callorhinus  ...'. 75 

A  life  study  of  an  adult  male  fur-seal.    (Full  face  of  old  male,  profile  and  under  view  of  feniale  heads.)    Drawing  by 
Henry  W.  Elliott,  North  Bookery,  Pribylov  Group,  July  5,  1873. 

27.  The  Fur-Seal,  Catlorhinu*  ureinus 88 

A  series  of  life  studies  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  Pribylov  Islands,  1872-1876. 
A.— Old  "Seecatch"  or  male,  eight  to  twenty-four  years. 
B. — Young  "  Seecatch,"  six  to  eight  years. 
C. — "  Holloschickie,"  or  young  males,  two  years. 
Ii.--  Matkah  "  or  mother  nursing  her  "  Pup,"  I. 
E. — "Cow"  fanning  herself. 
F. — '•  Cow  "  sleeping. 
<;. — "Cow"  napping  and  fanning  herself. 
H. — "  Cow  "  crooning  to  the  male. 
J. — Characteristic  position  of  old  males. 

28.  Sundry  Seal  Sketches  on  the  Pribylov  Islands 96 

From  the  portfolio  of  Henry  W.  Elliott,  1872-1876. 

29.  Hauling  and  Breeding  Grounds  of  the  Fur-Seal 99 

Sketched  from  nature  on  Dm  North  Rookery,  Saint  George's  Island.  Pribylov  Group,  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  July,  1874. 

30.  The  north  shore  of  Saint  Paul's  Island,  Pribylov  Group 99 

Sketched  from  the  summit  of  Hntchinson's  Hill,  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  looking  over  a  wing  of  the  great  Norastoshoah 
Bookery,  July,  1872. 

31.  Pelagic  attitudes  of  the  Fur-Seal 101 

Sketched  from  life  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  Saint  Paul's  Island,  1872.    Village  of  Saint  Pan!  in  distance.    Black  bluffs  to  the 
right  on  middle  ground. 

1.  Position  while  sleeping. 

2.  Position  when  rising  to  breathe,  survey,  etc. 

3.  Position  when  scratching. 

4.  "Dolphin  jumps." 

32.  Fur-Seals  Sporting  around  the  "  bidarrah" 102 

Sketched  from  lifo  by  Henry  W.  Elliott  in  Zoltoi,  Saint  Paul's  Island,  1872.    A  view  of  the  Reef  Point  and  Gorbatcb 
Rookery  on  the  horizon. 

33.  The  Manatee,  Trichcchu*  munatus  L .' 114 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  pUto  to  Transactions,  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

34.  Manatees  swimming 114 

Sketch  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  from  plate  in  Transactions,  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

35.  The  Snulisli.  Mola  rotunda  Cnvier 170 

From  wash-drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  a  cast. 

.36.  The  Swell-fish  or  Burr-fish,  Chilomt/cternH  geometrical  (Schneider)  Kaup 170 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14825,  U.  8.  National  Mnaenm,  collected  at  Noank,  Connecticut,  1874,  by  U.  S.  Fish 
ComniiMion. 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


The  Kiihliit-lUh,  /Mgoftplialiiii  lariyatut  (L.)  GUI  .........................................................       170 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd  from  No.  20757,  V.  a  National  Iluaeam.  coUect.il  at  Newport.  Rhode  laland.  bj  Bon.  Kamnrl 
Towel. 

37.  The  Trm  >k-li-h  or  Cow  .fish,  (Itlranon  qHailriivmii  L  .....................................................       170 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  21548,  C.  S.  Nation*!  Museum,  collected  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  July  1078  by 
C.  0.  Leslie. 

38.  The  Tii^ner-lixh,  IluUxlcs  ra;>Kw«»  Gniclin  ..........................................  J72 

Drawing  by  H.  I..  Todd,  from  No.  15233,  U.  a  National  Museum.  collected  at  New  York  by  Mr.  Sutheilaud. 

39.  The  Sen  Horso,  Hippocampi!*  hrptagmtti  Riif  .............................................................         172 

Drawing  by  H.  I..  Todd,  from  No.  3451,  IT.  a  Nationul  Museum.  collected  at  Old  Point  Comfort,  Virginia,  by  Commodore 
Farragut,  U.  S.  N. 

40.  The  G<H)»«!  fish  or  l!e|]o\v»-tish,  Luphiun  pitcatoritti  L  ............................................  .  ........       174 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  collected  in  Vineyaid  Sound,  Misaachnsetta,  by  the  C.  a  Flub  Commlaalon. 

41.  Tlie  Amerieiin  Sole  or  "  Hog  Choker,"  Achirut  lineal  ut  (L  )  Cuv  ..........................................       176 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  1298J,  17.  a  National  Miueum,  collected  at  Wood'a  Boll,  Maasachuaetta,  Jnly  14,  1871, 
by  Vinai  N.  Edwards. 

(Upper.)  Showing  upper  Bide  of  fish. 
(Lower.)  Showing  under  side  of  Ash. 

42.  The  American  Plaice  or  Turbot  Flounder,  ParalidHkys  den  tat  us  (L.)J.  &O  ...............................       178 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21279,  U.  a  National  Museum,  rollected  at  Arlington,  Saint  John's  River.  Florida, 
1878,  by  G.  Brown  Goode. 

43.  The  Four-spotted  rlniiiltlcr,  Paralichthyi  oblotigui  (Mitch.)  J.  &  G  ................................  '.  .......       181 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10730,  U.  a  National  Maaeum,  collected  at  Wood'a  Holl,  Massachusetts,  by  Profeaaor 
a  F.  Baird. 

44.  The  Flatfish  or  Winter  flounder,  Psmtdoplenroneclft  americanat  (Walb.)  Gill  ..........................  ____       182 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd. 

45.  The  SiiuMith  Flounder,  Pleuroiiectet  glabcr  (Storer)  Gill  ...................................................       183 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  5308,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  by  C.  Putnam. 

46.  The  Starry  Flounder,  I'leuronectr*  itellalut  Pallas  .......................................................       184 

Drawing  by  B.  I..  Todd,  from  No.  24164,  II.  S.  National  Muannm,  collected  at  San  Franciaco.  California,  January  1880, 
by  Professor  D.  S.  Jordan. 

47.  The  Arctic  Flounder,  Pleuronectet  glacialii  Pallas  ............................  .  ...........................       184 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  27947,  I',  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  KoUcbue  Sound,  September  2.  1880,  by  Dull 
and  Bean. 

48.  The  Rough  Limanda,  Limanda  asprra  (Pullaa)  Beau  .....................................................       184 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27944.  U.  a  National  UuMnm.  collected  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  1880,  by  Dr.  T.  H.  Bean. 

49.  The  Ru8ty  Dab,  Limanda  ferruyinea  (Stort-r)  Goo<le  &  Bean  ..............................................        184 

Drawing  by  B.  L.Todd.  from  No.  21020.  U.S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Halifax,  Nora  Scotia,  September  4,  1877, 
by  U.  S.  Fish  Commisalon. 

50.  The  California  "Sole,"  Lrpidoptetta  bilineata  (Ayr**)  Gill  .................................................       186 

Drawing  by  B.  L  Xodd,  from  No.  27602,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Saint  Paul's,  Kodiak  Island,  Alaska,  1880, 
by  Dr.  T.  H.  Bean. 

51.  The  San  Francisco  "Sole,"  Psttlichlhyt  melanosticliu  Girard..  .  ...........................................       188 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  24167,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  San  Franclaoo,  California.  January,  1880, 
by  Profeaaor  D.  a  Jordan. 

52.  The  Alaaka  Sand  Dab,  Hippoglowoide*  tla*todon  J.  &  G  ...................................................       188 

Drawing  by  B.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  27988,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Bumboldt  Harbor,  Shumaglna,  Alaska, 
Jnly  19.  1880.  by  Dr.  T.  H.  Bean. 

53.  The  Atherexten  Flounder.  Athrratket  ttomiat  3.  &  G  ......................................................       188 

Drawing  by  B.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27186,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Point  Beyea,  California,  1880.  by  Jordan 
and  Gilbert. 

64.  The  Halibut,  Hippoglo»tnt  rulgarit  Fleming  ...............................................................       190 

Drawing  by  a  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10439,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Baatpon,  Maine,  1872,  by  U.  &  Flab  Commis- 

sion. 

55.  The  Sand  Dab,  Hippoglouoide*  plattusoidet  (F»b.)  Gill  .....................................................       197" 

Drawing  by  B.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21002,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Le  Have  Bank,  August  21,  1877,  by  IT.  8. 
Fish  Commission. 

56.  The  Greenland  Turbot,  I'latyiomalichthyi  hippoglosfioide*  (Walb.)  Goode  &,  Bean  ...........................       19» 

Drawing  by  H.  I.  Todd.  from  a  specimen  obtained  in  Fulton  Market,  New  York. 

57.  The  Pole  Flounder.  Glyplocfjihalus  cynoglotmu  (L.)  Gill  ....................................................       199 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd. 

58.  The  Codfish,  Gadu*  morrhua  L  ...........................................................................      800 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  T«dd,  from  No.  10444.  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Kulport,  Maine,  1872,  by  U.  a  Flab  Com- 
mission. 

The  Atlantic  Tom  Cod,  Mierogaduii  tomcod  (Walb.)  Gill  ....................................................      893 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  17733,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood'a  Boll,  Maeaachusetts,  Deeeaber  U. 
1875.  by  Vina!  N.  Edwards. 


XXU  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Page. 

59.  The  Haddock,  Melanogrammut  ceglefiuus  L.  Gill 223 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10440,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  nt  Eastport,  Maine,  1872,  by  TT.  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission. 
The  Saiila  Cod,  Boreogadus  saida  (Lepechiu)  Bean    .  0 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  21746,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Annanactook  Harbor,  Cumberland  Gulf, 
October  19,  1877,  by  Ludwig  Kumlien. 

60.  The  Pollock,  rollachius  carbonarius  (L.)  Gill 228 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10443,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Eastport,  Maine  1872,  by  Professor  S.  F. 
Baird. 

The  Alaska  Pollock,  Pollachius  chalcogrammus  (Pallas) 232 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27637.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pirate  Cove,  Shuiuagin  Islands,  Alaska, 
1880,  by  William  H.  DalL 

61.  The  Cusk,  Srosmius  bro*me  (Miiller)  Whitt- 233 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20967,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Boston  Market,  January  11,  1882,  by  W.  A. 
Wilcox. 

The  Burbot  or  "Fresh  water  Cusk,"  Lota  maculosa  (LeSueur)  C.  and  O 235 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10533,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  J.  W.  Milner. 

62.  The  Common  Hake,  Pliycia  ckuas  (Walb.)  Gill 234 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  28707,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Martha's  Vineyard,  July  16,  1881,  by  TT.  S. 

Fish  Commission. 

The  Squirrel  or  While  Hake,  1'hycis  tenuis  (Mitchill)  De  Kay 234 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21029,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  in  Halifax  Harbor, -November  30, 1877,  by  TJ.  S. 

Fish  Commission. 

63.  The  Kiug  Hake,  I'hyris  regiua  (Walb.)  Gill 234 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20923,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  New  York  Aquarium,  1878,  by  E.  G.  Black- 
ford. 

Earl's  Hake,  Phycu  EarUii  Beau 234 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25207,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  March  25, 1880, 
by  B.  E.  Earll. 

64.  Chester's  Hake,  I'hycis  Chesteri  Goode  &  Bean 234 

Drawn  by  H.  L.  Todd  from 

The  Blue  Hake,  Haloporphyrus  viola  Goode  &  Bean 0 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Tortd,  from  No.  21837,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  on  Le  Have  Bank,  August  26, 1878,  by  Captain 
J.  Vf  Collins,  schooner  Marlon. 

66.   The  Merluccio,  Merluciua  producttis  ( Ayres)  Gill 243 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  26638,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Seattle,  Washington  Territory,  1880,  by 
Colonel  F.  W.  Prosser. 

The  Silver  Hake  or  New  England  Whiting,  Merluciua bilinearis (Mitch.)  Gill 240 

Drawing  by  11.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21016,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  September  8,  1P77, 
by  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

66.  The  Saud  Cusk,  Ophidium  marginalum  De  Kay 243 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10762,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Tompkinsville,  New  York,  by  C.  L.  Copley. 

The  Onion-fish  or  Grenadier,  AJaorurus  rupeslris  (Muller)  Blooh 244 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  15608,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collectedat  Saint  George's  Bank,  October  27, 1875.    Pre- 
sented bv  E.  G.  Blaokford. 

The  Laut  or  Sand  Eel,  Ammodytet  americanus  De  Kay 244 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  16500,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Nantncket,  Massachusetts,  August  12,  by 
U.  S.  Fisb  Commission. 

67.  The  Mutton-fish,  Zoarces  anguillaris  (Peck)  Storer 247 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10138,  V.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Eastport,  Maine,  1872,  by  U.  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission. 

Vahl's  Lycodes,  Lycodw  Vahlii  Keinhardt 247 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21991,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  on  Le  Have  Bank,  by  Captain  Z.  Hawkins, 
schooner  Gwendolen. 

68.  The  Common  Cattish  or  Wolf-fish,  Anarrhicas  lupus  L 248 

Drawing  by  fl.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21846,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  on  George's  Bank,  September  27, 1878,  by  Cap- 
tain John  Gourvilh-. 

The  Spotted  Catfish,  A  nan  him*  minor  Olafsen 249 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21618,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  »t  sea  November,  1878,  by  Captain  B.  H.  Hurl- 
bert. 

69.  The  Gulf  Toadfitth,  or  " Sapo,"  tiatrachuo  pardus  Goode  &  Beun 251 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22237,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  1878,  by  Silas  Stearns. 

"  The  Naked  Star-gazer,"  Aalroacopus  anopliis  (C.  &  V. )  Brevoort 0 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  4622,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Norfolk,  Virginia. 

70.  The  Lump-lisli,  t'yclopteru»  tumput  L 254 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14795,  U.  S.  National  .Museum,  collected  at  Eastport,  Maine,  1872,  by  I  .  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission. 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  XXI II 

ffM* 

71.   The  Sea  Robin  <T  WiiiKHsh,  Prionvtv*  palmipe*  (Mitch.)  8t4.rer 256 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  774.  U.  S.  National  Mnseum,  collected  at  Beealey'a  Point,  New  J.-rsey,  18M.  by  Pro. 
fessor  S,  F.  B»ird. 

The  Striped  Sea  Holiin.  I'l-iunotufnolam  (L.)  Gill 266 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  KM,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood'*  Boll.  Massachusetts,  by  Vinal  N. 
Edward*. 

72.  The  Northern  »r  Kiiri>pi':iii  Si-iilpin,  I'litta*  tcorpiiu  L  258 

Drawing  by  11.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21989,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Cumberland  Gulf,  September  25,  1877,  by 
l.mUii:  Kuinlii'ti. 

Thr  Common  SiMilptn,  Coitus  tcorpiiu  L.,  subspecies  graolandictu  (C.  &  V.)  Bean 258 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10441,1:.  S   National  MnMnm,  collected  at  Eastport,  Maine,  1872,  by  U.S.  Fish  Com- 
mission. 

73.  Tin-  Al:i-k:i  Scnlpin,  <'itllun  pohjacanthoctphalus   Pal  In* 268 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No. 23499.  V. 8.  National  Muarnm,  collected  at  Unalanhka,  1879,  by  William  II   lull 

The  Southern  Sculpin,  Callus  octwlecimtpinomm  Mitch 258 

Drawing  b>  U.  L.  Tmld,  from  No.  4552,  U.  S.  National  Mnienm,  collected  at  Becsley's  Point,  New  Jersey.  1858,  by  Pro- 
fessor S.  F.  Itaird. 

74.  The  Sea  Raven,  ll<mitrii>l<  rut  americanu*  (Guielin)  C.  &  V 268 

Drawing  by  It.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  23199,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  September  13. 1877,  by 

U.S.  Finli  Commission. 

Jordan's  Cabey.on,  II,milepidolu»  Jorilani  Bean 268 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todil,  from  No.  27S98,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ilinlluk,  Unalasbka  Island,  1880,  by  Dr.  T. 

H.Beao. 

75.  The  Rose-fish  or  Norway  Haddock,  Seba»te»  mat-inn*  (L.)  LUtki-n 260 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  10442,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Eastport,  Maine,  1872,  by  IT.  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission. 

76.  The  Black-banded  Rockfish,  Sebtulichlhyt  nigrocinclm  (Ayrcg)  Gill 963 

Drawing  by  II  L.  Todd,  from  No.  272S5,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Puget  Sound,  1880,  by  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

77.  The  Tree-fish,  Sebasticlith>/ii  serricepsJ.  &G 863 

Drawing  by  11.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27041,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Monterey,  California,  1800,  by  Jordan  and 
liilbcrt 

78.  The  Yellow-backed  Rockfish,  Sebaatichthys  maliger  J.  &  G 264 

Drawing  by  H. L.  Todd,  from  No. 27713,  U.S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  June  2,  1880,  by  Dr. T.  H. 
Bean. 

79.  The  Corsair,  Sebaxtichthyi  rosaeeus  (Grd.)  Lock , 266 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  26961,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Santa  Barbara,  California.  1880  (I),  by  Jor- 
dan and  Gilbert 

80.  The  Orange  Rockfish,  Srbastichthiis pinaiger  (Gill.)  Lock 266 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Tmld.  from  No.  27488,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Neeah  Bay,  Wyoming  Territory.  December, 
18SO,  by  James  G.  Swan. 

81.  The  Black  Rockfish,  Sebaslichllnis  mytlinu*  J.  &  G 266 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  27031,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Monterey.  California,  1880.  by  Jordan  and 
Gilbert 

82.  The  Spotted  Black  Rockfish,  Sebatliclithyi  melanopi  (Grd.)  J.  <fc  G 266 

Drawing  by  II.  L.Todd,  from  No.  27628,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  May  28, 1880,  by  Dr.  T.  H. 
Bean. 

83.  The  "  Black  Cod,"  "  Black  Candle-fish,"  or  Iteshow,  Anoplopoma  fimbria  (Pallas)  Gill 268 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27745,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  December,  1880,  by  Com- 
mander L.  A.  Beardslee,  U.  S.  N. 
The  "Atka  Mackerel"  or  Yellow-fish,  I'lruroyranimut  monopterygitu  (Pallas)  Gill 268 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  27954,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Iliiiliuk,  Unalanhka,  1880,  by  Dr.  T.  H. 
Bean. 

84.  Stellcr's  Rock-trout,  Hezagrammtu  asper  Steller     268 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21530,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Saint  Michael's,  Alaska,  June,  1875,  by 
L.  M.  Turner. 

The  CnltusCod,  Ophiodon  elongatus  Girard 867 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  65727,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  June  7,  1889,  by  Dr.  T.  H. 
Bean. 

85.  The  Tantog,  Tautoya  onitin  (L.)  Gthr    '-'';~ 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  17738,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl.  Massachusetts,  December  II, 
1875,  by  Vinal  X.  Edwards. 

86.  The  Chogset  or  Cunuer,  Ctenolabrus  aiisperiui  (Walb.)  Goode 274 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  To.M.  from  No.  17741,  U.S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  December  11. 
1875,  by  Vinal  N.  Edwards. 

87.  The  Fat-head  or  Keillisli.  1'i melomflopoa  pulcher  (Ay res)  Gill.  =  Trocliocopiu  pittcher  . .  27 f> 

Drawing  by  H.  I..  Tod.l,  from  No.  24890,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  San  Diego,  California,  January,  1880,  by 
Jordan  and  Gilbert 


XXIV  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Page. 

88.  The  Hogfish  or  Capitaine,  Lachnolcemus  falcatus  (L.)  C.  &  V 276 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd. 

89.  The  Alfione,  Khacochilus  toiotes  Agassiz 277 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27015,  U.  S.  National  Mnseum,  collected  at  Monterey,  California,  1880,  by  Jordan  and 
Gilbert 

90.  The  Spanish  Pompano,  Gerres  olisthoetoma  Goode  &  Beau 279 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25118,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Indian  River,  Florida,  March  8,  1880,  by 
R.  E.  Earll. 

91.  The  Mackerel,  Scomber  scombrus  L 281 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25256,  TT.  S.  National  Musenm,  collected  at  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  September, 
1879,  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

The  Chub  Mackerel  or  "Thimble  Eye,"  Scomber  colias  De  La  Roche  303 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  23480,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  nt  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  September, 
1879,  by  V.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

92.  The  Frigate  Mackerel,  Auxti  thazard  Laceyede 305 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25757,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island  August,  1880,  by 
TJ.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

The  Bonito,  Sarda  mediterranea  (Schn.)  J.  &  G 316 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10419,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  ftt  Wood's  Holl.  Massachusetts,  1871,  by 
I ' .  S.  Fish  Commission. 

93.  The  Spanish  Mackerel,  Scomberomorus  macutatus  (Mitch.)  J.  &  G 307 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  15582,  TJ.  S.  National  Mnseum,  collected  at  Fulton  Market,  Now  York,  by  E.  G.  Black- 
ford. 

94.  The  Spotted  Cero,  Scomberomorus.  regalis  (Bloch)  J.  &  G 316 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  12527,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Key  West,  Florida,  by  E.  G.  Blackford 

The  Cero  or  Kiugfish,  Scomberomorus  caballa(C.  &  V.)  J.  &  G 316 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  19418,  TJ.  S.  National  Mnseum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1875.  by  U. 
S.  Fish  Commission. 

96.  The  Alalonga  or  Long-tinned  Tunny,  Orcyniw  alalonga  (Ginel. )  Risso 320 

Drawing  by  H.  L-Todd,  from  No.  21884,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Banquereau,  September  10,  1878,  by  Capt- 
tain  William  Thompson,  schooner  Magic. 

The  Striped  or  Oceanic  Bonito,  Euthynnus  pelamys  (L.)  Liitken 319 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20762,  sent  from  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

96.  The  Horse  Mackerel  or  Tunny,  Orcynus  thijnnus  (L.)  Poey '. 320 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  collected  in  Vineyard  Sound  by  TJ.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

97.  The  Horsetish  or  Blunt-nosed  Shiner, Selene  setipinnis  (Mitch.)  Lutken 322 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  16252,  U.  S.  National  Mnseum,  collected  in  Fnlton  Market,  New  York,  by  E.  G. 
Blackford. 

98.  The  Silver  Moonntth  or  "  Look-down,"  Selene  argentea  Lace'pfede 323 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22279,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum. 

99.  The  Cavally  or  Crevall6,'Cara»z  hippos  (L.)  Gthr 323 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10431  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1871,  by  TJ.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

100.  The  Goggler  or  "Goggle  Eye,"  Caranx  crumenophthalmuii  ( Block)  Lac 324 

Drawing  from  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20681,  TJ.  S.  National  Musenm,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  October  3, 
1877,  by  Vinal  N.  Edward*. 

101.  The  Jurel  or  Hard  Tail,  Caranx  pisquetus  C.  &  V.  =C.  cArysosGthr 324 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  16612,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  by  TJ.  S.  ^ 
Fisb  Commission. 

102.  The  Round  Robin  or  Cigar-fish,  Decapterus  punctatm  (Ag.)  Gill 325 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  20639,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  September  11, 

1877,  by  Vinal  N.  Edwards. 

103.  The  Scad  or  Dutch  Margebanker,  Trachurus  saurus  Raf. 326 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  23421,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  by  S.  Powell. 

104.  The  Common  Pompano,  Trachynotus  carolinus  (L.)  Gill 327 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  15178,  TJ.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  October  5, 1871, 
by  ProfeMor  a  F.  Bnird. 

105.  The  Short  Pompano,  Trachynotut  ovatus  (L.)  Gthr 329 

Drawing  from  No.  28185,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Florida  by  Silas  Stearns. 

106.  The  Banner  Pompano,  Trachi/notus  r/laiicus  C.  &  V 329 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  30176,  TJ.  S.  National  Mnseum,  collected  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  January  7,  1882,  by  Silas 
Steam*. 

107.  The  Pilot-fish,  ffaucralei  ductor  (L.)  Eaf 330 

Drawing  by  IL  L.  Tortd,  from  No.  23197,  U.  S.  National  Musenm,  collected  at  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  September  27. 

1878,  by  William  A.  liansett 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  XXV 


108.  TheCalitorni;.  Yellow-tnil,  or  Amber-flab.,  Sn-ioJa  donaUt  C.  St.  V  .......................................      331 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Tml<l,  from  No.  26835,  U.  S.  National  Miueum,  collected  at  San  Pedro,  California,  ISM  (  f  ),  by  Jordan 

iiinl  iiillN.it. 

109.  The  Dolphin,  Cory/iliti-iiit  Infipuruii  L  .....................................................................      338 

i  Muli'  )     I>ni»  iut;  by  II.  L.  Todtl,  from  specimen  In  Fulton  Market,  New  York,  collected  by  E.  G.  Blackford,  September 

18,  1873. 
(Female.)    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  in  Fulton  Market,  New  York,  collected  by  K.  G.  Black  ford,  Septem- 

ber l(i.  1K7.Y 

110.  The  Harvest-fish,  StromaleH*  alrpidotut  (L.)  J.  &  O  .......................................................       333 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  13234,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  New  York,  by  Mr.  Sutherland. 

111.  The  Butiri  lUli  or  IMLir  \\~\\,  Slromalruu  Iriai'anthux  I'eek  .................................................      333 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  787,  D.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Beesley'a  Point,  New  Jeraey.  1858,  by  Pro- 
fessor S.  F.  Baird. 

The  Log-fish  or  Black  Rmlder-li.sli,  Liriu  perciformi*  (Mitch.)  J.  &  O  ...................  .*.  ................      334 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22050,  U.  S.  National  Mum-urn,  collt  cted  at  Le  Have  Bank,  by  Captain  James  Hawkins. 

112.  The  Poinfret,  Brama  Ruyi  Schu  .........................................................................      336 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  28234,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  weat  end  of  Grand  Hunk.  May,  1881,  by 
Captain  Andrew  McKinney. 

113.  The  Boar  Fish,  Ztxopiu  oeellatut  (Storer)  Gill  ...........................................  .  ..............      336 

Drawing  by  H.  I/.  Todd,  from  specimen  taken  at  Provinoetown,  Massachusetts,  in  museum  of  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History. 

114.  The  rntl:i~~ii>!i.  Trickiurus  Upturn*!.  ......  .  .............................................................      336 

Drawing  by  U.  L    Todd,  from  No.  18028.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Saint  Augustine,  Florida,  1877,  by  Dr. 
Janeway,  U.  8.  N. 

115.  The  Swordfish.  Xipkiiu  gladius  L  .....................................................................       338 

(Adult  )    Drawing  by  U.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  If.rj'i.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts. 

July  17,  1875,  by  U.  S.  Flab  Commission. 
(Young.)    Drawing  by  IL  L.  Tudd,  from  plate  225,  Curler  St.  Valenciennes,  Histoire  Natarelle  dee  Poiuona. 

116.  The  Sail-full,  Uiotiopkoru*  gladiun  (Brown)  Gthr  .....................  .  ...................................       356 

The  Spear-  fish,  Tetrapturvs  albidus  Poey  ............................................     .............  .....      357 

117.  The  Tilefish,  Lopholatilu»  chamcelfonticept  Goodo  &  Bean  .................................................      360 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22899,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  80  miles  south  by  east  of  No  Man's  Land. 
May,  1870,  by  Captain  Kirby. 

118.  The  Gulf  Blanquillo,  Caulolatilu*  micropt  Goocle  &.  Bean  .................................................      360 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20971,  U.  &  National  Museum,  collected  at  Penaacola,  Florid*,  March  18,  1878,  by  Silas 
Steams. 

The  Roucbil,  Jfathyma»<er  nignatut  Cope  .................................................................       361 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27846,  U.  &  National  Museum,  collected  at  Shnmagins,  Alaska,  1880,  by  K.  P.  Herendeen. 

119.  The  Squirrel-fish,  Holocenlrum  pmtacanthum  (Block)  Vaill.  &  Bocourt  ....................................      361 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  26580,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Key  Weat,  Florida,  1880,  by  Silas  Steams. 

120.  The  Spotted  Squet«ague,  Cynotcio*  maculatam  (Mitch.)  Gill  .......  ......  .  ...............................       385 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  15000,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  1872,  by  Mr.  Slbley. 
The  Couimon  Squeteague,  Cynotcion  regale  (Schn.)  Gill  ....................................  .  ............       362° 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10421,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  lioll,  Massachusetts,  1871,  by 
U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

121.  The  Drum,  I'ogonias  chromis  (L.)  C.  &  V  ................................................................       36T 

(Young.)    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  18036,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Matantaa  River  Inlet.  Florida, 
February,  1877,  by  John  C.  WiUeta. 

122.  The  Drum,  Poyoniag  chromia  (L.)  C.  &  V  ................................................................      367 

(Adult.)    Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  2293(1,  U.  S.  National  Musenm. 

123.  The  Fresh-water  Drum  or  Gaspergou,  Haploidonotus  grunniens  Raf  .....................................       370 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10542,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  J.  W.  Mllner. 

124.  The  Spot  or  Goody,  Lioolomut  xaathurut  Lac  ..........................................................       370- 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20222,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  November,  1875, 
by  Samuel  Powel. 

125.  The  Red-fish  or  Bass  of  the  South,  Sriaina  ocrllala  {i,.)  Gthr  .........................................       371 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  622,  U.  &  National  Musenm,  collected  at  Indianola,  1858,  by  Major  Emory. 

126.  The  Yellow  Tail.  Bairdirlla  chrymra  (Lac.)  .............................................................       376 

Drawing  by  H.  I.  Todd,  from  No.  771,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  by  Beedey's  Point,  New  Jeraey,  1858,  by 
Professor  a  F.  Baird. 

127.  The  Kingtish  or  Sea  Mink,  J/m«cirni«  xtbuloiut  (Mitch.)  Gill  ...................  .......................      376 

Drawing  by  B.  L.  Todd.  from  No.   2&403,  U.  S.  National   Museum,  collected  at  Charleston  Harbor,  South  Carolina. 

March  25,  1880.  by  R  K  Earll. 
The  Caroliua  Whitiug,  Menlicin-ui  alburnu*  (L.  )  Gill  ...............................................  ,  ----      376 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  So.  22832.  C.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  1'ensacola,  Florida,  187*,  by  Silas  Steams. 


XX  vi  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Page. 

1-28.  The  Croaker.  Micropogon  uudttlatus  (L. )  C.  &  V 378 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20742,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  1877,  by  Samuel 
Powel. 

129.  The  Ronc.idor,  Roncador  Stearnsii  (Steindachner)  J.  &  G 379 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  26804,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Santa  Barbara,  California,  1880,  by  Pro- 
fessor  D.  S.  Jordan. 

130.  The  Sheep's-head,  Diplodus  probntocephalus  (Walb.)  J.  &  G 381 

(Young).    Drawing  by  IT.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  iu  U.  S.  National  Museum 

131.  The  Sheep's-head,  DipJodu*  probatocephalus  (Wall).  )J.  &  G 381 

(Adnlt).    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  specimen  iu  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

132.  The  Charleston  Bream  or  Piu-lish,  Diplndiia  Holbrookii  Bean 386 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20979,  U.  S.  National  Muacnm,  collected  at  Cliaileston,  South  Carolina,  March  29,  1878, 
by  G.  Brown  Goode. 

133.  The  Scuppaug,  Scup,  or  Northern  Porgy,  Stenotomwi  chnjuope  (Mitch.)  Bean  386 

Dl awing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10425,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1871,  by 
Professor  S.  F.  Baird. 

134.  The  Southern  Scup,  Steiiotomus  Gardeni  Bean 387 

135.  The  Gulf  Seup,  or  Goat's  Head  Porgy,  Steuotom  in  caprinux.  Goode  &  Bean 393 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  32683,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pcnsacola,  Florida,  by  Silas  Stearns. 

136.  Miluor's  Pagellns,  Pagellus  Milnci-i,  Goode  &  Bean 393 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  6134,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Charlotte  Harbor,  Florida,  by  C.  B.  Baker. 

137.  The  Margate  Fish,  Bastard  Snapper  of  Charleston,  or  Porgy   of  lYiisacola,  Sjxirtts  pai/rna  L 394 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  by  G.  Brown 
Goode. 

138.  The  Sailor'u  Choice,  Lagodon  rhomboides  (L. )  Hoi  brook  .   393 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21280,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Saint  John's  Kiver,  Florida,  April,  1878, 
by  G.  Brown  Goode. 

139.  The  Bermuda  Chub,  Cijiiliovus  Jioncii  (Lac.)  J.  &  G .       394 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20435,  U.  S.  National  Museniu,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  September  11, 
1877,  by  Vinal  N.  Edwards. 

140.  The  Medialuna,  Xcorpis  californienrit  Stciudnchner 395 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  26952,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Santa  Barbara,  California,  1880  by  Jordan 
and  Gilbert. 

141.  The  Florida  Red  Snapper,  Lutjanu*  Blackfordii  Goode  &  Bean 395 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21330,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  May,  1878,  by  Silas 
Stearna. 

142.  The  Peusacola  Snapper,  Lutjanut  Stearnsii  Goode  &  Bean 396 

Drawing    by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21337,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  May,  1878,  by  Silas 
Stearns. 

143.  The  Mangrove  Snapper,  Rhomboplites  atirorubcns  (C.  &  V. )  Vaillant 396 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  Xo.  21338,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  I'ensacola,  Florida,  May,  1878,  by  Silas 
Stearna. 

144.  The  Black  Grunt,  Hiemulon  Plumieri  (Lac.)  J.  &  G 399 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20980,  U.  S.  National  Mnsoum,  collected  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  May  29,  1878, 
by  G.  Brown  Goode. 

14T>.  The  Striped  Grunt,  Hamulon  elryam  (C.  &  V.) 397 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  Irom  No.  32603,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Key  West,  Florida,  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Henshall. 

146.  The  P\gfis}t,Pomodaiiijs  fitlvomaculatiis  (Mitch.)  J.  &  G 398 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  3113,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Charlotte  Harbor,  Florida,  by  C.  B.  Baker. 

147.  The  Big-mouth  Black  Bass  or  Oswego  Bass,  MiKropttms  Htitmolden  ( Lac. )  Henshall 401 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14143,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Little  Falls,  Potomac  River,  1874,  by  Major 
T.J.Hobbs. 

148.  The  Small-mouth  Black  Bass,  Micropterut  Dolomiei  Lac 401 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10323.  TJ.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  by  J.  W.  Milncr. 

149.  The  Rock-Bass  or  Red  Eye,  Amblopliles  rupeslrif  (Raf.)  Gill 404 

Drawing  by  II.  I..  Todd,  from  No.  9401,  TJ.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  George  Chirk. 

160.   The  Mud-Bass,  Acantliarchus pornoHt  (Baird)  Gill 405 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  6475,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Tarborough,  North  Carolina,  by  Mr. 
Bridger. 

151.  The  Sacramento  Perch,  Archoplites  interrupts  (Girard)  Gill 405 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27137,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  San  Francisco,  California,  1880,  by  Pro- 
fessor I),  a  Jordan 

152.  The  War-mouth  Bass,  Chacnabrytlut  gvlonui  (C.  &  V.)  Jordan 405 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  17803,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Jackson's  Lake,  Alabama,  July  14, 1870, 
by  Knrulien  and  Bean. 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  XXvii 


153.  The  Puiiipkin-Si-fd  or  Snnfmli,  /.r;*>mi«  gibbonu  (L.)  McKay  .............................................       406 

Drawing  by  H.  I,.  Todd,  from  No.  4183,  IT.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Root  Hirer,  Wisconsin,  July  1859,  by  Pro- 

-  r.l;  >it.i 

154.  Tin-  l.i  in;;  i-an-d  Suiil'isli,  l.rpomi*  nuiiliix  (I,.  )  Ital  .......................................................         IIM. 

Drawing  by  II    1      1  ..il.l.  limn  No.  1M.M    I.  S.  Nutimi.il  Museum.  collrctad  at  Snuqiuilianua  River,  Uainbridce.  Pennsyl- 
vania, May.  1875,  by  Dr.  T.  U.  noun. 

155.  Tlir  Itlui-  Smilisli  nr  ('oppi-r-niiM-,  Li/mmi*  pallid**  (Mitch.)  J.  &,  G  .......................................       -100 

Drawing  by  H.  I..  Todil,  fnim  No.  8448,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  ID  Tennessee. 
!.~><i.    Tin'  ('  hi  in  |  nap  i  ii  IVrrli,  1.  1  /mm  in  IIIIIH  tat  an  (('.  and  V.)  Jonluii  ...........................................       406 

Drawing  by  H.  I,.  Todd,  from  No.  4'J27-'40,  V.  S.  National  Mum-uni,  collected  in  Florida. 
157.    Tin-  ltrnail-r:ifi'il  Smili.xli,  l.i  iiinniH  obm-iii  us  Ag  ...........................................................       406 

I>r»wini:  by  H.  I..  Tixbl.  from  No.  20031,  I'.  S.  Nationul  Unworn,  collected  at  Cumberland  Klver,  Trnnraaee,  by  A. 
Wim-hell. 

lf>8.    Tlir  Kainlinw  Siinlish,  I'tntnin  luii  nm<r»;»f<riu(Lac.)  Jorilim  .............................................       408 

Drawing  by  11.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  -J039S.  IT.  S.  National  Unseam,  collected  at  Kinston,  North  Carolina,  1875,  by  Welsher 
and  Ilv.iit 

159.   The  Calico  Hans  nr  Straw  IxTry  ]t;i.-s,  I'omoiyt  Kparoidcs  (Lac.  )  Grd  .......................................      406 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  Nu.  10077,  U.  S.  National  MIIMMIIII.  collected  nt  Kocbeater  by  J.  \V   Uilner. 

100.    Tin1  (.'nipple  nr  Sac-a-lail,  I'omoiiia  aonn/'iri*  Kaf  ......................................................       407 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10387,  U.  S.  National  Mum-urn,  collected  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  1(73,  by  Dr.  H.  C. 
Yarrow. 

161.  The  Black-baiiilril  Sunlisli,  M,  >a.:ioiiuti*»  ehatodo*  (Uaird)  Gill  ...........................................  0 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20354.  U.  S.  Nnlioual  Mumtuin,  collected  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  1876,  by  Dr.  C.  C 
AbbotU 

162.  The  Sea  Bass,  Sen-aunt  atraritu  (L.)  J.  ami  G  ............................................................      407 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14838,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Nnank,  Connecticut,  1874,  by  D.  S.  Flab 
Commission. 

163.  The  Squirrel-fish,  Serranu*  ftucicularii  U.  and  V  .........................................................      410 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21543,  U.  S.  National  Mum-urn,  collected  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  July,  1878,  by 
C.  C.  Ledit. 

164.  The  Red  Grouper,  Epiitrpheliui  morto  (Cuv.)  Gil)  .........................................................       411 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22129,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  in  the  Washington  Market,  District  of 
Columbia,  by  G.  Brown  Gonde. 

165.  The  Jew-fish  or  "Warsaw,"  Vromicropn  guata  Poey  ......................................................      418 

Drawing  by  U.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22308,  U.  8.  National  Mnwum,  collected  at  St.  John's  Kiver,  Florida. 

166.  The  West  ludiau  Cabrilla,  Sen-anus  clathrntus  (Grt\.)  Stoind  ..............................................      413 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  28574,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Key  West,  Florida,  Uay,  1880,  by  Silas 
Stearns. 

167.  The  Peusacola  Black  Grouper,  Tri»otroyi«  mivolepis  Goode  and  Bean  .....................................      413 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  5137,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Welt  Florida  by  Kaiser  and  Martin. 

168.  The  Yellow  Perch,  Perca  americana  Schrank  .............................................................      414 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  2J19U,    U.   S.  National   Museum,  collected  at   Washington  Market,   District  of 
Columbia,  April,  1880,  by  U.  S.  Fi»h  Commission. 

169.  The  Wall-eyed  Pike  or  Dory,  Sliiostrdiiim  ritreum  (Mitch.  )  Jordan  and  Copeland  .........................      421 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22494,  C.  S.  National  Mutrnni,  collected  at  Pott  Deposit,  Uaijland,  April  7,  187*. 

by  R.  £.  McClenahan. 
The  Sauger  or  Laud  Pike,  Sti;<>*le(liiim  runctlenue  (Smith)  Jordan  .........................................      424 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10072,  U.  S.  National  M  u-  um  collected  at  Rochester,  New  York,  by  J.  W.  Mllner. 

170.  The  Striped  Bass  or  Kocktish,  Itoccui  luu/itu*  (Blorli.  )  (Jill  (  ^=  Itoccun  tAtatili*  auctor.uui)  ..................       425 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  23219,  0.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Washington  Market.  District  of  Columbia, 
April  24,  1880,  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

171.  The  White  Bass,  Koccvt  chry»op»  (Raf.)  Gill  .................................................  .....      428 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  ncuii,  D.  S.  National  Mum-urn  collected  at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  by  J.  W.  Mllner. 

172.  The  Yellow  Bass,  Kofciu  interrupt*!  (Gill)  J.  and  G  ..................................................  431 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  specimens  in  National  Musi-urn.     . 

173.  The  White  Perch,  KOITUS  americanun  (Ginl.)  J.  and  G  ...........................................  431 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  15681,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  New  York,  November  16,  1875,  by  K.  O. 
Blackford. 

174.  The  Bhu-lisli  r,,matomue  saltatrti  (L.)  Gill  ..............................................................       433 

Drawing  by  U.  L.  Todd,  from  specimens  in  U.  S.  National  Museum. 
Tin'  Cobi.-i  or  Crab-eater,  Elacate  ranada  (L.)  Gill  .......................................................      444 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  185C3.  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

175.  The  Triple-Tail  or  lUack  Grouper,  Lobotts  mirinamenfu  (Bl.)  Cuvier  .....................................      444 

175.  The  Moon-li»h  or  Spadu-tiah,  Chalodipterui  falter  (Uroutw.)  J.  and  G  ......................................      445 


XXviii  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Pafte. 

177.  The  Spear-fish  Reniora,  Rhomboehirui  osteochir  (Cuv. )  Gill 446- 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  19022,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1875,  by  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

The  Sword-fish  Remora,  liemoroptis  lirachyptera  Lowe 445, 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd, from  No.  23374,  U.S. National  Museum,  collected  at  pea  in  250  fathoms  of  water  by  Daniel 
McEarhrau. 

178.  The  West  Indian  Barracouta  or  Sennet,  Sphyrcena  picuda  Schn 448 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14978,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Florida  by  E.  G.  Blackfonl. 

The  Northern  Barracouta,  Sphyr<p»a  borealis  De  Kay 448 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  18962,  0.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1876,  by  Vinal 
N.  Edwards. 

179.  The  Striped  Mullet,  Mugil  albula  L 449 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  24456,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  December  15, 
1879,  by  Vinal  N.  Edwards. 

The  White  Mullet,  Muyil  brasiliensis  Agass 449 

Drawn  by  Miss  M.  Smith,  from  No.  21498,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  1878,  by  Silas  Stearns. 

180.  The  Sand  Smelt  or  Silversides,  Menidia  notata  (Mitch.)  J.  aud  G 456 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Noank,  Connecticut,  by  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission. 

The  California  "Smelt"  or  Pescadillo,  Atlierinopsis  californiensis  Girard 457 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  26764,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  San  Diego,  California.  1880,  by  Professor  D. 
S.  Jordan. 

181.  The  Two-spined  Stickle-back,  Gasterosteus  aculeatus  L '. 457 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20875,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  December  3, 
1877,  by  Vinal  N.  Edwards. 

The  Silver  Gar-fish,  Tylowrus  longirostria  (Mitch.)  J.  audG 458 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  specimens  in  National  Museum. 
The  Skipper  or  Saury,  Scomberemx  saurun  (Walb. )  Fleming 460 

Drawine  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  19853,  r.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  November  3, 
1875,  by  Vinal  N.  Edwards. 

182.  The  Half  Beak,  Hemiramphus  unifasciatus  Ranzani 461 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  16944,  r.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  August,  1876,  by  Otto 
Lugger. 

The  California  Fly  ing- fish,  Exoccetu*  californieiisis  Cooper 459 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  26907,  17.  S.  National  Museum,  collector  at  Santa  Baibara,  California,  1880,  by  Jordan 
and  Gilbert. 

183.  The  Pike,  Esox  Indus  L 461 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  9289,  r.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  George  Clark. 

The  Pickerel  or  Federation  Pike,  Esox  reticulatas  Le  Sneur 464 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20381,  U.  S.  National  Museum. 

184.  The  Western  Brook  Pickerel,  £soxumbrosus  Kirtland ..      464 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20708,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  by  E.  G.  Blackford. 

The  MuHkellunge,  Knot  nobilior  Thompson 464 

Drawing  by  H.  I .  Todd,  from  No.  10607,  r.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  George  Clark. 

185.  The  Mummichog,  FniifliiliiH  mujaim  (Walb.)  Gthr.  (Female) 466 

Drawing  H.L. Todd,  from  No.  13788,  U.S. National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  September  15, 
1871,  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

The  Blackfish  of  Alaska,  Dallia  pectontlis  Bean 466 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  23498  A,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Saint  Michaels,  Alaska,  February,  1877,  by 
L.  H.  Turner. 

186.  The  Atlantic  Salmon,  Satmo  salar  L 468 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  spcdmen  in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  taken  in  the  Delaware  River. 

The  Qninnat  or  California  Salmon,  Oncorliynchun  chouivha  (Walb.)  J.  and  G 479 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  24671,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Neeah  Bay,  December,  1879,  by  James  G. 
Swan.  f 

187.  The  Steel  Head,  Salmo  Gairdntri  Richardson 474 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27218,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Columbia  River,  1880,  by  Professor  D.  8. 
Jordan. 

The  Rainbow  Trout,  falmo  trirfeiw  Gibbons 476 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  29093,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  McClond  River,  California,  1881,  by  Livings- 
ton  Stone. 

188.  The  Bluck-spottcd  Trout,  Salmo  purpuratus  Pallas 476 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27905,  U.  a  National  Miweum,  collected  at  Sitka,  Alaska,  1870,  by  L.  A.  Beardsley. 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  XX1X 


Th<>  Kayko  or  Dog  Salmon,  Oncortit/xchut  ktta  (Walb.)  Gill  and  Jordan  ...................................      478 

Drawing  by  II.  I.  Todd.  from  No.  27017,  r.  &  National  Miueum,  collected  at  Fort  Alexander,  Cook's  Inlet,  Alaska,  July 
4.  1880,  by  J.  Cohi-n. 

Irtl.  Tin-  (iorbiLscha  nr  Hninp-liackril  Salmon,  Oncorhynchui  gorbum-ha  (Walb.)  (Jill  ami  Jordan  ................      476 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27743,  IT.  8.  National  Museum,  collcrt<-d  at  Cook's  Inlet,  Alaaka,  Joly  «.  1880,  by  Dr.  T. 
II.  Bean. 

The  Kisutch  or  Silver  Salmon,  Onoorky»ck>u  kisutck  (Walb.)  J.anilO  ....................................      477 

Drawing  by  H.  U  Todd,  from  Xo.  87712,  tJ.  3.  National  Miinoam,  collected  at  Uiulink,  ITnalashka,  OoUtber  12,  1880,  by  Dr. 
T.  II.  Bean. 

190.  The  Krasuaya  Kybii.  Ked-lwh  of  Idaho,  or  Blue  Hack  Salmon,  OooorhyKckut  xerka  (Wulb.)  Gill  and  Jordan.      477 

(Hook-jawed  Male.) 

(Female)  Drawing!  l>y  H.  L.  Todd,  from  iipecimena  In  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  by  Captain  C.  Ueodire,  U.  8.  N., 
in  the  Wallows  River,  Idaho. 

191.  Tin-  Krasnaya  Uybn  »r  liluo  Back  Salmon,  Onmrlii/iirliu*  tifrka  (Walb.)  J.  and  G  ..........................      477 

Drawlug  by  H.  I..  Todd,  from  frcah  run  male,  aent  to  IT.  S.  National  Muaenm  from  toe  Columbia  liiver,  April,  1884,  by  A. 
Booth,  esq. 

The  Namayciish  or  Luke  Trout,  Salreliimt  namayctuh  (Walb.)  Uoode  ....................................      486 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  17012,  IT.  &  National  Mnsenm,  collected  at  Uaqnette  Lake,  New  York,  February  38, 
1877,  by  Verplauck  Colvin. 

192.  The  Si>eckled  Trout.  Salrrtinu»  fontinalu  (Mitch.)  Gill  and  Jordan  ...................   ...................      497 

Drawing  by  U.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  28651,  U.  S.  National  Muarnin,  obtained  In  New  York  Market,  July,  1881,  by  E.O. 
Blackford. 

193.  The  Oqnassa  Trout,  Stilrrlinu*  oguaita  (Grd.)  Gill  and  Jordan  ............................................      603 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20088,  U.  S.  National  Muaenm,  collected  at  Oqnaaaoc  Lake.  New  York,  November  9, 
1877,  by  E.  G.  Blackford. 

The  Maluiaor  Dolly  Varden  Trout,  >Wr./;««.  malma  (Walb.)  J.and  G  ..................................       504 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27740,  D.  S.  National  Muaeutu,  collected  at  Port  Chatham,  Cook'a  Inlet,  Alaaka,  1880,  by 
Dr.  T.  II.  Bean. 

194.  The  Grayling,  Thymol!  ut  tricolor  Cope  .................................................................      606 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  11115,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  from  Au  Sable  River,  Michigan,  by  J.  W. 
Milner. 

195.  The  Alaska  Grayling,  Thymalltts  signifrr  Richardson  ....................................................      606 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  3333,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Fort  Simpson,  June,  1800,  by  B.  R  Boas. 

196.  The  WhiteBsh,  Coregonns  clupeiformis  (Mitch.)  Milurr    .................................................      507 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10300,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  George  Clark. 

197.  The  Cisco  or  Lake  Herring,  Coregonu*  Artedi  Lesnrur  ...................................................      641 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todil.  from  No.  33958,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  atNeer  Field  Bay.  Wiscosin,  by  J.  W.  Milnor 
The  Moon-eye  or  Cisco,  of  Lake  Michigan,  Coregonus  Hoyi  (Gill)  Jordan  .................................      541 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  32182,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Seneca  Lake,  New  York,  June,  1878,  by  Pro- 
feaaorH.  I.Smiili 

198.  The  Alaska  \Vbitoti»h,  CortgoHun  Merki  Gthr  ...........................................................          0 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Tudd,  from  No.  27098,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Alaaka,  1880,  by  IT.  S.  Steamer  Corwin. 
The  Lauretta  White-fish,  <'oregonu»  iMurttta  Bt-nn  .....................................................          0 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27G95.  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Point  Barrow.  Alaaka,  July,  1880,  by  C.  8. 
Steamer  Corwin. 

199.  The  Eastern  Suielt,  Otrntrus  mordax  (Mitch.)  Gill  ............................................  ...........       543 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21435.  U.  S.  National  Muaenm,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1878,  by  '  Vinal 
N.  Edwards. 

The  Alaska  Smelt,  Onmerus  dentex  Steiudachner  .........................................................      544 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27914.  U.  a  National  Muaenm.  collected  at  Port  Clarence,  Alaska,  1880,  by  Dr.  T.  H. 
Bean. 

200.  fhe  Alaska  Surf  Smelt,  Hiipomenui  olldut  (Pallas)  Gthr  ..................................................       544 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  23973,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Saint  Michaels.  Alaaka,  May  20,  1877,  by 
M.  L.  Turner. 

The  California  Surf  Smelt,  Hijpomt»u»  pretiosus  (Grd.)  Gill  ...............................................      544 

Drawing  by  B.  I.  Todd,  from  No.  27995,  r.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Yakntat  Bay.  Alaska.  1880,  by  Dr.  T.  H. 
Bean. 

«01.  The  Capelin,  Mallotxs  rilloxit  (Mnller)  Cnv  ............................................................       644 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  3418  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Groaswater  Bay,  by  Dr.  B.  Conea. 

The  Eulachon,  Thaleiclithy*  patificut  (Rich.)  Girard  ......................................................       547 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20001,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  atChilkat  River,  Alaska,  June,  1880,  by  Mar- 
coa  Baker. 

802.  The  Hand  Saw  fish,  Alepidomuru*  ftrox  Lowe  ..........................................................        547 

Drawing  by  H.  L.Todd.  from  No.  18028,  U.  a  National  Mosenm.  collected  atSalnt  Angnstine,  Florida.  1877,  by  Dr.  Jane- 
way,  U.  S.  N. 


XXX  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Page. 

Baird's  Alepocephalus,  Alepocephalua  Sairdii  Goode  &  Bean 548 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22468,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  on  Grand  Bank,  by  Christian  Johnson,  Schr. 
William  Thompson. 

203.  Mailer's  Scopvlns,  Scopelus  Millleri  (Gmel. )  Collett 547 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20943,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  by  F.  Mather. 

The  Snake  fish,  Trachinoceplialus  myops  (Forster)  Gill 548 

Drawing  by  L.  H.  Todd,  from  No.16951,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  1870.  by  VinalN.  Edwards. 

204.  The  Herriug,  Clupea  harengu*  L 549 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  16667,  U.  S.  Nntic  nal  Museum,  collected  at  Washington  market,  June,  1875,  by  J.  H. 
Richards. 

The  California  Herring,  Clitpea  mirabilis  Girarcl 568 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  24865,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  San  Diego,  California,  January,  1880,  by  Jor- 
dan &  Gilbert. 

205.  The  Menhaden  or  Mossbunker,  Bretoorlia  tyrannus  (Latrobe)  Goode 569 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20666,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  October  18, 1877,  by  Vinal  N. 
Edwards, 

206.  The  Gulf  Menhaden,  Brevoortia  patronus  Goode 575 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  892  A,  tr.  S.  National  llupeunv  collected  at  Brazos,  Santiago,  Texas,  by  Captain  Van 
VIeet. 

207.  The  Branch  Herring  (Female),  Clupea  rernoiig  Mitchill 579 

Drawing  Ly  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27197,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  from  Potomac  River,  March  29,  1880,  by  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

208.  The  Branch  Herring  (Male),  Clupea  rernalis  Mitchill 579 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25196,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  from  Potomac  River,  March  27,  1880,  by  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

209.  The  Glut  or  Summer  Herring  (Male),  Clitpea  aisUvaUs  Mitchill 580 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  32639,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  from  the  Washington  market,  April,  1883,  by 
H.  L.  Todd. 

210.  The  Glut  Hi-rring  (Female),  Clupea  astivalis  Mitchill 580 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd  from  No.  32640,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  obtained  at  Washington  Market,  April  21,  1883,  by  H. 
L.Tod. 

211.  The  Inland  Alewife  or  Skipjack,  Clupea  chrysocMori*  (Raf.)  J.  &  G 594 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  30159,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  atPensacola,  Florida,  by  Silas  Stearns. 

212.  The  Shad,  Clupia  uapidiseima  Wilson  (Male) 594 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd  from  No.  25096  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  March  12,  1880,  by  U.  8. 
Fish  Commission. 

213.  The  Shad,  Clupta  sapidisiima  Wilson  (Female) 594 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25095,  tr.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  March  10, 1880,  by  TJ.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

214.  Map  of  the  River  Basins  of  the  Atlantic  Slope.     By  Col.  M.  MacDonald 598 

215.  Diagram  illustrating  the  influence  of  Hydro-Thermals  in  determining  the  direction,  and  limiting  the  range 

of  the  migrations  of  the  Shad  and  Herriug  (Alewives).     By  Col.  M.  MacDonald 600 

216.  The  Hickory  Shad  or  Mattowacca,  Clupea  merfiocm  Mitch 607 

Male.    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25148,  U.  S.  National  Muscnm,  obtained  from  Potomac  River,  March  19, 1880,  by 

H.  L.  Todd. 
(Female.)    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25132,  tT.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Potomac  River,  March,  1880,  by 

Dr.T.  H.  Bean. 

217.  The  Mud  Shad  or  Gizzard  Shad,  Doromma  Cepedianum  (LeS.)  Gill 610 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20034,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Cumberland  River,  Tennessee,  May,  1877, 
by  Mi.  A.  Wlnchell. 

The  Tarpum  or  Grand-Ecaille,  Megalopt  Ihrissoides  (Schn. )  Gthr 610 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14924,  tT.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  New  Jersey,  1874,  by  E.  G.  Blackford. 

218.  The  Big-eyed  Herring,  Klops  saurus  L ---      611 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  in  17.  S.  Rational  Musi nm.  from  Massachusetts. 

The  Anchovy,  Engraulis  riltalus  Mitchill 611 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  14087,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Noank,  Connecticut,  September  21,  1874, 
by  U.  8.  Fish  Commission. 

The  Lady-fish  or  Bone  6sh,  Albula  rutpes  (L.)  Goode 612 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25962,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  three  miles  southeast  of  Eastern  Point,  New- 
port, Rhode  Inland,  August  H,  1880,  by  Captain  Rockliff,  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

219.  The  Moon-eye,  Ilyodon  tergisus  Le  Sucur         612 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  To<ld,  from  No.  8710,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  February,  1872,  by 
George  Clark. 

820.  The  Chub  Sucker,  Erimyzon  sucelta  (Lac.)  Jordan 614 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27867,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Nipporsink  Lake,  Illinois,  by  Professor  8. 

A.  I  .,i i..  - 


LIST  OK  PLATES.  xxx, 

221.  Goode'H  .Snck.-r,  /:>iwi/;<»i  tioodei  Jordan  ..................................... 

Drawing  by  Mi».  M.  Smith,  from  No.  25M»,  D.  S.  Nation:.!  Museum,  collected  at  Ogechee  Pondii.  near  Savannah  Georgia. 
M..T  .  I,  «.  1880,  by  Colonel  M.  MrDonal<l. 


.  Tim  Red  Horse,  MiifiMtniiHi  nt<iri-iilii>itlotnm  (Le  8.)  Jordan 


Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  MM,  U.  &  National  Mnneuiu,  coll.  c-ti-d  at  Ecorne,  Michigan,  February,  1872,  by  George 
C'Urk. 

The  Carp  Mullet,  Moxottoma  carpio  (Vol.)  Jordan  ................................  at  i 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10793,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collncted  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  by  J.  W.  Mllner. 

SfiT.t.  The  Montana  Sucker,  I'atiatomuii  retropinnis  Jordau  ........................................  gig 

The  Brook  Sucker  or  Common  Sucker,  Catontomun  Couiaiersoni  (Lac.)  Jortlati  ..............................  gjj 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10548,  U.  S.  National  Muiurani,  collected  at  Kcotse,  Michigan,  by  J.  W.  Mllner. 

224.  The  Black  Horse,  n/ci>y>ru«  elonyatu*  (L««  S.)  A«  .....................................................  HI6 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10790,  U.  S.  National  Muteuni,  collected  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  by  J.  W.  Milner. 

225.  The  Quill-liark,  <  ,;r/m«/i.s  r///iriHw»  (Le  8.)  Ag  ........................................  gjg 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  33073,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Havre  do  Grace,  Maryland.  June,  1882, 

by  Dr.  T.  H.  Bean. 
22*i.  The  Red  Mouth  Buftalo-fi.sh.  f<ti,,bii*  bubalat  (Raf.)  Ag  ...................................................       B16 

Drawing  by  H.  L  Todd,  from  No.  20774,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Normal,  Illiuoi*.  1877,  by  Profenor  8.  A. 
Forlx-t 

227.  The  Golden  Shiner  or  Bream,  XotemiyoHUH  chrymleucus  (Mitch.  )  Jordan  ...................................       gig 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20243,  U.  8.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Hackensack  River,  1S75.  by  Professor 

5.  F.  Bsird. 

The  Sacramento  "Pike,"  I'tgchochilut  oregonentw  (Rich.)  Grd  .............................................      glC 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  27291,  U.  S.  National  Mnaeum,  collected  at  Columbia  River.  1880,  by  Profeuor 
D.  S.  Jordan. 

228.  The  Fall-fish  or  Silver  Chub,  .Vwo(i/«s  button*  (Raf.)  Jordan  .........................................          616 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todil.  from  No.  1J359,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Balnbridge,  Pennnylvnnin,  May,  1873,  by 
Dr.  T.  H.  Bean. 

The  Horn  Dace,  Scniotilni  rorporalii  (Mitch.)  Putnam  .......................  .-.  .......................  617 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10163.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Au\  Plains  River  by  K.  Ki-nnii-ott. 

229.  The  Horn.v  Head  or  River  Chub,  Ceratichtliya  bigultalut  (Kirtland)  Girard  ................................      617 

Drawinc  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  1C969.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Bainbridge,  Pennsylvania,  1875   by  Dr 
T.  II   Bean, 

The  Orthodon  Chub,  Orlhodon  microlepidotut  (Ayres)  Girard  ..............................................      617 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27139,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Sacramento  River,  California,  1880,  by 
Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

230.  The  Leather  Carp,  Cyprinun  carpio  L.  (var.  ooriaseiu)  ....................................................       618 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25217,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  the  Carp  Ponds,  Washington  D.  C 
April  26,  1880,  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

231.  The  Gold  Fish,  Caramius  aiiratus  (L.)  Blecker  ...........................................................          0 

Drawing  by  U.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22107,  U.  a  National  Museum,  collected  at  Carp  Ponds.  Washington,  D.  C.,  January  2«, 
1878,  by  William  Palmer. 

232.  The  Channel  Catfish  of  the  Potomac,  Ictalurui  albidut  (LeS.)  J.  &.G  .....................................      628 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Twld,  from  No.  2«925,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Potomac  River,  1877,  by  Professor  D.  8. 
Jordan. 

233.  The  Bull-Head,  Amiurus  m<7n»(Raf.)  Jord.  <t  Copeland  ..................................................      628 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  1497,  D.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Am  Plains  River  by  B.  K.-i,ni.  ..t  ;. 
The  Bull-Head  or  Catfish,  Arniurut  calm  (L.)  Gill  ........................................................      088 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  33075,  U.S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Havre  de  Grace,  Maryland,  June,  1882,  by 
Dr.  T.  H.  Bean. 

834.  The  Bull-Head,  Amiuru*  rulgarii  (Thompson)  Nelson  .....................................................       ggg 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  31946.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Winnepeg,  Manitoba,  1883,  by  Historical 
and  Scientific  Society. 

235.  The  Gaff  Topsail  Cattish.  .Klurii-lirhy*  mariiiut  (Mitch.)  B.  &  G  .........................................      628 

Draw-in-:  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10422.  U.  S.  National  Must-urn,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1871,  by 
Professor  S.  F.  Baird. 

236.  The  Salt  Water  Cattish,  Anus  felii  (L.)  J.  &  G  ..........................................................      62!) 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21487,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pcnsacola,  Florida,  1878,  by  Silas  Sfeama. 

237.  The  Spotted  Moray,  Gymnotliorat  rnorinya  (Cuv.)Goode  &  Ifcan  ..........................................      629 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  6994,  V.  S.  National  Mum-urn,  collected  at  Garden  Key,  Florida. 

838.  The  Spiny-back  Eel,   l'iili<  lilh,i*  C.oodti  Bean  ............................................................          0 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  26619,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ilinliuk,  Alaska,  July  28,  1880.  by  Dall 

6.  Bean. 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Page. 
239.  The  Common  Eel,  Aaguilla  rulgaris  Turton 630 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  20470,  U.  S.  National  Masenm,  collected  at  Holyoke,  Massachusetts,  1876,  by  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

S40.  The  Conger  Sea  Eel,  Leptocephalus  conger  (L.)  J.&  G 656 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  16027,  0.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Noank,  Connecticut,  October  10,  1874,  by 
J.  H.  Latham. 

241.  The  Bowtin  or  Mudfish,  Amia  calta  L 659 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  6702,  U.  S.  National  Musenm. 

The  Short-nosed  Gar  Pike.  Lepidosteus  plaiystomus  Rat'  664 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  3241,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  by  Professor  S.  F.  Baird. 

542.  The  Paddle-fish,  Polgodon  spatula  (Walb.)  J.  &G 660 

Under  view.    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  12235,  U.  S.  Notional  Museum,  collected  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  by  J.  W. 

Milner. 

Side  view.    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  12235,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  by  J.  W. 
Milner. 

243.  The  Common  Sturgeon,  Acipenser  sturio  L.  (=  A.  oxijrhtjnchus) 660 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22495,  IT.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  in  Potomac  River  by  William  Woltz. 

The  Short-nosed  Sturgeon,  Acipenstr  breviroatris  Le  Snenr 660 

Drawn  from  a  photograph  of  a  specimen  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1871. 

•244.  The  Lake  Sturgeon,  Acipenser  rubicundits  Le  Sueur 661 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10252,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  by  J.  W.  Milner. 

The  Shovel-nose  Sturgeon,  Scaphirhi/nchops platyrhynchtis  (Raf.)  Gill 663 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22159,  U.  S.  National  Musenm,  collected  at  Mount  Carmel,  Illinois,  1878,  by  Robert 
Ridgway. 

245.  The  Southern  Sting  Ray,  Trt/gon  sabina  Le  Sueur 665 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  31043,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Galveston,  Texas,  by  Professor  D.  S. 
Jordan. 

^46.  The  Barn-door  Skate,  Jft»V»fari«MitchiH 667 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21577,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  October,  1878, 
by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

•247.  The  Torpedo,  Torpedo  occidentalis  Storer 667 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  cast  of  specimen  in  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  M:t»-:«-hn»rtt«, 
1871,  by  U.  8.  Fish  Commission. 

-248.  The  Sawfish,  Pristis  pectinatue  Latham 668 

(Side  view.)    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  30678,  U.  S.  National  Musenm,  collected  nt  Pensacola,  Florida,  by  Silas 

Stearns. 

(Under  view.)    Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  30678,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  by 
Silas  Steam*. 

249.  The  Basking  Shark  or  Bone  Shark,  Cetorhinus  maxima*  (L.)  Blainville 668 

Copied  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  Plat*  6,  Annales  du  Mnsee  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Vol.  18. 

The  Mackerel  Shark,  Lamna  cornubica  (Gmel.)  Fleming 670 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  27368,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Santa  Cruz,  California,  1880,  by  Jordan 
&.  Gilbert. 

•250.  The  Thrasher  Shark.  Alopias  vulpes  (Gmel.)  Bonap 672 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  25962,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Eastern  Point,  Newport,  Rhode  Island, 
August  11,  1880,  by  Captain  Rockliff. 

The  Horned  Dogfish,  Sqitalu*  acanthias  L 673 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  22316,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  1878,  by  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission. 

The  Tope,  or  Oil  Shark,  Galeorhinus  galena  (L.)  Blainville   676 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  26973,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Monterey,  California,  1880,  by  Jordan  & 
Gilbert. 

-251.  The  Sea  Lamprey,  Pelromijzon  marinm  L 677 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  10654,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  by  Vinal  N. 
Edwards. 

The  Alaska  Brook  Lamprey ,  A  mnwc  rtes   aureim  Beau 0 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  21524,  U.  S.  National  Musenm,  collected  at  Yukon  River,  Alaska,  by  L.  M.  Turner. 

•252.  The  Slime  Eel  or  Hag,  Mi/xine  glutinom  L  681 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  23466,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  collected  at  sea,  by  Captain  R.  L.  Morrison. 

•253.  The  Short-finned  Squid,  Ommastrephes  illecfbrotitt  (Le  8.)  Verrill 687 

Drawing  of  young  male  from  Provincetown,  Massachusetts. 

The  Giant  Squid,  Ardiiteiitliis  princeps  Verrill   687 

Drawing  by  Professor  A.  E.  Verrill,  from  specimen  obtained  at  Fortune  Buy,  Newfoundland,  December,  1874. 

Common  Squid,  Loligo  1-ealti  (Le8.) 687 

Drawing  of  female  from  Vineyard  Sound,  MnsaachtuelU 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  XXXJii 


854.  Sea  SnailH,  Periwinkles,  Drills,  ami  Borers 099 

Fie.    1.   I. mnitia  herot.     Se«>  Uepori  I  .  S.  l'i-li  Commission.     I';irt  I,  p. 700. 

I'n:.   •_'.   I'lir/iura  Iniiilliii.     See  Keport  U.  8.  Fish  Commission.     Part  I,  p.  698. 

Kit!.    :!.    r<iri>ur<i  l<ti>illu*.  bamicd  variety. 

lit..    I.   .\in-iiln  iliijiliiiila.     See  KYport  I".  S.  I 'ish  Commission.     Parti,  p.  700. 

In,.   ."..   lli/anan»aobuoleta.    See  Bcport  U.  S.  Fish  Commission.     Partl,p.696. 

l'n;.    i'.     I'filiii  Iririllalii. 

1'iii.   7.  The  Whelk,  Hun-iHum  undatum.     See  Report  U.  8.  Fish  Commission.     Parti,  p.C99. 

1'iii.   f.  The  Periwinkle,  Fulgrr  carica.    See  Report  U.  8.  Fiuli  Commission.     Part  I,  p.  (594. 

FIG.   9.  AnlyrittoHiilii. 

FlO.  Id.   .l-tiiri*  In  mil, i. 

Km.  11.  Kitnoa  aciileatiii. 

I'm.  12.  The  Drill  or  Borer,  Uronalpinx  cinerta,  p.  697. 

855.  ViiiioiiM  speeies  of  r  hi  HIM 703 

FlO.  1.    .lii'inlun  /CHIT. 

A  i.hmil  reduced  ono-bnlf.    8e«  Report  17.  S.  FUh  Commission.    Part  I,  p.  877. 

FIG.  2.  The  Long  Clam,  Soft  Clam,  or  Mnnninnsr,  Mya  arenaria. 

With  amin:il  in  extrusion,  reduced  to  one-half  the  natural  ilze. 

FIG.  3.   Tagelus  gilbu*. 

With  animal,  the  siphon  not  fully  extended.    One-half  natural  size.    See  Keport  U.  S.  Fiah  Commission.    Parti,  p.  875. 

FlO.  4.  The  Razor  Clam,  Entatctla  amrricana.     See  Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission.    Port  I,  p.  707. 

With  animal  extended.    One-half  natural  sise. 
FIG.  5.  Shows  some  of  the  terminal  papilla-  enlarged. 

FiG.C.  The  Razor  Clam,  Ensatella  americana. 

Shrll     Natural  size. 
FIG.  7.  The  Ship  Worm,  Teredo  narali$. 

Enlarged  two  diameters. 
FlG.  8.  The  Scallop,  Pecten  irradians.     See  Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission.     Part  I,  p.  709. 

Natural  aize. 
FlG.  9.  The  Bloody  Clam,  Argina  pexata. 

-Natural  «ize. 

256.  Various  species  of  clams 703 

FIG.  1.  The  Qnahang  or  Little-necked  Clam,  Venus  mercenaria. 

Natural  aize. 
FlG.  2.  The  Quahaug  of  Puget  Sound,  Saxidomut  Nuttalli. 

Natural  size  of  large  specimen.    Drawn  by  ,T.  II.  Euierlon. 
FIG.  a.  The  Gaper  Clam  of  the  West  Coast,  Schizotharut  \ultalli  (Conrad). 

(I.)  Specimeu  of  ordinary  size,  reduced  about  one-fourth  in  hnglb.    The  siphon*  are  somewhat  contracted ;  the  foot  (F) 

expands  about  aa  usual. 
(II.)  Outline  of  the  left  valve  of  a  larger  specimen,  reduced  to  the  same  extent.    Drawn  from  nature  by  K.  E.  C.  Stearns. 

257.  TheGeoduck,  or  Giant  Clam  of  the  Pacific,  Glycimerii  generota 70S 

Natural  size;  specimens  with  siphons  partly  contracted;  weight  when  alive,  6J  pounds.    Drawn  by  K.  E.  C.  Stearni. 

258.  Mussels  and  Sea  Clams • '09 

FlG.  1.  The  Beach  Clam  or  Hen  Clam,  Spisula  tolidunintn.    See  Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission.    Parti,  p.  708. 

Natural  size. 

FlG.  2.  The  Sea  Clam,  Cyprtna  Mandica. 

Natural  size. 

FlO.  3.  The  Black  Mussel,  Mytilus  edulis.     See  Report  U.  8.  Fish  Commission.     Port  I,  p.  709. 
FIG.  4.  The  Black  HOI-M-  Mussel,  Modiola  tiiyra. 

FlG.  5.  The  Rough  Mnssrl,  .Vodiola  plicatula.     See  Report  U.  8.  Fish  Commission.     Part  I,  p.  709. 
FIG.  6.  The  Ho:-*-  Mussel.  Mndiuli  maiJiotitt.    See  Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission.    Part  I,  p.  709. 

259.  The  anatomy  of  the  oyster.     (See  opposite  page  for  full  explanation) 711 

260.  FIG.  1.  The  Rock  Crab,  Cancer  trroralus  Say ;  male  one-half  natural  size 766 

FIG.  2.  Zoea  of  the  same,  in  tbo  Inst  stage  hefore  it  changes  to  the  megalops  condition;  lateral  view, 

enlarged  seventeen  diameters. 
FIG.  3.  Megalops  stage  of  the  same,  just  after  the  change  from  the  zoe'a  condition;  dorsal  view,  enlarged 

thirteen  diameters. 

FlO.  4.  The  Jonah  Crab,  Cancer  lorealis  Stimpson ;  male,  two-thirds  natural  size 769 

FIGS.  5,  6.  Terminal  joints  of  the  big  claws  of  the  same,  viewed  from  the  outer  side,  natural  size. 
Drawings  by  J.  H.  Emerton. 

261.  The  Common  Crab  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  Cancer  ntagitter  Dana;  male,  somewhat  smaller  than  natural  size. .      770 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd.  from  No.  2533,  TT.  S.  National  Museum.    California,  William  Stimpson. 


XXXIV  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

262.  The  Red  Crab,  Cancer  producing  Randall;  male,  natural  size 771 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  2529,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum.     San  Francisco,  California,  H.  Homphill. 

263.  The  California  Rock  Crab,  Cancer  anfeimariw)  Stimpsou  ;  natural  size 771 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  2033,  U.  S.  National  Museum.    California,  William  Stimpson. 

264.  The  Stone  Crab,  Mrvippe  mcrcenarius  Gibbes;  male,  about  four -ti fibs  the  natural  size 772 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todcl,  from  specimen  obtained  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

265.  The  Green  Crab,  Cardans  mceiia*  Leach ;  slightly  enlarged 774 

Drawing  by  J.  II.  Enierton,  from  specimen  obtained  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  1882. 

26G.  The  Lady  Crab,  Plati/onifliiis  orelJaliis  Latrcille  ;  abont  one-third  Inrger  than  natural  size 774 

Drawing  by  J.  II.  Emerton,  from  specimen  obtained  :it  Wnotl'H  Holl.  Masvai-buRi-tts,  1?82. 

267.  The  Coiuninn  Edible  or  Blue  Crab  Culliiiecie*  liastalus  Onhvay ;  male,  somewhat  smaller  than  natural  size.       775 

Drawing  by  J.  H.  Einei  ton,  from  specimen  obtained  at  Wood's  Hull,  Massachusetts,  1882. 

268.  The  Kelp  Crab,  Epialtus  producing  Randall;  female,  natural  size 778 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  2139,  TJ.  S.  National  Museum.    Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  Dr.  Suckley. 

269.  FIG.  1.  The  Fiddler  Crab,  Gelasimits  pui/ilator  Latreille;  male,  slightly  enlarged 763 

FIG.  2.  The  O.\  ster  Crab,  Pinnotheres  ostreiim  Say ;  male,  enlarged  four  diametn-s 765 

FIG.  3.  Thr  Mud  Crab,  Panoiieus  depressae  Smith;  male,  natural  size 772 

FIGS.  4,  ;">.  The  Spider  Crabs.     Fig.  4,  Libiiiia  emaryinata  Leach;  male.     Fig.  5,  Libinia  dubia  Edwards; 

male.     Boih  three-fourths  natural  size 778 

FIG.  6.  The  Sand  Bug  or  Bait  Bng,  Hippa  tal/iaida  Say  ;  enlarged  about  two  diameters 779 

FiG.  7.  The  Hermit  Crab,  Eu/iagurns  bernliardus  Brandt;  about  natural  size 7HO 

Diawings  by  J.  H.  Enierton. 

270.  The  Spiny  Lobster  or  Rock  Lobster,  Painilirtis  interruptiis  Randall;  somewhat  smaller  than  natural  size...  780 

Drawing  by  H.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  obtained  on  the  coast  of  California. 

271.  The  American  Lobster,  Uomarus  americanus  Edwards;  male,  much  below  natural  size 781 

Drawing  by  .1.  H.  Enierton,  from  specimen  obtained  at  Eastport,  Maine,  1882. 

272.  The  River  Cray-fish,  Cambarus  affini*  Erichsou  ;  one  and  one-half  times  t  he  natural  size 812 

Drawing  by  II.  L.  Todd,  from  specimen  obtained  at  Havre  de  Grace,  Maryland. 

273.  The  Southern  Shrimp,  Penceus  neliferus  Edw  ards;  about  one-fifth  larger  than  natural  size 821 

Drawing  by  J.  11.  Enierton,  from  specimen  obtained  on  the  coast  of  Louisiana. 

274.  The  Mantis  Shrimp,  Sqiiilla  empiwa  Say;  natural  size 823 

Drawing  by  U.  L.  Todd,  from  No.  3752,  U.  S.  National  Museum.    Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  V.  N.  Edwards. 

275.  FIG.  1.  The  Common  Shrimp,  Crangon  vulgaris  Fabr.  ;  male,  natural  size 816 

FIG.  '2.  The  Common  Prawn,  Palcemonetes  vulgaris  Stirapson  ;  mule,  enlarged  one  and  one-half  diameters. 

FIG.  3.  The  Deep  water  Prawn,  Pandalui  Monlagui  Leach ;  slightly  smaller  than  natural  size. 
FIG. 4.  The  Beach-Flea,  Oi'die*tia  agllis  Smith;  male,  enlarged  live  diameters. 
FIG.  5.  The  Scud,  Gammarus  locusta  Gou'd;  male,  enlarged  two  diameters. 
FIG.  6.  The  Boring  AmpUpod,  Che lura  lertbrans  Phillipi ;  enlarged  about  fourteen  diameters. 
FIG. 7.  The  Gribble,  Limiioria  HyiiorHm  White;  enlarged  ten  diameters. 
FIG.  8.  The  Salvo  Bug,  Mtju.  psora  Kroyer;  young  specimen,  enlarged  three  diameters. 
FIG. 9.  The  Horse-Shoe  Crab,  Limulus  Polyphemus  Latreille;    much  smaller  than  natural  size. 
Drawings  by  J.  H.  Enierton,  S.  L  Smith,  aud  O.  Harger. 

276.  Marine  Annelids,  used  as  bait » —  - 832 

FIGS.  1,2,3.  Mereis  pelaglca  Limie".     Fig.  1,  larger  figure,  female;  smaller,  male;  natura)  size.     Fig;2,  head. 

Fig.  3,  proboscis,  enlarged. 

FiG.  4.  N<rtis  limbata  EhletB;  male,  anterior  part  of  body,  head,  and  extended  proboscis,  enlarged. 
FlGS.  5, 6.  Diopatra  cuprea  Clapare'de.     Fig.  5,  head  and  anterior  part  of  hotly,  showing  part  of  the  branchiae, 

side  view.     Fig.  6,  ventral  view,  showing  the  mouth  open  and  jaws  thrown  back,  enlarged. 
FIGS.  7, 8, 9.  Clymenella  torquata  Vcrrill.     Fig.  7,  entire  animal,  side  view,  natural  size.     Fig.  8,  head  and 

extended  proboscis,  front  view,  enlarged.     Fig.  9,  posterior  aud  caudal  segments,  dorsal  view, 

enlarged. 
Drawings  mostly  by  J.  H.  Enierton. 

277.  FiG.l.  The  Sea-Cucumber,  Pentactn  frondona  Jaeger;  much  smaller  than  natural  size 840 

FIG.  2.  The  Green  Sea  Urchin,  Stronyyloccnlrotus  Drb'baMensis  A.  Ag. ;  side  view,  much  smaller  than  natural 

size. 
FIG. 3.  The  Sand  Dollar,  Kcbinarachnitm  parma  Gray;    upper  surface,  with  the  spines  mostly  removed, 

natural  size;  a,  ambulacra!  zones;  b,  inter-ambulacra!  zones. 

FiG. 4.  The  siai--li-.li  or  "Five  Finger,"  Aslerias  Forbesii  Yen-ill ;  much  smaller  than  natural  size. 
FlOS.5,6, 7.  The  Jelly  Fishes.     Fig.  5,  Zyriodactyla  Gramlandica  Agassis;  profile  view,  one-half  natural  size. 

Fig.  6,  Aurelia  flavidula  Peron  and  Le  Sneur;  dorsal  view,  about  one-fourth  natural  size.     Fig.  7, 

Dactylometra  quinquecirra  Agassiz  ;  lateral  view,  one-fourth  natural  size. 


MAMMALS. 


A.  —THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES BY  G.  BKOWN  GOODK. 

B.  — THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES BY  JOEL  A.  ALLEN. 

C.— THE  HABITS  OF  THE  FUR-SEAL BY  HENBY  W.  ELLIOTT. 

D  —THE  MANATEES  AND  THE  ARCTJC  SEA-COW... BY  FREDERICK  W.  TRUE. 


(3) 


ANALYSIS. 


A.—  TUB  WnAi.r.8  AND  PORPOISES  : 

1.  The  Sperm  Whale  ...............................................................................  7 

2.  The  Blackfishes  or  Pilot   Whales  .................................................................  11 

3.  The  (ininipusM  or  Cowfialics  ...............................................  .  .....................  13 

4.  Tln>  Ilarlmr  Porpoises  or  Herring  Hogs  ...........................................................  14 

r..  Tim  Dolphins  ...................................................................................  10 

ii.  Tin-  KilliT  Whales  or  Orcas  ......................................................................  17 

7.  Th<-  Sperm  Whalo  Porpoise  ......................................................................  18 

8.  The  While  \\lialcorl3cluga  .....................................................................  1» 

9.  The  Narwhal  ....................................................................................  19 

10.  The  Greenland,  Bowheatl,  Or  Polar  Whale  .......................................................  20 

11.  The  Ki-ht  Whales  ..............................................................................  24 

12.  The  Humpback  Whales  ...........  ...............................................................  2tt 

13.  The  Sulphur  Hoi  torn  Whales  .....................................................................  -fl 

14.  The  Finback  Whales  ............................................................................  28 

15.  The  Si-  ra;;  W  hales  ...............................................................................  :tO 

1C.  The  California  Gray  Whales  .....................................................................  31 

B.  —  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES  : 

17.  The  Seal  tribe  in  general  ........................................................................  33 

18.  The  Walruses  ...................................................................................  34 

19.  The  Sea  Lions  and  Fur  Seals  in  general  ..........................................................  37 

20.  The  Sea  Lion  ....................................................................................  38 

21.  The  California  Sea  Lion  .........................................................................  44 

22.  The  Fur  .Seal  .......................................  .  ............................................  49 

23.  The  Harbor  Seal  ................................   ...............................................  55 

24.  The  Harp  Seal  ..................................................................................  62 

25.  The  Kinged  Seal  .................................................................................  GC> 

26.  The  Ribbon  Seal  ................................................................................  67 

27.  The  West  Indian  Seal  ...........................................................................  67 

28.  The  Hooded  Seal  ................................................................................  68 

29.  The  California  Sea  Elephant  .....................................................................  72 

C.—  THE  HABITS  OF  THB  FUR-SEAL: 

30.  A  life  history  of  the  Fur-Seal  ....................................................................  7."> 

D.—  THE  MANATEES  AND  THE  SEA-COW: 

31.  The  Manatees  ...................................................................................  114 

32.  The  Arctic  Sea-cow  .............................................................................  128 

6 


THE  FISHERIES  AND  FISHERY  INDUSTRIES  OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 


M 


A.— THE    WHALES    AND    PORPOISES. 

1.  THE  SPERM  WHALE. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  Sperm  Whale,  I'liyneter  macrocephalug  Linn.,  was  first  described  by 
•Clusius  in  1605  from  specimens  cast  up  on  the  coast  of  Holland  in  1598  and  1601.  It  is  the  Cachalot 
of  the  French,  the  Pottfisch  of  the  Germans,  Potvisch  or  Kazilot  of  Holland,  Kaskelot  or  Potfl.sk 
of  Scandinavia,  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  cetaceans.  Sperm  Whales  occur  in  every  ocean,  and 
though  preferring  warmer  waters,  are  to  be  found  at  times  close  to  the  limits  of  the  arctic  regions. 
In  the  Pacific  they  have  been  taken  off  Cape  Ommany,  Alaska,  latitude  50°  12',  and  in  the  Atlantic 
as  far  north  as  Scotland  ami  Orkney,  and  perhaps  even  Greenland.  In  both  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
they  range  below  the  southern  tips  of  the  continents  and  are  believed  to  pass  freely  from  ocean  to 
ocean,  around  Cape  Horn,  though  they  are  said  never  to  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Murray 
states  that  they  have  been  seen  and  captured  in  almost  every  part  of  the  ocean  between  latitude 
60°  south  and  60°  north.  He  mentions  that  they  have  been  recorded  as  found  off  the  north  of 
Scotland  but  no  further,  though  he  gives  some  credence  to  ancient  authors  who  mentioned  their 
having  been  seen  off  Greenland. 

Beale,  writing  in  1836,'  gave  a  list  of  their  favorite  resorts.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the 
range  of  the  species  as  then  understood  with  their  present  range  as  indicated  by  the  locations,  and 
this  comparison  has  been  carefully  made  by  Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark,  in  the  chapter  on  THE  WIIALK 
FISHERY,  in  a  subsequent  section  of  this  repoit.  In  discussing  the  facts  before  him,  Murray* 
expresses  the  opinion  that  almost  every  place  which  has  been  mentioned  as  a  favorite  resort  of  the 
Sperm  Whales,  although  out  of  soundings,  has  claims  to  be  considered  the  site  of  submerged  lands. 
The  islands  of  Polynesia,  which  are  their  special  feeding  ground,  are  the  beacons  left  by  the  sub- 
merged Pacific  continent.  "  They  are  also  to  be  seen,"  he  continues,  "about  the  equinoctial  line  in 
[li<-  Atlantic  Ocean,  but  they  would  seem  to  be  either  straggling  'schools'  which  have  rounded 
Cape  Horn,  or  un prospering  colonies.  It  is  from  these  that  the  specimens  which  have  been  O<T.I- 
sioually  met  with  in  the  North  Atlantic  or  in  the  English  seas  have  wandered.  They  have  been 
now  and  then  cast  ashore,  and  then  they  are  usually  in  an  emaciated  condition.  They  seem  to  be 
unprepared  for,  or  not  to  be  adapted  for,  shallow  seas.  Accustomed  (perhaps  not  individually,  but 


'1836.  BKAI.K,  THOMAS:  Natural  History  of  the  Sperm  Whale.     London,  1836,  p.  180. 
'1866.  MUKKAY,  ANDREW:  The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Mammals.     London,  1066,  p. 


(7) 


8  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

by  hereditary  practice  or  instinct)  to  swim  along  the  coral  islands  of  the  Pacific,  within  a  stone's 
throw  of  the  shore,  they  cannot  understand,  their  instinct  is  not  prepared  to  meet,  shallow  coasts 
and  projecting  headlands." 

Murray's  views,  though  suggestive,  are,  perhaps,  not  entirely  well  founded.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  i'avorite  haunts  of  the  species  have  always  been  in  the  warmer  seas,  within  or 
upon  the  verge  of  the  tropics. 

ABUNDANCE  IN  FORMER  DAYS  ON  THE  COAST  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. — There  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  Sperm  Whales  were  at  one  time,  nearly  two  centuries  back,  as  abundant  in  the 
North  Atlantic  as  iu  more  recent  years  in  the  North  Pacific.  The  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
whale  fishery  since  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  Americau  vessels  has  had  much  to 
do  with  their  present  scarcity.  The  traditions  of  the  American  whale  fishery  all  poiut  to  their  con- 
siderable abundance  near  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Macy,  the  historian  of  Nantucket,  narrates  that  the  first  Sperm  Whale  known  to  that  settle- 
ment was  found  dead  and  ashore  on  the  southwest  part  of  the  island,  and  that  the  first  taken  by 
Nantucket  whalemen  was  captured  about  the  year  1712  by  Christopher  Hussey,  who,  "  cruising 
near  the  shore  for  Eight  Whales,  was  blown  ofi'  some  distance  from  the  land  by  a  strong  northerly 
wind,  where  he  fell  in  with  a  school  of  that  species  of  whale,  and  killed  one  and  brought  it  home."1 
That  Sperm  Whales  cannot  at  that  time  have  been  rare  near  the  shore,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  the  Nautucket  Sperm  Whale  fleet  which  was  then  fitted  out,  and  which  three  years  later 
consisted  of  six  sloops,  producing  oil  to  the  value  of  $5,500  annually,  were  usually  absent  only 
six  weeks,  during  which  time  they  procured  the  blubber  of  one  or  two  whales.2  The  Boston 
"News  Letter"  of  October  2,  17CG,  stated:  "Since  our  last  a  Number  of  Vessels  have  arrived  from 
Whaling.  They  have  not  been  successful  generally.  One  of  them  viz:  Capt.  Clark  on  Thursday 
morning  last  discovered  a  Spermaceti  Whale  near  George's  Banks,  mann'd  his  Boat,  and  gave  Chase 
to  her  &  she  coming  up  with  her  Jaws  against  the  Bow  of  the  Boat  struck  it  with  such  Violence 
that  it  threw  a  son  of  the  Captain  (who  was  forward,  ready  with  his  Lance)  a  considerable  Height 
from  the  Boat,  and  when  he  fell  the  Whale  turned  with  her  devouring  Jaws  opened,  and  caught 
him.  He  was  heard  to  scream,  when  she  closed  her  Jaws,  and  part  of  his  Body  was  seen  out  of 
her  Mouth  when  she  turned  and  went  off."3 

The  log  of  the  whaling  sloop  "Betsey,"  of  Dartmouth,  records  that  on  August  2,  1761,  her 
crew  saw  two  Sperm  Whales  and  killed  one  in  latitude  45°  54',  longitude  53°  57':  this  woulu  be  in 
the  gully  between  the  Grand  Bank  and  Green  Bank,  about  fifty  miles  west  of  Whale  Deep,  in  the 
Grand  Bank,  and  sixty  miles  south  of  the  entrance  to  St.  Mary  Bay,  Newfoundland.  August  9,  this 
vessel  and  her  consort  killed  two  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  Grand  Bank  in  latitude  42°  57'.  In 
1822  Captain  Atwood  was  on  the  "Laurel,"  of  Provincetown,  which  took  a  Sperm  Whale  ou  the 
sixth  day  out,  on  the  course  to  the  Azores,  just  east  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  aud  less  than  500  miles 
from  Cape  Cod.  The  nearest  grounds  upon  which  Sperm  Whales  now  regularly  occur  are  those  to 
the  north  and  east  of  Cape  Hatteras,  the  "Hatteras  Ground,"  and  a  ground  farther  south  known  as 
the  "Charleston  Ground."  The  last  one  observed  on  the  New  England  coast  was  very  young,  only 
sixteen  feet  long,  and  was  taken  near  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  March  29,  1842.4 

In  Douglass'  "North  America,"  published  in  1755,  it  is  stated  that  Spermaceti  Whales  -'are  to 
be  found  almost  everywhere,  but  are  most  plenty  upon  the  coast  of  Virginia  and  Carolina." 

1  MACY,  ZACCHEUS  :  History  of  Nautucket,  p.  36. 

•STARBUCK,  ALEXANDER:  in  Report  U.  8.  l"i»h  Commission,  part  iv,  1878,  p.  SO. 

"STARBUCK,  Op.  oil.,  p.  46-47. 

'1845.  JACKSON,  J.  B.  8. :  Boston  Journ.  Nat.  Hist.,  1845,  p.  138,  pi.  16,  fig.  1  (the  stomach). 


SPEI.'M   WHALES— ABUNDANCE  AND  HABITS.  9 

A  Spi-rni  Whale  ciiiiu1  ashore  in  KJ08  in  Casco  Bay,  and  the  circumstance  seems  not  to  Lave 
been  regarded  as  unusual  in  those  days.' 

A  person  writing  in  17 II  discourses  us  follows:  "Some  Years  since,  there  stranded  on  the 
Coast  of  New  England  a  dead  Whale,  of  the  Sort  which,  in  the  Fishers  Language,  is  called  TruuijK), 
having  Teetli  like  those  ol  a  Mill;  ii's  Month  at  a  good  Distance  from  and  under  the  Nose,  and 
several  Partitions  in  the  Nose,  out  of  which  ran  a  thin  oily  Substance  that  candy'd,  the  Remainder 
being  a  thick  fat  Substance,  being  scraped  out,  was  said  to  be  the  Speruia  Ceti;  it  was  said  so,  and 
I  believe  that  was  all.  Whales  were  often  caught  formerly  between  New-England  and  New-York, 
and  if  the  Sperma  Ceti  had  really  been  in  the  Noseof  that,  it  must  have  been  more  common,  and 
more  cheap,  than  Experience  tells  us,  it  has  been  even  since  this  Discovery,  and  at  this  present 
time.  As  to  the  Whale  Fishery,  'tis  now  almost  as  much  a  Rarity  in  New  as  Old  England;  the 
Fishery  ol  did  is  at  this  time  very  groat  here,  tho'  still  far  short  of  that  of  Newfoundland."2 

OCCURRENCE  ON  THK  COAST  OF  EUROPE. — In  the  Eastern  Atlantic,  also,  the  occurrence  of 
this  species  has  been  by  no  means  unusual.  Fleming,  in  "British  Animals,"  1828,  states  that  "the 
Spermaceti  Whale  often  comes  ashore  in  Orkney."3  In  1788,  twelve  males  ran  ashore  in  the  Eng- 
lish Channel.4  Other  instances  of  their  stranding  on  the  English  coast  occurred  in  February,  168i>,5 
17'.C>,6  176C,1  February  16,  1829,"  in  1825,9  and  18G3,10  while  others  were  obtained  on  the  coast  of 
Brittany  in  1784,"  and  in  the  .Mediterranean,  at  St.  Nazaire,  in  185G,12  and  on  other  occasions  for 
which  dates  are  not  given. 

OCCURRENCE  ON  TIIK  CALIFORNIA  COAST. — Although  Sperm  Whales  have  occasionally  been 
taken  oil'  the  California  coast  for  the  past  thirty  years,  it  would  appear  that  few  have  been  seen  in 
those  waters  since  1874.  Captain  Scammon  has  cited  in  his  book  no  instances  ot  individuals  per- 
sonally observed  by  him. 

SIZE  AND  COLOR. — The  sexes  differ  greatly  in  size  and  form,  the  female  being  slenderer  and 
from  one-fifth  (Beale)  to  one-third  or  one-fourth  (Scauiuion)  as  large  as  the  male.  The  largest 
males  measure  from  eighty  to  eighty-four  feet  in  length,  the  head  making  up  about  one-third  of  the 
whole.  In  the  head  is  the  cavity  known  as  the  "case,"  from  which  is  obtained  the  spermaceti  and 
a  quantity  of  oil.  The  youngest  Sperm  Whale  on  record  is  the  one  measuring  sixteen  feet,  already 
mentioned  as  having  been  taken  near  New  Bedford  in  1842;  its  weight  was  3,053  pounds. 

The  Sperm  Whale  is  black  or  brownish-black,  lighter  on  the  sides,  gray  on  the  breast.  When 
old  it  is  gray  about  the  nose  and  top  of  the  head. 

HABITS  OF  ASSOCIATION,  MOTION,  BLOWING,  ETC. — Sperm  Whales  are  gregarious  and  are 
often  seen  in  large  schools,  which  are,  according  to  Beale,  of  two  kinds,  (1)  of  females  accompanied 
by  the  young  and  one  or  two  adult  males,  (2)  of  the  young  and  half-grown  males;  the  adult  males 
always  go  singly.  Their  manner  of  motion  is  well  described  by  Scammon  as  follows: 

1  In  1663  a  Spermaceti  Whale  of  55  foot  long  was  cast  up  in  Winter  Harbor,  near  Casco  Bay.  The  like  hath  hap- 
pened in  other  places  of  the  country  at  several  times,  when,  for  want  of  skill  to  improve  it,  much  gaiii  hath  slipped 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  Bnders.—  Hnbbard's  History  of  New  England,  From  the  Discovery  to  1680.  Boston,  1846,  p.  642. 

'Britinh  Empire  in  America.     London,  1741,  vol.  i,  pp.  188-189. 

'FLEMING:  British  Animals,  1828,  p.  29. 

Mi  HAY:  Catalogue  of  Seals  and  Whales,  1866,  p.  203. 

»SIBBALD:  Phalainologia,  177:?,  p.  3:5,  pi.  1. 

«Moi.Y.\i:r.\:  Phil.  Trans.,  xix,  1795,  p.  508. 

'Kl'TTY:  fide  Gray,  op.  cit. 
HINTKH  anil  WOODS:  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii,  1829,  p.  197. 

•THOMPSON:  Ma-.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii,  1827,  p.  477. 

'"GRAY:  op.  cit.,  p.  204. 
T.I  \is\  n  i  i  :  Ann.  fr.  et  err.  d'Anatomie  et  de  Physiologic,  ii,  p.  235. 

"GKKVAls:  Comptes-Rendus,  1864,  p.  876. 


10  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"Among  the  whole  order  of  cetaceans  there  is  none  which  respires  with  the  same  regularity  as 
the  Cachalot.  When  emerging  to  the  surface,  the  first  portion  of  the  animal  seen  is  the  region  of 
the  hump ;  then  it  raises  its  head,  and  respires  slowly  for  the  space  of  about  three  seconds,  sending 
forth  diagonally  a  volume  of  whitish  vapor  like  an  escape  of  steam;  this  is  called  the  '  spout,'  which, 
in  ordinary  weather,  may  be  seen  from  the  mast-head  at  a  distance  of  three  to  five  miles.  In  respir- 
ing at  its  leisure,  the  animal  sometimes  makes  no  headway  through  the  water;  at  other  times  it  moves 
quietly  along  at  the  rate  of  about  two  or  three  miles  an  hour;  or  if '  making  a  passage'  from  one  feed- 
ing ground  to  another,  it  may  accelerate  its  velocity.  When  in  progressive  motion,  after '  blowing,' 
hardly  an  instant  is  required  for  inspiration,  when  the  animal  dips  its  head  a  little,  and  moment- 
arily disappears;  then  it  rises  again  to  blow  as  before,  each  respiration  being  made  with  great 
regularity.  »  •  *  *  With  the  largest  bulls,  the  time  occupied  iu  performing  one  inspiration  is 
from  ten  to  twelve  seconds,  and  the  animal  will  generally  blow  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  times  at 
a  rising,  remaining  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea  about  twelve  minutes.  As  soon  as  'his  spontiugs 
are  out'  he  pitches  headforemost  downwards;  theu  'rounding  out,'  turns  his  flukes  high  in  the  air, 
and,  when  gaining  nearly  a  perpendicular  attitude,  descends  to  a  great  depth,  and  there  remains 
from  fifteen  minutes  to  an  hour  and  a  quarter. 

"  When  the  Cachalot  becomes  alarmed  or  is  sporting  in  the  ocean,  its  actions  are  widely 
different.  If  frightened,  it  has  the  faculty  of  instantly  sinking,  although  nearly  in  a  horizontal 
attitude.  When  merely  startled,  it  will  frequently  assume  a  perpendicular  position,  with  the 
greater  portion  of  its  head  above  water,  to  look  and  listen ;  or,  when  lying  on  the  surface,  it  will 
sweep  around  from  side  to  side  with  its  flukes  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  object  within 
reach.  At  other  times,  when  at  play,  it  will  elevate  its  flukes  high  iu  the  air,  then  strike  them 
down  with  great  force,  which  raises  the  water  into  spray  and  foam  about  it;  this  is  termed  'lob- 
tailing.'  Oftentimes  it  descends  a  few  fathoms  beneath  the  waves;  then,  giving  a  powerful  shoot 
nearly  out  of  the  water,  at  an  angle  of  45°  or  less,  falls  on  its  side,  coming  down  with  a  heavy 
splash,  producing  a  pyramid  of  foam  which  may  be  seen  from  the  masthead  on  a  clear  day,  at 
least  ten  miles,  and  is  of  great  advantage  to  the  whaler  when  searching  for  his  prey.  *  *  *  * 
When  individually  attacked  it  makes  a  desperate  struggle  for  life,  and  often  escapes  after  a  hard 
contest.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  an  unusual  occurrence  for  the  oldest  males  to  be  takefl  with  but 
little  effort  on  t!ie  part  of  the  whaler.  After  being  struck,  the  animal  will  oftentimes  lie  for  a  few 
moments  on  the  water  as  if  paraly/ed,  which  affords  the  active  man  of  the  lance  opportunity  to 
dart  his  weapon  effectually  and  complete  the  capture." ' 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  shape  and  posicion  of  the  mouth,  the  Sperm  Whale  has  to  turn  upon  its 
side  to  seize  large  objects  between  its  jaws,  and  when  one  of  them  attacks  a  boat,  it  is  iu  a  reversed 
position,  holding  its  lower  jaw  above  the  object  it  is  trying  to  bite,  as  is  shown  in  many  pictures  of 
whaling  adventure. 

FOOD — The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  squids  and  of  various  kinds  of  fish.  Couch  tells 
of  a  young  one,  twenty  feet  long,  taken  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  which  had  three  hundred  muck- 
t-rel  in  its  stomach.  Captain  Atwood  states  that  when  struck  by  the  harpoon  they  eject  from  the 
stomach  quantities  of  large  squids. 

KKPUODUCTION. — They  are  said  to  breed  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Scammon  states  that  the 
time  of  gestation  is  supposed  to  be  ten  mouths,  that  the  number  of  cubs  is  rarely  two,  never  more, 
and  that  they  are  about  one-fourth  the  length  of  their  mother.  In  suckling  the  female  reclines 
upon  her  side  in  the  water. 

1  SCAMMOK,  CHARLES  M. :  The  Marino  Mammals  of  the  Nortliwi'Kti-ni  Coast  of  North  America,  described  and 
and  illimtr.ited,  together  with  an  account  of  the  American  Whale  Fishery.  San  Francisco,  1874,  pp.  74-84. 


I'.I.Ai   KKISIIKS  <>l:    1MI.OT   \\  IIALKS.  H 

USEFUL  PRODUCTS.— The  peculiar  products  of  tin-  head  of  this  cetacean,  the  sperm  oil  and 
the  *i>i'nnnc'ti,  render  its  capture  particularly  profitable.  According  to  Cuptiiin  At  wood  about 
one  tilth  of  tin-  yield  of  oil  may  he  generally  set  down  as  the  amount  of  spermaceti  afforded  by  a 
Sperm  Whale.  The  t«th  are  used  by  ivory  cutters,  and  the  ambergris  is  a  substance-  valuable  to 
druggiMs  and  perfumers.  The  parts  of  the  body  are  to  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  oil  making, 
where  tiie  manner  of  ciiitini;  away  the  liltibl>er  will  be  discussed.  The  great  lower  jaws  with  their 
rows  of  bristling  teeth  are  often  brought  home  as  trophies  by  whalers,  and  in  Provincetown,  New 
Bedford,  or  Nantiicket  may  be  seen  gateways  spanned  by  arches  made  of  these  bones.1 

The  following  statement  of  yield  of  oil  from  whales  taken  by  New  Bedford  whalers  was 
furnished  by  ('apt.  Benjamin  liussell  in  1875: 

('apt.  ('.  Allen  captured  one  Sperm  Whale,  which  tried  out  150  barrels. 

Captain  Tilton  captured  one  Sperm  Whale,  which  tried  out  154  barrels. 

Captain  Spooiier  captured  one  S|>eriii  Whale,  which  tried  out  130  barrels. 

Captain  Rnowles  captured  one  Sperm  Whale,  which  tried  out  l'J7  barrels. 

A  number  of  captains  report  Sperm  Whales  yielding  from  80  to  1-0  barrels  each. 

Tin:  I'OKPOISE  SI-KUM  WHALE. — A  small  cetacean  rather  closely  allied  to  the  3] term  Whale, 
and  called  by  certain  authors  the  Porpoise  Sperm  Whale,  occurs  in  the  wa  mer  parts  of  the  Pacific. 
A  specimen  nine  feet  long  was  taken  at  Mazatlan,  and  was  described  by  Professor  Hill  under  the 
name  Kogia  Floiceri.1  It  is  of  no  economic  importance.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  habits.  A 
sketch  of  the  animal  and  its  jaw  are  preserved  in  the  National  Museum. 

2.  THE  BLACKFISHES  OR  PILOT  WHALES. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Th«  Blackftsh,  Gloliiceplmlu*  intermedia*  (Harluin  Cray,  is  one  of  the  most 
imp., i  lain  and  most  abundant  of  the  small  whales  of  the  east  coast.  It  occurs  in  great  numbers 
to  the  northeast  of  the  Grand  Bank,  and  off  the  New  England  and  Middle  States.  IJow  far  south 
it  ranges  is  not  certainly  known.  A  closely  related  species  is  the  Pilot  Whale  or  Cuing  Whale  of 
Europe,  (i.  xritit'i-til  (Lac.)  Gray,  also  called  Black  Whale,  Social  Whale,  Blowing  Whale,  and 
Bottlehead,  the.  Svine -lival  of  Scandinavia;  abundant  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  northeastern 


1  In  1  >onv;las-s's  North  America  (Boston  and  London,  175f>,  vol.  i,  p.  57),  the  products  of  the  Sperm  Whale  are  thus 
discoursed  upon  : 

"Sperma  ceti  Whales  are  to  be  found  ulmogt  everywhere,  they  have  no  bone,  so  called;  some  may  yield  CO  to 
70  barrels  oil  called  viscous  oil,  the  fittest  for  lamps  or  a  burning  light.  It  is  from  this  whale  that  we  have  the  par- 
macit  i  v  or  spermaceti  (very  improperly  so  called).  The  ancients  were  at  a  loss  whether  it  was  an  animal  or  mineral 
substance ;  Schroder,  a  celebrated  Pharmacopoeia  writer  about  the  middle  of  last  century,  calls  it  Aliud  genus  bitu- 
minis  quod  gperma  ceti  officiuao  vocaut,  he  describes  it  I'inguedo  furfiirosa  product n  exhalalioue  terra«  sulphurcae. 
We  now  find  thai  any  part  of  its  oil,  but  more  abundantly  the  head-matter, as  the  whalers  term  it,  if  it  stand  at  rest 
and  in  the  sun  will  shoot  into  adipous  (leaks  resembling  in  some  manner  the  chrystalisat ion  of  Baits:  instead  of  sperma 
eeti.  il  ought  to  !»•  called  adeps  ceti,  in  the  matcria  niedica.  This  same  w  hale  gives  the  ambergrease,  a  kind  of  per- 
fiiuic.  as  i,  musk:  anciently  it  was  by  the  natural  historians  described  as  a  kind  of  bitumen,  hence  the  name  Ambra 
grisea.  Dale,  a  noted  author,  in  his  pharmacologia  not  long  since  publishes  it  as  such.  It  is  now  fully  discovered  to 
be  some  production  from  this  species  of  whale,  for  some  time  it  was  imagined  some  peculiar  concreted  juice  lodged 
ina  peculiar  cystis,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  the  castoreum  of  the  heaver  or  Fiber  Canadenti*,  and  the  zibethum  of  the 
civ  it -cat  01  hyena,  in  cystis's  both  sides  of  the  Aui  rima;  thus,  not  long  since,  some  of  our  Nantnckct  whalers  imag- 
ined that  in  some  (very  few  and  rare)  of  these  male  or  bull  whales,  they  hud  found  the  gland  or  cystis  in  the  loins  m  ar 
the  spcrmatick  organs:  late  and  more  accurate  observations  seem  to  declare  it  to  be  some  part  of  the  ordure,  ilung, 
or  a  I  vine  excrement  of  the  whale;  squid-fish,  one  of  the  Newfoundland  baits  for  cod,  are  Miun-tiun  >  in  Newfoundland 
cast  ashore  in  qiiiintitic<,  and  as  they  corrupt  and  fry  in  the  sun  they  IM-COIUB  a  jelly  or  substance  of  an  umlxTgreMe 
smell:  therefore  as  si|tiid  bills  are  sometimes  found  in  the  lumps  of  ambergrease.  it  ma\  be  inferred,  that  aniliergrea»e 
is  some  of  the  excrement  from  squid-food,  with  some  singular  circumstances  or  dispositions  that  procure  this  quality, 
seldom  couciiiring;  thus  the  Xautiickci  whalers  for  some  years  last,  have  found  no  ambergrease  in  their  whal.-s. 
The  Sperma  ceti  Whale  has  no  bone  or  baleii.e  in  his  mouth,  but  fine  white  teeth;  they  are  most  plenty  upon  I  he  coast 
of  Virginia  and  Carolina." 

•i.  1 1  i.:  Sperm-Whales,  Giant  and  Pigmy,  <  American  Naturalist,  iv,  p.  738,  fig.  167. 


12  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Atlantic.  Another  species  is  the  Rlackfish  of  the  Eastern  Pacific.,  G.  Scymnionil  Co)  e,  once 
abundant,  according  to  Scammon,  on  the  coast  of  Lower  California,  but  now  usually  found  off 
Guatemala,  Ecuador,  and  Peru,  though  occasionally  ranging  to  high  northern  and  southern 
latitudes. 

SIZE. — The  ordinary  length  of  the  New  England  Blackfish  is  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet,  though 
they  sometimes  grow  larger.  The  largest  ever  seen  by  Capt.  Caleb  Cook,  a  veteran  oil  maker  of 
Cape  Cod,  measured  twenty-five  feet  and  yielded  five  barrels  of  oil.  The  weight  of  a  fifteen  foot 
Rlackfish  is  estimated  at  800  to  1,000  pounds. 

MOVKMENTS. — They  swim  in  large  schools,  sometimes  several  hundred  together.  They  make 
little  commotion  at  the  surface  of  the  water  as  they  swim,  not  rolling  like  their  little  kindred,  the 
Porpoises,  but  come  up  often  to  spout,  the  jet  of  spray  rising  three  or  four  feet,  and  emitted  with  a 
low,  deep,  snorting  sound.  When  at  the  surface  they  often  remain  in  sight  several  minutes.  Usu- 
ally their  movements  are  sluggish,  though  at  times  energetic  enough,  as  can  testify  any  one  who  has 
seen  a  school  of  them  driven  up  on  the  beach.  They  feed  upon  schooling  fish,  menhaden,  mackerel, 
herring,  and  squids.  Rlackfish  are  in  great  terror  of  the  Killer  Whales,  which  drive  them  about 
mercilessly.  In  September,  1878, 1  saw  a  school  of  them  which  had  for  some  days  been  hovering 
around  the  entrance  to  Provincetown  Harbor  fleeing  tumultuously  before  two  large  whales  with 
high  back-fins. 

REPRODUCTION. — They  breed  in  summer  about  Cape  Cod.  Out  of  one  hundred  and  nineteen 
driven  ashore  at  Dennis  in  August,  1875,  fully  eighty  were  females  with  young,  or  recently  born 
calves  of  seven  or  eight  feet.  A  foetus  cut  from  a  gravid  Rlackfish  of  eighteen  feet  was  nearly 
seven  feet  long.  All  the  females  were  yielding  milk,  and  as  the  fishermen  cut  into  their  sides  the 
warm  fluid  poured  out  in  copious  streams. 

Watson  records,  in  the  case  of  a  female  on  the  Rritish  coast  suckling  its  young,  that  the  calf 
was  four  feet  six  inches  long  in  December  and  seven  feet  in  January.  Scammon  thinks  that  in  the 
Pacific  they  breed  at  all  seasons.  He  found  mothers  with  young  calves  off  the  Gulf  of  Dulce, 
Guatemala,  in  February,  1853. 

STRANDING-  OF  THE  RLACKFISH  SCHOOLS. — As  will  be  told  more  in  detail  in  another  chapter, 
hundreds,  and  often  thousands,  of  them  are  stranded  yearly  on  the  shores  of  Cape  Cod.  They 
occasionally  run  ashore  at  Nantucket,  and  instances  have  occurred  of  their  being  driven  in  at  Cape 
Rreton.  Although  there  have  been  similar  instances  in  Europe,  especially  at  the  Orkneys,  I  can- 
not learn  that  such  occurrences  are  sufficiently  common  anywhere  else  to  be  counted  on  by  the 
people  as  a  regular  source  of  income.  A  Cape  Cod  fisherman  occasionally  wakes  up  in  the  morning 
to  find  two  or  three  of  these  animals  stranded  in  his  back  yard.  "A  pretty  windfall,"  remarked 
one  of  them  to  me.  Cape  Cod,  projecting  far  out  to  sea,  with  its  sloping,  unbroken  sandy  shores, 
seems  like  a  trap  or  weir  naturally  adapted  for  their  capture,  and  the  Indians  took  advantage  of 
this  circumstance  long  before  the  European  settlement.  The  Pilgrims,  in  1G20,  found  Indians  on 
the  shore  at  Wellfleet  cutting  up  a  Grampus,  and  in  the  shell-heaps  of  the  surrounding  region  are 
yet  to  be  found  many  evidences  of  their  use  of  the  smaller  cetaceans  for  food.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  Rlackfish,  stupid  as  they  seem,  would  ever  run  ashore  if  not  frightened  by  such  enemies  as  the 
Killer.  In  fact  a  large  share  of  those  which  become  stranded  are  purposely  driven  up  out  of  shoal 
water,  into  which  they  have  strayed,  by  men  in  boats. 

Little  can  be  said  about  the  time  when  they  are  most  abundant.  It  seems  to  depend  on  the 
supply  of  suitable  food.  Captain  Cook  believes  that  they  feed  mostly  or  entirely  upon  squids, 
and  if  this  be  the  case  their  appearance  must  be  regulated  by  the  abundance  of  those  animals. 
They  are  never  seen  earlier  than  June  or  later  than  December.  Thirty  years  ago  they  were  most 


BLACKFISIIKS  AND  GRAMPUSES.  13 

plentiful  ill  August.  Before  1874  they  had  never  been  s«-<-n  before  July.  In  .lul\.  !<;,.  »  school 
Of  lli«l  cnine  ashiire  at  North  Dennis.  Those  taken  in  the  fall  are  usually  the  fattest. 

CAPTVKi:  or  P.I.  \cNnsir.—  Many  years  ago  several  Cii|M)  Cod  whalers  made  a  business  of 
pursuing  th  •  Hlaektish  on  the  whaling  grounds  east  of  i he  (i rand  Hank.  This  enterprise,  described 
in  the  ehapteron  the  whale  tisliery,  has  been  abandoned,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  for  ordinary 
whalemen  to  kill  them  from  their  boats  to  obtain  supplies  of  fresh  meat,  ami  of  oil  to  burn  on 
shipboard.  That  the  flesh  is  not  unpalatable  the  writer  maintains,  and  can  summon  as  witnesses 
a  number  of  persons  who  tasted  one  at  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1874.  There  is  a  fishery 
for  them  at  the  Faroe  Islands  and  in  the  Pacific,  says  Seammon,  small  vessels  arc  ocea>ionally 
fitted  out  for  their  capture.  "Sperm  whalers,"  he  writes,  "do  not  lower  their  boats  for  Blackfish 
when  on  Sperm  Whale  ground,  unless  tin1  day  is  far  spent  and  there  is  little  prospect  of  'seeing 
whales.'  The  northern  polar  or  whale-ships  pay  but  little  attention  to  them,  except,  perhaps,  when 
passing  the  time  -between  seasons,'  cruising  within  or  about  the  tropics." 

USEFUL  PRODUCTS. — The  yield  of  oil  from  a  Black-fish  varies,  according  to  the,  size,  and  fatness 
of  the  animal,  from  ten  gallons  to  ten  barrels.  This  is  dark  in  color,  and  is  classed  with  the 
ordinary  "body  oil"  or  ''  whale  oil."  The  blubber  varies  from  one  to  four  inches  in  thickness,  and 
is  nearly  white.  The  jaws  yield  a  fine  quality  of  machine  oil,  known  as  "porpoise  jaw-oil",  of  which 
however,  n  limited  quantity  suffices  to  supply  the  market.  The  value  of  a  stranded  Blackfish  in 
Cape  Cod  varies  from  $5  to  $40. 

As  is  related  elsewhere,  Blackfish  are  often  taken  by  whaling  vessels  when  on  a  cruise,  to 
obtain  oil  for  burning  and  a  supply  of  fresh  meat.  The  brains  are  made  by  the  ship's  cook  into 
"dainty  cakes,"  as  the  whalemen  call  them,  and  the  livers  are  said  to  be  delicate  and  appetizing.1 

Blackfish  are  harpooned  by  the  Grand  Bank  cod-fishermen  to  be  cut  np  and  used  for  bait. 

3.  THE  GRAMPUSES  OB  COWFISHES. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Associated  with  the  Blackfish  on  our  east  coast,  though  not  so  common,  and 
rarely  stranded,  is  the  Cowfish,  Grampus  grisevs  (Lesson)  Gray,  also  found  in  Europe,  south  to 
the  British  channel  or  farther,  and  there  known  as  the  "Grampus." 

COLOR  AND  SIZE. — Its  slate-colored  sides  are  curiously  variegated  with  white  markings,  very 
irregular  in  size,  shape  and  direction,  evidently  the  results  of  accidental  scratches  in  the  epidermis. 

1 1635,  July  25  (on  the  Newfoundland  Banks). — On  Friday,  in  the  evening,  we  had  an  hour  or  two  of  marvel- 
long  delightful  recreation,  which  also  was  a  feast  unto  us  for  many  days  after,  while  we  fed  upon  the  flesh  of  three 
Inifje  porpoises,  like  to  as  many  fat  hogs,  striked  by  our  seamen,  and  hauled  with  ropes  into  the  ship.  The  flesh  of 
them  was  good  meat,  with  salt,  pepper  and  vinegar;  the  fat,  like  fat  bacon,  the  lean  like  bull-beef;  and  on  Saturday 
evening  they  took  another  also.— Richard  Mather's  Journal.  Young's  Chronicles  of  the  First  Planter*  of  Mass.  Bay 
Colony.  Boston,  1846,  p.  4(«. 

I  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  the  following  passage  from  the  journal  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Mather,  one  of  the 
earliest  of  the  Massachusetts  colonists: 

"  1<M5,  June  27,  28.— The  first  Sabbath  from  Milford  Haven,  and  the  sixth  on  shipboard;  a  fair,  cool  day  ;  wind 
northerly,  good  for  onr  purpose.  I  was  exercised  in  the  forenoon,  and  Mr.  Maud  in  the  afternoon.  Thin  evening  wo 
saw  Porpoises  about  the  ship,  and  some  would  fain  have  been  striking,  but  others  dissuaded  because  of  tho  Sabbath ; 
and  so  it  was  let  alone. 

"Monday  morning,  wind  still  northerly  ;  a  fair,  cool  day.  This  morning,  about  seven  of  the  clock,  onr  seamen 
struck  a  great  Porpoise,  and  hauled  it  with  ropes  into  tbe  ship ;  for  bigness,  not  much  less  than  a  hog  of  •£>  or  '£>  shil- 
ling* apiece,  and  not  much  unlike  for  shape,  with  flesh  fat  nnd  lean,  like  in  color  to  the  fat  and  lean  of  a  !>«•;;  and 
iM-ing  opened  npon  the  deck,  had  within  his  entrails,  as  liver,  lights,  heart,  guts,  &c.,  for  all  the  world  likr  n  swinr. 
The  seeing  of  him  hauled  into  tho  ship,  like  a  swine  from  the  sty  to  the  trestle,  and  opened  npon  the  d«-<-K  in  \  it-w  of 
all  our  company,  was  wonderful  to  us  all,  and  marvellous  merry  sport,  and  delightful  to  our  women  and  rhildrrii.  So 
good  was  our  God  nnto  us,  in  affording  us  the  day  before  spiritual  refreshing  to  our  souls  and  this  day  morning  also 
delightful  recreation  to  our  bodies,  at  the  taking  and  opening  of  this  huge  and  strange  fish." — Young's  Chronicles  of 
the  First  Planters  of  Mass.  Bay  Colony.  Boston,  1846,  p.  460. 


14  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Captain  Cook  thinks  that  these  are  the  marks  of  the  teeth  made  by  the  animals  in  playing  with 
each  other.  It  attains  the  length  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  but  is  slenderer  than  the  Blackiish.  Its 
jaws  are  esteemed  by  the  makers  of  fine  oil. 

HABITS. — Regarding  this  species,  Captain  Cook  writes:  "About  the  same  time  that  the  IJIack- 
flsh  made  their  appearance  in  our  waters,  there  was  another  of  the  whale  kind  made  tin  ir  appear- 
ance also,  called  by  the  fishermen  Cowfish.  These  whales  are  very  much  in  shape  of  the  Blackfish, 
only  smaller,  not  so  fat,  and  not  so  dark  colored.  These  fish  have  only  made  their  appearance  in 
our  waters  three  or  four  times  for  the  last  forty  years,  or  about  once  in  ten  years.  Probably  not 
more  than  fifty  have  been  taken  in  this  period.  The  method  of  taking  them  is  the  same  as  that  used 
for  Blackfish." 

Several  specimens,  old  and  young,  were  obtained  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  1875,  November 
29,  November  30,  and  December  2.  and  their  casts  are  in  the  National  Museum.  That  this  animal 
was  known  to  the  early  colonists  of  New  England  appears  probable  from  allusions  in  the  early 
records.1 

PRODUCTS. — The  oil  of  the  Cowfish,  particularly  that  of  its  jaws,  is  highly  prized,  though  prob- 
ably no  better  than  that  of  the  Blackfish.  The  "Barnstable  Patriot"  of  November  7, 1828,  has  this 
item:  "A  quantity  of  oil  from  the  Grampus  lately  caught  at  Harpswell  has  been  sold  at  Bath  at 
$18  per  barrel."  It  is  very  possible,  however,  that  the  Barnstable  people  of  1828  designate  the 
Blackfish  and  the  Grampus  by  tire  same  name.  Douglass'  "North  America,"  published  in  1755, 
remarks:  "Blackfish,  i.  e.  Grampus,  of  six  to  ten  barrels  oil,  Bottlenose  of  three  or  four  barrels,  may 
(like  sheep)  be  drove  ashore  by  boats." 

THE  CALIFORNIA  GRAMPUS. — On  the  California  coast  occurs  the  Whiteheaded  or  Mottled 
Grampus,  O.  Stearnsii  Dall,  described  by  Scaminon  as  growing  to  the  average  length  of  ten  feet. 
"They  are  gregarious,"  he  writes,  "and  congregate  frequently  in  large  schools;  at-  times  two  or 
three,  or  even  a  solitary  individual  will  be  met  with,  wandering  about  the  coast  or  up  the  bays  in 
quest  of  food,  which  consists  of  fish  and  several  varieties  of  crustaceans.  It  is  rarely  taken,  as  it  is 
extremely  shy."  He  refers  also  to  four  other  forms,  unknown  to  zoologists,  but  familiar  to  whale- 
men: chief  among  these  is  the  "Bottlenose,"  which  grows  to  be  twenty-five  feet  long,  and  has 
occasionally  been  taken,  though  with  much  dilficulty  owing  to  its  great  strength  and  speed.  Its 
oil  is  reputed  to  be  equal  in  quality  to  that  of  the  Sperm  Whale. 

4.  THE  HARBOR  PORPOISES  OB  HERRING  HOGS. 

DISTRIBUTION. — On  the  Atlantic  coast  occurs  most  abundantly  the  little  Harbor  Porpoise, 
Phocana  brachycion  Cope,  known  to  the  fishermen  as  "Puffer,"  "Snuffer,"  "Snuffing  Pig,"  or 
"  Herring  Hog."  The  Bay  Porpoise  of  California,  P.  vomerina  Gill,  and  the  Common  Porpoise  or 
Marsuin  of  Europe,  are  very  similar  in  size,  shape,  and  habits:  with  the  latter  in  fact  it  is  probably 
specifically  identical.  The  Atlantic  species  occurs  off  Nova  Scotia  and  probably  farther  north- 
ward, and  ranges  south  at  least  to  Florida.  The  California  species,  according  to  Scammon,  has 
been  found  at  Banderas  Bay  and  about  the  mouth  of  the  Piginto  River,  Mexico  (latitude  20°  3d'), 
and  north  to  the  Columbia  River  (latitude  46°  16').  In  the  winter  these  Porpoises  are  seen  off 
Astoria  and  in  Cathlamet  Bay  twenty  miles  above,  but  in  spring  and  summer,  when  the  river  is 
fresh  to  its  month,  they  leave  the  Columbia.  The  Atlantic  Porpoise  also  ascends  rivers.  They  go 

'Belknap's  American  Biography  has  Hie  following  account  of  one  of  the  journeys  of  the  first  settlers  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1620: 

"The  next  morning,  Thursday,  December?,  they  divided  themselves  into  two  parties,  eight  in  the  shallop,  and 
the  lest  on  shore,  to  make  farther  discovery  of  this  place,  which  they  found  to  be  'a  bay,  without  either  river  or  creek 
coming  into  it.'  They  gave  it  the  name  of  Grampus  Bay,  because  they  saw  many  fish  of  that  species." — Belknap'» 
American  Biography,  New  York,  1846,  vol.  ii,  p.  318. 


IIAIMHH:  rmimisKS:  MOYKMKNTS  AND  HAKITS.  i;, 

up  tin-  S:iini  John's  iii  I'loi  nl.i  tit  Jacksonville,  and  alionl  ]S."iO  one  was  taken  in  the  Connect ieut 
at  Middlctown.  twenty  miles  from  brackish  water.  In  I'.niupe  the\  ascend  tin-  Thames,  the  Weser, 
and  other  streams. 

SIZK  AMI  MI>VI:MK\TS. — They  rarely  exceed  four  or  four  and  a  half  feet  in  length.  Everyone 
lias  seen  t  linn  rolling  and  pulling  outside  of  the  breakers  or  in  the  harbors  and  river  mouths.  The 
wotein  Ailant ir  species  swim  in  droves  of  from  ten  to  one  hundred,  but  Scammon  says  that  those 
of  California  are  never  found  associated  in  large  numbers,  though  six  or  eight  are  often  seen  together. 
In  Kngland,  aeeordiug  to  Conch,  seldom  more  than  two  are  seen  at  once.  They  never  spring  from 
the  water  like  Dolphins,  but  their  motion  is  a  rolling  one  and  brings  the  back-fin  often  into  sight, 
this  always  appearing  shortly  after  the  head  has  been  exposed  and  the  little  puff  of  spray  seen  and 
the  accompanying  grunt  heard.  The  rolling  motion  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  to  breathe  through 
the  nostrils,  situate  on  the  top  of  the  snout,  they  must  assume  a  somewhat  erect  posture,  descending 
from  which  the  body  passes  through  a  considerable  portion  of  a  circle. 

I;I;I'I,-(IDUCTION. — The  breeding  season  is  in  summer,  in  August  and  September,  in  Passama- 
quoddy  l>ay,  perhaps  also  at  other  times.  The  new-born  young  of  an  English  Porpoise  fifty-six 
inches  long,  measured  twenty-six  inches,  and  was  sixteen  inches  in  circumference. 

FOOD. — They  feed  on  fish,  particularly  on  schooling  species  like  the  herring  and  menhaden, 
and  are  responsible  for  an  enormous  destruction  of  useful  food  material. 

USES. — Though  frequently  taken  in  the  pounds  and  seines  along  both  coasts  and  off  Massa- 
chusetts in  the  gill-nets  set  for  mackerel,  they  are  of  little  importance  except  to  the  Indians  of 
Maine  and  our  Northwestern  Territories,  who  carry  on  an  organized  pursuit  of  them,  shooting  them 
from  their  canoes.  This  industry  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  upon  ABORIGINAL  FISHEHIES. 

DESTRTTCTIVENESS. — The  Porpoise  is  pugnacious  as  well  as  playful.  A  fisherman  in  Florida 
told  me  that  he  once  tried  to  pen  a  school  of  them  in  a  little  creek  by  anchoring  his  boat  across  its 
entrance.  When  they  caine  down  the  creek  they  sprang  over  the  boat  against  the  sail,  through 
which  they  tore  their  way  and  regained  the  river.  A  correspondent,  whose  name  has  been  mislaid, 
writes:  "A  very  unusual  event  occurred  at  Far  Rockaway  on  Tuesday  morning,  about  four  o'clock, 
in  front  of  the  Nelson  House.  A  school  of  Drumflsh  were  chased  into  shallow  water  by  a  school 
of  Porpoises.  The  Drumfish  tried  their  best  to  get  away,  but  the  Porpoises  pursued  them  so  hotly 
that  a  number  of  the  former  were  driven  ashore.  The  people  of  the  hotel  were  awakened  by  a 
great  splashing  and  a  noise  somewhat  similar  to  but  less  distinct  than  the  grunt  of  a  frightened 
hog.  Looking  out  of  the  windows  they  saw  the  Porpoises  striking  the  Drumflsh  with  their  tails. 
Soon  after  the  Porpoises  turned  and  left.  The  porters  at  the  hotel  and  some  of  the  fishermen 
secured  with  boat-hooks  about  twenty-five  dead  Drumfish,  and  a  large  number  are  still  floating 
around  Jamaica  Bay.  The  Drumfish  secured  weighed  from  thirty  to  seventy  pounds  each.  Some 
were  sent  to  Canarsie  for  exhibition  and  others  to  Fulton  Market  for  sale." 

The  Drum  being  an  enemy  of  the  Oyster,  it  is  possible  that  the  Porpoise  by  destroying  them  is 
a  benefactor.  It  would  be  no  more  curious  than  the  experience  of  the  Canadian  Government  in 
decreasing  their  Salmon  fishery  in  the  St.  Lawrence  by  destroying  the  White  \Vh;iles  which  preyed 
upon  the  seals,  the  enemies  of  the  Salmon.  The  story  about  the  Porpoises  killing  drum  seems 
incredible,  but  is  supported  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell's  account  of  a  battle  between  the  Porjwises  and  the 
Alligators  in  Florida:  "Mr.  Couper  told  me  that  in  the  summer  of  1845  he  saw  a  shoal  of  Por- 
poises coming  up  to  that  part  of  the  Altamaha  where  the  fresh  and  salt  water  meet,  a  space  about 
a  mile  in  lengtli,  the  favorite  fishing  ground  of  the  Alligators,  where  there  is  brackish  water, 
which  shifts  its  place  according  to  the  varying  strength  of  the  river  and  the  tide.  Here  were  seen 
about  fifty  Alligators,  each  with  head  and  neck  raised  above  water,  looking  down  the  stream  at 


16  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

their  enemies,  before  whom  they  had  fled  terror-stricken  and  expecting  an  attack.  The  Porpoises, 
not  more  than  a  dozen  in  number,  moved  on  in  two  ranks,  and  were  evidently  complete  masters  of 
the  field.  So  powerful  indeed  are  they  that  they  have  been  known  to  chase  a  large  Alligator  to  the 
bank,  and,  putting  their  snouts  under  his  belly,  toss  him  ashore."1 

The  authority  referred  to,  Mr.  Hamilton  Couper,  of  Hopeton,  Ga.,  was  a  gentleman  of  some 
prominence  as  a  geological  observer. 

5.  THE  DOLPHINS. 

HABITS.  —  The  Dolphins  constitute  a  large  group  of  cetaceans,  represented  by  many  species,  and 
abundant  everywhere  in  temperate  and  tropical  seas.  They  are  often  seen  in  mid-ocean  sporting 
in  large  schools,  pursuing  the  pelagic  fishes,  but  are  still  more  common  near  the  coast.  They  are 
from  five  to  fifteen  feet  long,  gracefully  formed,  and  very  swift.  Nowhere  are  they  the  objects  of 
organized  pursuit,  though  frequently  caught  in  nets  or  harpooned  from  the  bows  of  vessels  at  sea. 
Many  cod  schooners  fishing  on  the  Grand  Banks,  especially  those  from  Cape  Cod,  depend  chiefly  for 
bait  upon  the  Porpoises  they  can  kill  and  the  birds  they  cau  catch.  The  best  known  species  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  are  the  "Skunk  Porpoise"  or  "Bay  Porpoise,"  Lagenorhynchus  perspicillatus  Cope, 
and  related  forms.  Large  schools  are  often  seen  in  the  sounds  and  along  (he  shore.  They  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  little  Harbor  Porpoise,  just  spoken  of,  by  the  broad  stripes  of  white 
and  yellow  upon  their  sides.  When  schools  of  a  hundred  or  more  can  be  surrounded  and  driven 
ashore  by  the  fishermen,  as  is  often  done  on  Cape  Cod,  a  large  profit  is  made  from  the  sale  of  their 
bodies  to  the  oil-makers,  though  they  are  not  so  much  prized  as  the  Blackfish,  so  much  larger  and 
fatter.  A  closely  related  species  is  the  Common  Porpoise  of  California,  Lagenorhynchus  oMquidens 
Gill.  "They  are  seen,"  writes  Captain  Scammon,  "in  numbers  varying  from  a  dozen  up  to  many 
hundreds  tumbling  over  the  surface  of  the  sea,  or  making  arching  leaps,  plunging  again  on  the 
same  curve,  or  darting  high  and  falling  diagonally  sidewise  upon  the  water  with  a  spiteful  splash, 
accompanied  by  a  report  which  may  be  heard  to  some  distance.  In  calm  weather  they  are  seen  in 
numerous  shoals,  leaping,  plunging,  lobtailing  and  finning,  while  the  assemblage  moves  swiftly  in 
various  directions.  They  abound  more  along  the  coasts  where  small  fish  are  found.  Occasionally 
a  large  number  of  them  will  get  into  a  school  of  fish,  frightening  them  so  much  that  they  lose 
nearly  all  control  of  their  movements,  while  the  Porpoises  fill  themselves  to  repletion." 

The  Right  Whale  Porpoise,  Leucorhamphus  borealis  (Peale)  Gill,  is  found  in  the  Pacific  from 
Bering  Sea  to  Lower  California,  though  not  so  abundantly  as  the  last.  The  Right  Whale  Porpoise 
of  the  Atlantic,  often  .spoken  of  by  our  whalers,  is  a  related  species,  perhaps  L.  Peronii  (Lac.) 
Lilljeboi  g,  abundant  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  but  not  yet  recorded  by  naturalists  for  our 
waters.  Several  species  of  the  true  Dolphins  occur  in  the  North  Atlantic,  but  only  one,  Delphinus 
clymenw,  has  been  found  with  us,  Cope  having  secured  it  in  New  Jersey.  Baird's  Dolphin  />. 
Bairdii  Ball,  a  species  six  or  seven  feet  long  and  weighing  100  to  175  pounds,  is  frequent  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  Cowfish  of  California,  Tursiops  Gillii  Ball,  is  a  sluggish  species  known  to  the  whale- 
men of  the  lagoons,2  and  an  allied  species,  T.  erebennus  (Cope)  Gill,  is  known  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
New  forms  of  this  group  sire  constantly  being  discovered.  All  are  of  commercial  value  when  taken. 


Second  Visit  to  the  United  States,  vol.  i,  1349,  p.  ?Ztl. 
•The  habits  of  the  C'owfish,  as  observed  on  the  coasts  of  California  and  Mexico,  are  strikingly  different  from  those 
of  the  true  Porpoises.  It  is  often  remarked  by  whalemen  that  they  area  "mongrel  breed"  of  don  btfol  character,  b«-ing 
frequently  seen  in  company  with  Blacknah,  sometimes  with  Porpoises,  and  occasionally  with  Hiinipliacks.  when  the 
latter  are  found  in  large  numbers  on  an  abundant  feeding  ground.  They  arc  met  with  likewise  in  the  higoons  along 
the  coast,  singly  or  in  pairs,  or  in  fives  and  sixes—  rarely  a  larger  number  together  —  straggling  about  in  a  vagi-nut  1111111- 
ner  through  the  winding  estuaries,  subsisting  on  the  fish  that  abound  in  these  circumscribed  waters.  At  times  they 
are  seen  moving  lazily  along  under  the  shade  of  the  mangroves  that  in  many  places  fringe  the  shores,  at  other  times 
lying  about  in  listless  attitudes  among  the  plentiful  supplies  of  food  surrounding  them.—  SCAMMON:  op.  cit.,  p.  101. 


Till-:  KILL  i-:u  WHAM:*;  IIAIUIS  AND  0888.  17 

6.  THE  KILLER  WHALES  OR  ORCA8. 

HABITS  AND  DISTIMIM  HON.—  The  Killer  Whales  are  known  the  world  over  by  their  destruc- 
tive Mini  savage  habits.  Although  their  strength  and  speed  render  :t  almost  impossible  to  capture 
thorn,  they  are  of  importance  to  the  fisherman  as  enemies  of  all  large  sea  animals,  often  putting 
them  to  llifjht  at  inconvenient  times.  The  Atlantic  species,  Orca  gladiator  (Boimuterre)  Gill,  was 
tii  si  brought  to  notice  in  1671  in  Martens'  "Voyage  to  Spitzbergen."  It  is  often  seen  on  the  New 
Kngland  coast  in  summer,  driving  before  it  schools  of  the  blackfish  or  othersm  all  whales:  it  is  a 
special  enemy  of  the  tunny  or  horse  mackerel:  Captain  Atwood  tells  of  the  consternation  shown 
by  these  enormous  tishes  when  a  number  of  them  have  gathered  in  Provinretown  Harbor  and  the 
Killers  come  iu.  They  are  a  great  annoyance  to  the  Cape  Cod  people  when  they  are  trying  to  drive 
a  school  of  blackflsh  ashore,  and  on  the  other  hand  often  drive  these  ashore  when  they  would  not 
be  accessible  to  the  fishermen.  They  prey  largely,  too,  upon  the  white  whale  in  northern  seas. 
In  the  Pacific  there  are  two  species  at  least,  the  Low-finned  Killer,  Orca  atra  Cope,  and  the  High- 
tinned  Killer,  Orca  rectipinna.  The  latter,  though  rarely  more  than  twenty  feet  long,  has  an 
enormous  dagger-shaped  fin,  six  feet  high,  upon  its  back,  which  towers  above  the  surface  when 
the  animal  swims  high.  In  fact  the  Killer  Whales  all  have  these  high  back-fins,  by  which  they 
may  be  recognized  at  any  distance. 

DESTHUCTIVENESS.  —  Captain  Scammon,  in  his  "Marine  Mammals  of  the  Northwestern  Coast," 
gives  a  long  account  of  their  habits,  and  of  their  fierce  attacks  upon  the  largest  whales.  The  stories 
of  the  combats  of  the  swordfish  and  the  thresher  shark  upon  whales  have  probably  originated  in 
such  combats  as  these,  witnessed  at  a  distance  and  imperfectly  understood.  Captain  Scammon 
writes:  "  The  attacks  of  these  wolves  of  the  ocean  upon  their  gigantic  prey  may  IHJ  likened  in  some 
respects  to  a  pack  of  hounds  holding  the  stricken  deer  at  bay.  They  cluster  about  the  animal's 
head,  some  of  their  number  breaching  over  it  while  others  seize  it  by  the  lips  and  haul  the  bleeding 
monster  tinder  water;  and  when  captured,  should  the  mouth  be  open,  they  eat  out  its  tongue. 
We  saw  an  attack  made  by  three  Killers  upon  a  cow  whale  and  her  calf  iu  a  lagoon  on  the  coast 
of  Lower  California,  in  the  spring  of  1858.  The  whale  was  of  the  California  gray  species,  and  her 
young  was  grown  to  three  times  the  bulk  of  the  largest  Killers  engaged  in  the  contest,  which  lasted 
for  an  hour  or  more.  They  made  alternate  assaults  upon  the  old  whale  and  her  offspring,  finally 
killing  the  latter,  which  sunk  to  the  bottom,  where  the  water  was  five  fathoms  deep.  During  the 
struggle,  the  mother  became  nearly  exhausted,  having  received  several  deep  wounds  about  the  throat 
and  lips.  As  soon  as  their  prize  had  settled  to  the  bottom,  the  three  Orcas  descended,  bringing  up 
large  pieces  of  flesh  in  their  months,  which  they  devoured  after  coming  to  the  surface.  While 
gorging  themselves  in  this  wise  the  old  whale  made  her  escape,  leaving  a  track  of  gory  water 
behind."1 

ANNOYANCE  TO  WHALEMEN.  —  Instances  are  given  where  whales  which  had  been  killed  by  whale- 
men and  were  being  towed  to  the  ship  have  been  forcibly  carried  away  by  bands  of  Killers.  They 
are  also  obnoxious  as  destroyers  of  the  young  fur  seal,  and  often  remain  for  a  long  time  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  seal  islands.  Eschricht  says  that  thirteen  porpoises  and  fourteen  seals  were  found 
in  the  stomach  of  an  Atlantic  Killer,  sixteen  feet  in  length.  They  are  particularly  abundant  in 
the  bays  and  sounds  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  iu  search  of  seals  and  porpoises  feeding  there 
upon  small  fish.  They  even  attack  the  full-grown  walrus  and  rob  it  of  its  young. 

USES.  —  Their  range  is  cosmopolitan.  They  are  never  attacked  by  whale  ships,  and  their  only 
pursuers  in  America  are  the  Makah  Indians  of  Washington  Territory,  who,  according  to  Scammon, 


:   ••/-.  fit.,  pp.  -'.'  111. 

2P 


18  THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

occasionally  take  them  about  Cape  Flattery,  considering;  their  fat  and  flesh  luxurious  food.    Their 
jaws,  studded  with  strong  conical  teeth,  are  often  sold  in  our  curiosity  shous. 

7.  THE  SPERM  WHALE  PORPOISE. 

CAPTURE  OF  TWO  INDIVIDUALS  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. — A  specimen  twenty-five  feet  long;  of  this 
animal,  Hypcraodan  bidens  Owen,  was  found  on  the  beach  at  North  Dennis,  Mass.,  January  29, 
I860;  another  was  obtained  in  18GG  or  18G7  at  Tivertou  Stone  Bridge,  K.  I.  I  am  indebted  to  Mr. 
J.  H.  Blake  for  an  outline  of  this  cetacean,  and  the  following  notes,  taken  by  him  at  the  time,  he 
having  visited  Dennis  and  obtained  the  skeleton  for  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology :  "When 
found,"  he  writes,  "the  blood  was  still  warm.  It  was  twenty-five  feet  long,  six  feet  high,  and  the 
tail  was  six  feet  across.  The  flippers  were  twenty-nine  inches  long,  the  snout  twenty  inches.  The 
hump  on  the  back  was  three  or  four  inches  high,  thick  at  the  base  and  narrowing  toward  the 
tip.  The  blubber  was  two  and  a  half  to  four  inches  thick,  and  sold  for  $175.  Squid-beaks  enough 
to  fill  two  water-buckets  were  taken  from  the  stomach." 

8.  THE  WHITE  WHALE. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  White  Whale,  Delpliinapterus  catodon  (Linn.)  Gill,  first  described  in  1071 
in  Martens' "  Voyage  to  Spitzbergen,"  resembles  in  form  the  other  members  of  the  Dolphin  family, 
slender  and  graceful,  with  a  small  head  and  powerful  tail.  The  adult,  which  attains  a  length  of 
fifteen  or  sixteen  feet,  is  creamy  white  in  color ;  the  young,  five  or  six  feet  long  when  newly  born, 
is  lead-colored,  passing  through  a  period  of  mottled  coloration  before  assuming  the  mature  appear 
ance.  The  species  is  abundant  in  the  North  Atlantic,  North  Pacific,  and  Arctic  Oceans.  Stragglers 
have  been  seen  in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  latitude  56°.  while  on  the  American  coast  several  have  been 
taken  within  the  past  decade  on  the  north  shore  of  Cape  Cod.  They  are  slightly  abundant  in  New 
England  waters,  but  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  and  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  are  plentiful,  and 
the  object  of  a  profitable  fishery.  They  abound  in  the  Bering  and  Okhotsk  Seas,  and  ascend  the 
Yukon  River,  Alaska,  to  a  distance  of  700  miles.  The  names  iu  use  are  Beluga  and  Whitefish 
among  whalers,  Porpoise,  Dauphin  Blanc,  Marsuin  or  Marsoon  in  Canada,  and  Keela  Luak  with  the 
Greenland  Eskimos. 

HABITS. — The  species  is  familiar  to  many  from  having  been  recently  exhibited  in  several  aqua- 
riums, and  also  by  traveling  showmen.  When  in  captivity  they  feed  on  living  eels,  of  which  a  grown 
individual  consumes  two  or  three  bushels  daily.  They  are  also  known  to  subsist  on  bottom  fish, 
like  flounders  and  halibut,  on  cod,  haddock,  and  salmon,  squids  and  prawns.  They  are,  in  their 
turn,  the  food  of  larger  whales,  such  as  the  killer  or  orca.  They  swim  in  small  schools,  entering 
shallow  sounds  and  rapid  rivers  in  swift  pursuit  of  their  food.  They  spout  inconspicuously,  and 
are  not  easily  distinguished  when  swimming. 

The  few  which  have  been  taken  recently  along  our  Atlantic  coast  have  been  sold  to  aquariums 
or  to  natural  history  museums,  yielding  good  prices  to  their  captors.  The  fishery  iu  the  livn 
Saint  Lawrence  is  of  considerable  importance. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. — The  first  allusion  to  the  occurrence  of  this  cetacean  in  our  waters  was 
printed  by  Josslyn  in  1G75,  in  his  "Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  New  Kngland":  "The  Kea.-Uare  is 
asbigns  Grampus  or  Herrin-hog,  and  as  white  as  a  sheet;  There  hath  been  of  them  in  Black -point 
IlarlxHir,  &  some  way  up  the  river,  but  we  could  never  lake  any  of  them,  several  have  shot  sin ggs 
at  them,  but  lost  their  labour." 

CAPTURES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS.— "About  the  year  1857,"  writes  Captain  Atwood,  "a  species  of 
cetacean  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long  was  killed  in  Proviucetown  Harbor,  oif  Long  Point,  which  no 


NVIIITK   WIIAI.K   AND   NAKWIFAL.  ]«.! 

one  knew.  I  examined  it  and  found  it  to  differ  from  nil  tin-  others  then  known  here.  Not  long 
after  it  was  announced  that  there  was  a  White  Whale  on  exhibition  at  the  Aipiarial  Gardens  m 

I'.oston;  that  Mr.  Cutting  had  brought  alive  fr the  Kiver  Saint  Lawrence  a  species  that  had  never 

Keen  seen  south  of  that  river.  Soon  after  I  visited  Boston  and  called  to  see  it.  I  pronounced  Jt  to 
be  identical  with  the  unknown  species  taken  at  I'rovincetown.  In  1875  or  187ti  another  was  seen  in 
the  harbor,  but  the  boats  could  not  get  it." 

October  11.  1ST.".,  two  individuals,  a  cow  about  ten  feet  long  and  weighing  700  pound-  approx- 
imately, and  a  calf  nearly  as  large  as  its  mother,  weighing  about  500  pounds,  were  taken  in  the 
Yarmouth  Kiver  by  Capt  Benjamin  Ijovell.  They  were  sold  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History.1 

Usr.s.— Certain  oil  manufacturers  from  Cape  Cod  have  agencies  in  Canada,  from  which  they 
obtain  the  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  an  excellent  machine  oil,  sold  under  the  name  of 
••  1'orpoisc  jaw  oil."  A  large  White  Whale  yields  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  ordinary 
oil,  besides  t  he  more  precious  head  oil.  Porpoise  leather  is  made  from  the  skins,  a  leather  of  almost 
indestructible  texture,  and  peculiarly  impervious  to  water.  From  this  the  Canadian  mail-bags  are 
made,  and,  to  some  extent,  tourists'  walking  shoes.  On  our  Alaska  coast  they  are  not  unfrequently 
taken,  chiclly  by  the  natives,  but  the  tishery  has  not  yet  become  of  commercial  importance.  In 
Kastcrn  Siberia,  according  to  Scammon,  there  are  extensive  fisheries  carried  on  by  the  natives 
from  June  to  September,  with  nets  and  harpoons.  They  eat  the  flesh  and  sell  the  oil,  a  considerable 
portion  of  which  is  no  doubt  secured  by  American  whale  ships.2 

9.  THE  NARWHAL. 

IMSTHIBUTION. — The  Narwhal,  Monodmi  monocerox  Linn.,  whose  long  spiral  tusk  has  always 
been  an  object  of  curiosity,  and  gave  rise  to  the  stories  of  the  imaginary  creature  known  as  the 
Unicorn,  is  now  found  in  only  one  part  of  the  United  States — along  the  northern  shores  of  Alaska. 
Jt  is  still  abundant  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  many  tusks  are  brought  down  yearly  by  American 
and  European  whalers,  obtained  from  the  natives  of  Greenland  and  Siberia.  It  has  long  since 
ceased  to  appear  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  the  last  having  been  seen  off  Lincolnshire  in  1800. 
There  is  a  record  of  one  having  been  seen  in  the  Elbe  at  llauiburg  in  1736. 

SIZE,  USES,  ETC. — The  Narwhal  is  ten  to  fourteen  feet  long,  somewhat  resembling  the  white 
whale  in  form,  is  black,  and  in  old  age  mottled  or  nearly  white.  The  tusk,  a  modified  tooth, 
grows  out  of  the  left  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  to  the  length  of  eight  or  ten  feet.  All  its  teeth,  except 
its  tusks,  are  early  lost,  and  if  is  said  to  feed  on  fish  and  soft  sea-animals.  The  Eskimos  utilize  it 
in  many  ways.  Its  ivory,  however,  is  the  only  product  of  value  to  civilized  man,  this  being  made 


1  Yesterday  morning  Capt.  Benjamin  Lovell  captnred  two  fine  specimens  of  the  White  Whale  in  the  weir  at 
Yarmouth,  which  is  probably  the  first  time  this  kind  of  lisli  has  been  taken  in  the  witters  •(  the  United  States  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  The  specimens  captured  are  a  cow  and  calf,  the  former  about  ton  feet  long,  perfectly  white,  and 
weighing  about  700  pounds,  and  the  latter  some  two  feet  less  in  length,  of  a  dark  gray  color,  and  about  500  pounds 
Wright,  both  being  quite  fat.— Evening  Standard,  New  Bedford,  October  la,  1875. 

'At  a  meeting,  in  1860,  of  the  Polytechnic  Association  of  the  American  Institute,  in  New  York,  a  paper  was  read, 
prepared  l>y  D.  H.  Tetu,  of  Kamonraska,  Canada;  on  the  White  Whale  of  the  Saint  Lawrence.  The  Canadians  call 
it  a  Porpoise;  it  is  found  for  a  distance  of  2(10  miles  between  Saint  Koch  and  Father  Point,  also  in  the  rivers  emptying 
into  Hudson's  Bay.  Since  the  discovery  of  Canada,  an  article  of  commerce,  but  the  oil  not  very  good  and  little  use 
found  lor  the  gkiu;  lately  M.  Tetn  has  succeeded  in  purifying  the  oil  and  tanning  the  skin.  The  oil  is  equal  to  the 
best  sperm  oil.  The  average  price  of  the  animal  ten  years  ago  was  $40,  now  it  is  |150.  The  average  weight  is  2,500 
pounds;  the  largest  weigh  .1,000  pounds,  and  are  worth  $200.  The  avenge  length  is  twenty-two  feet,  and  circumfer- 
ence lift  eon  feet.  M.  Tetu  caught  the  whale  in  nets  near  the  river  Saguenay. 

The  skin  does  not  make  good  sole-lent  her,  being  too  pliable.  Ordinary  tanning  processes  are  employed,  except  that 
the  lining  is  omitted,  and  the  ••training"  takes  more  time  on  account  of  the  closeness  of  the  fiber  of  the  skin.  The 
leather  is  very  durable,  and  the  skin  nf  a  whale  i«  equal  to  the  skins  of  twelve  to  twenty-four  calves.  The  leather  is 
ehiotly  used  in  the  British  army. 


20  THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

into  canes  and  other  articles  of  ornament.    The  supply  in  this  country  is  chiefly  imported  from 
Denmark.     In  New  York  City  in  1880  a  good  tusk  sold  for  $50. 

10.  THE  GREENLAND,  BOWHEAD,  OR  POLAR  WHALE. 

CONFUSION  BETWEEN  THE  BOWHEAD  AND  THE  RIGHT  WHALE. — Much  uncertainty  has 
resulted  from  the  manner  in  which  the  Bowhead  of  the  arctic  regions  has  been  confused  with  the 
right  whales  of  the  adjoining  temperate  seas.  Murray,  writing  in  18G6,1  made  no  attempt  to  clear 
up  the  subject;  previous  writers  were  confused  as  well  as  vague,  and  it, is  only  in  Scammon's 
writings  that  a  clear  account  of  the  distribution  and  habits  of  the  species  is  to  be  found.  The 
materials  for  the  following  biographical  sketch  are  derived  in  the  main  from  the  statements  of  this 
author,  and  quotation  marks  are  omitted  only -because  the  facts  are  arranged  in  a  new  sequence.2 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  range  of  the  true  Balcena  mysticetus  extends  west  from  Nova  Zembla  to 
the  coast  of  Eastern  Siberia.  Its  northern  limits  yet  remain  undefined :  it  is  seldom  seen  in  Bering 
Sea  south  of  the  fifty-fifth  parallel,  which  is  about  the  southern  extent  of  the  winter  ice,  though  in 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  it  ranges  south  to  the  parallel  of  54°.  It  was  formerly  found  to  the  north  of 
Spitzbergen,  but  it  has  been  shown  by  Eschriclit  and  Eeinhardt  that  its  habitat  is,  and  always  has 
been,  confined  to  the  polar  seas,  and  that  it  has  no  claim  to  a  place  in  the  fauna  of  Europe.3 

Everything  tends  to  prove  that  the  Bowhead  is  truly  an  "ice-whale,"  for  its  home  is  among 
the  scattered  floes  or  about  the  borders  of  the  ice-fields  or  barriers.  It  is  true  that  these  animals 
are  pursued  in  the  open  water  during  the  summer  months,  but  in  no  instance  has  their  capture 
been  recorded  south  of  where  winter  ice-fields  are  occasionally  met  with.  In  the  Okhotsk  Sea  they 
are  found  throughout  the  season  after  the  ice  disappears,  nevertheless  they  remain  around  the  floes 
till  these  are  dispelled  by  the  summer  sun,  and  they  are  found  in  the  same  localities  after  the 
surface  of  the  water  has  again  become  congealed  in  winter. 

1  MURRAY  :  Geographical  Distribution  of  Mammals,  pp.  207-208. 

aln  "A  Digression  concerning  Whaling,"  written  in  1748,  published  in  Douglass'  North  America,  Boston  anil 
London,  1755,  vol.  i,  p.  56,  is  the  earliest  discrimination  I  have  met  with  of  the  Bowhead  and  the  Right  Whale  of  the 
extra-polar  regions.  Some  interesting  facts  are  given  : 

"The  New- England  whalers  distinguish  10  or  12  different  species  of  the  whale-kind  ;  the,  most  beneficialia  the 
black  whale,  whale-bone  whale,  or  true  whale,  as  they  call  it;  in  Davis's-straits  in  N.  lat.  70  D.  and  upwards  they  are 
very  large,  some  may  yield  150  puncheons  being  400  to  500  barrels  oil,  and  bone  of  1H  feet  and  upwards ;  they  are  a 
heavy  loggy  lish,  and  do  not  fight,  as  the  New-Knghind  whalers  express  it,  they  are  easily  struck  and  fastened,  but 
not  above  one  third  of  them  are  recovered  ;  by  sinking  and  bewildering  themselves  under  the  ice,  two  thirds  of  them 
are  lost  irrecoverably ;  the  whalebone  whales  killed  upon  the  coast  of  New-England,  Terra  de  Labradore,  and  entrance 
of  Davis's-straits,  are  smaller,  do  yield  not  exceeding  120  to  130  barrels  oil,  and  9  feet  bone  140  Ib.  wt. ;  they  are  wilder 
more  agile  and  do  fight. 

"The  New  England  whalers  reckon  so  many  ct.  wt.  bone,  as  bone  is  feet  long  ;  for  instance,  7  foot  bone  gives 700 
wt.  bone :  New  England  bone  scarce  ever  exceeds  9  feet ;  and  100  barrels  oil  is  supposed  to  yield  1000  wt.  of  bone ; 
whales  killed  in  deep  water,  if  they  sink,  never  rise  again." 

A  few  paragraphs  below,  however,  he  proceeds  to  mix  the  subject  up  again,  speaking  of  the  Finback,  when  it  is 
quite  evident  that  the  Whale  bo  h:is  in  mind  is  not  the  right-whale  but  the  "Right  Whale." 

"The  lin-baek.  beside  two  small  side-tins,  has  a  large  tin  upon  his  back,  may  yield  50  to  00  barrels  oil,  his  bone 
is  brittle,  of  little  or  no  nse,  he  swims  swifter,  and  is  very  wild  when  stmck.  The  Bermmlians  some  years  catch  20  of 
these  whales,  not  in  sloops,  but  in  whale-boats  from  the  shore  as  formerly  at  Cape-Cod.  Tho  governor  of  Bermudas 
hoi)  a  perquisite  of  10£.  out  of  each  old  whale. 

"Whales  are  gregarious,"  he  continues,  "  and  great  travellers  or  passengers ;  in  the  autumn  they  go  south,  in 
tho  spring  they  return  northward.  They  copulate  like  neat  cattle,  but  the  female  in  a  supine  posture.  The  true  or 
whalebone  whale's  swallow  is  not  much  bigger  than  that  of  an  ox,  feeds  upon  small  fish  and  sea  insects  that  keep  in 
dholes,  has  only  one  small  tin  each  side  of  his  head  of  no  great  use  to  him  in  .swimming,  but  with  a  large,  horizontal 
tail  he  sculs  himself  in  the  water.  The  North  Cape  (in  X.  Lat.  72  D.  in  Europe)  whales,  are  of  the  same  small  kind 
as  arc  the  New-England,  and  entrance  of  Davis's-straits:  hero  we  may  again  observe,  that  the  high  European  latitudes 
arc  not  so  cold  as  the  same  American  latitudes,  because  72  D.  is  tl»e  proper  N.  Lat.  in  Davis's-straits  for  the  large 
whales,  and  the  Dutch  lish  for  them  longsJdo  of  fields  or  large  islands  of  ice,  they  use  long  warps,  not  drudges  as  in 
New-England." 

'EecHRiciiT  &  UEINIIARDT:  Om  Nordhvalcn,  1861. 


Till-:   KOU  IIKAH:  SI/K.   CSKS. 


21 


liEiM:oi>i  <  i  K>N.— The  lime  and  place  of  breeding  arc  not  certainly  known,  l>ut  it  is  supposed 
that  tin-  young  arc  horn  in  the  inaccessible  parts  of  tlic  Arctic  Ocean.  In  Tcliantar  l'.a\  arc  foiini) 
.small  whales  called  ••  I'oggys."  which  resemble  the  Bowhead,  and  uro  hy  many  helievc<|  to  he  their 
young. 

The  Itowhcads  of  the  Arctic  are  classed  by  Scammon  as  follows:  (1)  the  largest  wlmles  of  a 
In-own  color.  a\crage  \ield  of  oil  LMMI  barrels;  (•_')  smaller,  color  black,  yield  100  hands;  (;»)  .small- 
est, color  black,  yield  1~>  barrels,  and  to  these  should  perhaps  be  added  (4)  the  " poggy," yield  HO  to 
L'.'I  barrels.  Those  of  the  third  class  are  generally  found  early  in  the  season  among  the  broken 
Hoes,  and  have  been  known  to  break  through  ice  three  inches  thick  that  had  been  formed  over 
water  between  the  Hoes.  This  they  do  by  coming  up  under  and  striking  it  with  the  arched  portion 
of  their  heads.  Hence  they  have  been  called  "ice-breakers." 

KroNOMio  IMPORTANCE. — The  Bowhead  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  whalebone  whales,  not  so 
much  by  reason  of  its  size,  for  it  rarely  exceeds  fifty  feet  in  length,  never  sixty-five,  but  because 
it  yields  so  large  an  amount  of  oil  and  whalebone.  It  is  short,  bulky,  and  bloated  in  appearance. 
Like  the  sperm  whale,  it  has  a  head  the  length  of  which  is  nearly  one-third  of  the  total,  and  which 
is  its  most  striking  feature.  The  caudal  fin  is  immense,  being  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  extent  from 
tip  to  tip,  and  correspondingly  thick  and  broad. 

SIZE. — Scammou  gives  measurements  of  two  individuals.  One,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  August, 
18(!7,was  forty-seven  feet  long,  and  yielded  eighty  barrels  of  oil.  The  other,  from  the  same  ocean, 
in  IS70,  was  forty-five  feet  long,  yielded  sixty  barrels  of  oil  and  1,050  pounds  of  bone.  Capt.  David 
<iiay,  of  Peterhead,  also  gives  measurements  of  an  individual  taken  in  Greenland.  Some  of  the 
most  impori ant  dimensions  of  these  three  whales  are  presented  here,  in  order  to  impart  to  the 
reader  .an  idea  of  their  proportions: 


Scammou, 
"Captain  Toolo'g 
whale." 

Scammon, 
"Captain  Smith'* 
whale." 

"Captain  Oray'a 
whale." 

Lrueth 

Fttt.  in. 
47      0 

Fttt.   i». 
45      0 

fret.   in. 
47      0 

17     8 

11      0 

Girth  in  largest  place 

28      0 

8     0 

7      3 

Breadth  of  tail  

It     0 

10      0 

20      0 

10      6 

9      6 

10      1 

Thlcknrw  of  blubber 

jl 

0 

Breadth  of  Up 

5      0 

10      8 

MOVEMENTS. — When  not  disturbed  the  animal  remains  up,  generally  to  respire,  from  one  and 
a  half  to  two  minutes,  during  which  time  it  spouts  from  six  to  nine  times,  and  then  disappears  for 
:  lie  space  of  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  The  volume  of  vapor  is  similar  to  that  ejected  by  the  right 
whale.  Sometimes,  when  engaged  in  feeding,  it  remains  down  for  twenty-five  minutes  or  more. 
\Ylicn  struck  by  the  whalemen  they  have  been  known  to  remain  on  the  muddy  bottom,  at  a  depth 
of  lit'ty  fathoms  or  more,  for  the  space  of  an  hour  and  twenty  minutes.  Their  movements  and  the 
periods  of  time  they  remain  above  or  below  the  surface  are,  however,  irregular.  When  going 
gently  along  or  lying  <juietly,  they  show  two  portions  of  the  body — the  spout-holes,  and  a  pait  of 
the  back. 

BALEEN. — Thebaleen,  or  "whalebone."  of  the  (ireenland  and  the  flight  W  hales,  being  of  so  much 
importance  commercially,  it  cannot  be  amiss  to  explain,  by  means  of  diagrams  and  a  description. 


22  T1IE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

bow  it  is  attached  to  the  mouth  of  the  animal,  and  for  what  purposes  it  is  used,  even  at  the  risk  of 
being  a  trifle  too  elementary  for  many  of  the  readers  of  this  chapter. 

It  is  wrongly  called  "whalebone,"  since  it  is  not  bone,  but  a  substance,  resembling  equally  hair 
and  horn,  which  grows  in  the  mouth  of  the  animal  as  a  substitute  for  teeth,'  being,  as  anatomists 
generally  admit,  a  peculiar  development  of  hair  growing  upon  the  palate.2  This  substance  is 
developed  into  a  sieve-like  apparatus,  consisting  of  extensive  rows  of  compact,  flexible,  closely  set 
plates  or  blades,  growing  from  the  thick  gum  at  the  circumference  and  palatal  surface  of  the  upper 
jaw,  hanging  down  upon  both  sides  of  the  tongue. 

Capt.  David  Gray,  of  the  whaling  ship  "Eclipse,"  of  Peterhead,  Scotland,  has  recently  made 
a  number  of  important  observations  upon  these  whales,  one  of  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
ascertainment  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Baleen  Whales  operate  the  powerful  sieve-like  organs 
within  their  jaws.  He  has  also  published  some  very  interesting  diagrams  of  the  interior  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Greenland  Whale.3 

"Along  the  middle  of  the  crown-bone,"  writes  Captain  Gray,  "the  blades  of  whalebone  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch  of  gum,  but  the  interval  decreases  both 
towards  the  nose  and  the  throat  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  The  gum  is  always  white;  in  substance 
it  resembles  the  hoof  of  a  horse,  but  softer.  It  is  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  or  broken  by  the  hand, 
and  is  tasteless.  The  whalebone  representing  the  palate  is  lined  inside  the  mouth  with  hair,  for 
the  purpose  of  covering  the  space  between  the  slips,  and  prevents  the  food  on  which  the  Whale 
subsists  from  escaping.  This  hair  is  short  at  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  but  is  from  twelve  to  twenty 
inches  long  at  the  points  of  the  whalebone.  This  it  requires  to  be,  because  when  the  mouth  is 
opened  the  bone  springs  forward,  and  the  spaces  are  greatest  at  the  points.  I  counted  the  number 
of  blades  of  whalebone  in  a  whale's  head  last  voyage,  and  found  286  on  the  left,  aud  289  on  the 
right  side  of  the  head. 

"  Hitherto  it  has  been  believed  that  the  whale  bone  had  room  to  hang  perpendicularly  from 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  to  the  lower  jaw,  when  the  mouth  was  shut,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  The 
bone  is,  however,  arranged  so  as  to  reach  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  jaw  when  the  mouth  is  open; 
were  it  otherwise  the  whale  would  not  be  able  to  catch  its  food;  it  would  all  escape  underneath 
the  points  of  the  whalebone.  The  whale  has  no  muscular  power  over  its  whalebone,  any  more 
than  other  animals  have  over  their  teeth.  When  the  animal  opens  its  mouth  to  feed,  the  whale- 
bone springs  forward  and  downward,  so  as  to  fill  the  mouth  entirely;  when  in  the  act  of  shutting 
it  again,  the  whalebone  being  pointed  slightly  towards  the  throat,  the  lower  jaw  catches  it  and 
carries  it  up  into  a  hollow  in  front  of  the  throat."4 


1  The  uuborn  Greenland  Whale  has  undeveloped  teeth  ( "  sixty  to  seventy  dental  pulps  on  each  side  of  each  jaw  "), 
bnt  they  never  cut  the  gum,  but  are  reabsorbed  into  the  system. 

Iliii'Uanil  remarks:  "Aristotle  first  remarked  this  fact:  ' Mysticetua  eliam  pilau  in  are  Itabet  vice  denliiim  miia 
HI-UK  simite* ' — the  whale  has  hairs  in  his  mouth,  instead  of  teeth,  like  the  hairs  of  a  pig."  Professor  Owen  has  also 
remarked  that  "to  a  person  looking  into  the  mouth  of  a  stranded  whale,  the  concavity  of  the  palate  would  appear  tn 
be  beset  with  coarse  hair." 

3Land  and  Water,  December  1,  1877,  p.  468. 

4  Capt.  David  Gray's  observations  upon  the  position  of  the  whalebone  in  the  mouth  of  the  Greenland  Whale  are 
<iuite  novel,  aud  of  great  interest.  They  arose,  as  the  captain  tells  me  in  a  letter  just  received,  in  consequence  of  a 
conversation  which  we  had  together  a  few  years  ago,  while  lookiug  at  the  skeleton  of  the  largo  Whale  mounted  in  the, 
Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons.  I  asked  if  he  could  explain,  what  had  always  been  to  me,  as  to  others  who  have 
never  had  Captain  Gray's  opportunities  of  observation,  a  great  puzzle,  viz,  how  the  whalebone  could  be  so  much 
longer  than  the  space  which  it  occupied  in  the  animal's  mouth,  supposing  the  blades  to  be  placed,  as  usually  repre- 
sented, at  right  angles  with  the  long  axis  of  the  jaws.  This  difficulty  occurred  in  looking  at  all  the  authentic  figures, 
such  as  Scorenby's,  in  which  the  height  of  the  head  is  far  too  small  for  the  length  assigned  to  the  whalebone  on  the 
supposition  stated  above,  and  equally  in  looking  at  the  actual  bony  frame-work  of  the  head.  Captain  Gray's  explana- 
tion that  the  slender  ends  of  the  whalebone  blades  fold  backwards  when  the  mouth  is  shut,  the  longer  ones  from  the 


TIIK    I'.ONVHKAD:    FOOD    AND    I  KKDIM,.  23 


FOOD.—  Tin-  l<MKl  ,.f  tin-  Howhead  consists  of  floating  animaK  Ha^ed  l,\  H,..  whalemen  nuclei 
ilir  name-,  "right  whale  feed"  and  <-brit."  Many  kinds  of  invertebrates  arc,  of  course.  included 
under  these  general  terms,  one  of  the  most  abundant  of  which  is,  perhaps,  a  kind  of  winged  or 
pteropod  mollusk.  the  ('//'..  l><>i;-nlix,  \vlii<-h  occurs  in  northern  seas,  floating  in  great  masses.  When 
the  Imwhcad  is  feeding  it  moves  with  considerable  velocity  near  the  surface,  its  jaws  being  open 
to  allow  the  passage  of  currents  of  water  into  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  ami  through  the  layers  of 
baleen  at  the  sides.  All  eatable  substances  are  strained  out  by  the  fringe*)  of  the  baleen  and  arc 
swallowed. 

FKKDING  HAIJITS.  —  The  manner  of  feeding  is  well  described  by  Captain  Gray  :  "When  the  food 
is  near  the  surface  they  usually  choose  a  space  between  two  pieces  of  ice,  from  three  to  four 
hundred  yards  apart,  which  we  term  their  beat,  and  swim  backwards  and  forwards,  until  they  arc 
satisfied  that  the  supply  of  their  food  is  exhausted.  They  often  go  with  the  point  of  their  nose  so 
near  the  surface  that  we  can  see  the  water  running  over  it  just  as  it  does  over  a  stone  in  a  shallow 
stream:  they  turn  round  before  coming  to  the  surface  to  blow,  and  lie  for  a  short  time  to  lick  the 
food  oil  'their  bone  before  going  away  for  another  mouthful.  They  often  continue  feeding  in  this 
way  for  hours,  on  and  oft",  afterwards  disappearing  under  the  nearest  floe,  sleeping,  I  believe,  under 
the  ice,  and  coining  out  again  when  ready  for  another  meal.  In  no  other  way  can  this  sudden 
reapiKjarance  at  the  same  spot  be  accounted  for. 

'•  Very  often  the  food  lies  from  ten  to  fifteen  fathoms  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  this 
case  the  whales'  movements  are  quite  different.  After  feeding  they  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe 
ami  lie  still  for  a  minute.  One  can  easily  see  the  effort  they  make  when  swallowing.  They  then 
raise  their  heads  partially  out  of  the  water,  diving  down  again,  and  throwing  their  tails  up  in  the 
air  every  time  they  disappear.  Their  course  below  the  water  can  often  be  traced  from  their  eddy. 
This  is  caused  by  the  movement  of  the  tail,  which  has  the  effect  of  smoothing  the  water  in  circles 
immediately  behind  them. 

"More  whales  have  been  caught  when  feeding  in  this  way  than  in  any  other;  they  lie  longer  on 
the  surface,  often  heading  the  same  way  every  time  they  appear,  which  is  very  important  to  whale 
fishers,  because  whales  must  be  approached  tail-on  to  give  any  certainty  of  getting  near  enough 
to  have  a  chance  of  harpooning  them,  and  the  harpooner  has  a  better  idea  where  to  place  his  boat 
to  be  in  readiness  to  pull  on  to  them  whenever  they  come  to  the  surface. 

"  Like  all  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  whales  are  affected  by  the  tides,  being  most  numerous 
at  t  lie  full  and  change  of  the  moon,  beginning  to  appear  three  days  before,  and  disappearing  entirely 
three  days  after,  the  change.  Often  this  will  go  on  for  mouths  with  the  utmost  regularity,  unless 
some  great  change  in  the  ice  takes  place,  such  as  the  Hoes  breaking  up  on  the  ice  being  driven  off 
the  ground;  in  either  case  they  will  at  once  disappear. 

"No  doubt  whales  are  seen,  and  often  token  at  any  time  of  the  tides;  but  if  a  herd  is  hunted 

middle  of  the  jaw  falling  into  the  hollow  funned  by  the  shortness  of  the  blades  behind  them,  tut  seen  in  the  side  view,  is 
perfectly  elear  and  satisfactory.  It  shows,  moreover,  how,  whether  the  month  U  shut  <ir  open,  or  in  any  intermediate 
|M>-itiiiii.  the  lateral  spaces  between  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  are  always  kept  tilled  np  by  the  marvelunsly  eonstnieted 
hair  sieve,  or  strainer,  which  adapts  itself  by  its  flexibility  and  elasticity  to  the  varying  condition  of  the  parts  between 
which  it  is,  as  it  were,  stretched  across.  If  the  whalebone  had  been  rigid  and  depending  perpendicularly  from  th« 
upper  jaw  when  the  mouth  was  opened,  a  space  would  be  left  between  the  tips  of  the  whalebone  forming  the  lowci 
•  due  nf  the  strainer,  which,  as  Captain  flray  justly  remarks,  would  complet.  ly  interfere  with  its  use,  although  tin-  stifl". 
wall-like  lower  lip,  closing  in  the  sides  of  the  mouth  below,  may  have  the  effect  of  remedying  such  a  contingency 
I"  :i  cei  lain  extent  ;  :it  least,  it  would  do  so  if  the  whalebone  were  short  and  linn  as  in  the  tinners.  The  function  ol 
this  great  lip  in  .supporting  the  slender  anil  flexible  lower  ends  of  the  blades  of  the  (ireeiiland  Whale  and  preventing 
them  being  driven  outwards  by  tin-  flow  of  water  from  within  when  the  animal  is  closing  its  mouth,  i«  evident  from 
Captain  U  ray's  drawings  ami  explanation.  The  whole  apparatus  is  a  most  perfect  piece  of  animal  mc<  haniuu.  — 
I'I.OWKK,  \V.  li.  :  Land  and  Water,  December  1,  l«77,p.  470. 


24  THE  WHALES  AND  POEPOISES. 

systematically,  and  they  are  attached  to  a  particular  feeding  bank,  this  is  their  usual  habit. 
Neither  can  this  peculiarity  in  their  habits  be  easily  accounted  for;  their  food  is  as  abundant 
during  the  neap  as  it  is  in  the  spring  tides. 

"The  principal  food  of  the  Greenland  Whale  consists  of  a  small  crustacean,  not  larger  than  the 
common  house-fly,  which  is  found  in  greatest  abundance  when  the  temperature  of  the  sea  is  from 
34°  to  35°,  the  ordinary  temperature  amongst  ice  being  29°,  the  color  of  the  water  varying  from 
dark  brown  to  olive  green  and  clear  blue,  the  blue  water  being  the  coldest. 

"  The  Crustacea  live  upon  the  animalcule  which  color  the  water.  They  are  transparent,  and 
the  contents  of  their  stomachs  can  be  easily  seen  to  be  dark  brown  or  green  as  the  case  may  be." ' 

11.  THE  EIGHT  WHALES. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  AFFINITIES. — There  is  no  group  of  existing  mammals  so  important  as  the 
Eight  Whales,  concerning  which  so  little  that  is  satisfactory  is  known.  Zoologists  have  not  yet 
determined  how  many  species  there  are,  nor  what  are  the  limits  of  their  distribution.  All  that 
can  be  certainly  said  is,  that  Eight  Whales — that  is,  the  right  kind  to  kill  for  the  whalebone — 
occur  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  North  Pacific,  and  also  in  the  cooler  waters  of  the  southern 
hemisphere.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  they  never  cross  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  though  in  the 
south,  both  in  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic,  they  have  occasionally  been  known  to  cross  that  of 
Capricorn. 

The  Eight  Whales  of  the  north  have,  until  very  recently,  been  confounded  by  whalemen  and 
zoologists  with  the  bowhead,  or  polar  whale,  to  which  they  are  closely  related.  There  is  one 
group  of  baleen-bearing  whales,  the  rorquals,  finners,  or  finbacks,  which  have  a  fin  upon  the 
back:  the  true  Eight  Whales,  however,  have  none.  The  rorquals,  the  largest  of  whales,  are 
very  swift  and  slender,  and  are  believed  to  occur  in  tropical  as  well  as  temperate  seas,  all  the 
world  over. 

The  Eight  Whale  of  the  Western  Atlantic  has  been  described  by  E.  D.  Cope,  under  the 
name  Eubalcena  cisarctica.  This  species,  not  remotely  related  to  the  Eubalcena  biscayensis,  of  the 
Eastern  Atlantic,  was  formerly  abundant  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  and,  as  will  be  shown  in 
the  chapter  on  the  shore  whale  fishery  of  New  England,  its  presence  in  such  numbers  about 
Cape  Cod  was  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  planting  the  early  English  settlements  in  this  district. 
Captain  Atwood  informs  me  that  they  are  most  abundant  off  Provincetown,  in  April  and  May, 
though  occasionally  seen  at  other  seasons.  One  was  killed  in  Cape  Cod  Bay,  near  Provincetown, 
in  1867 ;  it  was  forty -eight  feet  long,  and  yielded  eighty -four  barrels  of  oil,  as  well  as  1,000  pounds 
of  baleen,  valued  at  $1,000.  Two  or  three  others  have  since  then  been  killed  in  the  vicinity,  but 
years  now  often  pass  by  without  any  being  seen.2 

A  Eight  Whale  of  forty  to  fifty  feet  was  killed  in  the  harbor  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  January  7, 
1880,  after  it  had  been  swimming  about  within  the  bar  several  days.3 

In  evidence  of  the  former  abundance  of  this  species,  may  be  mentioned  the  fact,  that  when, 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  whales  began  to  be  scarce  along  the  coast,  a  largo  fleet  was 
dispatched  to  Davis  Straits,  where  none  but  whalebone  whales  occur.  E.  cisarctica  ocelli's  at 
least  as  far  south  as  the  Bermudas.  A  species  of  Eight  Whale  is  found  also  about  the  Azores. 

In  the  North  Pacific  occurs  the  Pacific  Eight  Whale,  or  "  Northwest  Whale"  of  the  whalers, 

'Land  and  Water,  December  1,  1877,  p.  470. 

•  WHALING  AT  PROVINCETOWN.— A  Right  Whale  was  captured  in  Provincetown  Harbor  last  Thursday,  by  a  party  in 
three  boats.    Estimated  to  yield  sixty  barrels  of  oil. — Gloucester  Telegraph,  November  6,  1850. 
'  See  Charleston  News,  January  8,  1880. 


THE  K1GI1T  WHALES:  MOVKM  KYI'S  AND  KEl'llODUCTlON.  25 

cullamach  (Chamisso)  Cope.  Its  distribution  is  not  well  understood.  Dall  gives  it  as 
in  tin-  Arctic.  Heriii^,  and  Okliot.sk  Seas,  oil'  I.oucr  California,  and,  perhaps,  in  Japan.' 

Scaiiiinoii  writes  iliat  in  former  years  they  were  found  on  the  coast  of  Oregon,  and  occasion  - 
ally  in  large  numbers;  but  their  chief  resort  was  upon  what  is  termed  the  "  Kodiak  Ground," 
which  . •\tcii. Is  northwestward  from  Vancouver's  Island  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  westward  to 
tin-  one  hundredth  and  fiftieth  meridian.  They  also  abounded  in  the  Okhotsk  and  Bering  Seas, 
and  along  the  Kainschai  ka  coast  He  supposes  that  those  which  have  been  observed  on  the  coast 
of  California  were  stragglers  from  the  north.  "Some,  indeed,"  he  writes,  "have  been  taken  (from 
I'Ybniary  to  April)  as  far  south  as  the  Bay  of  San  Sebastian  Viscarrio,  and  about  Cedros,  or  Cevros, 
Island,  both  places  being  near  the  parallel  of  29°  north  latitude;  while  on  the  northwestern  coast 
they  are  captured  by  the  whalers  from  April  to  September  inclusive."* 

None  appear  to  have  been  killed  on  the  California  coast,  within  thirty  or  forty  years,  if  we  may 
judge  from  Captain  Scamuion's  failing  to  mention  such  instances. 

In  the  Antarctic  Seas  and  the  adjoining  waters  are  other  Bight  Whales.  Eubaltma  atuttralit, 
the  Cape  Whale  or  Black  Whale,  abounds  about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is  regarded  by 
M  urray  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  South  Atlantic,  South  Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans.3  E.  antipodarum 
was  described  by  Gray  from  New  Zealand,  and  in  Murray's  map  is  designated  as  a  more  antarctic 
form  than  the  Cape  Whale,  though  in  the  text  of  his  book  he  denies  that  this  is  known  to  be  a 
fact.1  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  bowhead  and  the  Eight  Whales  have  until  recently  been  con- 
sidered identical,  there  is  a  dearth  of  reliable  observations  upon  habits  known  to  refer  definitely 
to  these  animals. 

MOVEMENTS.— Their  manner  of  feeding  and  general  mode  of  life  are,  as  might  be  expected, 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  bowhead.  I  quote  from  Scammou : 

"They  are  often  met  with  singly  in  their  wanderings,  at  other  times  in  pairs  or  triplets,  and 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  water  as  far  as  the  eye  can  discern  from  the  masthead.  Toward 
the  last  of  the  season  they  are  seen  in  large  numbers  crowded  together.  The  herds  are  called 
'  gams,'  and  they  are  regarded  by  experienced  whalemen  as  an  indication  that  the  whales  will  soon 
leave  the  grounds. 

"Their  manner  of  respiration  is  to  blow  seven  to  nine  times  at  a  'rising,'  then, '  turning  flukes' 
(elevating  them  six  or  eight  feet  out  of  the  water),  they  go  down  and  remain  twelve  or  fifteen 
minutes.  It  is  remarked,  however,  since  these  whales  have  been  so  generally  pursued,  that  their 
action  in  this  respect  has  somewhat  changed.  When  frightened  by  the  approach  of  a  boat  they 
have  a  trick  of  hollowing  the  back,  which  causes  the  blubber  to  become  slack,  thus  preventing  the 
harpoon  from  penetrating.  Many  whales  have  been  missed,  owing  to  the  boat-steerer  darting  at 
this  portion  of  the  body.  Having  been  chased  every  successive  season  for  years,  these  animals  have 
become  very  wild  and  difficult  to  get  near  to,  especially  in  calm  weather." 

REPRODUCTION. — The  time  of  gestation  is  fixed  by  Scammon  at  about  one  year.  Twins  are 
occasionally  though  rarely  born.  The  time  and  place  of  calving  is  not  known,  but  are  supposed  to 
be  variable,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sperm  whale.  These  whales  are  said  to  resort  to  the  Californian 
"bays"  to  bring  forth  their  young,  and  formerly  were  sought  fdr  in  the  inland  waters  of  these 
high  southern  latitudes,  where  many  a  ship  has  in  past  years  quickly  completed  her  cargo  by  "bay 
whaling."5 

•  I>u.i.:  Catalogue  of  the  Cetaceans  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.     <8cAMMON:  Marine  Mammalia,  p.  305. 

-SfVMMiiN  :    ../..    .  i/.,    ]..    1.7. 

'MURRAY:  (lengraphical  Distribution  of  Mammals,  p.  -JO-,  map. 

4 MURRAY:  op.  cit. 

4 SCAMMON:  op.  cit.,  p.  67. 


26  THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

SIZES  AND  YIELD  OF  OIL. — The  following  statement  of  sizes  of  whales  taken  by  New  Bedford 
vessels,  as  indicated  by  their  yield  of  oil,  is  very  instructive.  It  was  furnished  by  Capt.  Benjamin 
Russell,  in  1875.  There  is  no  means  of  distinguishing  the  bowheads  from  the  Eight  Whales: 

Captain  Devot  took  one  Eight  Whale  off  Kodiac;  made  290  barrels. 

Captain  Devot  took  four  Eight  Whales  off  Kodiac;  made  920  barrels. 

Captain  Clark  took  one  Eight  Whale  off  Kamtchatka;  made  180  barrels. 

Captain  Wood  took  one  Eight  Whale  off  Kamtchatka;  made  230  barrels. 

Captain  Eice,  of  New  London,  took  ten  Eight  Whales  off  Kamtchatka;  made  700  barrels. 

Captain  Winston  took  one  Eight  Whale  off  Kamtchatka;  made  270  barrels. 

Captain  Winston  took  two  Eight  \Vhales  off  Kamtchatka ;  made  480  barrels. 

Captain  Spooner  took  one  Eight  Whale  off  Kamtchatka;  made  200  barrels. 

Captain  Cox  took  one  Eight  Whale  off  Kodiac;  made  225  barrels. 

Captain  West  took  two  Eight  Whales ;  made  508  barrels. 

Captain  West  took  thirteen  Eight  Whales;  made  1,780  barrels. 

Captain  Wood  took  one  Eight  Whale;  made  280  barrels. 

A  number  of  captains  report  one  each,  from  80  to  200  barrels. 

12.  THE  HUMPBACK  WHALES. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  Humpback  Whales,  also  often  called  Bunch  Whales  by  Europeans,  occur 
in  both  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  Captain  Eoss  saw  them  as  far  south  as  latitude  71°  50'.  In  the 
Pacific  they  range  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they  occur  also  about 
Greenland.  Our  Atlantic  species  is  Meyaptera  osphyui  Cope,  that  of  the  California  region  M.  vcr- 
sabilis.  As  usual,  the  inquirer  must  go  to  Scammon  for  accurate  observations,  little  being  known 
about  the  species  of  the  Atlantic. 

MIGRATIONS. — They  appear  to  resort  periodically,  and  with  some  degree  of  regularity,  to  cer- 
tain localities  where  the  females  bring. forth  their  young.  Scammou  found  them  breeding  in  July 
and  August,  1852  and  1853,  in  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  Peru;  in  December  in  the  Bay  of  Valle  do 
Banderas,  Mexico,  latitude  20°  30';  and  in  May,  1855,  at  Magdaleua  Bay,  Lower  California,  lati- 
tude 24°  30'.  Captain  Beckennan  observed  them  at  Tongataboo,  Friendly  Group,  latitude  21°  south, 
longitude  174°  west,  in  August  and  September.  Large  numbers  of  both  sexes  migrate  north  in 
summer  and  south  in  winter. 

SIZE. — They  attain  the  length  of  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  feet,  and  yield  from  eight  to 
seventy-five  barrels  of  oil.  The  largest  taken  in  1871  by  Captain  Beckerman  was  seventy-five 
feet  long,  and  produced  seventy-three  barrels,  but  the  average  yield  was  forty  barrels,  including 
the  entrail  fat,  which  amounted  to  about  six  barrels.  One  taken  off  the  bay  of  Monterey,  in  1858, 
yielded  145  barrels. 

The  blubber,  according  to  Bennett,  is  yellowish-white,  five  to  fifteen  inches  thick,  and  the  oil  is 
said  to  be  better  than  that  of  the  right  whale. 

The  baleen  possesses  a  moderate  commercial  value.  In  a  specimen  fifty-two  feet  long,  Scam- 
mon records  540  laminae,  the  longest  two  feet  eight  inches  long  and  nine  inches  broad,  and  elsewhere 
lie  estimates  its  yield  at  400  pounds  to  100  barrels  of  oil.1 

FOOD. — Their  food  consists  of  fish  and  crustaceans  scooped  up  at  the  surface.  When  feed- 
ing they  are  most  easily  captured.  The  time  and  place  of  breeding  have  already  been  spoken 
of.  "In  the  mating  season,"  writes  Scammon,  "they  are  noted  for  their  amorous  antics.  At  such 
times  their  caresses  are  of  the  most  amusing  and  novel  character,  and  these  performances  have 
doubtless  given  rise  to  the  fabulous  tales  of  the  swordfish  and  thrashers  attacking  whales.  When 

'SCAMMON:  of.  cit.,  jip.  40,  41. 


TIIK  HI  Mi'i-.ACK  AND  mi:  si  i.i-nci;  KOITOM  27 

lying  In  the  side  of  each  other,  tin-  Megaptcra.s  frequently  administer  alternate  blows  with  their 
long  tins,  which  love  laps  may  on  a  still  day  bo  heard  at  a  distant*  of  miles.  They  also  rub  each 
oilier  with  these  same  huge  ami  flexible  arms,  rolling  occasionally  from  side  to  side,  and  indulging 
in  other  gambols." 

HtMPBACK  WHALES  IN  NEW  ENGLAND — The  Humpback  Whale  was  formerly  a  frequent 
\  isitor  to  the  waters  of  New  England,  but  of  late  years  has  not  often  been  seen.  Captain  Atwood 

tells that  a  great  many  have  been  killed  near  Provineetown  within  his  recollection:  that  is  to 

say,  or  since  1817.  One  harpooned  in  the  harbor  in  1840  yielded  fifty-four  barrels  of  oil.  Two 
were  killed  in  the  spring  of  1879,  with  bomb-lances. 

This  species  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  ordinary  whales  of  the  region,  though,  of  course,  far 
interior  to  the  right  whale.  In  addition  to  the  oil,  the  baleen  or  whalebone  is  of  some  worth.  In 
past  years  it  has  sold  for  as  much  as  six  and  one-quarter  cento  a  pound.  It  rarely  exceeds  two 
feet  in  length  and  is  not  very  elastic.  The  shore  fishery  of  Cape  Cod,  which  was  quite  vigorously 
prosecuted  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  was  probably  largely  concerned  with  this  specien 

In  1ST!)  the  Humpbacks  were  abundant  on  the  coast  of  Maine.  One  of  the  most  successful 
whalers  out  of  Provineetown  this  season  is  the  "Brilliant,"  a  very  old  pink-stern  schooner  of 
seventeen  tons,  which  had  been  hunting  this  species  off  Deer  Isle,  Maine.  Up  to  September  1,  she 
had  taken  four  whales,  yielding  one  hundred  and  forty-five  barrels.  The  "Brilliant"  .carries  but 
one  whale-boat  ami  t lies  out.  the  oil  upon  shore,  towing  in  the  whales  as  they  are  killed.  On 
the  14th  of  May,  1881,  twenty  Humpbacks  were  shot  with  bomb-lances  in  Provincetowu  harbor. 

"The  Humpback,"  says  Douglass,  of  the  New  England  whales,  in  1748,  "has  a  bunch  in  the 
same  part  of  his  back,  instead  of  a  fin.  The  bone  is  not  good;  makes  fifty  to  sixty  barrels  oil." 

The  oil  of  the  Humpbacks  is  said  by  Bennett  to  be  sui>erior  to  that  from  the  right  whale,  and 
but  little  less  valuable  than  sperm  oil. 

13.  THE  SULPHUR-BOTTOM  WHALES. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  MOVEMENTS.— The  Sulphur-bottom  Whale  of  the  Pacific  coast,  SibbaMhw 
HiilfureiHt  Cope,  is  said  to  be  the  largest  known  cetacean.1  Its  name  and  that  of  its  related  Atlan- 
tic species,  8.  borealix  ( Fischer)  Geoffroy,  is  derived  from  a  yellowish  tint  upon  the  white  belly. 
The  Atlantic  Sulphur-bottom,  which  is  also  called  by  English  whalers  the  "Flat  Back,"  does  not 
grow  to  the  immense  si/e  characteristic  of  the  Pacific  form.  In  the  Atlantic,  the  Sulphur-bottom 
is  not  uncommon,  though  rarer  than  the  humpback  and  finback.  On  the  coast  of  the  Califor- 
nias,  writes  Scammou,  it  occurs  at  all  seasons,  and  from  May  to  September  is  often  found  in  large 
numbers  close  in  with  the  shore,  at  times  playing  about  ships  at  anchor  in  the  open  roadsteads,  near 
islands  or  capes,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  not  approaching  vessels  with  the  same  boldness  as  the 
finbacks.  It  glides  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  occasionally  displaying  its  entire  length.  When 
it  respires  its  vaporous  breath  ascends  to  such  a  height  that  its  immense  size  is  evident  to  the 
observer.  It  is  occasionally  captured  with  a  bomb-lance,  but  never  except  by  aid  of  the  bomb- 
lance.  Being  considered  the  swiftest  of  all  whales,  it  is  seldom  pursued,  and  still  more  rarely 
taken. 

The  Sulphur- bottom  of  the  Atlantic  resembles  the  finbacks  in  shape  and  habits,  and  is  probably 
often  confounded  with  them  by  those  who  see  it  swimming.  Captain  Atwood  informs  me  that 
none  have  been  seen  near  Provineetown  of  late  years.  Professor  Baird  obtained  a  fine  skeleton 
at  Nautucket  in  1875  (No.  16039,  U.  8.  N.  M.).  Captain  Atwood  writes:  "Like  the  finback,  it 

'Captain  Horn,  quoted  by  Scanimon.  gives  the  following  memoranda  of  an  individual  ineatmreincnt  by  him: 
Length,  ninrty-lhr  feet  :  ^irth,  thirty-nine  feet  ;  length  of  jaw-bone,  twenty-one  feet :  length  of  longest  baleen,  four 
feet;  yield  of  baleen,  800  pounds;  yield  of  oil,  110  barrels;  weight  of  whole  animal  by  calculation,  294,000  pounds. 


28  THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

lias  on  its  back  a  very  small  dorsal  fin.  Being  very  much  elongated,  it  is  a  swift  runner  and  hurries 
through  the  water  with  a  velocity  so  great  that  the  whaleman  cannot  kill  them  in  the  same  way 
that  they  take  the  other  species.  I  have  never  seen  it  dead  and  kuow  but  little  about  it."1 

14.  THE  FINBACK  WHALES. 

DISTRIBUTION.— The  Finback  Whales  of  the  Atlantic,  Sibbaldius  tectirostris  Cope,  and  S. 
tuberosits  Cope,  are  closely  related  to  the  sulphur-bottoms.  The  former  is  the  most  common  of 
the  larger  cetaceans  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  half  a  dozen  or  more  may  be  seen  in  an  afternoon's 
cruise  any  sunny  afternoon  of  summer.  They  become  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine  soon  after 
the  beginning  of  April.  They  swim  near  the  surface,  often  exposing  the  back  for  half  its  length, 
and  I  have  several  times  seen  them  rise  within  fifty  feet  of  the  yacht  on  which  I  stood.  Septem- 
ber 12, 1879,  four  were  swimming  and  spouting  in  Provincetown  Harbor. 

The  skeleton  obtained  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  1875  (No.  16045,  U.  S.  N.  M.)  belongs  to 
the  species  whose  name  heads  this  paragraph.  The  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  also  has  a 
specimen,  taken  at  Provincetown,  forty-seven  feet  long,  which  yielded  eighty  barrels  and  fourteen 
gallons  of  oil. 

MOVEMENTS. — Captain  Atwood  tells  us  that  Finbacks  are  rapid  swimmers  and  are  not  often 
attacked  by  the  whalers.  They  "run"  so  hard  that  the  boats  "cannot  tow  to  them,"  and  it  is 
impossible  to  get  up  to  them  to  lance  them.  They  sometimes  strand  on  the  shore,  and  of  late  years 
a  few  are  occasionally  killed  with  a  bomb-lance  in  the  spring.  One  was  lanced  one  autumn,  about 
the  year  1868,  by  boats  pursuing  blackfish.  It  was  sixty  feet  long,  and  made  about  twenty  barrels 
of  oil.  The  "bone"  is  shorter  than  that  of  the  humpback,  and  is  of  little  value.2  When  lanced, 
not  being  oily  enough  to  float  at  once,  they  sink  and  remain  at  the  bottom  for  a  few  days,  during 
which  time  much  of  the  blubber  is  eaten  off  by  sharks.  They  yield  very  little  oil. 

ABUNDANCE  IN  NEW  ENGLAND. — Two  ran  ashore  some  years  ago  in  Provincetown  Harbor, 
one  of  which  yielded  fourteen,  the  other  twenty  barrels  of  oil.  One  killed  at  Provincetown,  though 
fifty-four  feet  long  and  a  good  fat  whale  of  its  kind,  yielded  only  twenty  barrels  of  oil.3 

THE  DUBERTUS. — An  interesting  question  regarding  the  name  by  which  this  whalo  was 
known  in  the  early  days  of  the  American  colonies  has  recently  been  discussed. 

The  charter  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  granted  in  1663  by  Cbarles  II, 
provides,  among  more  important  rights  and  privileges: 

"And  ffurther,  for  the  encouragement  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  sayd  collouy  of  Providence 
Plantations  to  sett  upon  the  businesse  of  takeing  whales,  itt  shall  bee  laweftill  ft'or  them,  or  any 
of  them,  having  struck  whale,  DUBERTUS  or  other  greate  flBsh,  itt  or  them  to  pursue  unto  any  parte 
of  that  coaste,  and  into  any  bay,  river,  cove,  creeke  or  shoare  belonging  thereto,  and  itt  or  them 
upon  the  sayd  coaste,  or  in  the  sayd  bay,  cove,  creeke  or  shoare  belonging  thereto,  to  kill  and  order 
to  the  best  advantage,  without  molestation,  they  makeing  noe  wilfull  waste  or  spoyle,  anything 
in  these  presents  conteyned,  or  any  other  matter  or  thing,  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding." 

1  IJulli'tiii  Musi-inn  Comparative  Zoology,  vol.  viii,  p.  204. 

*A  large  Finback  Whalo,  forty  feet  in  length,  got  aground  on  tlie  flats  near  tlio  light-house  at  Wellflcet,  ou 
Wi'dnrsday,  l>y  the  fall  of  the  tide,  and  ho  was  killed  by  cutting  a  hole  in  him  and  then  using  an  oar  as  a  spade. 
When  the  tide  i*  out  people  can  walk  around  the  whale. — Semi-Weekly  Advertiser,  Boston,  February,  27, 1872. 

On  the  2d  of  May,  1828,  a  whale  was  cast  ashore  at  Whale  Reach,  Swampecott,  measuring  sixty  fret  in  length,  and 
twenty-five  barrels  of  oil  were  extracted  from  it. — LEWIS  &  NEWHALI,  :  History  of  Lynn,  p.  3!)1. 

1755.  A  whalo,  seventy-five  feet  in  length,  was  landed  on  King's  Reach,  on  the  9th  of  December.  Dr.  Henry 
I !n ri-1  nt I'd  rode  into  its  mouth,  in  a  chaise  drawn  by  a  horse  ;  and  afterwards  had  two  of  his  bones  set  up  for  gate- 
posts at  his  honso  in  Essex  street,  whore  they  stood  for  more  than  fifty  years.  [Opposite  the  doctor's  house,  the  cot 
of  Moll  Pitcher,  the  celebrated  fortune-teller,  stood.  And  many  were  the  sly  inquiries  from  strangers  for  the  place 
where  the  big  whale-bones  were  to  be  seen.]— Ibid.,  p.  330. 

'Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  vol.  viii,  p.  204,  and  in  letters. 


TiirMP.ru.  n»\<  T.i;\l\<;   Itl'liKKTUS.  29 

In  answer  to  a  letter  of  inquiry  from  Profess.tr  Kami,  I'n.t.-ssui  Tniuiliiill  wrote  as  follows: 

HARTFORD,  February  1, 1880. 

Di.  \u  I'uoi  i.ssni;  p,  \n:i>:  Vour  query  of  January  29  just  now  comes  to  hand.  Isn't  tli:it 
troublesome  Dubcrtux  rlui<linsnli'nsi>t  satisfactorily  disposed  of  yet t  More  than  twenty  one  years 
ago  (iii  November.  Is.'iSj  the  Kev.  S.  C.  Newman,  of  Pawtucket,  questioned  Professor  Agassi?,  on 
the  snbjcet.  His  reply  \v;is.  that  having  looked  in  the  only  work  in  which  ho  snpjtosed  the  desin-d 
information  was  likely  to  be  Ibiuiil— N.-mnich's  Pollyglottcn  Lexicon — he  could  only  say  that  it  did 
not  e\eii  eontain  tlie  name  ••  I  >ul>rrtus."  The  correspondence,  so  far  unsatisfactory,  was  printed  in 
the  "  Providence-  Journal,"  December  9.  The  next  day  the  Hon.  Albert  (1.  (iivi-ne  wrote  to  the 
''.Journal"  that  "before  and  at  the  time  of  the  granting  of  the  charter  of  Rhode  Island,  '  DuhertiiH' 
was  the  word  used  to  distinguish  the  uperm  whale  from  the  common  or  right  whale,"  and  referred 
for  Ins  authority  to  the  description  given  by  Sir  Thomas  Browne  "of  the  spermaceti  whale," 
whieh  "mariners  (who  arc  not  the  best  nouienclators)  called  a  Jubartas,  or  rather  Gibbartas."  Mr. 
(lieene  eame  ver.v  near  being  right,  and  undoubtedly  teas  right  in  identifying  the  "Dubertus"  of 
the  charter  with  the  ".luharias"  or  "Gibbartas"  of  the  old  whale  fishermen;  but  he  was  wrong  on 
the  main  point  that  either  "Jubartiis"  or  "Dubertus"  was  a  distinctive  name  of  the  sperm  whale, 
except  by  a  •'vulgar  error"  of  the  Norfolk  mariners,  who,  as  Sir  Thomas  Browne  understood,  "are 
not  the  best  nomeiiclators."  The  ".Jnhartas,r  "Cibhartus,"  or  "Gubartas" — as  the  name  which,  by 
an  error  of  the  engrossing  clerk,  appears  as  "Dubertus"  in  the  llhode  Island  charter,  was 
\arionsly  written  by  naturalists  in  the  seventeenth  century — was  a  Finback,  the  "  Balwna  Nova 
A  Hi/lite"  as  Klein  calls  it,  the  "  Jupiterrisch'"  of  the  Dutch  whalers,  Balecnoptera  Jubartes  of 
Laecpede.  (The  last  name  I  heard  for  it  was,  I  think,  Sibbaldius  tubcrosus  ;  but  this  was  a  year 
or  two  ago,  and  it  may  have  been  rechristened  a  dozen  times  since  then.)  The  name,  however,  has 
been  applied  to  more  than  one  species  of  Finback,  for  naturalists,  when  dealing  with  cetacea,  were 
not,  in  the  last  century,  much  better  "nomenclatora"  than  the  English  mariners ;  but  it  has  always 
been  restricted  to  the  Balamopteridee,  and  has  never  designated  any  species  of  either  tperm  or 
riyht  whales. 

The  history  of  the  name  is  cnrions.  Rondelet  ("De  Piscibus"lib.  xvi,  p.  482)  gives  a  figure  of 
a  ••  liahena  Vera"  (drawn  from  life,  he  says)  which  "the  whale  fishers  of  Saintonge  call  Gibbar,  a 
Gibbero  Dorso,  that  is,  raised  in  a  hnrnp,  on  which  is  the  fin."  From  this  provincial  name  came 
(iHibui-tiis.  <!nhnrtnx,  Jiibart,  Jubarten,  Jupiter,  and  half  a  dozen  other  corruptions,  introduced  first 
among  mariners,  and  afterwards  adopted  or  recognized  as  synonyms  by  naturalists,  and  distributed 
among  three  or  four  different  species. 

Laco"pede,  under  Balasnoptera  Jubartex,  includes  Bafona  boops  (Gmelin),  and  "  probably  the 
sulphur-bottom  of  the  west  coast  of  North  America,"  the  Jubartes  of  Klein,  and  the  Jupiter  Finch, 
described  by  Anderson,  as  well  as  Baleine  Jubarte  of  Bonnaterre  (Encyc.  M<$th.). 

Klein  ("Misc.Pisc.^"  11, 13)  says  that  the  whale  catchers  have  corrupted  the  name  of  the  Jupiter, 
or  I'iscis  Jovis,  to  Jubartes,  which  is  reversing  the  actual  process  of  corruption.  He  calls  this  the 
"Whale  of  New  England." 

Anderson,  cited  by  Lace"pede,  in  "Nachrichten  von  Island,  Gronland,  etc.,"  p.  220,  describes  "  the 
Jupiter  or  Jnpiterfisch  "  as  a  kind  of  fin-fish,  saying  that  its  name,  without  doubt,  comes  from  that 
of  Gubartes  or  Gibbartas,  which  has  been  given  it  by  others,  and  which  is  itself  a  corruption  of 
the  Miseayan  (iiblmi; 

Bnt  Laclpede  makes  "  Battrna  nodosa,"  "Humpback  Whale  of  the  English,"  and  Balcena 
gibbosaf  the  Whitlcs  of  New  England,  and  refers  to  Bopnaterre.  who  separates  le  Gibbar,  EngL 
Fintish,  from  la  Jubarte  B.  boops.  Between  Gibbar  and  Gibbosa,  Jupiter  and  Gubartvs,  the  things 
get  rather  mixed. 


30  TOE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

Cranz,  in  bis  history  of  Greenland  (Engl.  trausl.,  vol.  i,  p.  110)  describes  "the  Jupiter  Whale, 
which  the  Spanish  whale  fishers  call  more  properly  Gubartas,  or  Gibbar,  from  a  protuberance, 
gibbero,  which  grows  towards  the  tail,  besides  the  flu." 

Returning  to  the  "Dubertus"  of  the  charter,  Senator  Anthony  will  see  how  easy  it  was  for  an 
engrossing  clerk  to  mistake  the  initial  "G,"  in  seventeenth  century  chancery-hand,  for  a  "D,"  in  an 
unfamiliar  name.  A  more  troublesome  mistake  was  made  by  the  engraver  of  the  seal  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company,  which  obliged  Governor  Winthrop  always  to  describe  himself,  in 
official  papers,  as  governor  of  the  Company  of  Mattachusetts  Bay,  etc. 

J.  HAMMOND  TRUMBULL. 

THE  PACIFIC  FINBACK. — The  Finback  of  the  Pacific,  Balamoptera  velifera  Cope,  also  called 
the  Oregon  Finner,  is  common  in  Oregon  and  California,  and  is  the  rival  of  the  sulphur-bottom  in 
swiftness.  Like  the  Atlantic  Finbacks,  it  can  be  taken  only  with  the  bomb  gun.  Scammon  gives 
the  measurements  of  an  individual  sixty  feet  long  which  came  ashore  near  the  Golden  Gate.  He 
states  that  enormous  quantities  of  codfish -have  been  found  in  their  stomachs.  "The  habitual 
movements  of  the  Finback  in  several  points  are  peculiar.  When  it  respires,  the  vaporous  breath 
passes  quickly  through  its  spiracles,  and  when  a  fresh  supply  of  air  is  drawn  into  the  breathing^ 
system,  a  sharp  and  somewhat  musical  sound  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance,  which  is 
quite  distinguishable  from  that  of  other  whales  of  the  same  genus.  (We  have  observed  the  intervals 
between  the  respirations  of  a  large  Finback  to  be  about  seven  seconds.)  It  frequently  gambols 
about  vessels  at  sea,  in  mid-ocean,  as  well  as  close  in  with  the  coast,  darting  under  them,  or  shoot- 
ing swiftly  through  the  water  on  either  side;  at  one  moment  upon  the  surface,  belching  forth  its 
quick,  ringing  spout,  and  the  next  instant  submerging  itself  beneath  the  waves  as  if  enjoying  a 
spirited  race  with  the  ship  darting  along  under  press  of  sail.  Occasionally  they  congregate  in 
schools  of  fifteen  to  twenty  or  less." ' 

"An  instance  occurred  in  Monterey  Bay  in  1865,  of  five  being  captured;  a  'pod'  of  whales 
was  seen  in  the  offing,  from  their  shore  station,  by  the  whalemen,  who  immediately  gave  chase. 
One  was  harpooned,  and,  although  it  received  a  mortal  wound,  they  all  'run  together'  as  before. 
One  of  the  gunners  managed  to  shoot  the  whole  five,  and  they  were  all  secured. 

"A  Finback  sixty-five  feet  long  yielded  seventy-five  barrels  of  oil.  The  blubber  was  clear 
white,  seven  to  nine  inches  thick.  The  largest  baleen  measured  twenty-eight  inches  in  length, 
thirteen  in  width,  and  was  provided  with  a  long  fringe."2 

Another  related  form,  the  Sharp-headed  Finner,  B.  Damdsonii  Scammon,  has  habits  similar  to 
the  Finback,  but  frequents  more  northern  waters,  where  it  is  sometimes  taken  by  the  Indians  of 
Cape  Flattery. 

15.  THE  SCRAG  WHALE. 

HISTORY  OF  THK  SCRAG  WHALE. — The  Hon.  Paul  Dudley,  writing  in  1809  of  the  whales  of 
New  England,  remarked  upon  a  certain  kind  in  these  words:  "A  Scrag  Whgle:  Is  near  akin  to  the 
Fin  Back,  but  instead  of  a  fin  upon  its  back,  the  ridge  of  the  after  part  of  its  back  is  scragged  with 
half  a  dozen  knobs  or  knuckles.  He  is  nearest  the  right  whale  in  figure  and  quantity  of  oil.  His 
bone  is  white  but  won't  split."3 

Atwood  also  writes:  "A  species  of  whale  known  by  this  name,  nearly  allied  to  if  not  identical 
with  the  right  whale,  is  sometimes  taken  here.  It  is  the  opinion  of  many  of  our  whalemen  that 
they  are  not  a  distinct  species,  but  the  young  right  whale  that  lost  its  mother  while  very  young, 


1  SCAMMON:  op.  nil.,  p.  35. 
*  SCAMMON:  op.  oil.,  jj.  :54. 
'DUDLEY,  PAUL:  Philosophical  Transactions,  xxxiii,  1809,  p.  2f>9. 


Tin:  sriiAc  AND  Tin:  i»i:vn.  I.'ISIL  31 

and  grew  up  witl t  parental  ran-,  which  lias  caused  a  slight   modification.     Tin-  HM.M   prniiiinoiit 

feature  is  that  in  its  dorsal  ridge,  near  tin-  tail,  there  are  a  number  of  small  projections  or  hunches, 
having  sonic  resemblance  to  the  teeth  of  a  saw.     It  has  no  dorsal  fin  or  hump  on  its  hack."1 

Douglass,  writing  in  1748,  also  mentioned  the  Scrag  and  the  humps  upon  its  body. 

Cope  has  formed  for  this  whale  the  genus  Agaphclus,  and  it  stands  in  the  lists  under  the  name 
Agujihilim  i/iliboxtix  [Krxl.|  Cope. 

The  Sera;,'  is  of  special  interest  on  account  of  its  influence  in  first  developing  the  whaling 
industries  of  Nan  tucket.  Macy,  the  historian  of  the  island,  states  that  in  the  very  eai  1\  days  of  t  hat 
colon.N.  prior  to  KIT.1,  -A  whale  of  the  kind  called  the  Scragg  came  into  the  harbor  and  continued 
there  t  In ve  days.  This  c veiled  the  curiosity  of  the  people  and  led  them  to  devise  measures  to  prevent 
his  return  out  of  the  harbor.  They  accordingly  invented  and  caused  to  b«  wrought  for  them  a 
harpoon  with  which  they  attacked  and  killed  the  whale.  This  ftrst  success  encouraged  them  to 
undertake  whaling  as  a  permanent  business;  whales  being  at  that  time  numerous  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  shores." ' 

Scummon  remarks:  "Our  observations  make  it  certain  that  there  is  a  'Scrag'  Right  Whale  in 
the  North  Pacific  which  corresponds  very  nearly  to  that  of  the  Southern  Ocean,  -  -  -  and 
which  yields  a  paltry  amount  of  oil."3  No  identification  of  this  form  has  yet  been  made.  Dieffen- 
bach  states  that  in  the  southern  seas  "Scrags"  is  the  whalers'  name  for  the  young  of  the  right 
whale.4 

16.  THE  CALIFORNIA  GRAY  WHALE. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  California  (hay  Whale,  Rhachianecteg  glauctu  Cope,  called  by  whalemen 
"Devil-fish,"  "  Hard  Head,"  "  Gray  Back,"  "Hip  Sack,"  and  "  Mussel  Digger,"  though  long  known 
to  fishermen,  was  first  described  in  18(59,  from  specimens  brought  to  the  United  States  National 
Museum  by  ('apt.  W.  H.  Dall,  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey.  The  only  account  of  its  habits 
is  in  Scainmon's  Itook,  already  often  quoted.  Its  range  is  from  the  Arctic  Seas  to  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. From  November  to  May  it  is  found  on  the  California  coast,  while  in  summer  it  resorts  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  In  October  and  November  it  is  seen  off  Oregon  and 
Upper  California,  returning  to  warm  water  for  the  winter. 

HABITS. — They  follow  close  along  the  shore,  often  passing  through  the  kelp,  and  congregate 
in  the  lagoons  of  the  southern  coast,  where  they  are  the  objects  of  the  extensive  lagoon  or  bay 
whale  fishery. 

ABUNDANCE. — Their  abundance  in  former  years  and  at  present  was  thus  discussed  by  Captain 
Scaminon  in  1874:  "It  has  been  estimated,  approximately,  by  observing  men  among  the  shore 
whaling  parties  that  a  thousand  whales  passed  southward  daily  from  the  15th  of  December  .to  the 
1st  of  February,  for  several  successive  seasons  after  shore  whaling  was  established,  which  occurred 
in  1851.  Captain  Packard,  who  has  been  engaged  in  the  business  Cor  over  twenty  years,  thinks 
this  a  low  estimate.  Accepting  this  number  without  allowing  for  those  which  passed  oft' shore  out 
of  sight  from  the  land,  or  for  those  which  passed  In-fore  the  15th  of  December,  and  after  the  1st 
of  February,  the  aggregate  would  be  increased  to  47,000.  Captain  Packard  also  states  that  at  the 
present  time  the  average  number  seen  from  the  stations  passing  daily  would  not  exceed  forty. 
From  our  own  observation  upon  the  coast,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  numbers  resorting 
annually  to  the  coast  of  California  from  185;?  to  185(5  did  not  exceed  -1(1,0(10— probably  not  over 
30,000;  and  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  which  pass  oft'  shore  at  so  great  a  distance  as  to 

'Ai.i.K.N  :  Mammalia  of  M:i-.:n  hu-.-tts.     <I!iilli-tin  of  the  Mum-urn  of  Comparative  Zoology,  8,  p.  203. 

•-MACY:   llismrv  of  Nantiickct,  p.  28. 

"SSCAMMOX:  loc.  eil.,  p.  67. 

4  JDiBFPKMiAcu,  E. :  Travels  in  Now  Zealand,  i,  1843,  p.  45. 


32  THE  WHALES  AND  PORPOISES. 

be  invisible  from  the  lookout  stations ;  there  are  probably  between  100  and  200  whales  going  south- 
ward daily  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  '  down  season'  (from  December  15  to  February  1). 
The  estimate  of  the  nnnnal  herd  visiting  the  coast  is  probably  not  large,  as  there  is  no  allowance 
made  for  those  that  migrate  earlier  and  later  in  the  season.  From  what  data  we  have  been  able 
to  obtain,  the  whole  number  of  California  Gray  Whales  which  have  been  captured  or  destroyed 
since  the  bay  whaling  commenced  in  1846  would  not  exceed  10,800,  and  the  number  which  now 
periodically  visits  the  coast  does  not  exceed  8,000  or  10,000." 1 

On  another  page  he  writes:  "None  of  our  whales  are  so  constantly  and  variously  pursued  as 
this;  and  the  large  bays  and  lagoons  where  these  mammals  once  congregated,  brought  forth  and 
nurtured  their  young,  are  already  nearly  deserted.  The  mammoth  bones  of  the  California  Gray  lie 
bleaching  on  the  shores  of  these  silvery  waters,  and  are  scattered  along  the  broken  coasts  from 
Siberia  to  the  Gulf  of  California ;  and  ere  long,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  this  mammal  will 
not  be  numbered  among  the  extinct  species  of  the  Pacific." 2 

SIZE. — The  male  attains  the  average  length  of  thirty-five  feet,  while  the  female  grows  to  forty 
or  more.  A  female  forty -four  feet  long  and  twenty-two  feet  in  circumference  is  considered  large, 
though  some  still  greater  have  been  caught,  yielding  sixty  or  seventy  barrels  of  oil.  The  average 
yield  of  the  male  is  twenty  to  twenty-five  barrels.  The  baleen  is  light  brown  or  nearly  white, 
coarse-grained,  with  a  heavy,  uneven  fringe,  the  longest  strips  measuring  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
inches.  The  blubber  is  solid  and  tough,  reddish  in  color,  and  from  six  to  ten  inches  thick. 

FOOD  AND  REPRODUCTION. — The  nature  of  the  food  of  the  California  Gray  Whale  is  not 
satisfactorily  known,  though  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  consists  of  surface  animals,  strained 
out  by  the  baleen. 

They  breed  in  the  winter,  the  females  entering  the  California  lagoons,  while  the  males  remain 
outside.  To  their  disturbance  on  their  breeding  grounds  may  be  attributed  the  great  diminution 
in  numbers.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  a  year.  After  the  young  are  born,  male  and  female 
and  calf  are  seen  working  northward  together,  and  Scaminon  thinks  that  they  bear  young  only 
once  in  two  years. 

CAPTURE. — The  habit  of  frequenting  shoal  bays  is  peculiar  to  this  one  species.  They  are 
often  seen  among  the  breakers,  where  they  are  tossed  about  by  the  grouudswell,  and  where  the 
water  is  hardly  deep  enough  to  float  them.  The  pursuit  of  this  whale  is  very  dangerous,  owing 
to  their  savage  disposition  and  the  shoaluess  of  the  water  into  which  they  are  followed.  The 
Eskimos  and  Indians  of  the  Northwest  kill  many,  using  their  flesh  for  food  and  their  skins  for 
clothing. 

1  SCAMMON  :  op.  cit.,  p.  23. 
8  SCAM  MOV  :  op.  cit.,  p.  33. 


THK  SEAL  TKIIli:   IN  CKNKIIAL.  33 


B.— THE   SEALS   AND   WALRUSES. 

N i  >TK.— The  following  biographiesof  tin-  Seals  and  Walruses  aie. by  the  ]>cimissioiiof  the  author, 
.I.  A.  Allen,  extracted  from  the  ••  Monograph  of  the  Piniiipedsof  North  America."  It  is  considered 
important  to  present  in  this  K'eport.  in  a  form  convenient  for  reference,  biographies  of  all  tin-  im- 
portant a«|iiatir  animals  of  the  Tinted  States;  and  since  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  secure  from 
any  other  source  so  complete  and  reliable  a  discussion  of  the  Seals  as  that  given  liy  Allen,  it  lias 
been  thought  allowable  to  reprint  the  biographical  portion  of  his  monograph.  The  material  is  here 
published  in  such  a  different  form,  being  divested  of  the  great  mass  of  technical  matter,  interesting 
ehictly  to  xoologists,  \\itli  which  it  was  originally  surrounded,  that  it  is  to  all  intents  a  fresh  pre- 
sentation of  the  subject. 

The  liiograpliy  of  the  Walruses  has  been  comlens-d  and  rewritten  by  Mr.  Goodc,  during  the, 
ill-health  and  absence  of  Mr.  Allen,  the  discussions  in  the  monograph  lieing  too  extended  for  the 
needs  of  this  lleport.  I'or  an  exceedingly  interesting  biography  of  these  most  interesting  animals 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Allen's  more  detailed  work" 

17.  THE  SEAL  TRIBE  IN  GENERAL. 

The  I'iuuipeds.  or  1'in/ii/xilin,  embracing  the  Seals  and  Walruses,  are  commonly  recognized  by 
recent  systematic  writers  as  constituting  a  suborder  of  the  order  Fera,  or  Carnivorous  Mammals. 
They  are,  in  short,  true  Carnivora,  modified  for  an  aquatic  existence,  and  have  consequently  been 
sometimes  termed  "  Amphibioivt  Carnironi."  Their  whole  form  is  modified  lor  life  in  the  water, 
which  element  is  their  true  home.  Here  they  display  extreme  activity,  but  on  land  their  move- 
ments are  confined  and  labored. 

The  existing  Pinnipeds  constitute  three  very  distinct  minor  groups  or  families,  differing  quite 
widely  from  each  other  in  important  characters  :  these  are  the  Walruses,  or  Odnlxruiild',  the  Eared 
Seals,  or  Otariidw,  and  the  Earless  Seals,  or  Phocida1.  The  first  two  are  far  more  nearly  allied  than 
are  either  of  these  with  the  third,  so  that  the  Odoba'nida-  and  Otariida:  may  IK-  together  contrasted 
with  the  Phocidce.  The  last  named  is  the  lowest  or  most  generalized  group,  while  the  others  appear 
to  stand  on  nearly  the  same  plane,  and  about  equally  remote  from  the  Phneidtr.  The  Walruses 
are  really  little  more  than  thick,  clumsy,  obese  forms  of  the  otarian  type,  with  the  canines  enor- 
mously developed,  and  the  whole  skull  correlatively  modified.  The  limb  structure,  the  mode  of 
life,  and  the  whole  economy  are  essentially  the  same  in  the  two  groups,  and  aside  from  the  cranial 
moditications  presented  by  the  Odobamida',  which  are  obviously  related  to  the  development  of  tlie 
canines  as  huge  tusks,  the  Walruses  are  merely  elephantine  Otariids,  the  absence  or  presence  of 
an  external  ear  being  in  reality  a  feature  of  minor  importam  e. 

The  Pinnipeds  present  a  high  degree  of  cerebral  development,  and  are  easily  domesticated 
under  favorable  conditions.  They  manifest  strong  social  and  parental  affection,  and  defend  their 
young  with  great  persistency  and  courage.  They  are  carnivorous  (almost  without  exception), 
subsisting  upon  fishes,  mollusks,  and  crustaceans,  of  which  they  consume  enormous  ipiantities. 
The  Walruses  and  Eared  Seals  are  polygamous,  and  the  males  greatly  exceed  the  females  in  si/.e. 
The  ordinary  or  Earless  Seals  are  commonly  supposed  to  be  monogamous,  ami  tln-i<-  u  generally 
little  dilferciice  in  the  size  of  the  sexes.  The  Walruses  and  Eared  Seals  usually  resort  in  lai 
numbers  to  certain  favorite  breeding  grounds,  and  during  the  season  of  reproduction  leave  tin- 
water,  and  pass  a  considerable  period  upon  land.  The  Earless  Seals,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Sea  Elephants,  do  not  so  uniformly  resort  to  particular  breeding  grounds  on  land, 

'1880.  AM.KX.  .Inn.  ASAIMI  :  lli»i"i\  c.fNnrili  Atnrriraii  l'i>iiii|>(iU;  H  nmn<  j-ra|ih  of  tin-  Walruses,  8e«  Lion*,  Sea 
Bears,  ami  Seals  of  North  Aim-ii.  a.     Wii<.liin-;t<>ii.  (invi-rniiii-iit    I'riiilin;;  Oilir.-.  I.-HI.  -MKI  pp.,  \\i,  7*.     Miscellaneous 
.  No.  1-J,  U.  S.  Geol.  &.  O»u.  >mv..  K.  V.  H:I\.|.-II,  .;i-nli.»i,t  in  charge. 
F 


34  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUS KS. 

and  leave  the  water  only  for  very  short  intervals.  They  usually  briug  forth  their  young  ou  the  ice, 
most  of  the  species  being  confined  to  the  colder  latitudes.  Only  one  of  the  various  species  of  the 
l'!n)iii><'tlin  appears  to  be  strictly  tropical,  and  very  few  of  them  range  into  tropical  waters.  As  a 
group,  the  Pinnipeds  are  distinctively  characteristic  of  the  arctic,  antarctic,  and  temperate  portions 
of  the  globe,  several  of  the  genera  being  strictly  arctic  or  subarctic  in  their  distribution.  Tin- 
Walruses  are  at  present  confined  mainly  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  have  no  representatives  south 
of  the  colder  portions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  Ot artifice  and  Phocidcc,  ou  the  other  hand, 
are  abundantly  represented  on  both  sides  of  the  Equator,  as  will  be  noticed  more  in  detail  later. 

18.  THE  WALRUSES. 

DISCUSSION  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  AND  PACIFIC  SPECIES. — There  are  two  species  of  Wall  us, 
that  of  the  Atlantic,  Odobamits  rosmarus  Malmgreu,  and  that  of  the  Pacific,  0.  obcsus  (Illiger)  Allen. 
These  animals  are  found  only  in  the  extreme  north,  and  it  was  for  many  years  commonly  supposed 
that  there  was  but  a  single  circumpolar  species.  Mr.  Allen  has  confirmed  the  views  of  Pennant, 
expressed  in  17!>2  and  emphasized  since  1870  by  Elliott  and  Gill.  Their  differences  are  tints 
described : 

The  Pacific  Walrus  is  similar  in  size,  and  probably  in  general  contour,  to  that  of  the  Atlantic 
(though  possibly  rather  larger,  and  commonly  described  or  depicted  as  more  robust  or  thicker  at  the 
shoulders),  but  quite  different  in  its  facial  outlines.  The  tusks  are  longer  and  thinner,  generally  more 
convergent,  with  much  greater  inward  curvatures,  the  bristles  upon  the  muzzle  shorter  and  smaller. 
The  chief  external  difference  appears  to  consist  in  the  shape  of  the  muzzle  and  the  size  and  form 
of  the  bristly  nose-pad,  which  has  a  vertical  breadth  at  least  one-fourth  greater  than  in  the 
Atlantic  species.  Very  important  differences  between  the  two  species  are  exhibited  in  the  skulls, 
which  are  fully  described  in  Mr.  Allen's  book. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ATI- ANTIC  WALRUS. — The  Atlantic  Walrus  is  not  now  to  be  found 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  nor  has  it  been  within  historic  time,  or  during  the  last  three 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  though,  like  the  musk  ox,  the  caribou,  and  the  moose,  it  ranged  during 
the  great  Ice  Period  much  beyond  the  southern  limit  of  its  boundary  at  the  time  fhe  eastern  coast 
of  North  America  was  first  visited  by  Europeans.  During  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
they  are  known  to  have  frequented  the  southern  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  as  well  as  the  shores  and 
islands  to  the  northward,  but  this  apj>ears  at  that  time  to  have  been  their  southern  limit  of 
distribution,  and  to  these  islands  New  England  vessels  seem  occasionally  to  have  resorted  to  kill 
them  for  their  teeth  and  oil.1  In  177."*  they  were  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  at  the 
Magdalen  Islands,  Saint  John's,  and  Anticosti,  when;  they  congregated  yearly  to  the  number  of 
seven  or  eight  thousand,  and  where  they  were  soon  exterminated  by  the  "Americans."2 

In  isr.iiaiid  is(i<)  Packard  and  Gilpin  recorded  the  killing  of  individuals  near  the  Straits  of 
Belle  Isle,  and  in  I  si  is  one  was  driven  ashore  in  Saint  George  Hay,  Newfoundland.  The  last  seen 
in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  was,  ••icctirdiug  to  Professor  Packard,  in  1S11,  when  one  was  killed 
at  Saint  Augustine,  Labrador.  Dr.  15ernard  Gilpin  speaks  of  the  occurrence  of  their  bones  at 
Miscon,  on  the  IJay  of  (Mialeur,  ill  such  numbers  as  to  form  artificial  sea-beaches.  These  were, 
doubtless,  victims  of  "the  Hoyal  Company  of  Miscou,"  founded  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  seven- 

..      .-.--„,-_.-_  T_  

A  eaael  that  returned  ;it  tliiit  time  (Iti-ll)  fioiu  I  hit  Jslcg  of  Snhh-s  inaile  ;i  better  \ii\jip-,  l>mi;;in<r  loin  hnii'ln-d 
pair  of  SI:I-|M>IM-  In-ill  vvilli  divers  tun  cil'  oil.  li.-»ides  niurli  other  "oeds  <if  like  MHI  \\liiili  they  left  Ireland,  worth 
jL'l.VNI.—  Ill  lil!\i:i>'s  Ilisloiy  of  New  |-:iif>hin<l  In. in  Hie  iliseover.v  to  !'.,!-.  p.  :;7St. 

Tin-  Si-a-Co-.v  or  Mor>e  is  plenty  upon  I  In-  eoawts  oC  \nvii-Si-otia  .-mil  lliel.'ulph  of  St.  Laurence,  partirularly  ill  tin: 
ixlaml  of  St.  John's;  it  is  of  the  bigness  of  a  middling  eow  (it  is  not  the  same  with  tin-  Manatee  of  ihi-  (.'nlph  of 
M  llco  .  a  very  thick  skin  with  hair  like  that  of  a  HUH].— Dor<;i.\<"'  North  America,  I?".."). 

; .Meaning,  of  course,  people  from  tin-  southern  colonies. 


Till:   \VAI.IM  S:    IIAIMTS   AM)  DISTK1  lU'HON.  35 

leentli  century  li.v  tin-  Kin-  lit'  France,  and  whose  ephemeral  city  of  New  Itochelle  hits  passed 
away,  leaving  no  sign.  The  murdered  Sea  horses  have  left  a  more  enduring  monument  than  their 
murdereis.  At  the  present  time  its  ilistrilmtion  in  the  Western  Atlantic  seems  to  be  limited  on 
tin- south  li.v  the  parallel  of  latitude  <J5°,  and  on  tlie  \vi-st  along  the  arctic  coast  by  the  ninety  - 
seventh  meridian  of  longitude.  It  inhabits  the  shore  of  Hudson's  Buy,  Davis's  Strait,  and  Green- 
land,  ranging  north  to  llcpulse  May  and  Prince  Regent  Inlet.  In  the  Old  World  it  is  found  only 
about  the  islands  and  in  the  icy  seas  of  Eastern  Europe  and  the  neighboring  waters  of  Western 

A^a.     It  has  rarely  heei t  with  to  the  eastward  of  the  Jenisei  (longitude  82°  E.),  and  has  not 

been  s i  eastward  of  the  one  hundred  and  thirtieth  meridian.     As  lately  as  1857  a  straggler  was 

seen  at  Orkney  and  another  in  Nor"  Isles.  The  distribution  of  this  sjwcies  has  been  thus  carefully 
noted  Id-cause  its  destruction  has  been  participated  in,  and  the  time  of  its  extermination  doubtless 
to  >oine  extent  hastened,  by  the  efforts  of  American  whalemen. 

The  Walrus  is  the  Morse  or  Sea-horse  of  ancient  writers,  many  quaint  extracts  from  whom,  with 
reproductions  of  their  figures,  are  given  by  Mr.  Allen. 

KISI -IMIII  i  ION  di  mi:  PACIFIC  WALRUS. — While  the  Atlantic  Walrus  has  been  familiar  to 
our  race  since  A.  I).  871,  when  the  Normau  explorer  Othere  brought  tusks  of  the  "Horsewhale" 
from  the  Arctic  Sea  to  King  Alfred  of  England,  that  of  the  Pacific  was  not  discovered  until  1048. 
when  the  Cossack  adventurer  Staduchin  found  its  tusks  on  the  arctic  coast  of  Eastern  Asia;  nor 
was  it  fairly  known  until  the  time  of  Steller,  Cook,  Kotzebue,  and  Pallas,  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Its  range  is  comparatively  narrow,  being  confined  on  the  one  hand  to  a  com- 
paratively small  stretch  of  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts  of  Asia,  and  to  a  still  smaller  portion  of 
the  opposite  American  coast.  To  the  westward  the  Walrus  appears  not  to  have  been  traced  beyond 
Cape  Schelatskoi  (157°  .'?»>'  east  longitude),  and  to  have  occurred  in  large  herds  only  as  far  west  as 
Koljntschin  Island  (150°  east  longitude).  On  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  as  early  as  1742,  none  had 
been  >een  south  of  latitude  00°,  and  of  course  their  southern  range  in  that  direction  is  now  still 
more  limited.  Jn  the  Arctic  Sea,  north  of  Bering  Strait,  they  have  been  met  with  as  far  north 
as  ships  have  penetrated,  their  westward  range  being  limited  only  by  the  unbroken  ice  sheet.  On 
the  American  coast  they  have  been  traced  eastward  only  as  far  as  Point  Barrow.  They  were 
formerly  abundant  about  the  islands  in  Bering  Sea,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  ever  ranged 
as  far  south  as  the  outermost  islands  in  the  Aleutian  chain.  On  the  mainland  they  were  found  by 
Cook,  at  Mristol  Bay,  latitude  58°  42',  where  now,  according  to  Elliott,  they  are  more  numerous 
than  at  any  point  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  Their  immense  destruction,  chiefly  by  American 
\\  halei-s.  renders  it  probable  that  before  long  they  will  be  entirely  exterminated  in  the  territory  of 
the  I'nited  States. 

SIZE. — The  length  of  a  full-grown  male  Atlantic  Walrus  is  given  by  Dr.  (lilpin  at  twelve  feet 
three  inches,  its  weight  being  estimated  at  LM',~»<)  pounds,  while  Elliott  gives  the  length  of  a 
similar  Alaska  specimen  at  twelve  to  thirteen  feet,  its  girth  ten  to  fourteen  feet,  and  its  weight 
2.000  pounds,  the  skin  alone  weighing  from  250  to  400,  the  head  from  110  to  .so  pounds. 

HABITS. — The  Wall-uses  are  at  all  times  more  or  less  gregarious,  occurring  generally  in  l.> 
or  small  companies,  according  to  their  abundance.  Like  the  Seals,  they  are  restricted  in  their 
wanderings  to  the  neighborhood  of  shores  or  large  masses  of  floating  ice,  being  rarely  seen  far  out 
in  the  open  sea.  Although  moving  from  one  portion  of  their  feeding  ground  to  another,  they  are 
said  to  lie  in  no  sense  a  migrating  animal.  They  delight  in  huddling  together  on  the  ice  Hoes,  or  on 
shore,  to  which  places  they  resort  to  bask  in  the  sun.  pressing  one  against  another  like  so  many 
swine.  They  are  also  said  to  repair  in  large  herds  to  favorable  shoies  or  islands,  usuallv  in  May 
and  June,  to  give  birth  to  their  young,  at  which  times  they  sometimes  remain  constantly  on  land 


36  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

for  two  weeks  together,  without  ever  taking  food.  They  are  believed  to  be  monogamous,  and  to 
bring  forth  usually  but  a  single  young  at  a  time,  and  never  more  than  two.  The  period  of  gesta- 
tion is  commonly  believed  to  be  about  nine  months.  The  young  are  born  from  April  to  June,  the 
time  probably  varying  with  the  latitude.  The  Walrus,  like  the  common  Seal,  is  said  to  have  its 
breathing  hole  in  the  ice.  The  tusks  appear  to  be  used  for  two  purposes,  to  aid  in  landing  upon 
icy  and  rocky  shores,  and  in  aid  of  their  clumsy  locomotion,  and  also  iu  digging  up  the  shell-fish 
and  roots  of  marine  plants  upon  which  they  feed.  Their  voice  is  a  loud  roaring  or  Chucking,"  and 
the  voices  of  a  herd  may  be  distinguished  at  the  distance  of  several  miles.  Although  savage  in 
appearance,  they  are  inoffensive  and  harmless,  except  when  attacked,  but  when  enraged  are  fierce 
and  vindictive,  especially  iu  defense  of  their  young,  for  which  they  exhibit  much  affection.  They 
are  wary  and  shy,  however,  and  difficult  to  approach  except  under  cover  of  darkness. 

The  hide,  the  oil,  and  the  tusks  of  the  Walrus  are  of  commercial  value,  and  the  walrus  fishery 
of  the  Pacific  is  of  considerable  importance. 

''In  looking  at  this  uncouth  animal,"  writes  a  contributor  to  ' Scribner's  Monthly  Magazine,' 
"  the  most  natural  question  at  once  arises,  What  earthly  service  can  such  an  ungainly,  stupid  beast 
render?  What,  indeed,  is  the  use  of  its  existence!  But  the  answer  is  swift  and  satisfactory:  were 
it  not  for  the  subsistence  furnished  so  largely  by  the  flesh  and  oil  of  the  Morse,  it  is  exceedingly 
doubtful  whether  the  Esquimaux  of  North  America,  from  Bering  Strait  clear  around  to  Labrador, 
could  manage  to  live.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  walrus  meat  is  the  sole  diet  of  these  simple 
people,  for  that  is  very  wide  of  the  truth ;  but  there  are  several  months  of  every  year  when  the 
exigencies  of  the  climate  render  it  absolutely  impossible  for  the  hardiest  native  to  go  out  and  procure 
food,  and  then  the  value  of  the  cache  of  walrus  meat  is  appreciated,  when  for  weeks  and  weeks  it 
forms  the  beginning  and  end  of  every  meal.  The  Walrus  responds  to  as  many  demands  of  the 
Inuuit  as  the  camel  of  the  Arab,  or  the  cocoa-palm  of  the  South  Sea  Islander.  Its  flesh  feeds  him; 
its  oil  illuminates  and  warms  his  dark  hut;  its  sinews  make  his  bird-nets;  its  tough  skin,  skillfully 
stretched  over  the  light  wooden  frame,  constitutes  his  famous  kayak,  and  the  serviceable  oomiak, 
or  bidarrab ;  its  intestines  are  converted  into  water-proof  clothing,  while  the  soles  to  its  flippers  are 
transferred  to  his  feet;  and,  finally,  its  ivory  is  a  source  of  endless  utility  to  him  in  domestic  use 
and  in  trade  and  barter.  Walrus  famines  among  the  Esquimaux  have  been  recorded  in  pathetic 
legends  by  almost  all  of  the  savage  settlements  in  the  arctic.  Even  now,  as  I  write  (November, 
1880),  comes  the  authentic  corroboration  of  the  harsh  rumor  of  the  starvation  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Saint  Lawrence  Island — those  people  who  live  just  midway  between  the  Old  World  and  the  New, 
in  Alaskan  waters.  The  winter  of  1879-'80  was  one  of  exceptional  rigor  in  the  arctic,  though  iu 
this  country  it  was  unusually  mild  and  open.  The  ice  closed  in  solid  around  Saint  Lawrence 
Island,  so  firm  and  unshaken  by  the  mighty  powers  of  wind  and  tide  that  the  Walrus  were  driven 
far  to  the  southward  and  eastward,  out  of  reach  of  the  unhappy  inhabitants  of  that  island,  who, 
thus  unexpectedly  deprived  of  their  mainstay  and  support,  seem  to  have  miserably  starved  to  death, 
with  the  exception  of  one  small  village  on  the  north  shore.  The  residents  of  the  Poonook,  Poogo- 
vellyak.  and  Kagallegak  settlements  perished,  to  a  soul,  from  hunger — nearly  300  men,  women, 
and  children.  I  was  among  these  people  in  1874,  during  the  month  of  August,  and  remarked  their 
manifold  superiority  over  the  savages  of  the  northwest  coast  and  the  great  plains.  They  seemed 
then  to  live,  during  nine  months  of  the  year,  almost  wholly  upon  the  flesh  and  oil  of  the  Walrus. 
Clean-limbed,  bright-eyed,  and  jovial,  they  profoundly  impressed  one  with  their  happy  subsistence 
and  reliance  upon  the  walrus  herds  of  Bering  Sea;  and  it  was  remarked  then  that  these  people  had 
never  been  subjected  to  the  temptation,  and  subsequent  sorrow,  of  putting  their  trust  in  princes; 
hence  their  independence  and  good  heart.  But  now  it  appears  that  it  will  not  suffice,  either,  to  put 
.your  trust  in  Walrus." 


Till!    KAKKD  SI'.AI.S:    II. A  HITS   A  M  >   IMS  TIM  111' HUN  37 

19.  THE  SEA  LIONS  AND  FUR  SEALS  IN  GENERAL. 

in  Mi  UTKKS.— The  largest  species  of  Hi,-  Otaries  (genera  Olaria  and  Ktu,.<  toping) 
an'  Hair  Seals,  while  iln-  smallest  genera  Ctilldrliimix  ;nn\  Arctocepltaluii)  an-  Fur  Seals;  but  the 
species  nt  Xnlupliiix,  although  Hair  Seals.  MIC  ititrrmriliate  in  si/.e  between  the  other  Hair  Seals  and 
the  Fur  Seals.  All  ihe  Hair  Seals  have  coarse,  hard,  still1  hair,  varying  in  length  with  ago  and 
.season,  and  are  wholly  without  soft  underfill-.  All  the  Fur  Seals  have  an  abundant  soft,  silky 
underfill-,  giving  to  the  skins  of  the  females  and  younger  males  great  value  as  articles  of  coiiiiiieife. 
The  longer,  eoarser  overhair  varies  in  length  and  abundance  with  season  anil  age.  All  the  Hair 
Seals  are  \cllowish  or  reddish  liruwn  (in  Xalophun  sometimes  brownish-black),  generally  darkest 
when  young,  and  becoming  lighter  with  age,  and  also  in  the  same  individuals  toward  ihe  molting 
season.  There  is  also  considerable  range  of  individual  variation  in  representatives  of  the  same 
species,  so  that  co. oration  alone  fails  to  afford  satisfactory  diagnostic  eharacteis.  All  the  Fur  Seals 
are  black  when  \oung,  but  they  become  lighter  with  age,  through  an  abundant  admixture  of  grayish 
hairs  which  vary  from  yellowish  gray  to  whitish-gray.  The  southern  Fur  Seals  are  generally,  when 
adult,  much  grayer  than  the  northern.  There  is  hence  a  wide  range  of  color  variation  with  age  in 
the  same  species,  as  there  is  also  among  conspeciflc  individuals  of  the  same  sex  and  age.  While 
.some  have  the  breast  and  sides  pale  yellowish-gray,  others  have  these  parts  strongly  rufous,  the 
general  tint  also  showing  to  some  extent  these  differences. 

There  is  also  a  wonderful  disparity  in  size  between  the  sexes,  the  weight  of  the  adult  males 
being  generally  three  to  iive  times  that  of  the  adult  females  of  the  same  species.  There  are  also 
very  great  differences  in  the  form  of  the  skull,  especially  iu  respect  to  the  development  of  crests 
and  protuberances  for  muscular  attachment,  these  being  only  slightly  developed  in  females  and 
enormously  so  in  the  males.  With  such  remarkable  variations  in  color  and  cranial  characters, 
dependent  upon  age  and  sex,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  snrpr  se  that  many  nominal  species  have  arisen 
through  a  misappreciation  of  the  real  significance  of  these  differences. 

HABITS. — The  Eared  Seals  show  also  a  remarkable  resemblance  in  their  gregarious  and  iw'lyg- 
ainous  habits.  All  the  species,  wherever  occurring,  like  the  Walruses  and  Sea  Elephants,  resort 
in  great  numbers  to  particular  breeding  stations,  which,  in  sealers'  parlance,  have  acquired  I  lie 
strangely  inappropriate  name  of ''rookeries."  The  older  males  arrive  first  at  the  breeding  grounds, 
where  they  immediately  select  their  stations  and  await  the  arrival  of  the  females.  They  keep  up  a 
perpetual  warfare  for  their  favorite  sites,  and  afterward  in  defense  of  their  harems.  The  number 
of  females  acquired  by  the  successful  males  varies  from  a  dozen  to  fifteen  or  more,  which  they  guard 
with  the  utmost  jealousy — might  being  with  them  the  law  of  right.  The  strongest  males  are  nat- 
urally the  most  successful  in  gathering  about  them  large  harems.  The  males,  during  the  breeding 
season,  remain  wholly  on  land,  and  they  will  sutler  death  rather  than  leave  their  chosen  spot.  They 
thus  sustain,  for  a  period  of  several  weeks,  an  uninterrupted  fast.  They  arrive  at  the  breeding 
.stations  fat  and  vigorous,  and  leave  them  weak  and  emaciated,  having  been  nourished  through 
their  long  period  of  f.istiug  wholly  by  the  fat  of  their  own  bodies.  The  females  remain  uninter- 
ruptedly on  land  for  a  much  shorter  period,  but  for  a  considerable  time  after  their  arrival  do  not 
leave  the  harems.  The  detailed  account  given  a  century  ago  by  Steller,  and  recently  con  firmed  by 
Hi  \ant  and  Klliott,  ol  the  habits  of  the  northern  Fur  and  Hair  Seals  during  the  breeding  season, 
is  well  known  to  apply,  in  gieater  or  less  detail,  to  nearly  all  the  species  of  the  family,  and 
presumably  to  all.  As  the  observations  by  Messrs.  Elliott  and  Bryant  are  pioentcd  later  in  this 
work  at  length,  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  further  details  in  the  present  connection. 

GEOUI: u-iiiCAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  most  striking  fact  in  respect  to  the  distribution  of  the 
<Hnrii<lir  is  their  entire  absence  from  the  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic. 


38  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

As  already  uoticed,  tbe  Eared  Seals  are  obviously  divisible,  by  the  character  of  the  pelage,  into 
two  groups,  which  are  commercially  distinguished  as  the  "Hair  Seals"  and  the  "Fur  Seals,"'  which 
are  likewise  respectively  known  as  the  "Sea  Lions"  and  the  "Sea  Bears."  The  two  groups  have 
nearly  the  same  geographical  distribution,  and  are  commonly  found  frequenting  the  same  shores, 
but  generally  living  aparr.  Usually  only  one  species  of  each  is  met  with  at  the  same  localities, 
and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  coast  of  California,  no  naturalist  has  ever 
reported  the  occurrence  together  of  two  species  of  Hair  Seals  or  two  species  of  Fur  Seals,  although 
doubtless  two  species  of  Hair  Seals  exist  on  the  islands  and  shores  of  Tasmania  and  Australia,  as 
-well  as  on  the  California!)  coast. 

The  Hair  and  Fur  Seals  are  about  equally  and  similarly  represented  on  both  sides  of  the 
Equator,  but  they  are  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  temperate  and  colder  latitudes.  Of  the  nine 
species  provisionally  above  recognized,  two  of  the  five  Hair  Seals  are  northern  and  three  southern : 
of  the  four  Fur  Seals,  three  are  southern  and  one  only  is  northern;  but  the  three  southern  are  closely 
related  (perhaps  doubtfully  distinct,  at  least  two  of  them),  and  are  evidently  recent  and  but  slightly 
differentiated  forms  of  a  common  ancestral  stock.  Of  the  two  Eared  Seals  of  largest  size  (E-u»ict<>]>inx 
Stelleri  and  Otaria  jubata),  one  is  northern  and  the  other  southern,  and,  though  differing  generic-ally 
in  the  structure  of  the  skull,  are  very  similar  in  external  characters,  and  geographically  are  strict  :\- 
representative.  Zalopltus  is  the  only  genus  occurring  on  both  sides  of  the  Equator,  but  the  species 
are  different  in  the  two  hemispheres.  The  Fur  Seals  of  the  north  are  the  strict  geographical  repre- 
sentatives of  those  of  the  south.  Phocarctos  Hoolteri  is  Australasian,  and  has  no  corresponding  form 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  No  species  of  Eared  Seal  is  known  from  the  North  Atlantic.  Several 
of  the  southern  species  range  northward  into  the  equatorial  regions,  reaching  the  Galapagos  Islands 
and  the  northern  shores  of  Australia. 

THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    FUE     SEALS   IN   THE   SOUTHERN   SEAS. — They   OCCU11  not  Only 

on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the  South  American  continent,  about  its  southern 
extremity,  and  on  all  the  outlying  islands,  including  not  only  the  Falklands,  the  South  Shetland 
and  South  Georgian,  but  at  other  small  islands  more  to  the  eastward,  at  Prince  Edward's,  the 
Crozets,  Kerguelen,  Saint  Paul,  and  Amsterdam,  the  southern  and  western  shores  of  Australia, 
Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  at  the  numerous  smaller  islands  south  of  the  two  last  named.  They 
have  been  found,  in  fact,  at  all  the  islands  making  up  the  chain  of  pelagic  islets  stretching  some- 
what interruptedly  from  Cape  Horn  and  the  Falkland  Islands  eastward  to  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  including  among  others  those  south  of  the  Cape  ot  Good  Hope,  so  famous  in  the  annals  of 
the  seal-fishery.  It  has  been  stated  by  Gray  and  others  that  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Fur  Seals 
(n-ally  those  of  the  Crozets  and  neighboring  islands)  are  far  inferior  in  commercial  value  to  those 
of  other  regions;  but  in  tracing  the  history  of  the-  sealing  business  I  have  failed  to  notice  any 
reference  to  the  inferior  quality  of  those  from  the  last-named  locality,  or  that  there  has  been  any 
difference  in  the  commercial  value  of  the  fur  seal  skins  obtained  at  different  localities  in  the 
Southern  Seas.  The  quality  differs  at  the  same  locality,  wherever  the  Fur  Seals  are  found,  with 
the  season  of  the  year  and  age  of  the  animals,  so  that  skins  may  come  not  only  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  but  from  any  other  of  the  sealing  places,  that  one  "might  feel  convinced  could  not  be 
dressed  as  furs,"  being  "  without  very  thick  underfill1." 

20.  THE  SEA  LION. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION.— The  known  range  of  this  species,  Eumetopian  Stelleri  (Lesson) 
Peters,  extends  along  the  west  coast  of  North  America  from  the  Farallono  Islands,  in  latitude  37° 
407  north,  to  the  Pribylov  Islands.  Its  northern  limit  of  distribution  is  not  definitely  known,  but 


Till-:  SEA  LION:  GKNKi.-.M,  IIISToiiY.  39 

it  <l»es  not  a; •"•li'l.avr   been    met  with    norlli  of  about   111.-   lat  ilude  of  Saint    Matthew's    Island 

(about   latitude  liP).     Neither  Mr.  \V.  II.  Hall   nor   Mr.  II.  \V.  Klli,,tt   has  met  with   it   above  this 

])<>iiil.anil  they  have  l.,.ih  informed  me  th.it  they  have  no  reason  t..  sup] it  extends  an\  further 

noithward  or  beyond  the  southern  limi;  of  lloatiug  ice.  According  to  Steller.  it  exisie.l  in  his  time 
along  the  whole  eastein  coast  of  Kamlchat  ka  ami  southward  to  the  Kniile  Islands.  Me  found  it 
abundant  on  Merin-'s  ami  Copper  Jslamls,  where  it  is  still  well  known  to  exist.  If  Dr.  Only 'a 

r.nm,  /.Vm,.v, /„;,,/„  ^.s.  as  originally  described   in    1*7:;  (the  same  speei n  was  referred  by  him  in 

is:-  to  /:.  SMI,-,-!),  l.e  referable,  as  I  believe,  to  tin-  female  of  E.  Stelleri,  the  range  of  this  species 
appears  to  extend  southward  on  the  Asiatic  coast  as  far  as  Japan. 

Although  the  Sea  Lions  of  the  California  coast  that  have  of  late  years  attracted  so  much 
attention  appear  to  be  the  smaller  species,  Zaloplnu  Californianw>,  the  occurrence  of  the  present 
species  there  is  aNo  fully  established,  where  it  is  resident  the  whole  year,  and  where  it  brings  forth 
its  young,  as  pros  en  by  specimens  transmitted  some  years  since  by  Dr.  Ayres  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

<  i  i,  >.  1:1:  A i.  HISTORY.— The  Northern  Sea  Lion  was  first  described  in  1751  by  Steller,  who,  under 
t  he  name  of  L«>  m<n-in««,  gave  a  somewhat  detailed  account  of  its  habits  and  its  geographical  range, 
SO  far  as  I,  now  n  to  him. 

(  aptain  Scammon,  in  1874,  published  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  Sea  Lions  of  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands,  particularly  as  respects  the  methods  employed  in  their  capture,  portions  of  which  will 
be  quoted  later.  1 1  is  account  is  devoted  largely,  however,  to  the  Sea  Lions  of  the  California  coast, 
and  certainly  includes  the  history  of  the  smaller  species,  if  in  fact  this  part  does  not  relate  mainly 
to  tin- latter.  About  the  same  time  appeared  Mr.  H.  W.  Elliott's  more  detailed  history  of  the 
northern  species,  which  is  so  full  and  explicit  that  I  transcribe  it  almost  entire. 

The  Sea  Lion,  he  says,  "has  a  really  leonine  appearance  and  bearing,  greatly  enhanced  by  the 
rich  golden  -rufous  of  its  coat,  ferocity  of  expression,  and  bull-dog  muzzle  and  cast  of  eye,  not 
round  and  full.  l>nt  showing  the  white,  or  sclerotic  coat,  with  a  light,  bright-brown  iris. 

"Although  provided  with  flippers  to  all  external  view  as  the  Fur  Seal,  he  cannot,  however,  make 
use  of  them  in  the  same  free  manner.  While  the  Fur  Seal  can  be  driven  five  or  six  miles  in  twenty- 
lour  hours,  t  lie  Sea  Lion  can  barely  go  two,  the  conditions  of  weather  and  roadway  being  the  same. 
The  Sea  Lions  balance  and  swing  their  long,  heavy  necks  to  and  fro,  with  every  hitch  up  behind 
of  their  posteriors,  which  they  seldom  raise  from  the  ground,  drawing  them  up  after  the  fore  feet 
with  a  slide  over  the  grass  or  sand,  rocks.  \c.,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  pausing  frequently  to  take 
a  sullen  and  ferocious  survey  of  the  field  and  the  drivers. 

"The  Sea  Lion  is  polygamous,  but  does  not  maintain  any  such  regular  system  and  method  in 
preparing  for  and  attention  to  its  harem  like  that  so  finely  illustrated  on  the  breeding-grounds  of 
Hie  Fur  Seal.  It  is  not  numerous,  comparatively  speaking,  and  does  not  'haul'  more  than  a  few 
rods  back  from  the  sea.  It  cannot  be  visited  and  inspected  by  man,  being  so  shy  and  wary  that 
on  the  slightest  approach  a  stampede  into  the  water  is  the  certain  result.  The  males  come  out  and 
locate  on  the  narross  belts  of  rookery  ground,  preferred  and  selected  by  them;  the  cows  make  their 
appearance  three  or  four  weeks  after  them  (1st  to  Cth  June),  and  arc  not  subjected  to  that  intense 
jealous  supervision  so  characteristic  of  the  Fur  Seal  harem.  The  bulls  light  savagely  among  them 
selves,  and  turn  oil'  from  the  breeding  ground  all  the  younger  and  weak  males. 

"The  cow  Sea  Lion  is  not  quite  half  the  size  of  the  male,  and  will  measure  from  eight  to  nine 
feet  in  length,  with  a  weight  of  four  and  live  hundred  pounds.  She  has  the  same  general  cast  of 
countenance  and  build  of  the  bull,  but  as  she  does  not  sustain  any  lasting  period  of  over  a  week 
or  ten  da\s,  she  never  comes  out  so  grossly  fat  as  the  male  or  'sec-calch.' 


40  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

"The  Sea  Lion  rookery  will  be  found  to  consist  of  about  ten  to  fifteen  cows  to  the  bull.  The 
cow  seems  at  all  times  to  have  the  utmost  freedom  in  moving  from  place  to  place,  and  to  start  with 
its  young,  picked  up  sometimes  by  the  nape,  into  the  water,  and  play  together  for  spells  in  the 
surf- wash,  a  movement  on  the  part  of  the  mother  never  made  by  the  Fur  Seal,  and  showing,  in  this 
respect,  much  more  attention  to  its  oft'spriug. 

"They  are  divided  up  into  classes,  which  sustain,  in  a  general  manner,  but  very  imperfectly, 
nearly  the  same  relation  one  to  the  other  as  do  those  of  the  Fur  Seal,  of  which  I  have  already  spoken 
at  length  and  in  detail;  but  they  cannot  be  approached,  inspected,  and  managed  like  the  other, 
by  reason  of  their  wild  and  timid  nature.  They  visit  the  islands  in  numbers  comparatively  small 
(I  can  only  estimate),  not  over  twenty  or  twenty-live  thousand  on  Saint  Paul  and  contiguous 
islets,  and  not  more  than  seven  or  eight  thousand  at  Saint  George.  On  Saint  Paul  Island  they 
occupy  a  small  portion  of  the  breeding  ground  at  Northeast  Point,  in  common  with  the  CaMorhinmt, 
always  close  to  the  water,  and  taking  to  it  at  the  slightest  disturbance  or  alarm. 

"The  Sea  Lion  rookery  on  Saint  George  Island  is  the  best  place  upon  the  Seal  Islands  for 
close  observation  of  these  animals,  and  the  following  note  was  made  upon  the  occasion  of  one  of 
my  visits  (June  15,  1873) : 

'"At  the  base  of  cliffs,  over  four  hundred  feet  in  height,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  island,  on  a 
beach  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  width  at  low  water,  and  not  over  thirty  or  forty  at  flood  tide,  lies  the 
only  Sea  Lion  rookery  on  Saint  George  Island — some  three  or  four  thousand  cows  and  bulls.  The 
entire  circuit  of  this  rookery  belt  was  passed  over  by  us,  the  big,  timorous  bulls  rushing  off  into 
the  water  as  quickly  as  the  cows,  all  leaving  their  young.  Many  of  the  females,  perhaps  half  of 
them,  had  only  just  given  birth  to  their  young.  These  pups  will  weigh  at  least  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  pounds  on  an  average  when  born,  are  of  a  dark  chocolate-brown,  with  the  eye  as  large  as  the 
adult,  only  being  a  suffused,  watery,  gray -blue  where  the  sclerotic  coat  is  well  and  sharply  denned 
in  its  maturity.  They  are  about  two  feet  in  length,  some  longer  and  some  smaller.  As  all  the  pups 
seen  to-day  were  very  young,  some  at  this  instant  only  born,  they  were  dull  and  apathetic,  not 
seeming  to  notice  us  much.  There  are,  I  should  say,  about  one-sixth  of  the  Sea  Lions  in  number 
on  this  island,  when  compared  with  Saint  Paul.  As  these  animals  lie  here  under  the  clifl's,  they 
cannot  be  approached  and  driven;  but  should  they  haul  a  few  hundred  rods  up  to  the  south,  then 
they  can  be  easily  captured.  They  have  hauled  in  this  manner  always  until  disturbed  in  1808,  and 
will  undoubtedly  do  so  again  if  not  molested. 

"•These  Sea  Lions,  when  they  took  to  the  water,  swam  out  to  a  distance  of  fifty  yards  or  so, 
and  huddled  all  up  together  in  two  or  three  packs  or  squads  of  about  five  hundred  each,  holding 
their  heads  and  necks  up  high  out  of  water,  all  roaring  in  concert  and  incessantly,  making  such  a 
deafening  noise  that  we  could  scarcely  hear  ourselves  in  conversation  at  a  distance  from  them  of 
over  a  hundred  yards.  This  roaring  of  Sea  Lions,  thus  disturbed,  can  only  be  compared  to  the 
hoarse  sound  of  a  tempest  as  it  howls  through  the  rigging  of  a  ship,  or  the  playing  of  a  living 
gale  upon  the  bare  branches,  limbs,  and  trunks  of  a  forest  grove.'  They  commenced  to  return  as 
soon  as  we  left  the  ground. 

"The  voice  of  the  Sea  Lion  is  a  deep,  grand  roar,  and  does  not  have  the  flexibility  of  the  Gal- 
lorh inu*,  being  confined  to  a  low,  muttering  growl  or  this  bass  roar.  The  pups  are  very  playful, 
but  are  almost  always  silent.  When  they  do  utter  sound,  it  is  a  sharp,  short,  querulous  growling. 

"The  natives  have  a  very  high  appreciation  of  the  Sea  Lion,  or  see-vitchie,  as  they  call  it,  and 
base  this  regard  upon  the  superior  quality  of  the  flesh,  fat,  and  hide  (for  making  covers  for  their 
skin  boats,  bidarkies  and  bidarrahx),  sinews,  intestines,  &c. 

"As  I  have  before  said,  the  Sea  Lion  seldom  hauls  back  far  from  the  water,  generally  very 


TIIK  SKA    LION:   ITS  (  \\  I  •  II   |;  I ;.  4J 

close  to  the  surf-margin,  and  in  this  position  it  becomes  quite  a  dillicult  task  for  tin-  natives  1.1 
approach  ami  pet  in  between  it  and  (he  sea  unobserved,  lor.  unless  this  silent  approach  is  made, 
the  beast  will  at  ouce  take  the  alarm  and  bolt  into  the  water. 

••  My  reference  to  my  map  of  Saint  Paul's,  a  small  point,  near  the  head  of  the  northeast  neck 
of  the  island,  will  lie  seen,  upon  which  quite  a  large  number  of  Sea  Lions  are  always  to  be 
found,  as  it  is  never  disturbed  except  on  the  occasion  of  this  annual  driving.  The  natives  step 
down  on  to  the  beach,  in  the  little  bight  just  above  it,  and  begin  to  crawl  on  all  fours  Hat  on 
the  sand  down  to  the  end  of  the  neck  and  in  between  the  dozing  sea-lion  herd  and  the  water, 
always  selecting  a  semi-bright  moonlight  night.  If  the  wind  is  favorable,  and  none  of  the  men 
meet  \\irh  an  accident,  the  natives  will  almost  always  succeed  in  reaching  the  i>oint  unobserved, 
when,  at  a  given  signal,  they  all  jump  on  their  feet  at  once,  yell,  brandish  their  arms,  and  give  a 
sudden  start,  or  alarm,  to  the  herd  above  them,  for,  just  as  the  Sea  Lions  move,  upon  the  fiist 
impulse  of  surprise,  so  they  keep  on.  For  instance,  if  the  animals  on  starting  up  are  sleeping  with 
their  heads  pointed  in  the  direction  of  the  water,  they  keep  straight  on  toward  it;  but  if  they 
jump  up  looking  over  the  laud,  they  follow  that  course  just  as  desperately,  and  nothing  turns 
them,  at  first,  either  one  way  or  the  other.  Those  that  go  for  the  water  are,  of  course,  lo^t,  but 
the  natives  follow  the  laud-leaders  and  keep  urging  them  on,  ami  soon  have  them  in  their  control, 
driving  them  back  into  a  small  pen,  which  they  extemporize  by  means  of  little  stakes,  with  flags, 
set  around  a  circuit  of  a  few  hundred  square  feet,  and  where  they  keep  them  until  three  or  four 
hundred,  at  least,  are  captured,  before  they  commence  their  drive  of  ten  miles  overland  down 
south  to  the  village. 

"The  natives,  latterly,  getting  in  this  annual  herd  of  Sea  Lions,  have  postponed  it  until  late 
in  the  fall,  and  when  the  animals  are  scant  in  number  and  the  old  bulls  poor.  This  they  were 
obliged  to  do,  on  account  of  the  pressure  of  their  sealing  business  in  the  spring,  and  the  warmth 
of  the  season  in  August  and  September,  which  makes  the  driving  very  tedious.  In  this  way  1 
have  not  been  permitted  to  behold  the  best-conditioned  drives,  t.  e.,  those  in  which  a  majority  of 
the  herd  is  made  up  of  fine,  enormously  fat,  and  heavy  bulls,  some  four  or  five  hundred  in  number. 

••The  natives  are  compelled  to  go  to  the  northeast  point  of  the  island  for  the  animals,  inas- 
much as  it  is  the  only  place  with  natural  advantages  where  they  can  be  approached  for  the  purpose 
of  capturing  alive.  Here  they  congregate  in  greatest  number,  although  they  can  l»e  found,  two  or 
three  thousand  of  them,  on  the  southwest  point,  and  as  many  more  on  'Seevitchie  Caminin'  and 
Otter  Island. 

"Capturing  the  Sea  Lion  drive  is  really  the  only  serious  business  these  people  on  the  islands 
have,  and  when  they  set  out  for  the  task  the  picked  men  only  leave  the  village.  At  Northeast 
Point  they  have  a  barrabkie,  in  which  they  sleep  and  eat  while  gathering  the  drove,  the  time  of 
getting  which  depends  upon  the  weather,  wind,  &c.  As  the  squads  arc  captured,  night  afier 
night,  they  are  driven  up  close  by  the  barrabkie,  where  the  natives  mount  constant  guard  over 
them  until  several  hundred  animals  shall  have  been  secured  and  all  is  ready  for  the  drive  down 
overland  to  the  village. 

"The  drove  is  started  and  conducted  in  the  same  general  manner  as  that  which  I  have  detailed 
in  speaking  of  the  Fur  Seal,  only  the  Sea  Lion  soon  becomes  very  sullen  and  unwilling  to  move, 
requiring  spells  of  frequent  rest.  It  cannot  pick  itself  up  from  the  ground  and  si  amble  oil'  on  a 
loping  gallop  for  a  few  hundred  yards,  like  the  Callorhinun,  and  is  not  near  so  free  and  agile  in  its 
movements  on  land,  or  in  the  water  for  that  matter,  for  1  have  never  seen  the  Eitmetopinx  lea])  from 
the  water  like  a  dolphin,  or  indulge  in  the  thousand  and  one  submarine  acrobatic  displays  made 
constantly  by  the  Fur  Seal. 


42  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

"This  ground,  over  which  the  Sea  Lious  are  driven,  is  mostly  a  rolling  level,  thickly  grassed 
and  mossed  over,  with  here  and  there  a  fresh-water  pond  into  which  the  animals  plunge  with  great 
apparent  satisfaction,  seeming  to  cool  themselves,  and  out  of  which  the  natives  have  no  trouble  in 
driving  them.  The  distance  between  the  sea-lion  pen  at  Northeast  Point  and  the  village  is  about 
ten  miles,  as  the  Sea  Lions  are  driven,  and  occupies  over  live  or  six  days  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  such  as  wet,  cold  weather;  and  when  a  little  warmer,  or  as  in  July  or  August,  a 
few  seasons  ago,  they  were  some  three  weeks  coming  down  with  a  drove,  and  even  then  left  a 
hundred  or  so  along  on  the  road. 

••  After  the  drove  has  been  brought  into  the  village  on  the  killing-grounds,  the  natives  shoot 
down  the  bulls  and  then  surround  and  huddle  up  the  cows,  spearing  them  just  behind  the  fore 
flippers.  The  killing  of  the  Sea  Lions  is  quite  an  exciting  spectacle,  a  strange  and  unparalleled 
exhibition  of  its  kind.  .  .  The  bodies  are  at  once  stripped  of  their  hides  and  much  of 

the  flesh,  sinews,  intestines  (with  which  the  native  water-proof  coats,  &c.,  are  made),  in  conjunction 
with  the  throat  linings  (cestythagm),  aud  the  skin  of  the  flippers,  which  is  exceedingly  tough  and 
elastic,  and  used  for  soles  to  their  boots  or  '  tarbosars.' 

"As  the  Sea  Lion  is  without  fur,  the  skin  has  little  or  no  commercial  value;  the  hair  is  short, 
and  longest  over  the  uape  of  the  neck,  straight,  aud  somewhat  coarse,  varying  iu  color  greatly  as 
the  seasons  come  and  go.  For  instance,  when  the  Eumetopias  makes  his  first  appearance  in  the 
spring,  and  dries  out  upon  the  laud,  he  has  a  light-brownish,  rufous  tint,  darker  shades  back  and 
under  the  fore  flippers  and  on  the  abdomen ;  by  the  expiration  of  a  month  or  six  weeks,  loth  June, 
he  will  be  a  bright  golden-rufous  or  ocher,  and  this  is  just  before  shedding,  which  sets  iu  by  the 
middle  of  August,  or  a  little  earlier.  After  the  new  coat  has  fairly  grown,  and  just  before  he  leaves 
the  island  for  the  season,  in  November,  it  will  be  a  light  sepia,  or  vandyke-brown,  with  deeper 
shades,  almost  dark  upon  the  belly.  The  cows,  after  shedding,  do  not  color  up  so  dark  as  the 
bulls,  but  when  they  come  back  to  the  land  next  year  they  are  identically  the  same  in  color,  so 
that  the  eye,  iu  glancing  over  a  sea-lion  rookery  in  June  and  July,  cannot  discern  any  noted 
dissimilarity  of  coloring  between  the  bulls  and  the<sows;  and  also  the  young  males  aud  yearlings 
appear  in  the  same  golden  brown  and  ocher,  with  here  and  there  an  animal  spotted  somewhat  like 
a  leopard,  the  yellow,  rufous  ground  predominating,  with  patches  of  dark-brown  irregularly  inter- 
spersed. I  have  never  seen  any  of  the  old  bulls  or  cows  thus  mottled,  and  think  very  likely  it  is 
dm-  to  some  irregularity  in  the  younger  animals  during  the  season  of  shedding,  for  I  have  not 
noticed  it  early  in  the  season,  and  failed  to  observe  it  at  the  close.  Many  of  the  old  bulls  have  a 
grizzled  or  slightly  brindled  look  during  the  shedding  period,  or,  that  is,  from  the  10th  August 
up  to  the  10th  or  1'Oth  of  November.  The  pups,  when  bom,  are  of  a  rich,  dark  chestnut-brown; 
this  coat  they  shed  in  October,  and  take  one  much  lighter,  but  still  darker  than  their  parents',  but 
not  a  great  deal. 

••Although,  as  I  have  already  indicated,  the  Sea  Lion,  in  its  habit  and  disposition,  approxi- 
mates the  Fur  .Seal,  yet  in  no  respect  does  it  maintain  and  enforce  the  system  and  regularity  found 
on  the  breeding-grounds  of  the.  Callurhinw.  The  time  of  arrival  at,  stay  on,  and  departure  from 
the  island  is  about  the  same;  but  if  t.he  winter  is  an  open,  mild  one,  the  Sea  Lion  will  be  seen 
frequently  all  through  it,  and  the  natives  occasionally  shoot  them  around  the  island  long  after  the 
Fur  Seals  have  entirely  disappeared  for  the  year.  It  also  does  not  confine  its  landing  to  these 
Pribylov  Islands  alone,  as  the  Fur  Seal  unquestionably  docs,  with  reference  to  our  continent,  for  it 
has  been  and  is  often  shot  upon  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  many  rocky  islets  of  the  northwest  coast. 

"The  Sea  Lion  in  no  respect  whatever  manifests  the  intelligence  aud  sagacity  exhibited  by 
the  Fur  Seal,  aud  must  be  rated  far  below,  although  next,  in  natural  order.  I  have  no  hesitation 


Tin:  si:.\  I.K>N:  AI;IM>.\N(  i:.  rnoi>.  j  43 

in  pulling  this  BMNtffepfa*  of  the  I'rili.vlov  Islands,  apart  from  tin-  Sea  Lion  common  at  San  1  i.in 
cNcn  ami  Santa  liarliara.  as  a  distinct  animal  :  and  I  call  attention  to  tin-  excellent  description  of 
tin'  California  Sea  Lion,  made  |>nl>lir  in  tin-  April  number  for  1S7J  of  tin- Overland  Monthly,  by 
(apt.  <  .  M.  Scaiiiiiion.  in  which  the  distinguishing  characters,  externally,  of  this  animal  are  well 
defined,  and  Ity  which  tin-  difference,  between  the  Eumetvfriait  of  Bering  Sea  anil  that  of  the  coast 
•  it'  ('iljfi)inia  can  at  once  he  seen;  and  also  I  notice  one  more  point  in  which  the  dissimilarity  is 
marked:  the  northern  Sea  Lion  never  barks  or  howls  like  the  animal  at  the  Farraloiic*  [ait-]  or 
Santa  liarliara.  Young  and  old,  both  sexes,  from  one  year  and  upward,  have  only  a  deep  IHIMH 
</ri>irl.  and  prolonged,  steady  roar  f  while  at  San  Francisco  Sea  Lions  break  out  incessantly  with  a 
•honking'  l>ark  or  howl,  and  never  roar. 

••  I  am  not  to  lie  understood  as  saying  that  nil  the  Sea  Lions  met  with  on  the  California!!  coast 
are  different  from  /,'.  Stelleri  of  J5eriug  Sea.  I  am  well  satistied  that  stragglers  from  the  north  are 
down  on  the  Farrallones,  but  they  are  not  migrating  back  and  forth  every  season  ;  and  I  am  further- 
more certain  that  not  a  single  animal  of  the  species  most  common  at  San  Francisco  was  present 
among  those  breeding  on  the  Pribylov  Islands  in  187^-'73. 

••According  to  the  natives  of  Saint  George,  some  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  the  Eumetopin*  held 
almost  exclusive  possession  of  the  island,  being  there  in  great  numbers,  some  two  or  three  hundred 
thousand  :  and  that,  as  tbe  Fur  Seals  were  barely  |>ermitted  to  land  by  these  animals,  and  in  no 
great  number,  the  Russians  directed  them  (the.  natives)  to  hunt  and  worry  the  Sea  Lions  ciiV  from 
the  island,  and  the  result  was  that  as  the  Sea  Lions  left,  the  Fur  Seals  came,  so  that  to-day  they  occupy 
nearly  the  same  ground  covered  by  the  Eumetopian  alone  sixty  years  ago.  This  statement  is,  or 
seems  to  he.  corroborated  by  Ghoris,  in  his  description  of  the  lies  S.-George's  et  S.-1'aul's  [*te|, 
visited  by  him  fifty  years  ago;1  but  the  account  given  by  Bishop  Veniamiuov,  .  .  .  differs 
entirely  from  the  above,  for  by  it  almost  as  many  Fur  Seals  were  taken  on  Saint  George,  during  the 
tirst  years  of  occupation,  as  on  Saint  Paul,  and  never  have  been  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  number 
on  the  larger  island.  ...  I  am  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  the  island  of  Saint  George 
never  was  resorted  to  in  any  great  numbers  by  the  Fur  Seal,  and  that  the  Sea  Lion  was  Uic  dominant 
animal  there  until  disturbed  and  driven  from  its  breeding-grounds  by  the  people,  who  sought  to 
encourage  the  coming  of  its  more  valuable  relative  by  so  doing,  and  making  room  in  this  way  for  it. 

"The  Sea  Lion  has  but  little  value  save  to  the  natives,  and  is  more  prized  on  account  of  its 
liesli  and  skin,  by  the  people  living  upon  the  islands  and  similar  positions,  than  it  would  be  else- 
where. The  matter  of  its  preservation  and  perpetuation  should  be  left  entirely  to  them,  and  it  will 
be  well  looked  alter.  It  is  singular  that  the  fat  of  the  Sea  Lion  should  l>e  so  different  in  characters 
of  tasic  and  smell  from  that  of  the  Fur  Seal,  being  free  from  any  taint  of  disagreeable  flavor  or 
odor,  while  the  blubber  of  the  latter,  although  so  closely  related,  is  most  repugnant.  The  flesh  of 
the  Sea  Lion  cub  is  tender,  juicy,  light-colored,  and  slightly  like  veal;  in  my  opinion,  quite  good. 
As  the  animal  grows  older,  the  meat  is  dry,  tough,  and  without  flavor." 

i  he  food  of  the  Sea  Lion  is  well  known  to  consist,  like  that  of  the  other  species  of  Eared 
Seals,  of  lish.  molhisks.  and  crustaceans,  and  occasionally  birds.  As  shown  by  animals  kept  in 
confinement,  they  require  an  enormous  quantity.  Captain  Scammon  states  that  the  daily  allow- 
ance of  a  pair  kept  in  Woodward's  Gardens,  San  Francisco,  amounted  to  forty  or  fifty  pound*  of 

fle-ll   lish. 

"From  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  Si  -a  Lions,"  sa\s  Captain  Bryant,  ••  breed  annually  on  the 
I'ribylov  or  1- ur  Seal  Islands.  They  do  not  leave  the  islands  in  winter,  as  do  the  Fur  Seal>.  to 
return  in  spring,  but  remain  during  the  whole  year.  They  bring  forth  their  young  a  month  earlier 

ritt<irr>c|iii'  .•intinir  iln  Mmiilr. 


44  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

than  the  Fur  Seals,  landing  during  the  months  of  May  and  June.  They  advance  but  little  above 
high  tide-mark,  and  those  of  all  ages  land  together.  The  strongest  males  drive  out  the  weaker  and 
monopolize  the  females  and  continue  with  them  till  September.  They  go  with  them  into  the  water 
whenever  they  are  disturbed,  and  also  watch  over  the  young.  When  in  the  water  they  swim  about 
the  young  and  keep  them  together  until  they  have  an  opportunity  to  land  again.  The  females  al.so 
keep  near,  rushing  hither  and  thither,  appearing  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other  of  the 
groups  of  young,  constantly  uttering  a  deep,  hoarse  growl  at  the  intruder  whenever  they  come  to 
the  surface.  When  left  undisturbed  they  all  soon  land  again,  preferring  to  spend  the  greater 
portion  of  their  time  at  this  season  on  the  shore.  During  the  breeding  season  they  visit  the  same 
parts  of  the  shore  as  the  Fur  Seals,  but  the  Sea  Lions,  by  their  superior  size  and  strength,  crowd 
out  the  Seals,  the  latter  passively  yielding  their  places  without  presuming  to  offer  battle  to  their 
formidable  visitors.  After  having  been  disturbed  the  Sea  Lions  continue  1'or  some  time  in  a  state 
of  unrest,  occasionally  uttering  a  low  moaning  sound,  as  though  greatly  distressed.  Even  after 
the  breeding  season  they  keep  close  to  the  shore  near  the  breeding  station  until  the  severe  weather 
of  January.  After  this  time  they  are  seen  only  in  small  groups  till  the  shores  are  free  from  snow 
and  ice  in  the  spring." 

21.  THE  CALIFORNIA  SEA  LION. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  exact  boundaries  of  the  habitat  of  Zalophm  californianm 
cannot  at  present  be  given.  The  only  specimens  I  have  seen  are  from  the  coast  of  California  and 
its  islands,  from  San  Diego  and  San  Nicholas  Island  northward  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco. 
Captain  Scam mon  (see  infra,  pp.  301,  302)  twice  alludes  incidentally  to  its  presence  "along  the 
Mexican  and  Califomian  coasts,"  and  Dr.  Veatch  states  that  "Sea  Lions"  (which  he  calls  "Otaria 
jitbata,"  but  which  are,  almost  beyond  doubt,  the  present  species)  had  populous  breeding  stations 
twenty  years  ago,  and  doubtless  have  still,  en  Cerros  or  Cedros  Island,  iu  about  the  latitude  of 
284°,  off  the  Lower  California  coast.  Whether  they  occur  southward  of  this  point  at  t!  e  present 
tinit^  I  am  unable  to  state,  but  should  infer  that  such  was  the  case  from  Scammon's  allusion  to 
their  capture  along  the  "Mexican"  coast.  In  any  case,  it  appears  probable  that  in  Dampier's  lime 
they  ranged  as  far  south  as  the  Chametly  and  Tres  Marias  islands,  respectively  in  latitudes  about 
L'.'P  and  21°,  at  which  points  he  saw  "Seals"  iu  the  year  1080.  In  describing  the  Chametly  islands 
(the  most  northerly  of  the  two  groups  mentioned  by  him  under  this  name),  situated  oft'  the  west 
coast  of  Mexico  in  latitude  23°  11',  lie  says,  -'The  Bays  about  the  Islands  are  sometimes  visited 
with  Seals;  and  this  was  the  first  place  where  I  had  seen  any  of  these  Animals,  on  the  North  side 
of  the  Kqtialor.  in  these  Seas.  For  the  Fish  on  this  sandy  Coast  lye  most  in  the  Lagunes  or  Salt- 
Lakes,  and  Mouths  of  Kivers;  For  this  being  no  rocky  Coast,  where  Fish  resort  most,  there  seems 
to  be  but  little  Food  for  the  Seals,  unless  they  will  venture  upon  Cat-Fish."1 

He  also  met  with  Seals  at  the  Tres  Marias  Islands  (in  latitude  "21°  5'r),  and  consequently 
two  degrees  south  of  the  Chametly  Islands,  in  describing  one  of  which  islands,  named  by  him  St. 
George's  Island,  he  says:  "The  Sea  is  also  pretty  well  stored  with  Fish,  and  Turtle  or  Tortoise, 
and  Seal.  This  is  the  second  place  on  this  Coast  where  I  did  see  any  Seal:  and  this  place  helps 
to  con ti nn  what  1  have  observed,  that  they  are  seldom  seen  but  where  there  is  plenty  of  Fish.'" 

It  is  of  course  not  certain  that  the  Seals  here  alluded  to  are  '/alophux  ciiliforiiitnttix.  since  the 
Sea  Elephant  of  the  California  coast  also  occurs  at  Cedros  Island,  and  probably  stdl  lurther  south, 
the  two  species  having  apparently  about  the  same  range.  If  they  had  been  the  latter,  Dampier 
would  probably  have  made  some  allusion  to  their  large  size. 


'A  New  Voyage  round  tin-  World,  r>th  id.,  vol.  i.  1701,  p;>.  -J!i '!. 


Till;  CAI.IFMKNiA  SEA  LION:  HABITS.  45 

s|MM-irs  (.1  '/Ml<>i>liux  occurring  ,„  fja|i;in  IMS  l>eeu  by  some  writers  considered  to  be  the 
same  a>  I  he  ( 'alit'ornian  one;  l.iii.  though  doubtless  closely  allied,  its  affinities,  as  will  be  notin-d 
hiter  (sec  infra,  p.  LM.».{),  appear  to  be  not  as  yet  satisfactorily  determined.  As  Zalophu*  cali/or- 
/noun*  has  not  yet  been  detected  on  the  American  coast  north  of  California,  its  occurrence  on 
the  Asiatic  coast  seems  hardly  to  be  expected. 

This  species  has  hitherto  been  believed  to  be  free  from  any  serious  complications  of  synonymy, 
and  to  have  been  lirM  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  scientific  world  by  McBaiu  in  1858.  Allen  has, 
however,  shown  that  it  was  noticed  in  1822  by  Choris  and  described  by  Lesson  under  the  name  of 
ntnrin  i-nliforniiina. 

II. VUITS.— Several  more  or  less  full  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  California!)  Sea  Lions  have 
been  given  by  dill'ereiit  writers,  who  have,  however,  failed  to  distinguish  the  two  species  occurring 
along  the  raliloniian  coast,  and  consequently  their  descriptions  are  not  wholly  satisfactory.  The 
la  rue  noi  them  species  certainly  occurs,  and  rears  its  young,  as  far  south  as  the  Farallones,  but 
probably  exists  there  only  in  small  numbers,  while  I  have  seen  no  evidence  of  its  presence  at  Santa 
Barbara  Island.  Kvcn  Captain  Scammon,  in  his  account  of  the  Sea  Lions  of  California,  has  not 
distinctly  recogni/.ed  the  two  species  occurring  there,  and  his  description  doubtless  refers  in  part 
to  both  species,  but  unquestionably  relates  mainly  to  the  present  one.1  His  "Sketch  of  a  sealing 
season  upon  Santa  Barbara  Island,"  in  18J2,  presumably  relates  exclusively  to  Zafaphus  califor- 
iiininix.  but  in  addition  to  this  I  quote  a  few  paragraphs  from  his  general  account  of  "the  Sea  Lion," 
since  it  is  the  testimony  of  a  trustworthy  eye-witness. 

"On  approaching  an  island,  or  point,  occupied  by  a  numerous  herd,"  he  observes,  "one  first 
hears  their  long,  plaintive  bowlings,  as  if  in  distress;  but  when  near  them,  the  sounds  become  more 
varied  and  deafening.  The  old  males  roar  so  loudly  as  to  drown  the  noise  of  the  heaviest  sur- 
among  the  rocks  and  caverns,  and  the  younger  of  both  sexes,  together  with  the 'clapmatches,' 
croak  hoarselj",  or  send  forth  sounds  like  the  bleating  of  sheep  or  the  barking  of  dogs;  in  fact, 
their  tumultuous  utterances  are  beyond  description.  A  rookery  of  matured  animals  presents  a 
ferocious  and  defiant  appearance;  but  usually  at  the  approach  of  man  they  become  alarmed,  and, 
if  not  opposed  in  their  escape,  roll,  tumble,  and  sometimes  make  fearful  leaps  from  high  precipitous 
rocks  to  hasten  their  flight.  Like  all  the  others  of  the  Seal  tribe,  they  are  gregarious,  and  gather 
in  the  largest  numbers  during  the  'pupping  season,'  which  varies  in  different  latitudes.  On  the 
( 'alilbrnia  coast  it  is  from  May  to  August,  inclusive,  and  upon  the  shores  of  Alaska  it  is  said  to  be 
from  June  to  October,  during  which  period  the  females  bring  forth  their  young,  nurse  them,  asso- 
ciate with  the  valiant  males,  and  both  unite  in  the  care  of  the  little  ones,  keeping  a  wary  guard, 
and  teaching  them,  by  their  own  parental  actions,  how  to  move  over  the  broken,  slimy,  rock- 
bound  shore,  or  upon  the  sandy,  pebbly  beaches,  and  to  dive  and  gambol  amid  the  surf  and  rolling 
groundswells.  At  first  the  pups  manifest  great  aversion  to  the  water,  but  soon,  instinctively, 
become  active  and  playful  in  the  element;  so  by  the  time  the  season  is  over,  the  juvenile  creatures 
disappear  with  the  greater  portion  of  the  old  ones,  only  a  few  of  the  vast  herd  remaining  at  the 
favorite  resorts  throughout  the.  year.  During  the  pupping  season,  both  males  and  females,  so  far 
at  we  could  ascertain,  take  but  little  if  any  food,  particularly  the  males,  though  the  females  have 
been  ^observed  to  leave  their  charges  and  go  off,  apparently  in  search  of  subsistence,  but  thev  do 
not  venture  far  from  their  young  ones.  That  the  Sea  Lion  caai  go  without  food  for  a  long  time  is 
unquestionable.  One  of  the  superintendents  of  Woodward's  Gardens  informed  me  that  in 


'That  Captaiu  Scammon  ront'ounded  the  two  gpeciesof  northern  Sea  Lions  is  evident  not  only  from  In-  puliliabed 
writings,  but  from  liis  having  transmitted,  to  the  National  Museum  specimen*  of  Zaloj>lm»  from  Santa  Barbara  Island, 
labeled  by  him  "  Enmetopiat  Sltllrri." 


46  THE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

numerous  instances  they  have  received  Sea  Lions  into  the  aquarium  which  did  not  eat  a  morsel  of 
nourishment  during  a  whole  month,  and  appeared  to  suffer  but  little  inconvenience  from  their  long- 
fast. 

"  As  the  time  approaches  for  their  annual  assemblage,  those  returning  or  coining  from  abroad 
are  seen  near  the  shores,  appearing  wild  and  shy.  Soon  after,  however,  the  females  gather  upon 
the  beaches,  cliff's,  or  rocks,  when  the  battles  among  the  old  males  begin  for  the  supreme  control 
of  the  harems;  these  struggles  often  lasting  for  days,  the  fight  being  kept  up  until  one  or  both 
become  exhausted,  but  is  renewed  again  when  sufficiently  recuperated  for  another  attack ;  and,  really, 
the  attitudes  assumed  aud  the  passes  made  at  each  other,  equal  the  amplification  of  a  professional 
fencer.  The  combat  lasts  until  both  become  disabled  or  one  is  driven  from  the  ground,  or  perhaps 
both  become  so  reduced  that  a  third  party,  fresh  from  his  winter  migration,  drives  them  from  the 
coveted  charge.  The  vanquished  animals  then  slink  off  to  some  retired  spot  as  if  disgraced. 
Nevertheless,  at  times,  two  or  more  will  have  charge  of  the  same  rookery;  but  in  such  instances 
frequent  defiant  growlings  and  petty  battles  occur.  So  far  as  we  have  observed  upon  the  Sea 
Lions  of  the  California  coast,  there  is  but'  little  attachment  manifested  between  the  sexes;  indeed, 
much  of  the  Turkish  nature  is  apparent,  but  the  females  show  some  affection  for  their  offspring, 
yet  if  alarmed  when  upon  the  land,  they  will  instantly  desert  them  and  take  to  the  water.  The 
young  cubs,  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  most  fractious  and  savage  little  creatures  imaginable, 
especially  if  awakened  from  their  nearly  continuous  sleeping;  and  frequently,  when  a  mother 
reclines  to  nurse  her  single  whelp,  a  swarm  of  others  will  perhaps  contend  for  the  same  favor. 

"  To  give  a  more  detailed  and  extended  account  of  the  Sea  Lions  we  will  relate  a  brief  sketch 
of  a  sealing  season  on  Santa  Barbara  Island.  It  was  near  the  end  of  May,  1852,  when  we  arrived, 
and  soon  after  the  rookeries  of  'clapmatches,'  which  were  scattered  around  the  island,  began  to 
augment,  and  large  numbers  of  huge  males  made  their  appearance,  belching  forth  sharp,  ugly 
howls,  and  leaping  out  of  or  darting  through  the  water  with  surprising  velocity,  frequently  diving 
outside  the  rollers,  the  next  moment  emerging  from  the  crest  of  the  foaming  breakers,  and  wad- 
dling up  the  beach  with  head  erect,  or,  with  seeming  effort,  climbing  some  kelp-fringed  rock,  to 
doze  in  the  scorching  sunbeams,  while  others  would  lie  sleeping  or  playing  among  the  beds  of  sea- 
weed, with  their  heads  and  outstretched  limbs  above  the  surface.  But  a  few  days  elapsed  before 
a  general  contention  with  the  adult  males  began  for  the  mastery  of  the  different  rookeries,  and  the 
victims  of  the  bloody  encounter  were  to  be  seen  on  all  sides  of  the  island,  with  torn  lips  or  muti- 
lated limbs  and  gashed  sides,  while  now  and  then  an  unfortunate  creature  would  be  met  with  minus 
an  eye  or  with  the  orb  forced  from  its  socket,  and,  together  with  other  wounds,  presenting  a  ghastly 
appearance.  As  the  time  for  'haulhig-up'  drew  near,  the  island  became  one  mass  of  animation; 
every  beach,  rock,  and  cliff',  where  a  Seal  could  find  foothold,  became  its  resting-place,  while  a 
countless  herd  of  old  males  capped  the  summit,  and  the  united  clamorings  of  the  vast  ;issemblage 
could  be  heard,  oh  a  calm  day,  for  miles  at  sea.  The  south  side  of  the  island  is  high  and  precipi- 
tous, with  a  projecting  ledge  hardly  perceptible  from  the  beach  below,  upon  which  one  immense 
Sea  Lion  managed  to  climb,  and  there  remained  for  several  weeks — until  the  season  was  over. 
How  he  ascended,  or  in  what  manner  he  retired  to  the  water,  was  a  mystery  to  our  numerous  ship's 
ciew,  as  lie  came  and  went  in  the  night;  for 'Old  Gray,' as  named  by  the  sailors,  was  closely 
watched  in  his  elevated  position  during  the  time  the  men  were  engaged  at  their  work.1 


1  "Relative  (o  Ihe  Sea  Lions  leaping  from  giddy  heights,  an  incident  occurred  ut  Santa  Barbara  Island,  the  last 
of  the  season  of  1852,  which  we  will  here  mention.  A  rookery  of  about  twenty  individuals  was  collected  on  the  brink 
of  a  precipitous  cliff,  at  a  height  at  least  of  sixty  feet  above  the  rocks  which  shelved  from  the  beach  below;  and  our 
party  were  sure  in  their  own  minds,  that,  by  surprising  the  animula,  we  could  drive  them  over  tlie  cliff.  This  was 
easily  accomplished;  but  to  our  chagrin,  when  we  arrived  at  the  point  below,  where  we  expected  to  find  the  huge 
beasts  helplessly  mutilated,  or  killed  outright,  the  last  animal  of  the  whole  rookery  was  seen  plunging  into  the  sea." 


TIIK  r.M.iroKMA  SI.A  i.m\  47 

••None  but  tin- adult  males  u.-iv  captured,  which  was  usually  done  by  shooting  them  in  the 

car  or  near  il  :  liir  a  hall  in  any  other  part  of  the  ho.l\  had  not -e  effect  Mian  il  would  in  a  Cri/./ly 

Hear.  Occasionally,  however,  they  arc  taken  with  the  club  and  lance,  only  shooting  :i  few  .,!'  the 
MiaMiTs  of  the  herd.  This  is  easilv  accomplished  with  an  experienced  crew,  if  there  is  sntlicicnt 
ground  back  I'roin  the  lieach  for  the  animals  to  retreat.  During  our  stay,  an  instance,  occurred, 
which  not  only  displayed  the,  sagacity  of  the  animals,  but  also  their  yielding  disposition,  when 
hard  pressed  in  certain  situations,  as  if  naturally  designed  to  be  slain  in  numbers  equal  to  tho 
demands  of  their  human  pursuers.  On  the  south  of  Santa  Barbara  Island  was  a  plateau, elevated 
less  than  a  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  stretching  to  the  brink  of  a  cliff  that  overhung  the  shore, 
aii'l  a  narrow  gorge  leading  up  from  Mic  beach,  through  which  the  animals  crowded  to  their  favor- 
ite resting  place.  As  the  sun  dipped  behind  the  hills,  fifty  to  a  hundred  males  would  congregate 
upon  the  spot  and  there  remain  until  the  boats  were  lowered  in  the  morning,  when  immediately  the 
whole  herd  would  quietly  slip  ott'into  the  sea  and  gambol  abuut  during  the  day,  returning  as  they 
saw  the  Ixiats  again  leave  tho  island  for  the  ship.  Several  unsuccessful  attempts  had  been  made 
to  take  them;  but  at  last  a  fresh  breeze  commenced  blowing  directly  from  the  shore,  ami  prevent*  d 
their  scenting  the  hui.ters,  who  landed  some  distance  from  the  rookery,  then  cautiously  advanced, 
and  suddenly  yelling,  and  flourishing  muskets,  clubs,  and  lances,  rushed  up  within  a  few  yards  of 
them,  while  the  pleading  creatures,  with  lolling  tongues  and  glaring  e.\es,  were  quite  overcome 
with  dismay,  and  remained  nearly  motionless.  At  last,  two  overgrown  males  broke  through  the 
line  formed  by  the  men,  but  they  paid  the  penalty  with  their  lives  before  reaching  the  water.  A 
few  moments  passed,  when  all  hands  moved  slowly  toward  the  rookery,  which  asjdowly  retreated. 
This  maneuver  is  termed  'turning  them,'  and,  when  once  accomplished,  the  disheartened  creatuies 
appear  to  abandon  all  hope  of  escape,  and  resign  themselves  to  their  fate.  The  herd  at  this  time 
numbered  seventy  five,  which  were  soon  dispatched,  by  shooting  the  largest  ones,  and  clubbing 
and  lancing  the  others,  save  one  young  Sea  Lion,  which  was  spared  to  see  whether  he  would  make 
any  resistance  by  being  driven  over  the  hills  beyond.  The  poor  creature  only  moved  along 
through  the  prickly  pears  that  covered  the  ground  when  compelled  by  his  cruel  pursuers;  and.  at 
last,  with  an  imploring  look  and  writhing  in  pain,  it  held  out  its  tin-like  arms,  which  were  pierced 
with  thorns,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  touch  the  sympathy  of  the  barbarous  sealers,  who  instantly 
put  the  sufferer  out  of  its  misery  by  a  stroke  of  a  heavy  club.  As  soon  as  the  animal  is  killed,  the 
longot  spires  of  its  whiskers  are  pulled  out,  then  it  is  skinned,  and  its  coating  of  fat  cut  in  sections 
from  its  body  and  transported  to  the  vessel,  where,  after  being 'minced,' the  oil  is  extracted  by 
boiling.  The  testes  are  taken  out,  and,  with  the  selected  spires  of  whiskers,  find  a  market  in 
China — the  former  being  used  medicinally,  and  the  latter  for  personal  oinameiits. 

"At  the  close  of  the  season — which  lasts  about  three  months,  on  the  California  coast — a  huge 
majority  of  the  great  herds,  both  males  and  females,  return  to  the  sea,  and  roam  in  all  directions  in 
ipiest  of  food,  as  but  few  of  them  could  liud  sustenance  about  the  waters  contiguous  to  the  islands, 
or  points  on  the  mainland,  which  are  their  annual  resorting  places.  They  live  upon  lish,1  niollii>k>. 


'THE  SKA  I. iox>  i>i:sii;ri  TIN  I.  or  i  i-u.— Tin-  I-'arallnno  Kgj;  COIMIMIIV.  several  years  iijro.  :ilti-ni|iti-il  to  kill  the 
S-a  MOILS  which  frequented  those  Inn-roil  islands  for  iheiroil  anil  skiiiH.  Thry  Imilt  try  work*  anil  wont  I"'-'  nsidcralde 
expense,  lull  it  was  found  that  tin-  nil  obtained  from  a  carcass  did  not  pay  for  trying  it.  and  I  In-  only  disposition  that 
could  lM-inaili-oftli.-sUiiisviastns.il  them  to  glur  farlorii-s.  Tin-  !"•*:  ii-tiirn  1hi-.V(j'it  from  the  carcass  was  Itmii 
bristles  or  wliiski-rs  anil  lh.>  livers,  lioth  of  tln-s.-  were  sold  to  Chinanu-n.  Tho  former  they  make  ns.-  ..!'  to  .  l.-.ni  tlu-ir 
opium  pipes,  while  the  hitler  is  .hopped  tip,  pill  into  a  mixture  <>t  alenhnl  and  another  tlnid.  and  administered  as 
a  radical  cure  for  many  acute  diseases.  The  company  :i< •cnrdinyly  gave  up  the  plan  ol  sea-lion  hunting,  lull  the 
ell'ect  of  their  brief  warfare  upon  I  In  -so  animals  was  to  drive  vast  droves  of  them  over  tothoio,  ks  aliont  I  he  Mill  l!"ii-e 
and  the  neighborhood  of  tin-  Heads.  In  conse.picnee  of  their  Ueiiig  prnlected  l>y  law  in  tbfiie  localities,  they  have 
(loiililed  anil  irclded  in  nnniKer  within  t  he  past  time  v,.u-  ''  "•  s'  •'  I-'"11"  :1"'  a  M-ry  expeiisn.-  luxury.  It  isprol.al.le 


AS  TDE  SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

crustaceans,  and  sea-fowls;  always  with  the  addition  of  a  few  pebbles  or  smooth  stones,  some  of 
which  are  a  pound  in  weight.1  Their  principal  feathery  food,  however,  is  the  penguin  in  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere,  and  the  gulls  in  the  Northern;  while  the  manner  in  which  they  decoy  and  catch 
the  Gariot-a-  of  the  Mexican  and  California  coasts  displays  no  little  degree  of  cunning.  When  in 
pursuit  the  animal  dives  deeply  under  water  and  swims  some  distance  from  where  it  disappeared; 
then,  rising  cautiously,  it  exposes  the  tip  of  its  nose  above  the  surface,  at  the  same  time  giving  it 
a  rotary  motion,  like  that  of  a  water  bug  at  play.  The  unwary  bird  on  the  wing,  seeing  the  object 
near  by,  alights  to  catch  it,  while  the  Sea  Lion  at  the  same  moment  settles  beneath  the  waves,  and 
at  one  bound,  with  extended  jaws,  seizes  its  screaming  prey,  and  instantly  devours  it.2 

"A  few  years  ago  great  numbers  of  Sea  Lions  were  taken  along  the  coast  of  Upper  and  Lower 
California,  and  thousands  of  barrels  of  oil  obtained.  The  number  of  Seals  slain  exclusively  for 
their  oil  would  appear  fabulous,  when  we  realize  the  fact  that  it  requires  on  an  average,  throughout 
the  season,  the  blubber  of  three  or  four  Sea  Lions  to  produce  a  barrel  of  oil.  Their  thick,  coarse- 
grained skins  were  not  considered  worth  preparing  for  market,  in  a  country  where  manual  labor 
was  so  highly  valued.  At  the  present  time,  however,  they  are  valued  for  glue-stock,  and  the 
seal  hunters  now  realize  more  comparative  profit  from  the  hides  than  from  the  oil.  But  while 
the  civilized  sealers,  plying  their  vocation  along  the  seaboard  of  California  and  Mexico,  destroy 
the  Lobo  marino,  for  the  product  of  its  oil,  skin,  testes,  and  whiskers,  the  simple  Aleutians  of 
the  Alaska  region  derive  from  these  animals  many  of  their  indispensable  articles  of  domestic 
use "3 

The  whiskers  are  carefully  saved  and  sent  to  China,  where  they  are  used  for  cleaning  opium 
pipes;  the  liverS  are  also  used  in  the  Chinese  pharmacoposia. 

Mr.  Elliott,  in  referring  to  the  differences  between  the  Californian  and  Alaskan  Sea  Lions,  calls 
attention  to  the  dissimilarity  of  their  voices.  The  Northern  Sea  Lion,  he  says,  "never  barks  or 


that  they  consume  more  fish  than  are  caught  in  the  bay  for  food,  and  if  they  continue  to  increase  in  the  future  a* 
in  th«  past,  it.  will  be  but  a  few  years  before  the  waters  of  the  bay  will  be  destitute  of  fish.  Formerly  these  animals 
seldom  cam  •  within  the  Golden  Gate,  but  now  it  is  a  very  common  thing  for  passengers  on  the  Oakland  boats  to  see 
their  mischievous-looking  heads  rise  from  the  water  with  a  large  lish  in  the  mouth — they  give  it  a  shake,  bite  out  a 
piece,  drop  it,  and  then,  diving  again,  catch  it,  and  rising  to  the  surface,  take  another  nibble  until  it  is  consumed.  It 
is  certain  that  something  should  be  done  to  diminish  their  numbers.  If  the  legislature  was  to  ofl'er  a  royalty  of  from 
75  cents  to  91  per  skin,  it  is  thought  by  many  interested  in  our  fish  supply  that  it  would  be  an  economical  act.  As  it 
in  now,  the  Sea  Lions  are  protected  by  law — no  one  being  allowed  to  molest  or  kill  one  within  a  mile  of  the  Cliff  House. 
An  erlb- 1  has  been  made  ou  several  occasions  to  repeal  this  law,  but  at  the  first  intimation  of  anything  in  that  direction, 
the  lobby  in  Sacramento  has  been  re-enforced  by  delegations  from  a  certain  stratum  of  society  which  history  tells  us 
has  had  more  or  less  influence  with  legislation  since  the  days  of  Marc  Antony.  The  consequence  is,  the  law  is  still 
upon  the  statute-books,  and  the  Sea  Lions  coutinue'to  increase,  while  the  fish  supply  proportionately  decreases. — San 
Francisco  Call,  November  1U. 

'"The  enormous  quantity  of  food  which  would  be  required  to  maintain  t  lie  herd  of  many  thousands,  which,  in 
toimer  years,  annually  assembled  at  the  small  island  of  Santa  Barbara,  would  seem  incredible,  if  they  daily  obtained 
the  allowance  given  to  a  male  and  female  Sea  Lion  on  exhibition  at  Woodward's  Gardens,  San  Francisco,  California, 
where  the  keeper  informed  me  that  he  fed  them  regularly,  every  day,  forty  pounds  of  fresh  lish " 

[That  the  destruction  offish  by  the  Sea  Lions  ou  the  coast  of  California  is  very  great  is  indicated  by  the  following 
item,  which  recently  went  the  rounds  of  the  newspapers:  "In  a  recent  meeting  at  San  Francisco  of  the  Senate 
Committee  on  Fisheries,  the  State  Fish  Commissioners,  and  a  committee  representing  the  fishermen  of  the  coast,  the 
i|  next  ion  as  to  the  destructive  performances  of  the  Sea  Lions  in  the  harbor  was  actively  discussed.  One  of  the  fishermen's 
representatives  said  that  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  25,000  Sea  Lions  within  a  radius  of  a  few  miles,  consuming 
from  ten  to  forty  pounds  each  of  fish  per  day;  the  Sea  Lions  were  protected  while  the  fishermen  were  harassed  by  the 
game  laws.  Another  witness  declared  that  salmon  captured  in  the  Sacramento  Uiver  often  bore  the  marks  of  injury 
finni  Si'ji  I. ions,  having  barely  escaped  with  life;  but  it  was  supposed  that  the  salmon  less  frequently  fell  victims  to 
the  a  in  |  ih  i  In  an  than  did  other  fishes  that  cannot  swim  as  fast." — Country,  January  26, 1878.] 

"[This  account  appeared  originally  in  Captain  Scammon's  account  of  the  "Islands  oft'  (lie  West  Coast  of  Lower 
California,"  in  J.  Hoss  Browne's  "  Resources  of  the  Pacific  Slope,"  second  part,  p.  1!K)  (1869),  and  has  been  quoted  by 
Mr.  Gurney  in  the  "Zoologist"  for  1871,  p.  2762.] 
Marine  Mammalia,  pp.  KM) -l:ir>. 


T1H-]  NOKTI1KKN    I'll;  SKAL  O1J  SKA    I'.KAK. 

howls  like  the  animal  at  the  Kara  Hones  or  Santa  Barbara.     Young  and  old,  Ix.tli  >e\e>. 

year  and  upward,  have  only  a  deep  baxx  growl,  and  prolonyed,  slcudy  roar;  while  at  Sun  Fram  i-,-i. 

Sea  Lions  break  out  incessantly  with  a  'honking'  bark  or  howl,  and  never  roar." 

The  California  Sea  Lion  is  now  a  somewhat  well-known  animal  with  the  public,  various  individ- 
uals having  been  at  di  fie  rent  times  on  exhibition  at  the  Central  Park  Menagerie  in  New  York  City, 
and  at  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Philadelphia  and  Cincinnati,  as  well  as  Woodward's  (iardeus 
in  San  Krancisco.  They  have  also  formed  part  of  the  exhibition  of  different  traveling  shows, 
especially  that  of  P.  T.  Baruum.  They  have  also  been  carried  to  Europe,  where  examples  have 
lived  for  several  years  at  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London,  Paris,  and  elsewhere.  Their  peculiar 
"honking"  bark,  referred  to  by  Mr.  Elliott,  is  hence  not  unfamiliar  to  many  who  have  never  met 
with  i  he  animal  in  a  state  of  nature.  Their  various  attitudes  and  mode  of  life  on  the  Faralloncs 
have  also  been  made  familiar  to  many  by  the  extensive  sale  of  stereoscopic  views  of  the  animals 
and  their  surroundhigs.  The  Sea  Lions  that  have  been  exhibited  in  this  country  all,  or  nearly  all, 
belong  to  the  present  species,  although  often  wrongly  labeled  " Eumetopias  Stelkri."  The  true  E. 
MvUi'ri  has,  however,  at  least  in  one  instance,  been  exhibited  in  Eastern  cities. 

22.  THE  NORTHERN  FUR  SEAL  OR  SEA  BEAR. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  AND  MIGRATION. — The  Fur  Seal,  Callorhinun  ursinw  (Linn6) 
Gray,  is  well  known  to  have  been  formerly  abundant  on  the  western  coast  of  North  America, 
as  far  south  as  California,  but  the  exact  southern  limit  of  its  range  I  have  been  unable  to 
determine.  Captain  Scammon  speaks  of  having  seen  them  "  on  one  of  the  San  Benito  Islands,  on 
the  coast  of  Lower  California,"  and  again  says,  "  On  the  coast  of  California  many  beaches  were 
found  fronting  gullies,  where  [Fur]  Seals  in  large  numbers  formerly  gathered ;  and,  as  they  frhere 
had  plenty  of  ground  to  retreat  upon,  the  sealers  sometimes  drove  them  far  enough  back  to  make 
sure  of  the  whole  herd,  or  that  portion  of  them  the  skins  of  which  were  desirable."1  lie  also  states 
that  the  "  Fur  Seal  and  Sea  Elephant  once  made  the  shores  [of  Guadalupe  Island]  a  favorite  re- 
sorting place,"  and  refers  to  their  former  occurrence  on  Cedros  Island,  in  latitude  28°.z  Although 
at  one  time  abundant  on  the  California  coast,  they  arc  by  no  means  numerous  there  now,  having 
been  nearly  exterminated  by  unrestricted  destruction  by  the  si  alers.  The  writer  above  cited  refers 
also  to  their  capture  by  the  Indians  at  the  month  of  the  Strait  of  Juan  do  Fuca.  The  Seals  appear 
here  and  on  the  neighboring  coast,  he  adds,  "some  years  as  early  as  the  first  of  March,  and  more 
,,i  less  remain  till  July  or  August;  but  they  are  most  plentiful  in  April  and  May.  During  these 
i  uo  months  the  Indians  devote  nearly  all  their  time  to  sealing  when  the  weather  will  permit."  He 
rc]>oi-ts  their  increase  there  in  later  years,  and  that  while  only  a  few  dozens  were  annually  taken 
there  from  1843  to  1864,  fully  ihe  thousand  were  taken  in  18C9.3  Captain  Bryant  has  given  a 
similar  report,  referring  especially  to  their  abundance  along  the  coasts  of  Oregon,  Washington  Ter- 
ritory, and  British  Columbia  in  18C9,  as  compared  with  former  years.  He  says  those  taken  "were 
mostly  very  young  Seals,  none  appearing  to  be  over  a  year  old.  Formerly  in  March  and  April  the 
natives  of  Puget  Sound  took  large  numbers  of  pregnant  females,4  but  no  places  where  they  have 
resorted  to  breed  seem  to  be  known  off  this  coast."  He  thinks  it  probable,  however,  that  they 
may  occupy  rocky  ledges  off  shore  which  are  rarely  visited  by  boats.5  In  his  MS.  report  just 

1  SCAMMON,  C.  M.:  Tbe  Marino  Mammals  of  the  Northwestern  Coast,  &c.,  pp.  t!>2,  154. 
*BROWXE,  J.  Ross:  Resources  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  second  part,  p.  126. 
'SCAMMON,  C.  XI.:  The  Marinr  .Mammals  of  the  Northwemeni  Coast,  &c.,  p.  154. 

«Thero  are  six  skulls  iu  the  National  Museum  from  Pnget  Sound  and  the  neighboring  coast  (collected  at  several 
different  points  l>v  Messrs.  Scammon  and  Swan),  all  of  wlicli  arc  femaltt. 
'Bulletin  MiiM-um  Comparative  Zoology,  ii,  p. 88. 

4  F 


50  NATURAL  H1STOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

received  he  states  that  a  half-breed  hunter  told  him  that  he  found  in  summer, "  on  Queen  Chariot  I  c's 
Island,  groups  of  these  animals  consisting  of  two  or  more  beach-masters  with  a  dozen  or  more 
females  and  pups,  but  uo  half -grown  males." 

As  is  well  known,  the  Pribylov  or  so-called  "  Fur  Seal  Islands,"  off  the  coast  of  Alaska,  form 
the  great  breeding-ground  of  the  Fur  Seals,  to  which  hundreds  of  thousands  annually  resort  to 
bring  forth  their  young.  The  Pribylov  Group  consists  of  four  small  islands,  known  respectively 
as  Saint  Paul's,  Saint  George's,  Otter,  and  Walrus  Islands.  The  two  last  named  are  of  small  size, 
and  are  not  used  as  breeding-grounds  by  the  Seals,  although  Otter  Island  is  visited  by  a  large 
number  of  "non-breeding  Seals."  Saint  Paul's  Island  is  the  largest,  containing  an  area  of  about 
thirty-three  square  miles,  and  having  a  coast  line  of  about  forty-two  miles,  nearly  one  half  of  which 
is  sand  beach.  Of  this,  sixteen  and  a  half  miles,  according  to  Mr.  Elliott,  are  occupied  in  the 
breeding  season  by  the  Fur  Seals.  Saint  George's  Island  is  somewhat  smaller,  with  only  twenty - 
uin  •  miles  of  shore  line.  It  presents  a  bold  coast,  a  grand  wall  of  basalt  extending  continuously 
for  ten  miles,  with  no  passageway  from  the  sea.  It  has,  in  all,  less  than  a  mile  of  sand  beach,  and 
only  two  and  a  quarter  miles  of  eligible  landing  grounds  for  the  Seals. 

A  few  old  male  Fur  Seals  are  said  to  make  their  appearance  at  the  rookeries  on  these  islands 
between  the  1st  and  15th  of  May,  they  acting,  as  it  were,  the  part  of  pioneers,  since  their  number  is 
not  much  increased  before  the  first  of  June.  At  about  this  date,  and  with  the  setting  iu  of  the 
humid,  foggy  weather  of  summer,  the  male  Seals  begin  to  land  by  "hundreds  and  thousands,"  to 
await  the  arrival  of  the  females,  which  do  not  appear  before  about  July  first.  The  young  are  born 
soon  after,  and  toward  the  last  of  this  month  the  rookeries  begin  to  lose  their  compactness  and 
definite  boundaries,  but  they  are  not  fully  broken  up  till  about  the  middle  of  September.  The 
Seals  begin  to  leave  the  islands  about  the  end  of  October,  the  greater  proportion  departing  in 
November,  while  some  remain  till  the  end  of  the  following  month,  and  even  later. 

The  number  of  Fur  Seals  present  on  Saint  Paul's  Island  iu  July,  1872,  was  estimated  by  Mr. 
Elliott  to  exceed  three  million,  and  on  Saint  George's  Island  iu  July,  1873,  at  about  one  hundred 
and  sixty-three  thousand.  Although  these  islands  form  by  far  their  most  populous  resorts,  they 
are  said  to  occur  in  considerable  numbers  on  some  of  the  islands  to  the  northward,  but  I  am  unable 
to  find  definite  statements  as  to  their  numbers  or  favorite  stations.  Mr.  Elliott,  after  examining 
Saint  Matthew's  and  Saint  Lawrence  Islands,  became  convinced  that  they  were  not  only  not  resorted 
to  as  breeding  stations  by  the  Fur  Seals,  but  that  these  islands,  by  their  constitution  and  climatic 
conditions,  were  unsuitable  for  this  purpose,  and  adds,  "  it  may  be  salely  said  that  no  land  of  ours 
iu  the  north  is  adapted  to  the  wants  of  that  animal,  except  that  of  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George." 
Mr.  W.  H.  Dall  states  that  "they  have  never  been  found  in  Bering  Strait,  or  within  three  hundred 
miles  of  it."  In  early  times  these  animals  are  well  known  to  have  been  abundant  on  Behring's  and 
Copper  Islands.  According  to  Krascheninikow,  they  were  so  numerous  upon  Behriug's  Island 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  as  to  cover  the  whole  southern  shore  of  the  island.  Their 
range  on  the  Asiatic  coast  is  given  by  Steller  and  others  as  extending  southward  along  the  Kamt- 
chatkan  coast  to  the  Kurile  Islands.  Krascheuinikow  states  that  they  appeared  there,  however, 
only  in  spring  and  in  September,  none  being  seen  there  from  the  beginning  of  June  till  the  end  of 
August,  at  which  time  he  says  they  return  from  the  south  with  their  young.  Von  Schrenck  speaks 
of  their  occurrence  in  the  Ochotsk  Sea  and  the  Tartarian  Gulf  as  fur  south  as  the  forty-sixth  degreo 
of  latitude,  or  to  the  southern  point  of  Saghalicn  Island.  The  natives  reported  to  him  (he  occurrence 
of  great  numl>crs  of  the  animals  on  the  eastern  coast  of  that  island.  Captain  Scaimnon  also  refers 
to  their  abundance  twenty  years  since  on  the  eastern  side  of  Haghalien. 

Except  during  the  season  of  reproduction,  these  animals  appear  to  lead  a  wandering  life,  but 
the  extent  and  direction  of  their  migrations  are  not  yet  well  known.  Steller  spoke  of  their  migra- 


TIIK   III;  SKAI.:  SI/K.   AM)  CKNKUAI.   IMSToKY.  51 

1 1. .us  ;i.s  being  MS  regular  as  those  of  tin-  \  arm  us  kinds  of  sea  fowl,  and  they  arc  rccoidcd  as  .irriving 
with  great  regularity  at  the  I'ribylov  Islands,  but  where  they  pass  the  season  of  winter  is  still  a 
in, liter  of  conjecture. 

Si/.i:.  — Mi.  F.lliott  has  given  d  table  showing  the  weight,  size,  aiid  rate  of  growth  of  tlio  Fur 
s«-.il.  from  the  age  of  one  week  to  six  years,  based  ou  actual  weight  and  measurement,  with  an 
estimate.of  the  si/.c  and  weight  of  specimens  from  eight  to  twenty  years  of  age.  From  this  table 
it  appears  that  the  pups  when  a  week  old  have  a  length  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches,  and  a 
weight  of  six  to  seven  and  a  half  pounds.  At  six  months  old  the  length  is  two  feet  and  the  weight 
about  thirty  pounds.  At  one  year  the  average  length  of  six  examples  was  found  to  be  thirty-eight 
inches,  and  the  weight  thirty-nine  pounds,  the  males  and  females  at  this  time  being  alike  iu  size 
The  average  weight  of  thirty  males  at  the  age  of  two  years  is  given  as  fifty-eight  pounds,  and  the 
length  as  forty  live  inches.  Thirty-two  males  at  the  age  of  three  years  were  found  to  give  uu 
average  weight  of  eighty-seven  pounds,  and  an  average  length  of  fifty-two  inches.  Ten  males  at 
the  age  of  four  averaged  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  pounds  in  weight,  and  fifty -eight  inches  in 
length.  A  mean  of  five  examples  five  years  old  is :  weight,  two  hundred  pounds;  length,  sixty-five 
in.  hes.  Three  males  at  six  years  gave  a  weight  of  two  bundled  and  eighty  pounds,  and  a  length 
of  six  feet.  The  estimated  average  weight  of  males  from  eight  years  and  upward,  when  fat,  is 
given  as  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds,  and  the  average  length  as  six  feet  three  inches 
to  six  feet  eight  inches.  Mr.  Elliott  further  adds  that  the  average  weight  of  the  female  is  from 
eighty  to  eighty-five  pounds,  but  that  they  range  in  weight  from  seventy  five  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pounds,  and  that  the  five  and  six  year  old  males,  on  their  first  appearance  in  May  and 
June,  when  fat  and  fresh,  may  weigh  a  third  more  than  in  July,  or  at  the  time  those  mentioned  in 
the  table  were  weighed,  which  would  thus  indicate  an  average  maximum  weight  of  about  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  for  the  six-year-old  males.  According,  however,  to  my  own 
measurements  of  old  males,  from  mounted  and  unmounted  specimens,  the  length  is  between  seven 
and  eight  feet,  and  of  a  full  grown  female  about  four  feet.  Captain  Bryant  states  that  the  males 
attain  mature  si/e  at  about  the  sixth  year,  when  their  total  length  is  from  seven  to  eight  feet,  their 
girth  six  tu  seven  feet,  and  their  weight,  when  in  full  flesh,  from  five  to  seven  hundred  pounds. 
The  females,  he  says,  are  full  grown  at  four  years  old,  when  they  measure  four  feet  in  length,  two 
ami  a  half  in  girth,  and  weigh  eighty  to  one  hundred  ]x>uuds.  The  yearlings,  he  says,  weigh  from 
thirty  to  forty  pounds.  The  relative  size  of  the  adults  of  both  sexes  and  the  young  in  well  shown 
iu  the  accompanying  illustration  drawn  by  Mr.  Elliott. 

(ir.NKUAL  HISTORY. — The  northern  Fur  Seal  was  first  made  known  to  science  by  Steller,  in 
1751,  under  tJie  name  of  Urnua  marinm.  During  his  visit  to  Kamtchatka  and  its  neighboring 
islands,  in  1742,  he  met  with  these  animals  in  great  numbers  at  Bering's  Island,  where  he  spent 
some  time  among  them,  and  carefully  studied  their  lutbits  and  anatomy,  a  detailed  account  of 
which  appeared  in  his  celebrated  memoir  entitled  "De  Bestiis  Marinis,"  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Saint  Petersburg  Academy  for  the  year  1749.'  This  important  essay  was  the  source  of  nearly  all  of 
the  accounts  of  this  animal  that  appeared  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  decade.  The 
twenty  eight  quarto  pages  of  Steller's  memoir  devoted  to  this  species  gave  not  only  a  detailed 
account  of  its  anatomy,  with  an  extensive  table  of  measurements,  but  also  of  its  remarkable  habits, 
and  figures  of  the  animals  themselves.  A  little  later  Krascheninikow,  in  his  History  of  Kami 
ehatka,-'  under  the  name  of  "Sea  Cat,"  gave  also  a  long  account  of  its  habits,  apparently  baaed 

'Nov.  Cumin.  A  rail.  Pet  nip.,  ii.  jip.  :>:il-:i.>'.l.  pi.  xv,  IT.'il.     Thin,  an  in  well  known,  is  a  |»>H||I unions  pnpcr,  pub- 
lished six   \eais  :ili. -i  Seller's  death,  Sicllrr  living  nt'lVv.T  November  Ii,  IT  I.".,  while  on  Ins  way  from  Siberia  to  Saint 

.     '1  lie  ilc  scrip: ion  nl'ilie  Sea  Itear  was  written  at  lierin^'M  Inland  in  May.  l"4i. 
'Hist.  Kan.tehatka  (Kuglwh  edition),  traiwlateil  liom  thr  Knssian  liy  Janiea  Grieve,  pp.  I23-13U,  1764. 


52  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

mainly  on  Steller's  notes,1  but  it  embraces  a  few  particulars  not  given  in  "DeBestiis  Marinis." 
Steller's  description  of  the  habits  of  this  animal  has  been  largely  quoted  by  Buffoii,  Pennant, 
Schreber,  Hamilton,  and  other  general  writers. 

Buffon,  Pennant,  Schreber,  Gmelin,  and  nearly  all  writers  on  the  Pinnipeds,  down  to  about 
1820,  confounded  the  northern  Fur  Seal  with  the  Fur  Seals  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  blending 
their  history  as  that  of  a  single  species.  Pe'rou,  in  1816,  first  recognized  it  as  distinct  from  its 
southern  allies,  as  it  was  so  treated  somewhat  later  by  Demarest,  Lesson,  Fischer,  Gray,  and  other 
systematic  writers,2  but  its  distinctive  characters  were  not  clearly  set  forth  till  1859,  when  Dr.  J. 
E.  Gray  described  and  figured  its  skull,  and  showed  that  the  northern  species  was  not  even  con- 
generic with  the  Sea  Bears  of  the  south.  Very  few  specimens  of  either  the  northern  or  southern 
Sea  Bears  appear  to  have  reached  European  museums  prior  to  about  that  date,  so  that  naturalists 
had  not  previously  been  able  to  make  a  direct  comparison  of  this  species  with  any  of  its  southern 
affines.  Dr.  Gray,  in  referring  to  this  point  in  1859,  wrote  as  follows:  "I  had  not  been  able  to  see 
a  specimen  of  this  species  in  any  of  the  museums  which  I  examined  on  the  Continent  or  in  England, 
or  to  find  a  skull  of  the  genus  [Arctocephalus]  from  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  yet  I  felt  so  assured, 
from  Ste'ler's  description  and  the  geographical  position,  that  it  must  be  distinct  from  the  Eared 
Fur  Seals  from  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  Australia,  with  which  it  had  usually  been  confounded, 
that  in  my  'Catalogue  of  Seals  in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum'  [1850]  I  regarded  it  as  a 
distinct  species,  under  the  name  of  Arctocephalus  ursinus,  giving  an  abridgment  of  Steller's  descrip 
tiou  as  its  specific  character."  "The  British  Museum,"  he  adds,  "has  just  received,  under  the  name 
Otaria  leonina,  from  Amsterdam,  a  specimen  [skull  and  skin]  of  the  Sea  Bear  from  Bering's  Straits, 
which  was  obtained  from  Saint  Petersburg";3  which  is  the  specimen  already  spoken  of  as  figured 
by  Dr.  Gray.  From  the  great  differences  existing  between  this  skull  and  those  of  the  Southern  Sea 
Bears,  Dr.  Gray,  a  few  weeks  later,  separated  the  northern  species  from  the  genus  Arctocephalus, 
under  the  name  Callorhinus.4 

It  seems,  however,  that  there  were  two  skulls  of  Steller's  Sea  Bear  in  the  Berlin  Museum  as 
early  as  1841,5  and  three  skeletons  of  the  same  species  in  the  Museum  of  Munich  in  1849,6  yet 
Dr.  Gray  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  compare  this  animal  with  its  southern  relatives,  and  to 
positively  decide  its  affinities. 

Misled,  however,  by  erroneous  information  respecting  specimens  of  Eared  Seals  received  at  the 
British  Museum  from  California,  a  skin  of  the  Callorhinus  ursinus  was  doubtfully  described  by  this 
author,  in  the  paper  in  which  the  name  CaUorhinus  was  proposed,  as  that  of  his  Arctocephalus 
monteriensi*,  which  is  a  Hair  Seal.  This  skin  was  accompanied  by  a  young  skull,  purporting,  by  the 
label  it  bore,  to  belong  to  it,  but  Dr.  Gray  observes  that  otherwise  he  should  have  thought  it  too 
small  to  have  belonged  to  the  same  animal.  Seven  years  later,7  he  described  the  skull  as  that  of 
a  new  species  (Arctocephalus  californianw),  still  associating  with  it,  however,  the  skin  of  the 

1  Krascheninikow,  it  is  stated,  "received  all  of  Mr.  S teller's  papers"  to  aid  him  in  the  preparation  of  his  "History 
of  Kamtchatka." 

-Xilsson  and  Miillcr  in  1841,  and  Wagner  in  1846  and  1849,  on  the  other  hand,  still  considered  all  the  Sea  Hears 
as  belonging  to  a  single  species.  Wagner,  in  1849  (Arch,  filr  Natnrg.,  1849,  pp.  37-49)  described  the  osteological  char- 
acters of  the  northern  species  from  three  skeletons  in  the  Munich  Museum  received  from  Bering's  Sea.  One  of  these 
was  apparently  that  of  a  full-grown  femalo;  a  second  was  believed  to  bo  that  of  a  half- grown  male,  while  the  third 
belonged  to  a  very  young  animal,  in  which  the  permanent  teeth  were  still  not  wholly  developed.  Wagner  compares 
the  species  with  Steller's  Sea  Lion,  and  with  the  figures  of  the  skulls  of  the  southern  Sea  Bears  given  by  F.  Cuvier, 
Blainville,  and  Quoy  and  Qaimard,  and  notes  varions  differences  iu  the  form  of  the  teeth  and  skull,  but  believes  that 
these  differences  must  be  regarded  as  merely  variations  dependent  upon  age. 

'QUAY,  J.  E.,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  1859,  p.  10-2. 

4GRAY,  J.  E.,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  1859,  p.  359. 

•See  Archiv  fUr  Natnrgesch.,  1841,  p.  334. 

'GRAY,  J.  E.,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  849,  p.  39. 

7  <;KAT,  J.  E.,  Catalogue  of  the  Seals  and  Whales  iu  the  British  Museum,  1866,  p.  51. 


THK   I'll;  SKA  I,:    FK1URES. 

iirxiiiux.  The  skull  lie  subsequently  considered  ;is  that  of  a  .young  .1.  inontcrien*iM 
(=Enmctoi>i<m  Sti'llcri);  and  referring  bis  A.  fdli/ornianiin  to  that  species,  ho  was  consequently  led 
into  the  double  error  of  regarding  the  Eumctapiaa  Stelleri  us  a  Fur  Seal  (as  already  explained  under 
thatspeeies  and  elsewhere  in  tbo  present  paper),  and  of  excluding  tbo  Callorhinu*  urxinus  from  Ilio 
list  of  Fur  Seals.  To  this  I  called  attention  in  1870,  and  in  1871  Dr.  Gray  correctly  referred  his  A. 
mmttrriciixis  and  A.  caUfornianun  in  part  (tbo  "skin  only")  to  Callorhinu*  itrxiniui.1 

What  may  be  termed  the  second  or  modern  epoch  in  tbo  general  history  of  this  species  began 
in  18(i!t,  when  Captain  C.  M.  Scammon  published  a  highly  important  contribution  to  its  biology,2  ho 
deseribing  at  considerable  length,  from  personal  observation,  its  habits,  distribution,  and  products, 
as  well  as  the  various  methods  employed  for  its  capture.  The  following  year  Mr.  W.  II.  Dull 
devoted  a  few  pages8  to  its  history,  in  which  ho  made  many  important  suggestions  relative  to 
the  sealing  business.  During  the  sumo  year  I  was  able  to  add  not  only  something  to  its  technical 
history,1  but  also  to  make  public  an  important  communication  on  its  habits  kindjy  placed  at  my 
disposal  by  Captain  Charles  Bryant,5  government  agent  in  charge  of  the  Fur  Seal  Islands  of 
Alaska.  In  1874,  Captain  Scammon  republished  his  above  mentioned  paper,6  adding  thereto  a 
transcript  of  Captain  Bryant's  observations  already  noted.  Almost  simultaneously  with  this 
appeared  Mr.  II.  \V.  Elliott's  exhaustive  Report  on  the  Seal  Islandsof  Alaska,1  in  which  the  present 
species  properly  comes  in  for  a  large  share  of  the  author's  attention.  The  work  is  richly 
illustrated  with  photographic  plates,  taken  from  Mr.  Elliott's  sketches,  about  twenty  five  of  which 
are  devoted  to'  the  Fur  Seal.  The  text  of  this  rare  and  privately  distributed  work  has  been  since 
reprinted,8  with  some  changes  and  additions,  and  has  been  widely  circulated.  It  contains  very 
little  relating  to  the  Fur  Seal  that  is  strictly  technical,  but  the  general  history  of  its  life  at  the 
I'ribylov  Islands  is  very  fully  told,  while  the  commercial  or  economic  phase  of  the  subject  is  treated 
at  length.  A  few  minor  notices  of  this  species  have  since  appeared  (mostly  popular  articles  in 
illustrated  magazines,  chiefly  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Elliott),  but  nothing  relating  to  its  general  history 
requiring  special  notice  in  the  present  connection,  until  the  publication,  in  1881,  by  the  Census 
Bureau  and  the  Fish  Commission,  of  the  I  wo  editions  of  Mr.  Elliott's  elaborate  monograph  of 
tbo  Seal  Islands  of  Alaska.9 

FIGURES. — The  first  figures  of  the  Northern  Sea  Bear  were  given  by  Stellcr,  in  bis  p.  per  already 
cited.  They  represent  an  adult  male,  in  a  quite  natural  attitude,  and  a  female  reclining  on  her  back. 
In  respect  to  details,  these  early  figures  were  naturally  more  or  less  rude  and  inaccurate.  They 


1  GRAY,  J.  E. :  Supplementary  Catalogue  of  the  Seals  and  Whales,  p.  15 ;  Hand-List  of  Seal*,  p. ::-. 

•SCAMMON,  C.  M.,  in  the  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  iii,Nov.,18ffi).pp.  H93-399. 

»DALL,  WILLIAM  H.:  Alaska  and  its  Resources,  1870,  pp.  492-498. 

'Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  ii,  pp.  73-89. 

'Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  pp. 89-108. 

"ScAMMON,  C.  M. :  The  Marine  Mammals  of  the  Northwestern  Coast,  <Jtc.,  1874,  pp.  141-163. 

7  KI.IJOTT,  HENRY  W.:  Report  on  the  Prybilov  Group,  or  Seal  Islands  of  Alaska,  4to,  unpaged,  1873  [1«74]. 

•ELLIOTT,  HENRY  W.:  Condition  of  Affairs  iu  Alaska,  1875,  pp.  107-151. 

9 1881.  ELLIOTT,  HENRY  W. :  Department  of  the  Interior.  |  —  |  Tenth  Census  of  the-  United  Static.  |  Francis  A. 
Walker,  |  Superintendent.  |  —  |  The  history  and  present  condition  |  of  the  fishery  industries.  |  Prepared  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  S.  F.  Baird,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  by  G.  Brown  Goodc,  Assistant  I>ii'-<i..r, 
IT.  S.  National  Museum.  |  —  |  The  Seal-Islands  of  Alaska,  |  by  |  Henry  W.  Elliott.  |  (Seal  of  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior.) |  Washington:  I  Government  Printing  Office:  |  1881.  Quarto, pp.  176.  Two  maps;  twcnty-iiiur  pin- 

1881.  ELLIOTT,  HKNKY  W.:  U. S. Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  |  Spencer  F.  Baird, Commissioner.  |  —  |  170. 
|  Special  liullctin.  |  —  |  A  Monograph  |  of  the  |  Seal  Islands  of  Alaska  |  by  |  Henry  W.  Elliott  |  —  |  Reprinted,  with 
additions,  from  tbo  Report  on  the  Fishery  Industries  |  of  the  Tenth  Census.  |  Washington:  |  Government  Printing 
Office.  |  1H82.  Quarto,  pp.  176.  Two  maps;  twenty-nine  plates. 

These  twu  editions  diner  in  (lie  fact  that  in  the  census  edition,  pp.  102  to  109,  relating  to  "The  Reproduction  of 
the  Fur  Seal,  Soa  Lion,  and  Walrus,"  aro  replaced  by  "A  Brief  Review  of  the  Official  Reports  upon  the  Conduct  of 
Altai rs  on  the  Seal  Islands." 


f;4  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

were  copied,  however,  by  Buffon,  Sclireber,  Pennant,  and  other  early  writers,  and  are  the  only 
representations  of  this  species  known  to  me  that  were  made  prior  to  about  the  year  1830,  except 
Choris's  plate  of  a  group  of  these  animals  entitled  "  Ours  marins  dans  1'ile  de  St.  Paul,"1  published 
in  1822.  This  represents  three  old  males,  surrounded  by  their  harems,  and  indicates  very  faithfully 
the  mode  of  grouping  and  the  variety  of  attitudes  assumed  by  these  animals  when  assembled 
on  the  rookeries.  Hamilton,  in  1839,  gave  a  figure  of  the  "Sea  Bear  of  8 teller  (Otaria  urn!  mi)" 
which  he  tells  us  is  "from  the  engraving  of  the  distinguished  Naturalist  of  the  Rurick,"2  the  original 
of  which  I  have  not  seen.  This  represents  a  male  and  female,  the  latter  reclining  on  its  side,  with 
a  pup  resting  on  its  right  flipper. 

The  first  figure  of  the  skull  is  that  published  by  Gray  in  1859,3 — a  view  in  profile  of  the  skull 
of  an  adult  male.  A  wood-cut  of  the  same  was  given  in  I860,4  and  a  fine  lithographic  plate  in 
1874,*  representing  the  skull  in  profile,  from  above  and  from  below.6 

In  1870  I  gave  figures  of  two  adult  male  skulls  (two  views  of  each),  of  an  adult  female  skull 
(three  views),  of  a  very  young  skull  (three  views),  and  of  the  scapula,  dentition,  etc.  These,  so  far 
as  known  to  me,  are  the  only  figures  of  the  skull  or  other  details  of  structure  thus  far  published. 

In  1874  Captain  Scammon  gave  figures  of  the  animal,7  a  zincograph  of  an  old  male,11  from  a 
sketch  by  Mr.  Elliott,  a  wood-cut  of  the  head  of  a  female  seen  from  below  (drawn  by  Elliott)," 
two  outline  figures  representing  the  female  as  seen  from  below  and  in  profile,  and  two  others  in 
outline  illustrating  "attitudes  of  the  Fur  Seals."  Mr.  Elliott,  in  his  first  Report  on  the  Seal 
Islands,  in  a  series  of  over  two  dozen  large  photographic  plates  (from  India  ink  sketches  from 
nature),  has  given  an  exhaustive  presentation  of  the  phases  of  fur  seal  life  so  faithfully  studied 
by  him  at  Saint  Paul's  Island.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  especially  those  entitled  "The  East. 
Landing  and  Black  Buttes — The  beach  covered  with  young  Fur  Seals";  "The  North  Shore  of  Saint 
Paul's  Island"  (giving  an  extensive  view  of  the  rookeries) ;  "Lukannon  Beach"  (Fur  Seals  playing 
in  the  surf,  and  rookeries  in  the  distance);  "Old  male  Fur  Seal,  or  'Seecatch'"  (as  he  appears  at 
the  end  of  the  season  after  three  months  of  fasting);  "Fur-seal  Harem"  (showing  the  relative  size 
of  males,  females,  and  young,  various  attitudes,  positions,  etc.);  "Fur-seal  Males,  waiting  for  their 
'Harems'"  (the  females  beginning  to  arrive);  "Fur-seal  'Rookery'"  (breeding-grounds  at  Polavina 
Point) ;  " Fur-seal  Harem"  (Reef  Rookery,  foreground  showing  relative  size  of  males  and  females) ; 
"Fur-seal  Pups  at  Sleep  and  Play";  "Hauling  Grounds"  (several  views  at  different  points); 
"Capturing  Fur  Seals";  "Driving  Fur  Seals";  "Killing  Fur  Seals — Sealing  gang  at  work,"  etc. 

The  only  other  pictorial  contributions  to  the  history  of  the  Fur  Seal  of  noteworthy  importance 
prior  to  the  publication  by  the  Census  of  Mr.  Elliott's  latest  work,  is  Mr.  Clark's  colored  plute,  on 
which  are  represented  a  nearly  full-grown  male,  a  female,  and  a  pup,  prepared  from  skins  sent  to 
the  British  Museum  by  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company.  In  these  the  attitudes  are  excellent  and 
the  coloring  fair. 

For  detailed  discussions  of  this  species,  its  capture  and  its  commercial  uses,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Elliott's  "Monograph"  and  to  the  chapters  on  THE  HABITS  OF  TIIK  FUR  SKAL,  and 
TIIK  FUR  SEAL  FISHERY,  in  subsequent  pages  of  this  work. 


'Cliows,  L. :  Voyage  pittorcsquc  autour  <lii  Monde,  Paris,  1822.     lien  Ale'oulieiiiies,  pi.  xv. 

1  HAMILTON,  R. :  Marino  Amphibia;,  p.  2t>6,  pi.  xxi. 

'GRAY,  J.  E.,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  1859,  pi.  Ixviii. 

'GRAY,  J.  E. :  Catalogue  of  the  Seals  and  Whales  in  the  British  Mnsi-nm,  p.  <if>,  fig.  10. 

T.RAY,  J.  E. :  Hand-List  ofSeals.pl.  xix. 

•I  infer  this  to  he  the  same  specimen  in  each  case,  not  only  from  the  resemblance  the  figures  lic:ir  to  each  other, 
luit  from  Dr.  Gray,  fu>  far  as  I  can  discover,  referring  to  only  the  single  skull  from  Bering's  Strait,  received  in  18&!>. 

'ScAMMnN,  ('.  M.  :  The  Marine  Mammals  of  the  Northwest  Coast.  A  B.,  pi.  xxi,  two  figures. 

•ELLIOTT,  HENRY  W. :  Report  on  the  Pribylov  (froup.  or  l-'nr  Seal  Islands,  of  Alaska,  unpaged,  and  plates  not 
numbered. 

9 Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  1878, 271,  pi.  xx. 


THE  HARHOU  SKA  I,.  .V, 

23.  THE  HARBOR  SEAL. 

(iKNKUAl.  HISTORY  AND  SYNONYMY. — Till'  (-(minion  Seal.  1'hoca  (/'/««•«)  rillllina  Linnc,  is 
mentioned  ill  the  earliest  works  on  natural  history,  having  been  described  and  rudely  figured  by 
various  writers  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  as  well  as  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  Kveu  down  to  the  time  of  Linne*  it  was  the  only  species  recognized;  or,  more  correctly, 
all  the  species  known  were  usually  confounded  as  one  species,  supposed  to  l>c  the  same  as  the 
common  Seal  of  the  European  cosusts.  Consequently  almost  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  the  ••common  Seal"  was  generally  supposed  to  inhabit  nearly  all  the  seas  of  the  globe, 
Bnft'on,  Pennant,  Schreber,  and  others  referring  to  it  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 
Liiine  distinguished  only  a  single  species,  even  in  the  later  editions  of  his  "Systema  Natnne."  As 
is  well  known,  the  smaller  species  of  Seal  arc,  with  difficulty  distinguishable  by  external  characters, 
particularly  during  their  younger  stages.  Few,  however,  arc  so  variable  in  color  as  the  present, 
and  none  has  so  wide  a  geographical  range. 

<ii:o<;i:ApniCAi,  DISTRIBUTION. — The  Harbor  Seal  appears  to  have  formerly  l>ecn  much  mom 
numerous  on  portions  of  our  eastern  coast  than  it  is  at  present.1  Dr.  DeKay,  writing  in  1842, 
states  that  the  "common  Seal,  or  Sea  Dog,"  is  "now  comparatively  rare  in  our  [New  York] 
waters,"  though  "formerly  very  abundant."  He  adds,  "A  certain  reef  of  rocks  in  the  harbor  of 
New  York  is  called  Kobin^  Reef,  from  the  numerous  seals  which  were  accustomed  to  resort  there; 
roliiii  or  i-obi/ii  being  the  name  in  Dutch  for  Seal.  At  some  seasons,  even  at  the  present  day,  they 
are  very  numerous,  particularly  about  the  Execution  Rocks  in  the  Sound;  but  their  visits  appear 
to  be  very  capricious."  He  further  alludes  to  their  capture  nearly  every  year  in  the  Passaic  River, 
in  New  Jersey,  and  states  that  a  Seal  was  taken  in  a  seine  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  near  Elko, 
Maryland,  in  August,  1824,  supposed  by  Dr.  Mitchill,  who  saw  it,  to  be  of  this  species.2  Although 
still  occasionally  appearingon  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  States  as  far  southward  as  North  Carolina.' 
it  is  of  probably  only  accidental  occurrence  south  of  New  Jersey,  and  rare  south  of  Massachusetts. 

In  respect  to  its  occurrence  on  the  New  Jersey  coast,  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott,  the  well  known 
naturalist  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  kindly  writes  me,  in  answer  to  my  inquiries  on  this  point,  as  follows: 
"In  going  <>vcr  my  note-books,  I  find  I  bave  there  recorded  the  occurrence  of  Seals  (1'lwi-n 
ritulina)  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  as  follows :  December,  1861 ;  January,  1864;  December,  1806;  February. 
1870;  and  December,  1877.  In  these  five  instances  a  single  specimen  was  killed  on  the  ledge  of 
rocks  crossing  the  river  here  and  forming  the  rapids.  In  December,  1861,  three  were  seen,  and 
two  in  February,  1870.  A  week  later  one  was  captured  down  the  river  near  Bristol,  Bucks  County, 
Pennsylvania.  My  impression  is  that  in  severe  winters  they  are  really  much  more  abundant  in 
the  Delaware  River  than  is  supposed.  Considering  how  small  a  chance  there  is  of  their  being  seen 
when  the  river  is  choked  with  ice,  I  am  disposed  to  believe  that  an  occasional  pair  or  more  come 
up  the  river,  even  as  high  as  Trenton,  the  head  of  tide-water,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
miles  from  the  ocean. 


'  The  "Semi- Weekly  Advertiser,"  Boston,  January  10,  1872,  had  the  following: 

"The  keeper  of  tin-  Bird  Island  light-house  at  Marion  reports  that  one  day  last  week  he  saw  over  300  Seals  on  the 

ice  atone  time.     He  .shot  and  obtained  from   it  two  gallons  of  oil.     In  eight   years  that  In-  has  kept  the  light  he 

never  saw  more  than  throe  at  a  time  until  now." 

'DKKAY,  JAMES  E. :  New  York  Zoology,  or  the  Fauna  of  New  York,  part  i,  1842,  pp.  54,  .Vi. 

»A  recent  ree.>nl  •>(  its  capture  in  North  Carolina  is  the  following,  the  reference,  I  think,  unquestionably  relating 
to  the  present  s|M>cio»: 

"SOUTIHOW  RAXOK  OK  THIS  SEAU— The  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  'Star'  of  February  **,  mentions  the  rapt  IIP-,  in 
River.  On-dow  County,   of  a  large  female  Spotted   Seal,  measuring  about   wv.-n   feel    in   length,   and   weighing  i 
pounds.     This  is  an  interesting  note.     The  species  must  probalily  have  l«-en  the  common  Harbor  Seal  <  l'h,^,i  <ilnlii,a). 
The  same  newspaper  says  one  was  retried  nonr  Beaufort  some  time  ago."— [\V.  K.  I).  SCOTT,]  "  Country,"  v»l 
•Jl,  p.  '-IK;,  March  111,  I 


56  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"On  examination  of  old  local  histories,  I  find  reference  to  the  Seals  as  not  uncommon  along 
our  coast,  and  as  quite  frequently  wandering  up  our  rivers  in  winter.  I  can  find  no  newspaper 
references  to  the  occurrence  of  Seals  later  than  February  or  earlier  than  December,  but  as  histor- 
ical references  to  climate,  as  well  as  the  memory  of  aged  men  still  living,  show  conclusively  that 
our  winters  are  now  much  milder  than  they  were  even  fifty  years  ago,  it  is  probable  that  Seals  did 
come  up  the  river  earlier  in  past  years. 

"In  conversation  with  an  old  fisherman,  now  seventy-six  years  old,  who  has  always  lived  at 
Trenton,  and  has  been  a  good  observer,  I  learn  that  every  winter,  years  ago,  it  was  expected  that 
one  or  more  Seals  would  be  killed;  and  that  about  1840  two  were  killed  in  March,  which  it' was 
supposed  had  accompanied  a  school  of  herring  up  the  river. 

"  In  my  investigations  in  local  archaeology  I  have  found,  in  some  of  the  fresh-water  shell  heaps, 
or  rather  camp-fire  and  fishing-village  sites  along  the  river,  fragments  of  bones  which  were  at  the 
time  identified  as  those  of  Seals.  I  did  not  preserve  them,  as  I  had  no  knowledge  of  their  being  of 
interest.  They  were  associated  with  bones  of  deer,  bear,  elk,  and  large  wading  birds,  and  then 
gave  me  the  impression,  which  subsequent  inquiry  has  strengthened,  that  the  Seal,  like  many  of 
our  large  mammals,  had  disappeared  gradually,  as  the  country  became  more  densely  settled,  and 
that  in  pre-European  times  it  was  common,  at  certain  seasons,  both  on  the  coast  and  inland." ' 

In  later  communications  (dated  January  25  and  March  20,  1879)  he  inclosed  to  me  newspaper 
slips  and  notes  respecting  the  capture  of  eight  specimens  in  New  Jersey,  mostly  near  Trenton, 
during  the  winter  of  1878-'79. 

On  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  they  occur  in  considerable  numbers  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Ipswich  River,  where  I  have  sometimes  observed  half  a  score  in  sight  at  once.  They  are  also  to 
be  met  with  about  the  islands  in  Boston  Harbor,  and  along  the  eastern  shore  of  Cape  Cod.  Captain 
N.  E.  Atwood  states  that  they  are  now  and  then  seen  at  Provincetown,  and  that  in  a  shallow  bay 
west  of  Rainsford  Island  "many  hundreds"  may  be  seen  at  any  time  in  summer  on  a  ledge  of 
rocks  that  becomes  exposed  at  low  water.2 

Farther  northward  they  become  more  numerous,  particularly  on  the  coast  of  Maine  and  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador,  and  are  also  common  on  the 
shores  of  Davis's  Strait  and  in  Greenland,  where,  says  Dr.  Rink,  "  it  occurs  here  arid  there 
throughout  the  coast,"  and  is  likewise  to  be  met  with  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Mr.  Kumlien 
says  it  is  one  of  the  "  rarer  species  "  in  the  Cumberland  waters,  but  its  exact  northern  limit  I  have 
not  seen  stated. 

On  the  European  coasts  it  is  said  to  occur  occasionally  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  to  be  not 
rare  on  the  coast  of  Spain.  It  is  more  frequent  on  the  coasts  of  France  and  the  British  Inlands, 
and  thence  northward  along  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  is  the  commonest  species  of  the  family. 
It  also  extends  northward  and  eastward  along  the  arctic  coast  of  Europe,  but  late  explorers  of 
the  Spitzbergen  and  Jan  Mayen  Islands  do  not  enumerate  it  among  the  species  there  met  with. 
Malmgren  states  distinctly  that  it  is  not  found  there,3  and  it  is  not  mentioned  by  Von  Heuglin 
nor  by  the  other  German  naturalists  who  have  recently  visited  these  islands.  From  its  littoral 
habits  its  absence  there  might  be  naturally  expected.  It  is  also  said  by  some  writers  to  occur  in 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  in  Lake  Baikal,  but  the  statement  is  seriously  open  to  doubt,  as 
will  be  shown  later  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Ringed  Seal. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  it  occurs  from  Southern  California  northward  to 

1  Letter  dat«<l  Trenton,  N.  J.,  Dec.  26,  1878. 
•See  Bull.  Mua.  Coinp.  Zool.,  vol.  i,  p.  19:5. 
>Weigm.  Arch.  fUr  Natnrg.  1864,  p.  84. 


TIIH  IlAltnOK  SKAL:   ItANCH  AND  HABITS.  57 

Merino's  Strait,  where  it  seems  to  bo  an  abundant  species.  1  have  examined  specimens  from  tho 
Sant;i  I'.arbara  Islands,  and  various  intermediate  points  to  Alaska,  and  from  Plover  Bay,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Siberia.  The  extent  of  its  range  on  tho  Asiatic  coast  has  not  been  ascertained. 
If  it  is  the  species  referred  to  by  Pallas  under  the  name  Phoca  canina,  and  by  Temminck,  Von 
Schrenrk,  and  other  German  writers,  under  the  name  Phoca  nummulari*,  as  seems  probable,  it 
(ii curs  in  Japan  and  along  the  Amoor  coast  of  the  Ochotsk  Sea.  Von  Schrenck  speaks  of  it,  on 
the  authority  <>f  the  natives,  as  entering  the  Amoor  River.1  Tho  late  Dr.  Gray  referred  a  speci- 
men from  Japan  to  his  "llalicyon  Richardsi,"  which,  as  already  shown,  is  merely  a  synonym  of 
riiora  vitulina.  It  thus  doubtless  ranges  southward  along  the  Asiatic  coast  to  points  nearly  cor- 
responding in  latitude  with  its  southern  limit  of  distribution  on  the  American  side  of  the  Pacific. 

The  Harbor  Seal  not  only  frequents  the  coast  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  North  Pacific, 
and  some  of  the  larger  interior  seas,  but  ascends  all  the  larger  rivers,  often  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance above  tide-water.  It  even  passes  up  the  Saint  Lawrence  to  tho  Great  Lakes,  and  has  Iteen 
taken  in  Lake  Champlain.  DeKay  states,  on  the  authority  of  a  Canadian  newspaper,  that  a  Seal 
(in  all  probability  of  this  species)  was  taken  in  Lake  Ontario  near  Cape  Vincent  (Jefferson  County, 
New  York)  about  1824,  and  adds  that  the  same  paper  says  that  Indian  trailers  report  the  previous 
occurrence  of  Seals  in  the  same  lake,  though  such  instances  are  rare.'  Thompson  gives  two 
instances  of  its  capture  in  Lake  Champlain;  one  of  the  specimens  he  himself  examined,  and  lias 
published  a  careful  description  of  it,  taken  from  the  animal  before  it  was  skinned.-1 

They  are  also  known  to  ascend  the  Columbia  River  as  far  as  the  Dalles  (above  the  Cascades, 
and  about  two  hundred  miles  from  the  sea),  as  well  as  the  smaller  rivers  of  the  Pacific  coast,  nearly 
to  their  sources.  Mr.  Brown  states  that  "  Dog  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Columbia,  takes  its  name 
from  a  dog-like  animal,  probably  a  Seal,  being  seen  in  the  lake  whence  the  stream  rises."4 

HABITS. — The  Harbor  Seal  is  the  only  species  of  the  family  known  to  lie  at  all  common  on 
any  part  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States.  Although  it  has  been  taken  as  far  south 
as  North  Carolina,  it  is  found  to  be  of  very  rare  or  accidental  occurrence  south  of  New  Jersey. 
Uespeeting  its  history  here,  little  has  been  recorded  beyond  the  fact  of  its  presence.  Captain 
Seanmioii  has  given  a  quite  satisfactory  account  of  its  habits  and  distribution  as  observed  by  him 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  but  under  the  supposition  that  it  was  a  species  distinct  from 
the  well-known  Phoca  vittilina  of  the  North  Atlantic.  Owing  to  its  rather  southerly  distribution, 
as  compared  with  its  more  exclusively  boreal  afflnes,  its  biography  has  l>een  many  times  written 
in  greater  or  less  detail.  Fabricius,  as  early  as  1791,  devoted  not  less  than  twenty  pages  to  its 
history,  based  in  part  on  his  acquaintance  with  it  in  Greenland,  and  partly  on  the  writings  of  pre- 
ceding authors;5  and  much  more  recently  extended  accounts  of  it  have  been  given  by  Nilssouand 

1  VON  SCHKENK :  Reisen  im  Ainoor-Lande.  B<1.  i,  p.  180. 

f  DEKAY:  New  York  Zoology,  or  the  Fauna  of  Now  York,  pt.  i,  1842,  p.  55. 
His  record  of  the  captnro  of  these  examples  ia  as  follows: 

"While  several  persons  were  skatin;;  upon  the  ice  on  Lake  Champlain,  a  lit!  li-  Bonth  of  Burlington,  in  February, 
1810,  they  discovered  a  living  Seal  in  a  wild  state  which  had  found  its  way  through  a  crack  and  was  crawling  upon 
the  ice.  They  took  off  their  skates,  with  which  they  attacked  and  killed  it,  and  then  drew  it  to  the  shore.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  fonr  and  a  half  feet  long.  It  must  have  reached  our  lake  by  way  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Hirhelieu."— 
Tliompsons'  Nat.  and  Civil  Hist,  of  Vermont,  1842,  p.  38. 

"Another  Seal  was  killed  npon  the  ice  between  Burlington  and  Port  Kent  on  tho  23d  of  February,  1840.  Mr. 
Tabor,  of  Koeseville,  and  Messrs.  Morse  anil  Field,  of  Peru,  were  crossing  over  in  sleighs  when  they  discovered  it 
crawling  npon  the  ice,  and,  attacking  it  with  the  butt  end  of  their  whip*,  t  hey  Mirceeiled  in  killing  it  and  brought  it  on 
shore  at  Burlington,  where  it  was  purchased  by  Morton  Coin,  esq.,  and  presented  to  the  University  of  Vermont,  where 
it-  skin  and  skeleton  are  now  preserved.  *  *  *  *  At  the  time  the  above-mentioned  Saal  was  taken,  tho  lake,  with 
tho  exception  of  a  few  cracks,  was  entirely  covered  with  ice." — Ibid.,  Append.,  1853,  p.  l:i. 

«Proc.Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1808,  p.  412,  foot-note. 

'Fabricius  appears  to  have  exhaustively  presented  its  literary  history,  his  references  to  previous  authors,  in  hia 
table  of  synonymy,  occupying  nearly  fonr  pagea. 


58  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQCJATIC  ANIMALS. 

Lilljeborg,  but  unfortunately  for  English  readers  the  first  of  these  histories  is  written  in  Danish 
and  the  other  in  Swedish.  It  has,  however,  been  noticed  quite  fully  by  Bell,  Macgilliviay.  and 
other  British  authors,  while  lesser  and  more  fragmentary  accounts  of  it  are  abundant.  On  the  N  c\\ 
England  coast,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  chiefly  observed  about  rocky  islands  and  shores,  at  the  mouths 
of  rivers  and  in  sheltered  bays,  where  it  is  always  an  object  of  interest.  Although  ranging  far 
into  the  arctic  regions,  it  is  everywhere  said  to  be  a  sedentary  or  non-migratory  species,  being 
resident  throughout  the  year  at  all  points  of  its  extended  habitat.  Unlike  most  of  the  other 
species,  it  is  strictly  confined  to  the  shores,  never  resorting  to  the  ice-floes,  and  is  consequently 
never  met  with  far  out  at  sea,  nor  does  it  habitually  associate  with  other  species.  On  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland,  where  it  is  more  abundant  and  better  known  than  at  more  southerly  points,  it  is 
said  to  bring  forth  its  young  during  the  last  two  weeks  of  May  and  the  early  part  of  June,  resorting 
for  this  purpose  to  the  rocky  points  and  outlying  ledges  along  the  shore.  It  is  said  to  be  very 
common  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  and  of  Newfoundland  in  summer,  or  during 
the  period  when  the  shores  are  free  from  ice,  but  in  winter  leaves  the  ice-bound  coast  for  the  re- 
moter islands  in  the  open  sea.  It  is  at  all  times  watchful,  and  takes  great  care  to  keep  out  of  reach 
jof  guns.  Still,  many  are  surprised  while  basking  on  the  rocks,  and  fall  victims  to  the  seal-hunters, 
while  considerable  numbers  of  the  young  are  captured  in  the  seal-nets.  They  are  described  as  very 
sagacious,  and  as  possessing  great  parental  affection.  Mr.  Carroll  states  that  when  an  old  one  is 
found  on  the  rocks  with  its  young  it  will  seize  the  latter  and  convey  it  in  its  mouth  so  quickly  to 
the  water  that  there  is  not  time  to  shoot  it;  or,  if  the  young  one  be  too  large  to  be  thus  removed,  it 
will  entice  it  upon  its  back  and  plunge  with  it  into  the  sea.  The  same  writer  informs  us  that  this 
species  is  a  great  annoyance  to  the  salmon-fishers,  boldly  taking  the  salmon  from  one  end  of  the 
net  while  the  fisherman  is  working  at  the  other  end.  It  is  also  troublesome  in  other  ways,  since, 
whenever  the  old  ones  get  entangled  in  the  strong  seal-nets,  they  are  able  to  cut  themselves  free,  a 
feat  it  is  said  no  other  Seal  known  in  Newfoundland  will  do. 

This  species  is  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  Newfoundland  as  the  "Native  Seal,"  in  conse- 
quence of  its  being  the  only  species  found  there  the  whole  year.  The  young  are  there  also  called 
"Rangers,"  and  when  two  or  three  years  old — at  which  age  they  are  believed  to  bring  forth  their 
first  young — receive  the  name  of  "Dotards."  Here,  as  well  as 'in  Greenland,  the  skins  of  this 
species  are  more  valued  than  those  of  any  other  species,  owing  to  their  beautifully  variegated 
markings,  and  are  especially  valued  for  covering  trunks  and  the  manufacture  of  coats,  caps,  and 
gloves.1  Mr.  Brown  informs  us  that  the  natives  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland  prize  them  h  igh  l.y 
"as  material  for  the  women's  breeches,"  and  adds  "that  no  more  acceptable  present  can  be  given 
to  a  Greenland  damsel  than  a  skin  of  the  '  Kassigiak,'  as  this  species  is  there  called."  The  < !  reen 
landers  also  consider  its  flesh  as  "the  most  palatable  of  all  'seal-beef'".2 

According  to  Mr.  Reeks,  the  period  of  gestation  is  about  nine  months,  the  union  of  the  sexes 
occurring,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  Newfoundlanders,  in  September/'  Only  rarely  does 
the  female  give  birth  to  more  than  a  single  young.  This  agrees  with  what  is  stated  1>,\  Hell  and 
other  English  authors  respecting  its  season  of  procreation. 

Respecting  its  general  history,  I  find  the  following  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  John  (Bordeaux,  who, 
in  writing  of  this  species,  as  observed  by  him  in  British  waters,  says:  "The  Seal  (Phoca  ritulhui) 
is  not  uncommon  on  that  part  of  the  Lincolnshire  coast  adjoining  the  Wash.  This  immense 
estuary,  lying  between  Lincolnshire  and  Norfolk,  is  in  great  part  occupied  with  large  and  dangerous 


'CAIIROLI,,  MICHAEL:  Seal  aud  Herring  Fisheries  of  Newfoundland,  1873,  pp.  10,  11. 
'BROWN,  ROBKRT,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Socii-ly  <>f  London,  18(58,  p.  413 
3REKKg,  HKNHY:  Zoologmt,  2d  Her.,  TO!.  vi,1871,  p.  2541. 


THK  HAKIKH;  SK.M,    HAl'.lTS.  59 

•mil-hanks,  intersected  by  deep  but  nariow  channels.  At  ebb  the  sands  are  uncovered;  and  at 
these  times,  on  hot  days,  numbers  of  Seals  may  be  found  basking  and  sunning  themselves  on  the 
hot  sands,  or  n. Ilin-  ami  wallowing  in  the  shallow  water  along  the  bank.  Sometimes  a  herd  of 
lil'teen  or  twenty  of  these  interesting  creatures  will  collect  on  some  favorite  Hand-spit;  their  chief 
h. 1 11  n i >  an-  tin  Long  sand,  near  the  centre  of  the  Wash ;  the  Knock,  along  the  Lincoln  coast ;  and  the 
Hogshead  sand,  near  the  entrance  to  Boston  Deeps.  In  the  first  week  of  July,  when  sailing  down 
I  lie  I  >eeps  alon-  the  edge  of  the  Knock,  we  saw  several  Seals;  some  on  the  bank;  others  with  their 
bodies  bent  like  a  bow,  the  head  and  hind  feet  only  out  of  the  water.  They  varied  greatly  in  size, 
also  in  color,  hardly  any  two  being  marked  alike;  one  had  the  head  and  face  dark  colored,  wearing 
the  color  like  a  mask;  in  others  the  upper  parts  were  light  gray;  others  looked  dark  altove  and 
li^'ht  below,  and  some  dark  altogether.  '.  .  .  The  female  has  one  young  one  in  the  year; 
and  as  these  banks  are  covered  at  flood,  the  cub,  when  born,  must  make  an  early  acquaintance  with 
the  water.  In  most  of  the  FhoritUr  the  young  one  is  at  first  covered  with  a  sort  of  wool,  the  second 
01  hairy  dress  being  gradually  acquired;  and  until  this  is  the  case  it  does  not  go  into  the  water. 
This,  however,  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case  with  the  common  Seal,  for  Mr.  L.  Lloyd  says  (I  be- 
lieve in  his  'Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  of  Norway  and  Sweden,'  but  I  have  not  the  book  to  refer 
to)  that  the  cub  of  the  common  species,  whilst  still  in  its  mother's  womb,  casts  this  wooly  covering; 
and  when  ushered  into  the  world  has  acquired  its  second  or  proper  dress.1  If  this  is  the  case,  it 
fully  accounts  for  the  cub  being  able  to  bear  immersion  from  the  hour  of  its  birth.  The  Seal,  if 
lying  undisturbed  and  at  rest,  can  remain  for  hours  without  coining  to  the  surface."' 

I  am  informed  by  competent  observers  that  on  the  coast  of  Maine  they  assemble  in  a  similar 
manner  on  sand  bars,  but  take  to  the  water  before  they  can  be  closely  approached. 

Mr.  Kumlien  (in  his  MS.  notes)  observes:  "The  so-called  'Fresh-water  Seal'  of  the  whalemen 
is  one  of  the  rarer  species  in  the  waters  of  Cumberland  Sound.  They  are  m.wtly  met  with  far  up 
in  the  fjords,  and  in  the  fresh -water  streams  and  ponds,  where  they  go  after  salmon.  They  are 
rather  difficult  to  capture,  as  at  the  season  when  they  are  commonly  met  with  they  have  so  little 
bluMier  that  they  sink  when  shot.  .  .  .  The  adult  males  often  engage  in  severe  combats 
with  each  other.  I  have  seen  skins  so  scratched  that  they  were  nearly  worthless.  In  fact,  the 
Kskimo  consider  a  '  Kassiarsoak1  (a  very  large  'Kassigiak')  as  having  an  almost  worthless  skin, 
and  seldom  use  it  except  for  their  skin  tents.  The  skins  of  the  young,  on  the  contrary,  are  a  great 
acquisition."  He  further  states  that  they  do  not  make  an  excavation  lieneath  the  snow  for  the 
reception  of  the  young,  like  Phoca  ffetida,  "but  bring  forth  later  in  the,  season  on  the,  bare  ice,  fully 

exposed." 

Under  the  name  "  Leopard  Seal,"  Captain  Scammon  has  given  a  very  good  account  of  the  habits 
of  this  species  as  observed  by  him  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America.  He  speaks  of  it  an  dis- 
playing no  little  sagacity,  and  considerable  boldness,  although  exceedingly  wary.  He  says  it  is 
"found  about  outlying  rocks,  islands,  and  ]M>ints,  on  sand-reefs  made  bare  at  low  tide,  and  is 
frequently  met  with  in  harbors  among  shipping,  and  up  rivers  more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
sea.  We  have  often  observed  them,"  he  continues,  "close  to  the  vessel  when  under  way.  and 
likewise  when  at  anchor,  appearing  to  emerge  delil>erately  from  the  depths  below,  sometimes  only 
showing  their  heads,  at  other  times  exposing  half  of  their  bodies,  but  the  instant  any  move  was 
made  on  board,  they  would  vanish  like  an  apparition  under  water,  and  frequently  that  would  be 


'A  statement  to  this  effect  is  also  made  by  Mr.  Carroll,  but  Mr.  Bobert  Brown  nfllnnx,  on  the  authority  of  Captain 
McDonald,  that  in  tin-  \Vt-Hl.-rn   IsU-8  of  Scotland  I  lie  young  are  "born  pure  white,  with  curly  liair,  like  tin-  VOIIIIK  of 
rmjiiiHii*  I'a-liiliix.  lint  within  thror  day*  of  its  birth  In-Kind  to  take  dark  colors  on  Hie  miiiiit  and  tipH  of  the  flippers. "- 
Proc.  Xool.  S.M-.  l.onil..  M>*.  |>.  -I IX 

I'OKDKAUX,  .Ions,  in  Zoologist,  U'll  m-r.,  vol.  vii,  IfT'J,  pp.  :\M3,  'JM4. 


60  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  last  seen  of  them,  or,  if  seeii  again,  they  would  be  far  out  of  gunshot."  They  conic  ashore,  he 
observes,  "more  during  windy  weather  than  in  calm,  and  in  the  night  more  than  in  the  day;  and 
they  have  been  observed  to  collect  in  the  largest  herds  upon  the  beaches  and  rocks,  near  the  full 
and  change  of  the  moon.  They  delight  in  basking  in  the  warm  sunlight,  and  when  no  isolated  rock 
or  shore  is  at  hand,  they  will  crawl  upon  any  fragment  of  drift-wood  that  will  float  them.  Although 
gregarious,  they  do  not  herd  in  such  large  numbers  as  do  nearly  all  others  of  the  Seal  tribe;  further- 
more, they  may  be  regarded  almost  as  mutes,  in  comparison  with  the  noisy  Sea  Lions.  It  is  very 
rarely,  however,  any  sound  is  uttered  by  them,  but  occasionally  a  quick  bark  or  guttural  whining, 
and  sometimes  a  peculiar  bleating  is  heard  when  they  are  assembled  together  about  the  period  of 
bringing  forth  their  young.  At  times,  when  a  number  meet  in  the  neighborhood  of  rocks  or  reefs 
distant  from  the  mainland,  they  become  quite  playful,  and  exhibit  much  life  in  their  gambols, 
leaping  out  of  the  water  or  circling  around  upon  the  surface.  .  .  .  Its  rapacity  in  pursuing 
and  devouring  the  smaller  members  of  the  piscatory  tribes  is  quite  equal,  in  proportion  to  its  size, 
to  that  of  the  orca.  When  grappling  with  a  fish  too  large  to  be  swallowed  whole,  it  will  hold  and 
handle  it  between  its  fore  flippers,  and,  with  the  united  work  of  its  mouth  .  .  .  the  wriggling 
prize  is  demolished  and  devoured  as  quickly,  and  in  much  the  same  manner,  as  a  squirrel  would 
eat  a  bur-covered  nut.  .  .  . 

"Leopard  Seals  are  very  easily  captured  when  on  shore,  as  a  single  blow  with  a  club  upon  the 
head  will  dispatch  them.  The  Indians  about  Puget  Sound  take  them  in  nets  made  of  large  hemp 
line,  using  them  in  the  same  manner  as  seines,  drawing  them  around  beaches  when  the  rookery  is 
on  shore.  They  are  taken  by  the  whites  for  their  oil  and  skins,  but  the  Indians  and  Esquimaux 
make  great  account  of  them  for  food."  He  adds  that  the  natives  of  Puget  Sound  singe  them  before 
a  tire  until  the  hair  is  consumed  and  the  skin  becomes  crisp,  when  they  are  cut  up  and  cooked  as 
best  suits  their  taste.1 

The  apparent  fondness  of  this  animal,  in  common  with  other  species  of  the  family,  for  music, 
has  been  often  noted. 

The  food  of  this  species  consists  largely  of  fish,  but,  like  other  species,  it  doubtless  varies 
its  fare  with  squids  and  shrimps.  That  it  aspires  to  more  epicurean  tastes  is  evidenced  by  its 
occasional  capture  of  sea-birds.  This  they  ingeniously  accomplish  by  swimming  beneath  them  as 
they  rest  upon  the  water  and  seizing  them.  An  eye-witness  of  this  pastime  relates  an  instance  as 
observed  by  him  on  the  Scottish  coast.  "While  seated  on  the  bents,"  he  writes,  "watching  a  flock 
of  [herring]  gulls  that  were  fishing  in  the  sea  near  Donnaouth,  I  was  startled  by  their  jerking  high 
in  the  air,  and  screaming  in  an  unusual  and  excited  manner.  On  no  previous  occasion  have  I 
observed  such  a  sensation  in  a  gull-hood,  not  even  when  a  black-head  was  being  pursued,  till  he 
disgorged  his  newly-swallowed  fish,  by  that  black- leg,  the  skua.  The  excitement  was  explained 
by  a  Seal  [presumably  Phoca  vitulina,  this  being  the  only  species  common  at  the  locality  in  ques- 
tion] showing  above  the  water  with  a  herring  gull  in  his  mouth.  On  his  appearing  the  gulls 
became  ferocious,  and  struck  furiously  at  the  Seal,  who  disappeared  with  the  gull  in  the  water. 
The  Seal  speedily  reappeared,  but  on  this  occasion  relinquished  his  victim  on  the  gulls  renewing 
their  attack.  The  liberated  gull  was  so  disabled  as  to  be  unable  to  fly,  but  it  had  strength  enough 
to  hold  ii]i  its  head  as  it  drifted  with  the  tide."2 

They  are  evidently  discriminating  in  their  tastes,  and  not  loath  to  avail  themselves  of  a  fine 
salmon  now  and  then  not  of  their  own  catching.  Their  habit  of  plundering  the,  nets  of  the  iisher- 
men  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  has  been  already  alluded  to,  but  this  peculiarity  is  evidently 

1  RCAMMON,"  C.  M.:  Marine  Mammals,  etc.,  pp.  166,  167. 
•ANOU8,  W.  ( 'itAiiiK,  in  Zoologist,  2d  ser.,  vol.  vi,  1871,  p.  2762. 


THE  IIA1MJOK  SEAL:   ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE.  61 

not  confined  i«i  the  Newfoundland  representative  of  the  species,  us  shown  by  the  following  incident 
related  l».v  tin-  writer  hist  quoted.  "On  a  sunny  noon  in  the  autumn  of  1868,"  says  this  observer, 
"1  observed  a  Seal,  not  far  from  the  same  place,  with  a  salmon  in  his  mou'h,  which  ho  forced 
through  the  meshes  of  a  stake  net.  The  struggling  salmon,  whose  head  was  in  the  jaws  of  the 
Seal,  struck  the  water  violently  with  his  tail,  which  gleamed  like  a  lustre  in  the  lessoning  ray. 
The  Seal  rose  and  sank  alternately,  keeping  seaward  to  escape  Eley's  cartridges  from  the  shore. 
When  above  the  water  he  shortened  the  silver  bar,  which  continued  to  lash  his  sides  long  after  ita 
thickest  part  had  disappeared,  by  rising  to  his  perpendicular,  as  if  to  allow  the  precious  inetal  by 
its  own  weight  to  slip  into  his  crucible.  The  Seal  evidently  swallowed  above,  and  masticated 
below,  water— the  process  lasting  about  twelve  minutes,  during  which  the  Seal  had  travelled  a  full 
half  mile.1' 

In  their  raids  upon  the  nets  of  the  fishermen  they  become  sometimes  themselves  the  victims, 
being  in  t  his  way  frequently  taken  along  our  own  coast  as  well  as  elsewhere.  They  are,  however,  at 
all  times  unwelcome  visitors.  DeKay  states  that  formerly  they  were  taken  almost  every  year  in 
the  "fyke  IK-US"  in  the  Passaic  Kiver,  greatly  to  the  disgust  of  the  fishermen,  the  Seals  when 
raptured  making  an  obstinate  resistance  and  doing  much  injury  to  the  nets.  Their  accidental 
capture  in  this  way  often  affords  a  record  of  their  presence  at  localities  they  are  not  commonly 
supposed  to  frequent,  as  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  at  even  more  southerly  localities  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  capturing  this  species,  and  its  comparatively  small  numbers,  it  is  of 
little  commercial  importance,  although  the  oil  it  yields  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  its  skins  are  of 
special  value  for  articles  of  dress,  and  other  purposes,  in  consequence  of  their  beautifully  variegated 
tints.  Though  not  a  few  are  taken  in  strong  seal-nets,  they  are  usually  captured  by  means  of  the 
1 1 Me  or  heavy  scaling  gun.  On  rare  occasions  they  are  surprised  on  shore  at  so  great  a  distance 
from  water  that  they  are  overtaken  and  killed  by  a  blow  on  the  head  with  a  club.  Like  other 
sjMJcies  of  the  seal  family,  the  Harbor  seal  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  must  be  struck  in  a  vital 
part  by  either  ball  or  heavy  shot,  in  order  to  kill  it  on  the  spot.  Says  Mr.  Keeks,  "I  have  been 
often  amused  at  published  accounts  of  Seals  shot  in  the  Thames  or  elsewhere,  but  which  'sank 
immediately.'  What  Seal  or  other  amphibious  animal  would  not  do  so  if  'tickled'  with  the  greater 
part  of,  perhaps,  an  ounce  of  No.  5  shot!"  lie  adds  that  it  is  only  in  the  spring  of  the  year  that 
this  seal  will  "float"  when  killed  in  the  water,  but  says  that  he  has  never  seen  a  Seal  "so  i»oor, 
which,  if  killed  dead  on  the  spot,  would  not  have  floated  from  five  to  ten  seconds,"  or  long  enough 
to  give  "ample  time  for  rowing  alongside,"  supposing  the  animal  to  have  been  killed  by  shot,  and 
the  boat  to  contain  •  •  two  hands."  The  oil  of  this  species,  according  to  the  same  writer,  sells 
in  Newfoundland  for  fifty  to  seventy -five  cents  a  gallon,  while  the  skins  are  worth  one  dollar  each. 
Mr.  Carroll  gives  the  weight  of  the  skin  and  blubber  of  a  full-grown  individual  as  ranging  from 
eighty  to  one  hundred  pounds,  while  that  of  a  young  one  averages,  at  ten  weeks  old,  thirty  to 
thirty-five  pounds.  The  flesh  of  the  yonng,  the  same  writer  quaintly  says,  is  "as  pleasant  to  the 
taste  as  that  of  any  description  of  salt- water  bird."  Its  flesh,  as  already  stated,  is  esteemed  by  the 
Greeulanders  above  that  of  any  other  species.  Few  statistics  relating  to  the  capture  of  this  8|>ecic8 
are  available,  but  the  number  taken  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  "catch"  of  other  species, 
particularly  of  the  Harp  or  Greenland  Seal.  Dr.  Rink  states  that  only  from  one  thousand  to  two 
thousand  are  annually  taken  in  Greenland,  which  is  about  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  the  total  catoh. 
They  are  hunted  to  a  considerable  extent,  however,  wherever  they  occur  in  numbers. 

The  Harbor  Seal  received  this  name  from  its  predilection  for  bays,  inlets,  estuaries,  and  fjords, 


62  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

from  which  habit  it  is  also  often  termed  Bay  Seal,  ami,  on  the  Scandinavian  coast,  Fjord  Sea, 
(Fjordskiil),  and  also  Kock  Seal  (Steen-Kobbe).1 

24.  THE  HARP  SEAL. 

GENERAL,  HISTORY  AND  NOMENCLATURE. — The  Harp  Seal,  Phoca  (PagopMlm)  grcenlandica 
Fabricins,  like  the  Crested  Seal,  presents  characters,  at  least  in  the  male  sex,  that  readily  attract 
the  attention  of  even  the  casual  observer — the  one  by  its  "saddle"  or  "harp-mark"  of  black  on  a 
light  ground,  the  other  by  its  inflatable  hood.  Accordingly  both  were  mentioned  by  various  early 
writers,  but  notably  by  Egede,  Ellis,  and  Cranz,  and  the  indications  they  gave  of  their  existence 
enter  into  the  technical  history  of  the  species,  forming  as  they  do  the  basis  of  the  first  systematic 
names.  Erxlebeu  described  the  species  in  1777,  under  the  name  Phoca  grcenhndica-,  his  descrip- 
tion being  founded  mainly  on  information  previously  made  public  by  Cranz. 

Few  Seals  vary  so  much  in  color  with  age  as  the  Harp  Seal.  This  was  long  since  mentioned 
by  Crauz,  who  says :  "  All  Seals  vary  annually  their  color  till  they  are  full  grown,  but  no  sort  so 
much  as  this  [the  Attersoak],  and  the  Greenlanders  vary  its  name  according  to  its  age.  They  call 
the  foetus  iblau;  in  this  state  these  are  white  and  wooly,  whereas  the  other  sorts  are  smooth  and 
coloured.  In  the  1st  year  't  is  called  Attaralc,  and  't  is  a  cream-colour.  In  the  2d  year  Atteitaiak 
then  'tis  gray.  In  the  3d  Aglektok,  painted.  In  the  4th  Milaktok,  and  in  the  5th  year  Attarsoak. 
Then  it  wears  its  half-moon,  the  signal  of  maturity." 

Dr.  Rink  states  that  at  the  present  day  the  Greenlanders,  as  well  as  the  Europeans,  divide  the 
"Saddle-backs"  into  four  or  five  different  classes  according  to  their  age,  but  that  in  familial- 
language  they  only  distinguish  by  different  names  the  full-grown  animals  from  the  half-grown 
ones,  the  latter  being  called  "  Bluesides." 

The  young,  when  first  born,  are  called  by  the  Newfoundland  sealers  "White-coats";  later, 
during  the  first  molt,  "Ragged-jackets";  when  they  have  attained  the  black  cresceutic  marks 
they  are  termed  "Harps,"  or  "  Saddlers,"  and  also  "Breeding  Harps";  the  yearlings  and  two-year- 
olds  arc  called  "Young  Harps"  or  "Turning- Harps/'  and  also  "Bedlimers"  (or  "Bellamers,"  also 
spelled  "Bedlamers").  The  older  and  some  recent  writers  state  that  the  mature  pattern  of 
coloration  is  not  attained  till  the  fifth  year,  while  Jukes,  Brown,  Carroll,  and  others  state  that  it  is 
acquired  in  the  third  or  fourth  year.  There  is  also  a  diversity  of  statement  respecting  the  sexual 
differences  of  color  in  the  adults,  some  writers  affirming  that  the  sexes  are  alike,  while  others  state 
that  the  female  is  without  the  harp-mark,  or  has  the  dark  markings  of  the  male  only  faintly  indi- 
cated. Mr.  Carroll  says:  "  The  reason  why  they  are  called  Harp  Seals,  or  'Saddlers,'  is,  the  male 
Seal,  as  well  as  the  female,  has  a  dark  stripe  on  each  side  from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail,  leaving  a 
muddy  white  stripe  down  the  back.  The  male  Harp  Seal  is  very  black  about  the  head  as  well  as 
under  the  throat.  .  .  .  The  female  Harp  is  of  a  rusty  gray  about  the  head  and  white  under 
the  throat."  Both  Jukes  and  Reeks,  however,  refer  to  the  absence  of  the  harp-mark  in  the  female. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION.— Although  the  Harp  Seal  has  a  circumpolar  distribution,  it 


1  Seals  appear  to  be  increasing  in  numbers  in  Massachusetts  Bay.  We  observed  them  frequently  near  Race  Point, 
I'rovincetown,  in  1879,  where  they  sometimes  get  into  the  gill-nets  set  foi  mackerel.  At  Banistable  they  have  become 
very  numerous  and  troubleeoi'  e  of  late.  They  are  often  shot  or  taken  in  the  weirs  at  Barustable  and  Yarmouth,  and 
are  accused  of  seriously  depleting  the  fisheries  in  this  locality,  as  well  as  at  Plymouth,  whore  they  have  been  preserved 
for  a  number  of  years.  Crossing  the  entrance  to  Barngtable  Harbor  at  sunset  November  10,  1  counted  eight  or  ten 
heads  above  the  surface.  The  number  here  is  estimated  at  sixty-five  or  seventy,  and  there  are  probably  not  less  tbau 
three  hundred  in  the  bay.  They  are  resident,  disappearing  for  a  time  in  the  spring  and  returning  accompanied  by 
their  young,  about  one-quarter  a«  large  as  their  parents,  in  April  or  May.  Capt.  Gideon  Bowley,  of  Provincotown, 
tells  me  that  they  feed  on  "sun  squalls,"  or  medusie,  and  that  he  has  seen  them  "boil  'em  up,"  or  vomit  them,  when 
caught. — G.  BROWN  GOODK. 


Till-:   HALT  MAI.:    DISTKIIUTION.   AND  USKS  63 

appears  tint  in  advance  MI  tar  norlhwaid  as  the  Ringed  Seal  or  the  Bearded  Seal;  yet  the  icy  MM 
of  the  north  are  prc  eminently  its  home  It  is  not  found  on  tlie  Atlantic  count  of  North  America 
in  any  immliers  south  of  Newfoundland.  A  few  are  taken  nt  the  Magdalen  Islands,  and  while  ou 
their  way  to  the  Grand  Banks  some  must  pass  very  near  the  Nova  Scotia  coast.  Dr.  Gilpin, 
however,  includes  it  only  provisionally  among  the  Seals  that  visit  the  shores  of  that  Province.  It 
doubtless  occasionally  wanders,  like  the  Crested  Seal,  to  points  far  south  of  its  usual  range,  as  I 
liinl  a  skeleton  of  this  sjiecies  in  the  collection  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  bearing 
the  legend  "  N'ahuiit,  Mass.,  L.  Agassis."  I  have  at  times  felt  doubtful  about  the  correctness  of 
the  assigned  locality,  as  this  seems  to  be  the  only  proof  of  the  occurrence  of  this  species  on  the 
Massachusetts  coast.  I  have,  however,  recently  been  informed  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott,  of  New  Jersey, 
that  a  Seal,  described  (o  him  as  being  about  six  feet  long,  white,  with  a  broad  black  bund  along 
each  side  of  the  back,  was  taken  near  Trenton,  in  that  State,  during  the  winter  of  1878-79.  This 
description  can  of  course  refer  to  no  other  species  than  Phoca  grnrnlandica,  and  as  it  comes  from 
a  wholly  trustworthy  source  it  seems  to  substantiate  the  occasional  occurrence  of  this  si>ecies  as 
tar  south  as  New  Jersey.  Von  Heuglin  gives  it  as  ranging  "in  den  amerikanischen  Meercu 
siidwarts  bis  New  York,"1  but  I  know  not  on  what  authority. 

The  Harp  Seals  are  well  known  to  be  periodically  exceedingly  abundant  along  the  shores  of 
Newfoundland,  where,  during  spring,  hundreds  of  thousands  arc  annually  killed.  In  their  migra- 
tions they  pass  along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  appear  with  regularity  twice  a  year  oft'  the  coast 
of  Southern  Greenland.  Capt.  J.  C.  Ross  states  that  in  Baffin's  Bay  they  keep  mostly  "to  the 
loose  floating  floes  which  constitute  what  is  termed  by  the  whale-fishers  '  the  middle  ice'  of  Battin's 
Bay  and  Davis'  Straits."  He  says  he  never  met  with  them  in  any  part  of  Prince  Regent's  Inlet, 
but  states  that  they  are  reported  by  the  natives  to  be  very  numerous  on  the  west  side  of  the. 
Isthmus  of  Boothia,  but  that  they  are  not  seen  on  the  east  side.2  They  are  well-known  visitors  to 
the  shores  of  Iceland,  and  swarm  in  the  icy  seas  about  Jan  Mayeu  and  Spitsbergen.  They  also 
occur  about  Nova  Zembla,  and  Payer  refers  to  their  abundance  at  Franz  Josef  Land.  They  occur 
in  the  Kara  Sea,  and  along  the  arctic  coast  of  Europe.  Malmgren,  Lilljeborg,  and  Collett  state 
that  it  is  of  regular  occurrence  on  the  coast  of  Finmark,  where  it  occurs  in  small  nnmlH'rs  from 
October  and  November  till  February.  Although  reported  by  Bell  and  others  as  having  been  taken 
in  the  Severn,  and  by  Saxby  as  observed  at  Baltasound,  Shetland,  the  capture  of  a  specimen  in 
Morecombe  Bay,  England,  reported  by  Turner  in  1874,  Mr.  E.  R.  Alston  says  is  "the  first  British 
specimen  that  has  been  properly  identified." 

The  distribution  of  this  species  in  the  North  Pacific  is  not  well  known.  Pallas  (under  the 
name  Phoca  dorsato)  records  it  from  Kaintchatka,  where  its  occurrence  is  also  affirmed  by  Steller. 
Teuimiuck  mentions  having  examined  three  skins  obtained  at  Sitka,  but  adds  that  it  was  not 
observed  by"les  voyageurs  neerlandais"  in  Japan.  In  the  collections  in  the  National  Museum 
from  the  North  Pacific  this  species  is  unrepresented,  the  species  thus  far  received  from  there  being 
the  following  four,  namely :  Phoca  vitulina,  Phoca  fcetida,  Erignathu*  barbatiut,  and  Histriopkoca 
Jasciata. 

HUNTING  AND  PRODUCTS. — As  so  large  a  part  of  what  has  been  already  said  in  the  general 
account  of  the  seal  fishery  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  waters  necessarily  relates  to  the 
present  species,  it  is  scarcely  requisite  in  the  present  connection  to  more  than  recall  the  leading 
points  of  the  subject,  with  the  addition  of  a  few  details  not  previously  given.  As  already  stated, 
the  sealing  grounds  par  excellence  are  the  ice  Hoes  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Newfoundland  and  around 


'VON  HKUGLIN:   KViw-n  nnt-h  ili-iii  .\iinl|M.lariinMT,  p.  56. 
JC'ABROLL:  Seal  and  Hrrriug  KiHlirrira  of  Newfoundland,  p.  M. 


64  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Jan  Mayen  Island,  where  the  present  species  forms  almost  the  sole  object  of  pursuit.  The  sealing 
season  lasts  for  only  a  few  weeks  during  spring;  the  enterprise1  gives  employment  during  this 
time  to  hundreds  of  vessels  and  thousands  of  men,  the  average  annual  catch  falling  little  short  of 
a  million  Seals,  valued  at  about  three  million  dollars.  While  the  pursuit  is  mainly  carried  on  in 
vessels,  sailing  chiefly  from  English,  German,  and  Norwegian  ports,  or  from  those  of  Newfoundland 
and  the  other  British  Provinces,  many  are  caught  along  the  shores  of  the  countries  periodically 
visited  by  these  animals,  as  those  of  South  Greenland,  Southern  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  and 
the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  The  pursuit  with  vessels,  and  the  various  incidents  connected 
therewith,  have  already  been  detailed,  and  sufficient  allusions  have  perhaps  also  already  been  made 
to  the  Greenland  method  of  seal-hunting. 

In  consequence  of  the  gregarious  habits  of  the  species,  and  the  fact  that  one-half  to  two-thirds 
of  those  taken  are  young  ones  that  are  not  old  enough  to  make  any  effectual  attempt  to  escape, 
the  success  of  a  sealing  voyage  depends  almost  wholly  upon  the  mere  matter  of  luck  in  discovering 
the  herds.  While  the  old  Seals  are  mostly  shot,  the  young  are  killed  with  clubs.  In  respect  to 
the  ease  and  facility  with  which  they  are  captured  it  may  be  noted  that  it  is  not  at  all  unusual,  in 
the  height  of  the  season,  for  the  crew  of  a  single  small  vessel  to  kill  and  take  on  board  from  five 
hundred  to  a  thousand  in  a  day.  Mr.  Brown  states :  "  In  1866  the  steamer  Camperdown  obtained 
the  enormous  number  of  22,000  Seals  in  nine  days,"  or  an  average  of  2,500  per  day.  "  It  is  nothing 
uncommon,"  he  adds, "  lor  a  ship's  crew  to  club  or  shoot,  in  one  day,  as  many  as  from  500  to  800  old 
Seals,  with  2,000  young  ones."2  Such  slaughter  is  necessarily  attended  with  more  or  less  barbarity, 
but  this  seems  to  be  sometimes  carried  to  a  needless  extreme.  The  Seals  are  very  tenacious  of 
life,  and,  in  the  haste  of  killing,  many  are  left  for  a  long  time  half  dead,  or  sire  even  flayed  alive. 
Jukes  states  that  even  the  young  are  "  sometimes  barbarously  skinned  alive,  the  body  writhing  in 
blood  after  being  stripped  of  its  skin,"  and  they  have  even  been  seen  to  swim  away  in  that  state, 
as  when  the  first  blow  fails  to  kill  the  Seals  their  hard-hearted  murderers  "  cannot  stop  to  give 
them  a  second."  "  How  is  it,"  he  adds,  "  one  can  steel  one's  mind  to  look  on  that  which  to 
read  of,  or  even  think  of  afterwards,  makes  one  shudder  T  In  the  bustle,  hurry,  and  excitement, 
these  things  pass  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  as  if  necessary ;  but  they  are  most  horrible,  and 
will  not  admit  of  an  attempt  at  palliation."  Scoresby  and  other  writers  refer  to  similar  heartless 
proceedings — as  though  the  necessary  suffering  attending  such  a  sacrifice  of  unresisting  creatures 
were  not  in  itself  bad  enough  without  the  infliction  of  such  needless  cruelty.  The  young  Seals 
not  only  do  not  attempt  any  resistance,  but  are  said  to  make  no  effort  to  move  when  approached, 
quietly  suffering  themselves  to  be  knocked  on  the  head  with  a  club.  The  old  Seals  are  more 
wary,  and  are  generally  killed  with  fire-arms.  Scoresby  relates  that  "When  the  Seals  are 
observed  to  be  making  their  escape  into  the  water  before  the  boats  reach  the  ice,  the  sailors  give 
a  long-continued  shout,  on  which  their  victims  are  deluded  by  the  amazement  a  sound  so  unusual 
produces  and  frequently  delay  their  retreat  until  arrested  by  the  blows  of  their  enemies." 

The  annual  catch  of  H;irp  Seals  in  Greenland  is  stated  by  Rink  to  be  17,500  full-grown  "  Sad- 
dle-backs "  and  15,500  "  Bluesides,"  or  33,000  in  all.  The  catch  from  the  Newfoundland  ports  alone 
often  reaches  500,000,  and  in  the  Jan  Mayen  seas  often  exceeds  300,000,  so  that  the  total  annual 
catch  of  this  species  alone  doubtless  ranges  from  800,000  to  900,000. 

The  commercial  products  are  the  oil — used  in  the  lubrication  of  machinery,  in  tanning  leather, 
and  in  miners'  lamps — and  the  skins,  which  are  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  various  kinds  of 


'For  statistics  of  the  seal  fishery,  see  Allen's  "North  American  Piuuipeds,"  pp. 497-502. 
"Han.  Nat.  Hist.,  Geol.,  &.C.,  Greenland,  Mammals,  p.  67,  foot-note. 


THK  KINdKD  SEAL:  HISTOI.'Y    AND  DISTRIBUTION  r,.', 


leather  and  articles  of  clothing.  The  skins  are  s;iid  to  be  mostly  so'd  to  Knglihh  manufacturers, 
who  employ  them  in  the  preparation  of  a  superior  article  of  "patent"  or  lacquered  leather.  The 
llesh  is  esteemed  by  the  Greeulanders  as  superior  to  that  of  their  favorite  Yei/mfc  (Phoca  ftrliiln). 

25.  THE  RINGED  SEAL. 

(ii.NKKAi.  HISTOKY  AND  NOMENCLATURE.—  The  earliest  notices  of  Phoca  foetida,  Fabricius, 
in  systematic  works  are,  based  on  the  brief  account  given  by  Cranz  in  1765,  but  there  appear  to  be 
still  earlier  references  to  it  by  Scandinavian  writers. 

<  ;I:OGRAPHIOAL  DISTRIBUTION.—  Although  the  Ringed  Seal  is  a  well-known  inhabitant  of  the 
A  ret  ic  Seas,  of  both  hemispheres,  the  southern  limit  of  its  distribution  cannot  be  given  with  certainty. 
Wagner1  records  specimens  from  Labrador,  which  is  the  most  southern  point  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America  from  which  it  seems  to  have  been  reported.  It  is  not  enumerated  by  Jukes  or  Carroll 
as  among  the  species  hunted  by  the  Newfoundland  sealers,*  nor  is  it  mentioned  byGilpin3  as  occurring 
in  Nova  Scotia.  Its  occasional  presence  here  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  is  doubtless  to  be 
expected.  Further  northward,  and  especially  along  the  shores  of  Davis's  Strait*  and  Greenland, 
its  abundance  is  well  attested.  It  has  also  been  found  as  far  north  as  explorers  have  penetrated, 
having  IHH-II  met  with  by  Parry  as  high  as  latitude  82°  407.  J.  C.  Ross  states  that  it  is  common 
on  both  sides  of  the  Isthmus  of  Boothia,  where  it  forms  the  chief  means  of  subsistence  to  the 
inhabitants  duriug  eight  or  nine  months  of  the  year.4  It  is  common  in  Iceland,  and  Malmgren  and 
Von  Heuglin  state  it  to  be  numerous  at  Spitzbergen.  The  last-named  author  gives  it  as  abundant 
in  summer  in  the  Stor-  Fjord  and  its  branches,  in  Henlopen  Strait,  and  in  the  bays  of  the  northwest 
coast  of  Spitzbergen,  occurring  in  great  herds  as  well  as  singly,  in  the  open  water  along  the  shores 
and  iu  the  openings  in  the  ice-does.  He  states  that  it  is  also  numerous  about  Nova  Zembla,  where 
great  numbers  are  killed  for  their  skins  and  fat.9  It  is  a  common  species  on  the  coast  of  Finland, 
and  farther  eastward  along  the  arctic  coast  of  Europe  and  doubtless  also  of  Western  Asia.*  It  is 
also  a  common  inhabitant  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  neighboring  waters,  and  also  of  the  Ladoga 
and  other  interior  seas  of  Finland.  It  is  said  by  Blasius  to  extend  southward  along  the  coast  of 
Middle  Europe  to  North  Germany,  Ireland,  and  the  British  Channel.  Professor  Flower  has  recorded 
its  capture  on  the  coast  of  Norwich.  England;  it  undoubtedly  occurs  at  the  Orkneys  and  the 
Hebrides,  where  it  is  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  species  known  there  as  "Bodach"  or  "Old 
Man."  A  specimen  was  also  taken  many  years  since  on  the  coast  of  France,  but  here,  as  on  the 


1  SCHREBKR'S  Saugethiere,  vii,  1646,  p.  31. 

- 1 'i Hi'.' ".ii1  Jukes  says  four  species  am  known  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  namely,  the  "Bay  Seal"  (I'koca 
niHlina),  the  Harp  Seal  (Phoca  grccnlandica),  the  Hooded  Seal  (Cyitophora  crittata),  and  the  "Square  Flipper"  (probably 
Ualh-hcernt  grypiti).  The  first  he  did  not  see  on  the  ice  among  the  Seals  pursued  by  the  sealers.  The  second  is  the 
one  that  forms  the  principal  object  of  the  chase.  The  third  seems  not  to  be  numerous,  but  occurs  occasionally  out  on 
the  i.  .--tlocs  with  the  Harp  Scald.  The  fourth  is  referred  to  as  very  rare,  and  as  being  larger  than  the  Hooded  Seal. 
Not  one  was  heard  of  or  seen  that  season.  He  supposes  it  may  be  the  Phoea  barbata. — Excursions  in  Newfoundland, 
vol.  i,  pp.  308-312. 

Carroll  states  that  the  species  of  Seal  that  are  taken  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  are  the  "  Square  Flipper  Seal" 
(probably  Halichcrrus  grypvi),  the  "Hood  Seal"  (Cyitophora  criftata),  the  "Harp  Seal"  (Phoca  gramlandioa),  and  the 
"Dotard"or  "Native  Seal"  (Phoca  ri/ufina).— Seal  and  Herring  Fisheries  of  Newfoundland,  1873,  p.  10. 

'The  species  given  by  Gilpin  as  found  on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  are  the  Harbor  Seal  (Phoca  vitulima),  the  Harp 
Seal  (Phoca  granlandica),  the  Gray  Seal  (Halicharu*  grypiu),  and  the  Hooded  Seal  (Cfttophora  crittata). 

4  Ross's  Second  Voyage,  App.,  1835,  p.  xix.  . 

"Reise  nach  dem  Nordpolarmeer,  Th.  iii,  p.  £0. 

•In  an  account  of  Professor  Nordenskjold's  late  arctic  voyage,  published  in  "Nature"  (vol.  xxi,  p.  40,  November 
13, 1870),  it  is  stated  that  Phoca  ftttida  "was  caught  in  great  numbers,  and  along  with  fish  and  various  vegetable* 
forms  the  main  food  of  the  natives"  at  Cape  Serdze  (about  120  miles  from  Bering's  Straits),  the  point  where  the 
"Vega"  wintered,  this  and  the  polar  bear  being  the  ouly  mammals  seen. 
6  F 


66  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

shores  of  the  larger  British  Islands,  it  can  occur  as  merely  a  rare  straggler.1  Its  fossil  remains 
have  been  reported  by  Professor  Turner  as  having  been  found  in  the  brick  clays  of  Scotland.  It 
appears  also  to  be  a,  common  species  in  the  ]!*ortli  Pacific,  there  being  specimens  in  the  National 
Museum,  unquestionably  of  this  species,  from  the  coast  of  Alaska,  and  from  Plover  Bay,  on  the  Sibe- 
rian side  of  Bering's  Strait.  Its  southern  limit  of  distribution  along  the  shores  of  the  North  Pacific, 
on  either  the  American  or  the  Asiatic  side,  cannot  at  present  be  given.  Judging  from  its  known 
distribution  in  other  portions  of  the  arctic  waters,  there  is  no  reason  to  infer  its  absence  from  the 
northern  shores  of  Eastern  Asia  and  Western  North  America. 

HABITS,  PRODUCTS,  AND  HUNTING.— .The  Ringed  Seal  is  pre-eminently  boreal,  its  home  being 
almost  exclusively  the  icy  seas  of  the  arctic  regions.  Its  favorite  resorts  are  said  to  be  retired 
bays  and  fjords,  in  which  it  remains  so  long  as  they  are  filled  with  firm  ice;  when  this  breaks  up 
they  betake  themselves  to  the  floes,  where  they  bring  forth  their  young.  It  is  essentially  a  littoral, 
or  rather  glacial  species,  being  seldom  met  with  in  the  open  sea.  From  its  abundance  in  its  chosen 
haunts  it  is  a  species  well  known  to  arctic  voyagers,  and  frequent  reference  is  made  to  it  in  most 
of  the  narratives  of  arctic  explorations.2 

The  habits  of  the  Ringed  Seal,  as  observed  in  European  waters,  seem  to  agree  with  what  has 
already  been  related  respecting  their  life-history  in  Davis's  Strait  and  Cumberland  Sound.  Malm- 
gren,  for  example,  states  that  the  females  bring  forth  their  young  on  the  westeru  coast  of  Finland, 
on  the  ice,  near  the  edge  of  great  openings,  between  the  24th  of  February  and  the  25th  of  March,  or 
at  the  time  given  by  Fabricius  and  later  writers  for  the  same  event  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and 
in  no  respect  does  their  mode  of  life  appear  to  difi'er  in  the  icy  seas  about  Spitzbergen  from  what 
has  already  been  related. 

The  Ringed  Seal  is  of  far  less  commercial  value  than  the  Harp  Seal,  but  in  this  respect  may 
be  considered  as  holding  the  second  rank  among  the  northern  Phocids.  Brown  states  that  "it  is 
chiefly  looked  upon  and  taken  as  a  curiosity  by  the  whalers,  who  consider  it 'of  very  little  commer- 
cial importance  and  call  it ' Floe-rat.'"  Von  Heuglin,  however,  states  that  many  thousands  are 
annually  taken  by  the  sealers  for  their  skins  and  fat,  in  the  vicinity  of  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitz 
bergen.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  however,  to  the  Esquimaux  and  other  northern  tribes, 
by  whom  it  is  captured  for  food  and  clothing.  Mr.  Brown  informs  us  that  it  forms,  during  the 
latter  part  of  summer  and  autumn,  "the  principal  article  of  food  in  the  Danish  settlements,  and 
on  it  the  writer  of  these  notes  and  his  companions  dined  many  a  time;  we  even  learned  to  like  it 
and  to  become  quite  epicurean  connoisseurs  in  all  the  qualities,  titbits,  and  dishes  of  the  well- 
beloved  Neitsik!  The  skin,"  he  continues,  "forms  the  chief  material  ol  clothing  in  North  Green- 
land. All  of  the  <ii  -id/.,,}  dress  in  Neitsik  breeches  and  jumpers;  and  we  sojourners  from  a  tar 
country  soon  encased  ourselves  in  the  somewhat  hixpid  but  most  comfortable  nether  garments.  It 
is  only  high  dignitaries  like'Herr  Inspektor' that  can  afford  such  extravagance  as  a  Kassigiak 
(Callocephalitft  vitidinm)  wardrobe!  The  arctic  belles  monopolize  them  all."  Rink  states  that  the 
number  annually  captured  in  South  Greenland  has  been  calculated  at  51,000.  Capt.  J.C.Ross 


'Respecting  the  southern  limit  of  the  habitat  of  this  species  in  Europe,  Professor  Flower  has  the  following  : 
"Nilsson  speaks  of  it  as  being  found  on  all  the  Scandinavian  coasts,  and  us  having;  been  met  with  as  far  south  :is  the 
Channel,  on  the  strength  of  specimens  in  the  Paris  Museum  from  that  locality ;  but  lie  was  unable  to  find  any  proofs 
of  its  having  been  met  with  on  the  coast  of  England.  Nor  have  I  bevn  able  to  discover  any  posilive  evidence  that  it 
can,  at  the  present  day,  be  reckoned  a  British  species,  although  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  must  occasionally  visit  our 
.shores,  where  its  occurrence  would  be  easily  overlooked." — Proc.  Zoiil.  Soc.  Loud.,  1871,  p.  150. 

Collett,  contrary  to  the  testimony  of  Nilsson,  excludes  it  from  the  mammalian  fauna  of  Norway,  and  states  (hat 
he  does  not  know  of  an  authentic  instance  of  its  capture  on  the  Norwegian  coast. — BemsBrkningcr  til  Norges  Pnttedvr- 
fauna,  1876.  p.  57,  foot-note  2. 

•In  Allen's  Pinnipeds,  I.e.,  is  a  long  and  interesting  account  of  their  habits,  from  the  pen  of  Ludwig  Kumliou. 


Till;  HIIUJON  SEAL  AND  WEST   INDIAN  SEAL.  67 

stales  that  tin-  Ks.iuiinaux  .wholly  dejxMid  upon  it  for  their  winter  food,  und  von  Schrenck  alludes 
to  tin-  great  importance  of  this  annual  to  the  natives  of  Amuor  Land. 

28.  THE  RIBBON  SEAL. 

<li M:I:AI,  HISTORY.—  The  first  account  of  the  present  species  was  published  by  Pennant, 
under  the  name  "Rubbou  Seal,"  in  the  first  quarto  edition  of  his  "History  of  Quadrupeds," in  1781 
(vol.  ii.  p.  :c':5). 

(iKoiii.-AiMiH'AL  DISTRIBUTION. — According  to  Pallas,  the  present  species,  flititrioplioca  fan- 
fiiiin  (Xiinin.)  (Jill,  occurs  around  the  Kurile.  Islands  and  in  the  Oehotsk  Sea.  Von  Schrenck  states 
that  Hi.  \Yosncssenski  obtained  specimens  that  were  killed  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Kamtehatka, 
and  tliat  he  himself  saw  skins  of  examples  killed  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Oehotsk  Sea,  where, 
however,  I  he  species  seems  to  be  of  rare  occurrence.  He  further  states  that  it  occurs  also  in  the 
Gulf  of  Tartary,  between  the  island  of  Saghalien  and  the  mainland,  but  apparently  not  to  the 
southward  of  that  island,  the  southern  point  of  which  (in  latitude  40°  X.)  he  belieres  to  IMJ  the 
southern  limit  of  its  distribution.  Mr.  Dall  secured  specimens  taken  at  Caj>e  I  Ionian/oil'.'  Captain 
Seammon  states,  "It  is  found  upon  the  coast  of  Alaska,  bordering  on  13ering  Sea,  and  the  natives 
of  Omialaska  wognize  it  as  an  occasional  visitof  to  the  Aleutian  Islands.  .  .  .  The  Russian 
traders  who  formerly  visited  Cape  Unman/oil',  from  Saint  Michael's,  Norton  Sound,  frequently 
brought  back  t  lie  skins  of  the  male  Uintrinphoca^  which  were  used  for  covering  trunks  and  for  other 
ornamental  purposes."  This  writer  also  states  that  ho  "observed  a  herd  of  Seals  upon  the  teaches 
at  Point  Reyes,  California,"  in  April,  1852,  which,  "  without  close  examination,  answered  to  the 
description  given  by  Gill"  of  the  present  species.  Probably,  however,  a  "close  examination" 
would  have  shown  them  to  be  different,  as  110  examples  are  yet  known  from  the  California!!  coast, 
and  the  locality  is  far  beyond  the  probable  limits  of  the  habitat.  Its  known  range  may,  therefore, 
be  given  as  Bering's  Sea  southward — on  the  American  coast  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  on  the 
Asiatic  coast  to  the  island  of  Saghalien. 

HABITS. — Almost  nothing  appears  to  have  been  as  yet  recorded  respecting  the  habits  of  the 
Ribbon  Seal.  Von  Schrenck  gives  us  no  information  of  importance,  and  we  search  equally  in  rain 
for  in  format  ion  elsewhere.  All  of  the  four  specimens  obtained  by  Wosnessensk;  were  taken  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Kamtchatka,  at  the  month  of  the  Kamtchatka  River,  about  the  end  of  March. 
According  to  the  report  of  hunters,  it  very  rarely  appears  at  this  locality  so  early  in  the  season, 
being  not  often  met  with  there  before  the  early  part  of  May.  The  natives  use  its  skins,  in  common 
with  those  of  other  species,  for  covering  their  snow-shoes. 

27.  THE  WEST  INDIAN  SEAL. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — Respecting  the  present  geographical  distribution  of  the 
West  Indian  Seal,  Monachux  tropicalix  Gray,  I  am  indebted  for  valuable  information  to  Mr.  R.  W. 
Kemp,  who,  under  date  of  "Key  West,  Fla.,  April  29,  1878,"  wrote  me  as  follows:  "Some  two  or 
three  years  ago  there  were  two  seen  near  Cape  Florida.  It  was  supposed  that  they  had  strayed 
from  some  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  as  there  are  some  few  to  be  found  in  that  vicinity.  I  am 
informed  by  reliable  parties  that  Seals  are  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  at  the  Anina  Islands, 
situated  between  the  Isle  of  Pines  and  Yucatan.  One  of  my  informants  says  that  as  he  was  sailing 
about  the  islands  lishing  and  wrecking,  he  and  his  party  discovered  a  number  of  Seals  on  one  of 
them,  and  went  ou  shore  to  kill  some,  merely  'for  fun.'  On  Hearing  the  shore  the  Seals  got  into 


'Tbe  National  Musi-urn  poaeemea  four  fiue  .s|H-i-iiii>>ns,  t«o  <>l>iaim-<l  by  Mr.  Dull,  in  !-*>.  ami  twn  li>  Mr.  K.  W- 
Nelson,  a*  well  as  several  large  poaches,  each  made  <•(  nu  i-min-  "kin  of  ibis  nix-rii-s  by  tlus  Eskimo*. 


68  NATURAL  HISTORY  OK  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  water.  They  then  hitl  themselves  in  the  shrubbery  along  the  beach,  and  in  about  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  the  Seals  came  on  the  beach  again.  The  men,  armed  with  axes,  sprang  upon  them,  the 
Seals  trying  to  get  into  the  water  again.  Two  of  them  were  killed,  and  another  one,  as  one  of  the 
men  came  up  to  him,  turned  around  and  barked  furiously  at  him,  which  frightened  the  poor  man 
so  badly  (he  having  never  seen  one  before,  and  knowing  nothing  of  their  habits)  that  he  almost 
tainted.  The  Seals  are  said  to  be  very  easily  killed  or  captured  alive.  They  yield  a  great  deal  of 
oil.  The  skins  are  very  large,  but  not  easy  to  cure,  on  account  of  their  fatty  substance."  In  a 
later  letter  he  refers  to  their  great  rarity  on  the  Florida  coast,  where  he  says  they  occur  "only 
once  or  twice  in  a  life-time,"  but  alludes  to  their  comparative  abundance  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan, 
arid  their  occasional  occurrence  at  the  Bahama  Islands. 

Mr.  L.  F.  de  Pourtales  also  informs  me  that  there  is  a  rock  on  Salt  Key  Bank,  near  the  Bahamas, 
called  "Dog  Rock,"  presumably  from  its  having  been  formerly  frequented  by  the  Seals.  Also,  that 
his  pilot,  in  1868-'69,  told  him  he  had  himself  killed  Seals  among  the  rocky  islets  of  Salt  Key 
Bank. 

I  learn  from  Dr.  S.  W.  Garman,  who  accompanied  Mr.  Agassiz  during  his  dredging  expedition 
ill  the  Caribbean  Sea,  in  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  steamer  "Blake,"  during  the  winter  of 
1877-'78,  that  the  Seal  of  those  waters  is  well  known  to  the  wreckers  and  turtle-hunters  of  that 
region,  and  that  they  often  kill  it  for  its  oil.  He  also  informs  me  that  these  animals  had  also  been 
frequently  seen  and  killed  by  one  of  the  officers  of  the  "Blake,"  especially  about  the  Isle  of  Pines, 
south  of  Cuba,  and  at  the  Alacranes,  where,  as  already  noted,  they  occurred  in  such  abundance  at  the 
time  of  Dam  pier's  visit  in  1676  as  to  be  extensively  hunted  for  their  oil.  They  are  also  known  to 
the  whalers  who  visit  these  waters. 

The  specimens  described  by  Messrs.  Hill  and  Gosse  were  taken  at  the  Pedro  Kays,  off  the 
southern  coast  of  Jamaica,  where  thirty  years  ago  they  appear  to  have  occurred  in  considerable 
numbers. 

On  a  "Chart  of  the  Environs  of  Jamaica,"  published  in  1774, '  as  well  as  on  Jater  maps  of  this 
region,  are  indicated  some  islets  off  the  Mosquito  coast,  in  about  latitude  12°  40',  which  bear  the 
name  "  Seal  Kays,"  doubtless  in  reference  to  the  presence  there  of  these  animals. 

It  therefore  appears  that  the  habitat  of  the  West  Indian  Seal  extends  from  the  northern  coast 
of  Yucatan  northward  to  the  southern  point  of  Florida,  eastward  to  the  Bahamas  and  Jamaica, 
and  southward  along  the  Central  American  coast  to  about  latitude  12°.  Although  known  to  have 
been  once  abundant  at  some  of  these  localities,  it  appears  to  have  now  well  nigh  reached  extinction, 
and  is  doubtless  to  be  found  at  only  a  few  of  the  least  frequented  islets  in  various  portions  of  the 
area  above  indicated.  Being  still  well  known  to  many  of  the  wreckers  and  turtle-hunters,  it  seems 
strange  that  it  should  have  so  long  remained  almost  unknown  to  naturalists.  The  only  specimen 
extant  in  any  mnt»eum  seems  to  be  the  imperfect  skin  transmitted  by  Mr.  Gosse  to  the  British 
Museum  thirty  years  ago.  Consequently,  respecting  none  of  the  Pinnipeds,  at  least  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  is  information  still  so  desirable. 

28.  THE  HOODED  SEAL. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  AND  MIGRATIONS.— The  Hooded  or  Crested  Seal,  Cystophora 
crintata  (Erxl.)  Nilss.,  is  restricted  to  the  colder  parts  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  to  portions  of  the 
Arctic  Sea.  It  ranges  from  Greenland  eastward  to  Spitsbergen  and  along  the  arctic  coast  of 
Europe,  but  is  rarely  found  south  of  Southern  Norway  and  Newfoundland.  As  is  the  case  with 

1  History  of  Jamaica,  vol.  i,  facing  title-page.  The  work  is  anonymous,  bat  the  authorship  ia  attributed  to 
Edward  Long. 


THE  HOODED  SEAL:  DISTRIBUTION.  »}9 

W 

other  pelagic  species,  stragglers  are  sometimes  met  with  far  ID  tin-  southward  of  the  usual  range 
(.1  tli.'  species.  On  the  North  Ameriean  coast  it  appears  to  be  of  uncommon  occurrence  south  ut  the 
|)oiiit  already  mentioned,  as  it  is  said  by  Gilpin1  to  be  "u  rare  visitor  to  the  shores  of  No\a  s.-otia." 
Like  the  Harp  Seal,  it  appears  also  to  be  regularly  migratory,  but  owing  to  its  much  smaller  numbers 
and  less  eommereial  importance,  its  inovments  are  not  so  well  known.  Carroll  states  that  it  visits 
the  coast  ut  Newfoundland  at  the  same  time  as  the  Harp  Seal,  or  about  the  2oth  of  February,  the 
t  line,  however,  varying  with  the  state  of  the  weather.  He  further  states  that  Hooded  Seals  always 
keep  to  the  eastward  of  the  Harp  Seals,  amongst  the  heavy  ice;  also  that  they  are  quite  numerons 
in  spring  in  the  (lull  of  Saint  Lawrence,  where  "many  of  them  are  killed  by  persons  who  reside 
on  Saint  Paul's  Island.'1-  Dr.  Packard  states  that  it  ••  is  not  uncommonly,  during  the  spring,  killed 
in  considerable  numbers  by  the  sealers"  along  the  coast  of  Labrador.3  Kink  says,  "  It  is  only  occa- 
sionally found  along  the  greater  part  of  the  coast  [of  Greenland],  but  visits  the  very  limited  tract 
between  <MP  and  (»l°  N.  lat.,  in  great  numbers,  most  probably  in  coming  from  and  returning  to  the 
east  side  of  Greenland.  The  first  time  it  visits  us  is  from  about  May  20  till  the  end  of  June,  dur- 
ing which  it  yields  a  very  luciative  catch."4  Robert  Brown  observes,  "  With  regard  to  the  favorite 
localities  of  this  species  ot  Seal,  1'ranz  and  the  much  more  accurate  Fabricins  disagree — the  former 
affirming  that  they  are  found  mostly  on  great  ice  islands  where  they  sleep  in  an  unguarded  manner, 
while  the  lat  ti-r  states  that  they  delight  in  the  high  seas,  visiting  the  land  in  April,  May,  and  June. 
This  appears  contradictory  and  confusing;  but  in  reality  both  authors  are  right,  though  not  in  an 
exclusive  sense."  Again  he  says:  '-This  Seal  is  not  common  anywhere.  On  the  shores  of  Green- 
land it  is  chiefly  found  l>eside  large  fields  of  ice,  and  comes  to  the  coast,  as  was  remarked  by  Fabri- 
cins long  ago,  at  certain  times  of  the  year.  They  are  chiefly  found  in  South  Greenland,  though  it  is 
erroneous  to  say  that  they  are  exclusively  confined  to  that  section.  I  have  seen  them  not  uncom- 
monly about  Disco  Bay,  and  have  killed  them  in  Meh  ille  Bay,  in  the  most  northerly  i>ortion  of 
Baffin's  Bay.  They  are  principally  killed  in  the  district  of  Julianshaab,  and  then  almost  solely  in 
the  most  southern  part,  on  the  outermost  islands,  from  about  the  20th  of  May  to  the  last  of  June; 
but  in  this  short  time  they  supply  a  great  portion  ot  the  food  of  the  natives  and  form  a  thiid  of 
the  colony's  yearly  production.  In  the  beginning  of  July  the  Klapmyds  leaves,  but  retun.n  in 
August,  when  it  is  much  emaciated.  Then  begins  what  the  Danes  in  Greenland  call  the  mnitjre. 
KliiinnydseJ'angitt,  or  the  '  leau-Klapmyds-catching,' which  lasts  from  three  to  four  weeks.  Very 
seldom  is  a  Klapmyds  to  be  got  at  other  places,  and  especially  at  other  times.  The  natives  call  a 
Klapmyds  found  single  up  a  fjord  by  the  name  of  A'erimartnnt,  the  meaning  of  which  is  '  gone 
after  food.'  They  regularly  frequent  some  small  islands  not  far  from  Julianshaab,  where  a  good 
number  are  caught.  After  this  they  go  farther  north,  but  are  lost  sight  of,  and  it  is  not  known 
where  they  go  to  (Rink,  1.  c.).  Those  seen  in  North  Greenland  are  mere  stragglers,  wandering  from 
the  herd,  and  are  not  a  continuation  of  the  migrating  flocks.  Johannes  (a  very  knowing  man  of 
Jakohshavn)  informed  me  that  generally  about  the  12th  of  July  a  few  are  killed  in  Jakobsha\  n 
Bay  (lat.  09°  13'  N.).  It  is  more  pelagic  in  its  habits  than  the  other  Seals,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Saddleback."5 

I  conclude  the  account  of  the  geographical  distribution  ot  the  Hooded  Seal  in  Baffin's  Bay 
with  the  following  from  Mr.  Kumlien's  account: 


1  Proceedings  and  Traiwat IIIOH  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of  Natural  Sciences,  vol.  iii.  pt.  4,  p.  U84. 

"Seal  and  Herring  Fisheries  of  Newfoundland,  pp.  13,  14. 

JProc.  Host  Soc.Nal.  Ili*t.,vol.  X,  p.  5871. 

« Dauiah  Greenland,  etc.,  1877,  p.  IvV 

•Proc.  Zool.  8oc.  Lond.,  I8ti8,  pp.  43«>.   lit; :   Man    N'at.  HUt.,  etc.,  Greenland.  Mam.,  pp.  65,  66. 


70  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"The  Bladder-nose  appears  to  be  very  rare  in  the  upper  Cumberland  waters.  One  specimen 
was  procured  at  Annanactook  in  autumn,  the  only  one  I  saw.  The  Eskimo  bad  no  name  for  it,  and 
said  they  had  not  seen  it  before.  I  afterward  learned  that  they  are  occasionally  taken  about  the 
Kikkerton  Islands  in  spring  and  autumn.  I  found  their  remains  in  the  old  kitchenmiddens  at 
Kingwah.  A  good  many  individuals  were  noticed  among  the  pack-ice  in  Davis's  Straits  in  July/" 

On  the  European  coast  this  species  is  said  to  be  of  not  very  common  occurrence  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Norway,  but  more  to  the  southward  only  stragglers  appear  to  have  been  met  with.2  In 
March  and  April,  according  to  Malmgren,  they  are  seen  about  Jan  Mayen,  and  they  are  said  to 
occur  on  the  coast  of  Finmark,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  White  Sea.  Von  Baer3  and  Schultz  also 
state  that  it  is  rarely  found  not  only  in  the  White  Sea,  but  along  the  Timanschen  and  Mourman 
coasts.  Von  Heuglin  says  it  appears  to  be  found  in  the  Spitsbergen  waters  only  on  the  western 
coast  of  these  islands,4  and  states  that  it  is  not  known  to  occur  at  Nova  Zembla.  He  gives 
its  principal  range  as  lying  more  to  the  westward,  around  Iceland  and  Greenland. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  range  of  the  Crested  Seal  is  restricted  mainly  to  the  arctic  waters  of 
the  North  Atlantic,  from  Spitzbergen  westward  to  Greenland  and  Baffin's  Bay,  and  thence  south- 
ward to  Newfoundland.  Stragglers  have  been  captured,  however,  far  to  the  southward  of  these 
limits,  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Thus  Gray  observes : 

"  A  young  specimen  has  been  taken  in  the  river  Orwell;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames ;  and  at 
the  Island  of  Oleron,  west  coast  of  France,  but  I  greatly  doubt  if  it  had  not  escaped  from  some  ship 
coming  from  North  America;  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  determination  of  the  species.  The  one  caught 
on  the  River  Orwell,  29th  June,  1847,  is  in  the  Museum  of  Ipswich,  and  was  described  by  Mr.  W. 
B.  Clarke,  on  the  14th  August,  1847,  in  4to,  with  a  figure  of  the  Seal  and  skull.  The  one  taken  on 
the  Isle  d'Olerou  is  in  the  Paris  Museum,  and  is  figured,  with  the  skull,  in  Gervais,  Zool.  et  Fallout. 
Franc.,  t.  42,  and  is  called  Phoca  Isidorei,  by  Lesson,  in  the  Rev.  Zool.,  1843,  256.  The  young  is 
very  like  that  of  Pagophilus  grcenlandicus,  but  is  immediately  known  from  it  by  being  hairy  between 
the  nostrils,  and  by  the  grinders  being  only  plated  and  not  lobed  on  the  surface."5 

Its  capture  has  occurred  a  few  times  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  as  far  from  its  usual 
range  even  as  on  the  European  coast.  A  large  Seal  is  occasionally  seen  on  the  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts, which  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  Crested  Seal,  but  just  what  this  large  Seal  is  remains 
still  to  be  determined.6  DeKay,  in  1824,  recorded7  the  capture  of  a  male  example  of  this  species 


'Bulletin  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  No.  15,  187!»,  p.  64. 

"Says  Biasing,  writing  in  1857,  "An  den  sildlichen  KUstenlaudern  der  Nordsee  hat  man  sie  bis  jetzt  noch  uicht 
gesehen." — Natnrgesch.  der  Siingeth.  Deutschlauds,  p.  260. 

'Bull.  Acad.  Imp.  dos  Sci.  de  St.  P<Stersb.,  iii,  1838,  p.  350. 

'Malmgren,  writing  some  years  earlier,  says  that  in  recent  times  it  has  not  been  observed  with  certainty  at  Spitz- 
bergen. though  reported  as  occurring  tbere  by  Martens  and  Scoresby.  Possibly,  he  says,  during  its  summer  wanderings 
it  may  extend  to  the  latitude  of  Spitzbergen.  During  Torell's  first  jonrnoy  to  Spitzbergen  a  young  individual  was 
killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Bear  Island.1  He  says  it  is  only  exceptionally  taken  by  the  seal-hunters  about  Jan  Mayen, 
only  a  comparatively  small  number  being  captured. — Arch.  i'Ur  Naturgesch.,  1864,  p.  72. 

6G«AY,  J.  E.,  in  Zoologist,  2d  ser.,  vol.  vii,  1872,  p.  3338. 

•In  my  "Catalogue  of  the  Mammals  of  Massachusetts,"  I  refer  to  this  large  Seal  a»  follows,  supposing  it  to  be  the 
Hooded  Seal :  "  From  accounts  I  have  received  from  residents  along  the  coast  of  a  Seal  of  very  large  size,  observed  by 
them,  and  occasionally  captured,  I  am  led  to  think  this  species  is  not  of  iiufrequent  occurrence  on  the  Massachusetts 
coast.  Mr.  C.  W.  Bennett  informs  me  of  one  taken  sume  years  since  in  the  Providence  River,  a  few  miles  below  Provi- 
dence, which  he  Haw  shortly  after.  From  his  very  particular  account  of  it  I  cannot  doubt  that  it  was  of  this  species. 
Mr  C.  J.  Maynard  also  informs  me  that  a  number  of  specimens  hav.  been  taken  at  Ipswich  within  the  past  few  years, 
that  have  weighed  from  seven  huudred  to  nine  hundred  pounds.  It  seems  to  be  most  frequent  in  winter,  when  it  appar- 
ently migrates  f:-»::i  III"  north."— Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  vol.  i,  Xo.  8,  1869,  pp.  193,  194.  This  identification  was 
made  almost  solely  on  the  ground  of  size,  taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  the  specieji  had  been  taken  in  Long 
Island  Sound  near  New  York  Ciry.  The  question,  however,  may  fairly  be  raised  whether  the  large  Seals  more  or  less 
frequently  seen  on  the  coast  of  New  England  are  not,  really  the  Gray  Seal  (Halichairns  yrj/pun). 

'Ann.  New  York  I/ycenm  Nat.  8ci.,  vol.  i,  1824,  p.  94. 


THE  HOODED  SEAL:  HABITS.  71 

in  a  small  creek  that  empties  into  Long  Inland  Sound  :it  Ka-t  I'he-tei-,  about  fifteen  miles  from 
New  York  City.  Twenty  years'  later  be  refers  to  this  as  the  first  and  only  known  instance  of  it* 
occurrence  within  the  limits  of  the  State  of  New  York,  where,  he  nays,  "  it  can  only  be  regarded 
as  a  ran-  and  accidental  visitor."  Professor  Cope,  however,  has  recorded  its  capture  in  the  Chesa- 
peake Hay,  where  he  says  it  has  twice  occurred.1  The  first  specimen  was  recorded  in  18Uff*M 
"  some  species  of  Cyntophora,  taken  near  Cambridge,  Maryland,  on  an  arm  of  the  Chesajwake  Bay, 
eighteen  miles  from  salt  water,  by  Mr.  Daniel  M.  Henry."  The  specimen,  it  is  said,  "measured 
<i:f  feet,  and  weighed,  when  living,  about  330  Ibs."  Although  Professor  Cope  adds,  "Whether  this 
spei-ies  is  the  0.  cristata  or  antillarum,  cannot  be  determined,  owing  to  the  imi>erfection  of  extant 
descriptions,"  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting  that  it  was  really  the  Crested  Seal,  a  conclusion  to 
which  1'rot'essor  Cope  seems  to  have  later  arrived.  Although  Gray's  suggestion  anent  the  English 
specimen  naturally  arises,  namely,  transportation  from  the  north  in  some  ship,  it  seems  more 
probable  that  they  were  really  wanderers  from  the  usual  home  of  the  species. 

HABITS. — As  already  noted  in  the  account  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  this  secies,  it  is, 
like  the  Harp  Seal,  pelagic  and  migratory,  preferring  the  drift  ice  of  the  "high  seas"  to  the  vicinity 
of  land,  and  seems  rarely  if  ever  to  resort  to  rocky  islands  or  shores.  It  brings  forth  its  young  on 
the  ice,  remote  from  the  land,  in  March,  a  week  or  ten  days  later  than  the  Harp  Seal,  with  which 
it  appears  only  rarely  to  associate,  although  the  two  species  are  often  found  on  neighboring  ice- 
floes. It  is  commonly  described  as  the  most  courageous  and  combative  of  the  Phocids,  often 
turning  liercely  upon  its  pursuers. 

The  Hooded  Seal  is  described  as  very  active  when  in  the  water.  It  swims  very  low,  with  only 
the  top  of  the  head  above  the  surface.  During  the  rutting  season  the  males  wage  fierce  battles  for 
the  possession  of  the  females,  the  noise  of  which  may  be  heard  miles  away.  At  times  the  sexes 
are  said  to  live  apart,  but  associate  in  families  during  the  breeding  season.  Their  iifl'ection  for 
each  other,  and  especially  for  their  young,  is  represented  as  very  strong,  both  parents  remaining 
by  them  wi.h  such  persistency  that  the  whole  family  are  easily  killed. 

FOOD. — The  food  of  this  species  doubtless  consists  chiefly  of  fishes  of  different  secies.  Malm- 
1:11-11  supposed  it  to  subsist  mainly  on  those  of  large  size.  That  it  also  feeds  upon  squids,  and 
probablj'  on  other  mollusks,  is  evinced  by  their  remains  having  been  found  in  their  stomachs,  as 
well  as  "the  beaks  of  large  cuttle-fish."* 

HUNTING  AND  PRODUCTS. — This  species,  owing  to  its  scarcity,  is  of  relatively  small  commer- 
cial importance,  yet  many  are  taken  every  year  by  the  Newfoundland  and  Jan  Mayen  sealers; 
generally  no  separate  estimates,  however,  are  given  of  the  number  taken.  Dr.  Kink  states  that 
the  average  annual  catch  in  Greenland  is  3,000.  The  flesh  is  greatly  esteemed  by  the  Greenlanders. 

The  Hooded  Seal  is  usually  taken  on  the  ice,  but  Mr.  Ileeks  states  that  many  are  also  shot  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  by  the  settlers  along  the  coast  of  Newfoundland.  As  already  stated,  the 
hood  of  the  male  affords  such  a  protection  to  its  owner  as  to  render  the  animal  so  provided  very 
hard  to  kill  with  the  ordinary  seal-club,  or  even  with  a  heavy  load  of  shot;  and  they  are,  further 
more,  "at  times  very  savage,  and  it  requires  great  dexterity  on  the  part  of  the  seal-hunters  to  keep 
from  being  bitten." 

"New  York  Zoobgy,  or  the  Fnumi  of  New  York,  1842,  (>t.  i,  p.  Ott. 

•New  Topographical  Alias  of  Maryland,  1873,  p.  16. 

•Proceedings  of  the  Acadrmy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  1865,  p.  273. 

1  JUKES:  Excursions  in  Newfoundland,  vol.  i,  p.  :'•!-'. 


72  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

29.  THE  CALIFORNIAN  SEA  ELEPHANT. 

GENERAL  HISTORY. — The  California  Sea  Elephant,  Macrorhinits  anguatirostru  Gill,  was  first 
described  by  Dr.  Gill,  in  1866,  from  a  skull  of  a  female  in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, received  from  Saint  Bartholomew's  Bay,  Lower  California.  Its  external  characters  were  first 
made  known  by  Capt.  C.  M.  Scammou  in  1869,  and  the  species  was  redescribed  by  hint  in  1874, 
with  detailed  measurements  of  two  adult  females  and  a  newly-born  pup.  This  is  all  that  has  thus 
far  appeared  relating  to  its  technical  history.  Captain  Scammon,  as  early  as  1854,  gave  some 
account  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  under  the  name  Sea  Elephant,  and  earlier  incidental  references 
to  it  doubtless  occur  in  the  narratives  of  travelers.  Dr.  Gill  observes,  in  his  paper  already  cited, 
"For  a  long  time,  the  fact  that  a  species  of  the  genus  Macrorhinus  or  Elephant  Seal  inhabits  the 
coast  of  Western  North  America  has  been  well  known.  But,  on  account  of  the  want  of  opportunity 
for  comparison  of  specimens,  the  relations  of  the  species  have  not  been  understood."  I  fail  to  find, 
however,  in  any  technical  account  of  the  Sea  Elephant,  any  previous  notice  of  their  occurrence  on 
the  coast  of  North  America. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  Sea  Elephant  seems  to  have  been  formerly  very  abun- 
dant on  the  coast  of  California  and  Western  Mexico,  whence  it  became  long  since  nearly  extirpated. 
Captain  Scammon,  in  writing  (about  1852)  of  Cedros  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Lower  California,  says : 
"Seals  and  Sea  Elephants  once  basked  upon  the  shores  of  this  isolated  spot  in  vast  numbers,  and 
in  years  past  its  surrounding  shores  teemed  with  sealers,  sea-elephant  and  sea-otter  hunters;  the 
remains  of  their  rude  stone  houses  are  still  to  be  seen  in  many  convenient  places,  which  were  once 
the  habitations  of  these  hardy  men."1  A  few  Sea  Elephants  are  still  found  at  Santa  Barbara  Island, 
where  they  are  reported,  however,  to  be  nearly  extinct.  Whether  or  not  they  still  occur  elsewhere 
along  the  Californian  coast  I  am  without  means  of  determining,  although  it  is  probable  that  a  small 
remnant'still  exists  at  other  points,  where  scarcely  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  vessels 
were  freighted  with  their  oil.  Neither  is  it  possible  to  determine  with  certainty  the  limits  of  their 
former  range.  Captain  Scammon,  who  doubtless  obtained  his  information  from  trustworthy  sources, 
states  that  it  extended  from  Cape  Lazaro,  latitude  24°  46'  north,  to  Point  Reyes,  in  latitude  38°,  or 
for  a  distance  of  about  two  hundred  miles.  As  has  heretofore  been  stated,  Dampier,  in  1080,  niv:t 
with  Seals  on  the  islands  off  the  western  coast  of  Mexico,  as  far  south  as  latitude  21°  to  23°,  but  of 
what  species  his  record  unfortunately  fails  to  show.  They  were  doubtless  either  Sea  Elephants  01 
Sea  Lions  (Zalophus  calif  or  nianus),  and  may  have  included  both.  This  rather  implies  its  former 
extension,  two  hundred  years  ago,  considerably  to  the  southward  of  the  limit  assigned  by  Captain 
Scammou,  on  probably  traditional  reports  current  among  the  residents  of  this  part  of  the  coast  at 
the  time  of  his  visit  there  in  1852. 

"The  sexes  vary  much  in  size,  the  male  being  frequently  triple  the  bulk  of  the  female;  the  oldest 
of  the  former  will  average  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet;  the  largest  we  have  ever  seen  measured  twenty- 
two  feet  from  tip  to  tip."  ''The  adult  females  average  ten  feet  in  length  between  extremities." — 
Scammon.  ''Round  the  under  side  of  the  neck,  in  the  oldest  males,  the  animal  appears  to  undergo 
a  change  with  age;  the  hair  falls  off,  the  skin  thickens  and  becomes  wrinkled — the  furrows  cross- 
ing each  other,  producing  a  checkered  surface — and  sometimes  the  throat  is  more  or  less  marked 
with  white  spots.  Its  proboscis  extends  from  opposite  the  angle  ol  the  mouth  forward  (in  the  larger 
males)  about  fifteen  inches,  when  the  creature  is  in  a  state  of  quietude,  and  the  upper  surface 
appears  ridgy ;  but  when  the  animal  makes  an  excited  respiration,  the  trunk  becomes  elongated, 
and  the  ridges  nearly  disappear."  The  females  "are  destitute  of  the  proboscis,  the  nose  being  like 
that  of  the  common  Seal,  but  projecting  more  over  the  mouth." — Scammon. 

'.SCAMMON,  C.  M.:  "On  a  new  species  of  the  grim*  Muernrlimwi."    Proc.  Chicago  Acad.,  i,  18<Xi,  ]>p.  3:1,34. 


THE  SEA  KI.KI'IIANT:  I1AB1TS.  73 

Captain  Scummon  gives  the  length  of  a  "new  born  pup"  as  four  feet. 

HABITS.  —  We  are  indebted  to  Captain  Scaminon,  who  has  fortunately  had  favorable  oppor- 
tunities for  observation,  for  everything  of  importance  that  has  thus  far  been  recorded  rcspcctin;; 
the  habits  of  the  Sea  Elephant  of  California.  "The  habits  of  these  huge  leasts,"  lie  tells  us. 
"when  on  shore,  or  loitering  about  the  foaming  breakers,  are  in  many  respects  like  those  of  tli<- 
Leopard  Seals  [Phoca  vitulina].  Our  observations  on  the  Sea  Elephants  of  California  go  to  show 
that  they  have  been  found  in  much  larger  numbers  from  February  to  June  than  during  other 
months  of  the  year;  but  more  or  less  were  at  all  times  found  on  shore  •  pon  their  favorite  beaches, 
which  were  about  the  islands  of  Santa  Barbara,  Cerros,  Guadalupe,  San  Bonitos,  Natividad,  San 
Koque,  and  Asuncion,  and  some  of  the  most  inaccessible  points  on  the  mainland  between  Asuncion 
and  Cerros.  When  coming  up  out  of  the  water,  they  were  generally  first  seen  near  the  line  of  surf; 
then  crawling  up  by  degrees,  frequently  reclining  as  if  to  sleep;  again  moving  up  or  along  the 
shore,  appearing  not  content  with  their  last  resting  place.  In  this  manner  they  would  ascend  the 
ravines,  or  'low-downs,'  half  a  mile  or  more,  congregating  by  hundreds.  They  are  not  so  active  on 
land  as  the  Seals;  but,  when  excited  to  inordinate  exertion,  their  motions  are  quick  —  the  whole 
lioily  quivering  with  their  crawling,  semi-vaulting  gait,  and  the  animal  at  such  times  muiiifeHting 
great  fatigue.  Notwithstanding  their  unwieldiness,  we  have  sometimes  found  them  on  broken  and 
elevated  ground,  fifty  or  sixty  feet  above  the  sea. 

"The  principal  seasons  of  their  coming  on  shore  are,  when  they  are  about  to  shed  their  coats, 
when  the  females  bring  forth  their  young  (which  is  one  at  a  time,  rarely  two),  and  the  mating 
season.  These  seasons  for  'hauling  up'  are  more  marked  in  southern  latitudes.  The  different 
periods  are  known  among  the  hunters  as  the  'pupping  cow,'  'brown  cow,'  'bull  and  cow,'  and 
'March  bull'  seasons;2  but  on  the  California  coast,  either  from  the  influence  of  climate  or  some 
other  cause,  we  have  noticed  young  pups  with  their  mothers  at  quite  the  op|K>site  months.  The 
continual  hunting  of  the  animals  may  possibly  have  driven  them  to  irregularities.  The  time  of 
gestation  is  supposed  to  be  about  three-fourths  of  the  year.  The  most  marked  season  we  could 
discover  was  that  of  the  adult  males,  which  shed  their  coats  later  than  the  younger  ones  anil  the 
females.  Still,  among  a  herd  of  the  largest  of  those  fully  matured  (at  Santa  Barbara  Island,  in 
June,  1852),  we  found  several  cows  and  their  young,  the  latter  apparently  but  a  few  days  old. 

"When  the  Sea  Elephants  come  on  shore  for  the  purpose  of  'shedding,'  if  not  distnrl>ed  they 
remain  out  of  water  until  the  old  hair  falls  off.  By  the  time  this  change  comes  about,  the  animal 
is  supposed  to  lose  half  its  fat?  indeed,  it  sometimes  becomes  very  thin,  and  is  then  called  a 
'  slimskin.' 

"In  the  stomach  of  the  Sea  Elephant  a  few  pebbles  lire  found,  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
saying  that  'they  take  in  ballast  before  going  down'  (returning  to  the  sea).  On  warm  and  sunny 
days  we  have  watched  them  come  up  singly  on  smooth  beaches,  and  burrow  in  the  dry  sand. 
throwing  over  their  backs  the  loose  particles  that  collect  about  their  fore  limbs,  and  nearly  covering 
themselves  from  view;  but  when  not  disturbed,  the  animals  follow  their  gregarious  propensity,  nml 
collect  in  large  herds."  "The  largest  number  I  ever  found  in  one  herd,"  he  states  in  another 
connection,  "was  one  hundred  and  sixty-five,  which  lay  promiscuously  along  the  beach  or  up  the 
ravine  near  by." 


'Marine  Mammal*.  1874,  pp.  117-119.  See  also  Proe.  Arad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philn.,  l^U,  pp.  ftl-tCi,  nheie  ili<-  .1.  ,,nmi 
here  1  1  not  i>il  was  lirHt  published.  Sec  further.!.  Ko.ss  Browne'.*  ••  K<  Minni-nol  the  I  'at-  i  tic  Coast"  [Append.  ],  p.  I-'.',  wln-iv 
the  siniii  -aniliiir  has  a!-o  yiven  a  slum  annunl  of  its  lial>it>  ;i*  oliwrvi  -il  at  Ci-ilro.*  (or  Cerros)  Inland  in  I-.'-'.  A!MIIIII 
article  entitled  "Sea-elephant  limiting."  in  the  "Overland  Monthly,"  iii.  p]>.  H'J-117.  Nin.,  IS70 

-'Helen-inn   in  the  haliits  nl'  tlie  Southern    9n    I  I.  phanl    (Mut-rorliinu*  trout***),  u»  he  had  "learned  from  whip 
m  nil"  have  taken  Seal*  about   Kn^n.-l.-n'~  Land,  tin-  (  i../etn,  and   linrd'a  Inland."     8«u  Proc.  Acatl.   Nat     >,  -i. 
Phila.,  1  "i",  p   <U. 


74  .    NATUKAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Nothing  further  respecting  the  breeding  habits  or  sexual  relations  of  the  species  appears  to 
have  been  as  yet  recorded,  but  they  may  be  presumed  to  be  similar  to  those  of  the  Sea  Elephant 
of  the  Antarctic  Seas.' 

COMPARISON  WITH  THE  SOUTHERN  SEA  ELEPHANT.— So  far  as  can  be  determined  by  descrip- 
tions, Ihe  Northern  and  the  Southern  Sea  Elephants2  differ  very  little  in  size,  color,  or  other 
external  features.  Captain  Scanimon  gives  the  average  length  of  the  full  grown  male  of  the 
northern  species  as  twelve  to  fourteen  feet,  and  says  that  the  largest  he  ever  measured  had  a  length 
of  twenty-two  feet  "from  tip  to  tip."  P&ron  gives  the  length  of  the 'southern  species  as  twenty  to 
twenty-five,  and  even  thirty  feet,  with  a  circumference  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet.  Anson  gives 
the  length  as  twelve  to  twenty  feet,  and  the  circumference  as  eight  to  fifteen  feet.  Pernety  records 
the  total  length  as  twenty-five  feet.  Scammon  gives  the  length  of  the  young  of  the  northern 
species,  at  birth,  as  four  feet;  and  P6ron  gives  four  or  five  feet  as  the  length  of  the  young  at  birth 
for  the  southern  species.  The  skeletons  of  the  two  old  males  of  the  southern  species,  already 
mentioned,  allowing  for  the  intervertebral  cartilages  that  have  disappeared  in  maceration,  measure 
respectively  not  over  fifteen  and  sixteen  feet,  adding  to  which  the  length  of  the  hind  flipper  and 
the  proboscis  gives  a  total  length,  from  "tip  to  tip,"  of  about  twenty-one  to  twenty -two  feet.  From 
the  foregoing  we  may  infer  that  the  usual  difference  in  size  between  the  two  species  is  not  great, 
the  southern  species  on  the  whole  appearing  to  be  somewhat  the  larger  of  the  two.  It  would  seem 
that  tlie  Northern  and  Southern  Sea  Elephants,  though  presumably  distinct,  are  closely  allied,  as 
well  iu  structural  characters  as  in  habits.  In  respect  to  geographical  distribution,  I  am  not  aware 
that  the  southern  species  has  been  found  north  of  about  the  35th  degree  of  south  latitude  (the 
Island  of  Juan  Fernandez),  or  the  northern  species  south  of  about  the  24th  degree  of  north  latitude. 
It  may  consequently  be  safely  assumed  that  the  two  forms  have  been  long  isolated,  and  that  the 
southern  is  an  offshoot  from  northern  stock,  since  the  only  other  known  species  of  the  Cystophorina 
is  also  northern  in  its  distribution. 


1  It  is  here  :i-siin,i-il  that  the  Sea  Elephants  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  arc  all  referable  to  a  single  species,  the 
I'hoca  leonina  of  l.inm''.  1758,  based  on  the  Sea  Lion  of  Lord  Ausou,  which  was  renamed  1'lioca  elejilianliiia  by  Molina, 
1782,  and  a^ain  renamed  Plioca  prultoecitlea  by  Perou,  in  181(>,  and  of  which  I'hoca  Ilijroni  of  Desmarest,  and  also  Plioca 
Ansoni  of  tin'  same  author  (the  latter  species  in  part  only),  and  the  Mirounr/a  patagomca  of  Gray  are  synonyms.  I  am 
a  ware,  however,  that  Peters  has  recently  proposed  the  recognition  of  four  species,  namely,  Cystopliora  leonina  (= Alison's 
Sea  l.iuiii.  C.  falklandica  (=Peruely's  Sea  Lion),  V.  proboscidea  (ejc  Peron),  and  C.  kei-g  mini  sin  (the  Sea  Elephant  of 
Kergiielen  Island).  He  seems  nut,  however,  to  have  arrived  at  this  course  by  an  examination  of  an  extensive  snitr  of 
fs|"-i 'linens  from  various  localities,  as  he  refers  in  this  connection  to  only  a  single  old  male  example  from  Kergoelen 
Inland.  He  seems  to  have  been  influenced  merely  by  the  varying  statements  in  respect  to  size  and  some  other  features 
given  by  Pernety,  An.sou,  and  Pe>on.  His  entire  presentation  of  the  caste  is  as  follows:  "Perncty  gibt  von  seinem 
Seeliiw  en  cine  lame  Mahne,  cine  Totalliingc  von  25  Fuss  mid  eiuein  Durcliniesser  tier  Basis  der  Ki'k/.iiline  von  ;i  Zoll  au. 
Pelons  See-Elephautrn  solleu  bis  30  Fuss  laug  mill  von  blaugrauer  Farbe  sein.  Vielleicht  siml  nlle  diese  Arten 
viTsvhiedfii  nnd  es  wiirde  dann  der  Name  C.  leouiita  L.  blossdcm  AIISOII'M  lirn  Serliiuen  /.»  belasseir  sein.  wiihrend  die  >.'. 
1'iilklaiiiliin,  \vii-  man  die  von  P.  rnety  lienenneii  kotiDte,  die  C.  proboscidia  I'cron,  die  C.  anij«»tironlrig  Gill  der  iiordlichcn 
Ilrmisphiin-  mid  ilie  von  Kergiiul<;iilaiid  besoudereu  Arten  ungi<lii>reii  wiirden.  Fiir  den  letztercn  Fall  srlilage  ich  vor, 
die  se  Art  keryuflemiui  zu  beuemuieii."  (Monat.sh.  d.  K.  P.  Akad.  Wisseiisch.  zu  Berlin  lH7f),  p.  :','.)!,  toot-note). 

•The  Sea  Elephants  appear  to  be  exceptional  among  the  I'hvcidte  iu  the  great  disparity  of  size  brtwei-n  (he  sexes, 
in  which,  as  well  as  iu  their  breeding  habits,  they  closely  resemble  the  Otaries.  Although,  unlike  the  latter,  they 
have  not  i  In'  power  of  using  the  hind  limbs  in  locomotion  on  land,  and  are  hence  unable  to  walk,  tlu-y  mauage  to 
crawl  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  sea — according  to  Scammou,  a  "half  a  mile  or  more."  The  habits  of  the 
Southern  Sea  Elephant  ( Afacrorhinug  teotiiiiim)  were  long  since  described  by  Alison  and  Pernety,  and  later  by  P6ron, 
but  their  accounts  seem  in  some  respects  to  be  tinged  with  romance.  According  to  these  writers  the  males  fight 
desperately  for  the  possession  of  the  females. 


Till-    IIAM1TS  OF  TIIF.  FUK  SEAL.  75 


C.— THE   HABITS  OF   THE   FUR   SEAL. 

By  HENRY  W.  ELLIOTT. 
30.  LIFE-HISTORY  OF  THE  FUR  SEAL. 

DESCRIPTION  OP  AN  ADULT  MAM:. — The  Fur  Seal,  which  repairs  every  year  to  the  Pribylov 

Islands  to  breed  and  to  shed  its  hair  and  fur,  in  numbers  that  seem  almost  fabulous,  is  the  highest 
organized  of  all  the  /'i/iniperfia,  and,  indeed,  for  that  matter,  when  laud  and  water  are  weighed  in 
tin-  jr. mini  together,  there  is  no  other  animal  known  to  man  which  can  be  truly,  as  it  is,  classed 
superior,  from  a  purely  physical  point  of  view.  Certainly  there  are  few,  if  any,  creatures  in 
the  animal  kingdom  that  can  be  said  to  exhibit  a  higher  order  of  instinct,  approaching  even  our 
intelligence. 

1  wish  to  draw  attention  to  a  s|tecimen  of  the  finest  of  this  race — a  male  in  the  Hush  and  prime 
of  his  tirst  maturity,  six  or  seven  years  old,  and  full  grown.  When  it  comes  up  from  the  sea  early 
in  the  spring,  out  to  its  station  for  the  breeding  season,  we  have  an  animal  before  us  that  will 
measure  six  and  a  half  to  seven  and  u  quarter  feet  in  length  from  tip  of  nose  to  the  end  of  its 
abbreviated,  abortive  tail.  It  will  weigh  at  least  400  pounds,  and  I  have  seen  older  specimens 
much  more  corpulent,  which,  in  my  best  judgment,  could  not  be  less  than  (5<H»  pounds  in  weight. 
The  head  of  this  animal  now  before  us,  appears  to  be  disproportionately  small  in  compHrison  with 
the  immense  thick  neck  and  shoulders;  but  as  we  come  to  examine  it  we  will  llnd  it  is  mostly  all 
occupied  by  the  brain.  The  light  frame- work  of  the  skull  supports  an  expressive  pair  of  large 
bluish  hazel  eyes;  alternately  burning  with  revengeful,  passionate,  light,  then  suddenly  changing 
to  the  tones  of  tenderness  and  good  nature.  It  has  a  muzzle  and  jaws  of  about  the  same  size  and 
form  observed  in  any  full  blooded  Newfoundland  dog,  with  this  difference,  that  the  lips  «re  not 
flabby  and  overhanging;  they  are  as  firmly  lined  and  pressed  against  one  another  as  our  own.  The 
upper  lips  support  a  yellowish  white  and  gray  moustache,  composed  of  long,  stiff'  bristles,  and  when 
it  is  not  torn  out  and  broken  oft' in  combat,  it  sweeps  down  and  over  the  shoulders  as  a  luxuriant 
plume.  Look  at  it  as  it  comes  leisurely  swimming  on  tow  aid  the  land;  see  how  high  al>ove  the 
water  it  carries  its  head,  an  I  how  deliberately  it  surveys  the  beach,  after  having  stepj»ed  upon  it 
(for  it  may  lie  truly  said  to  step  with  its  fore-flippers,  as  they  regularly  alternate  when  it  moves 
up),  carrying  the  head  well  above,  them,  erect  and  graceful,  at  least  three  feet  from  the  ground. 
The  fore-feet,  or  flippers,  are  a  pair  of  dark  bluish-black  hands,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  broad  at 
their  junction  with  the  body,  and  the  metacarpal  joint,  running  out  to  an  ovate  point  at  their 
extremity,  some  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  from  this  union;  all  the  rest  of  the  forearm,  the  ulna, 
radius,  and  humerus  being  concealed  under  the  skin  and  thick  blubber-folds  of  the  main  body  and 
necU.  hidden  entirely  at  this  season,  when  it  is  so  fat.  Hut  six  weeks  to  three  months  after  this 
tune  of  landing,  when  that  supertliioiis  fat  and  flesh  lias  been  consumed  by  self-absorption,  those 
bones  show  plainly  under  the  shrunken  skin.  On  the  upper  side  of  these  tlip|>crs  the  hair  of  tin- 
body  straggles  down  liner  and  fainter  as  it  comes  below  to  a  point  close  by,  and  slightly  beyond 
that  spot  of  junction  where  the  phalanges  and  the  metacarpal  bones  unite,  similar  to  that  point  on 
onr  own  hand  where  our  knuckles  are  placed;  and  here  the  hair  ends,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  skin 
to  the  end  of  the  Hipper  bare  and  wrinkled  in  places  at  the  margin  <pf  the  inner  .side;  showing,  also, 
line  small  pits,  containing  abortive  nails,  which  are  situated  immcdiatch  over  the  union  of  the 
phalange*  with  their  cartilaginous  continuations  to  the  end  of  the  Hipper. 


76  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  flipper  the  skin  is  entirely  bsuv,  from  its  outer  extremity  up  to  the 
body  connection;  it  is  sensibly  tougher  and  thicker  than  elsewhere  on  the  body;  it  is  deeply  and 
regularly  wrinkled  with  seams  and  furrows,  which  cross  one  another  so  as  to  leave  a  kind  of  sharp 
diamond-cut  pattern.  When  they  arc?  placed  by  the  animal  upon  the  smoothest  rocks,  shining  :md 
slippery  from  algoid  growths  and  the  sea-polish  of  restless  waters,  they  seldom  fail  to  adhere. 

When  we  observe  this  Seal  moving  out  on  the  land,  we  notice  that,  though  it  handles  its  fore- 
feet in  a  most  creditable  manner,  it  brings  up  its  rear  in  quite  a  different  style;  for,  after  eveiy  second 
step  ahead  with  the  anterior  limbs,  it  will  arch  its  spine,  and  in  arching,  it  drags  and  lifts  up,  and 
together  forward,  the  hind-feet,  to  a  fit  position  under  its  body,  giving  it  in  this  manner  fresh 
leverage  for  another  movement  forward  by  the  fore-feet,  in  which  the  spine  is  again  straightened 
out,  and  then  a  fresh  hitch  is  taken  upon  the  posteriors  once  more,  and  so  on  as  the  Seal  progresses. 
This  is  the  leisurely  and  natural  movement  011  laud,  when  not  disturbed,  the  body  all  the  time 
being  carried  clear  of  and  never  touching  the  ground.  But  if  the  creature  is  frightened,  this  method 
of  progression  is  radically  changed.  It  launches  into  a  lope,  and  actually  gallops  so  fast  that  the 
best  powers  of  a  man  in  running  are  taxed  to  head  it  off.  Still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  cannot 
run  far  before  it  sinks  trembling,  gasping,  breathless,  to  the  earth ;  thirty  or  forty  yards  of  such 
speed  marks  the  utmost  limit  of  its  endurance. 

The  radical  difference  in  the  form  and  action  of  the  hind-feet  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  eye 
at  once ;  they  are  one-seventh  longer  than  the  fore-hands,  and  very  much  lighter  and  more  slender; 
they  resemble,  in  broad  terms,  a  pair  of  black  kid  gloves,  flattened  out  and  shriveled,  as  they  lie 
in  their  box. 

There  is  no  suggestion  of  fingers  on  the  fore-hands;  but  the  hind-feet  seem  to  be  toes  run  into 
ribbons,  for  they  literally  flap  about  involuntarily  from  that  point  where  the  cartilaginous  processes 
unite  with  the  phalangeal  bones.  The  hind-feet  are  also  merged  in  the  body  at  their  junction  with 
it,  like  those  anterior;  nothing  can  be  seen  of  the  leg  above  the  tarsal  joint. 

The  shape  of  the  hind-flipper  is  strikingly  like  that  of  a  human  foot,  provided  the  latter  were 
drawn  out  to  a  length  of  twenty  or  twenty-two  inches,  the  instep  flattened  down,  and  the  toes  run 
out  into  thin,  membraneous,  oval-tipped  points,  only  skin-thick,  leaving  three  strong,  cylindrical, 
grayish,  horn-colored  nails,  half  an  inch  long  each,  back  six  inches  from  these  skinny  toe-ends, 
without  any  sign  of  nails  to  mention  on  the  outer  big  and  little  toes. 

On  the  upper  side  of  this  hind-foot  tlie  body-hair  comes  down  to  that  point  where  the  meta- 
tarsus and  phalangeal  bones  join  and  fade  out.  From  this  junction  the  phalanges,  about  six  inches 
down  to  the  nails  above  mentioned,  are  entirely  bare,  and  stand  ribbed  up  in  bold  relief  on  the 
membrane  which  unites  them  as  the  web  to  a  duck's  foot;  the  nails  just  referred  to  mark  the  ends 
of  the  phalangeal  bones,  and  their  union  in  turn  with  the  cartilaginous  processes,  which  run 
rapidly  tapering  and  flattening  out  to  the  ends  of  the  thin  toe-points.  Now,  as  we  are  looking  at 
t  his  Fur  Seal's  motion  and  progression,  that  which  seems  most  odd,  is  the  gingerly  manner  (if  I  may 
be  allowed  to  use  the  expression)  in  which  it  carries  these  hind-flippers;  they  are  held  out  alright 
angles  from  the  body  directly  opposite  the  pelvis,  the  toe-ends  or  flaps  slightly  waving,  curled,  and 
drooping  over,  supported  daintily,  as  it  were,  above  the  earth,  the  animal  only  suffering  its  weight 
behind  to  fall  upon  its  heels,  which  are  themselves  opposed  to  each  other,  scarcely  five  inches  apart. 

We  shall,  as  we  see  this  Seal  again  later  in  the  season,  have  to  notice  a  different  mode  of  pro- 
gression and  bearing  both  when  it  is  lording  over  its  harem,  or  when  it  grows  shy  and  restless  at 
the  end  of  the  breeding  season,  then  faint,  emaciated,  dejected ;  but  we  will  now  proceed  to  observe 
him  iu  the  order  of  his  arrival  and  that  of  his  family.  His  behavior  during  the  long  period  of 
fasting  and  unceasing  activity  and  vigilance,  and  other  cares  which  devolve  upon  him  as  the  most 


TIIF.   FTi;   SFAL:   ARRIVAL  OF  T11F.   l!l   LLS.  77 

eminent  of  all  polygamists  in  the  brute  world,  I  shall  carefully  relate;  and  to  fully  comprehend 
the  method  of  this  exceedingly  interesting  animal,  it  will  be  frequently  necessary  for  the  reader 
to  refer  to  my  sketch-maps  of  its  breeding-grounds  or  rookeries,  and  the  islands. 

ARRIVAL  AT  THE  SEAL  GROUNDS:  COMING  IN  OF  THE  BULLS.— The  adult  males  are  the  first 
examples  of  the  Callorhinw  to  arrive  in  the  spring  on  the  seal  ground,  which  has  been  deserted  by 
all  of  them  since  the  close  of  the  preceding  year. 

r.ctween  the  1st  and  5th  of  May,  usually,  a  few  males  will  be  found  scattered  over  the  rook- 
erics,  pretty  dose  to  the  water.  They  are  at  this  time  quite  shy  and  sensitive,  seeming  not  yet 
s.itistied  with  the  land;  and  a  great  many  spend  day  after  day  idly  swimming  out  among  the 
breakers,  a  little  distance  from  the  shore,  before  they  come  to  it,  perhaps  somewhat  reluctant  at 
tirst  to  enter  upon  the  assiduous  duties  and  the  grave  responsibilities  Iwfore  them  in  fighting  for 
and  maintaining  their  positions  in  the  rookeries. 

The  first  arrivals  are  not  always  the  oldest  bulls,  but  may  be  said  to  be  the  finest  and  most 
ambitious  of  their  class.  They  are  full  grown  and  able  to  hold  their  places  on  the  rookeries  of  the 
breeding-flats,  which  they  immediately  take  up  after  coming  ashore.  Their  method  of  landing  is 
to  come  collectively  to  those  breeding-grounds  where  they  passed  the  prior  season;  but  I  am  not 
able  to  say  authoritatively,  nor  do  I  believe  it,  strongly  as  it  has  been  urged  by  many  careful  men 
who  were  with  me  on  the  islands,  that  these  animals  come  back  to  and  take  up  the  same  position 
on  their  breeding-grounds  that  they  individually  occupied  when  there  last  year.  From  my  knowl- 
edge of  their  action  and  habit,  and  from  what  I  have  learned  of  the  natives,  I  should  say  that 
very  few,  if  any,  of  them  make  such  a  selection  and  keep  these  places  year  after  year.  Even  did 
the  Seal  itself  intend  to  come  directly  from  the  sea  to  that  spot  on  the  rookery  which  it  left  last 
summer,  what  could  it  do  if  it  came  to  that  rookery  margin  a  little  late  and  found  that  another 
"See-catch"  had  occupied  its  ground!  The  bull  could  do  nothing.  It  would  either  have  to  die  in 
its  tracks,  if  it  persisted  in  attaining  this  supposed  objective  point,  or  do  what  undoubtedly  it 
does  do — seek  the  next  best  locality  which  it  can  attain  adjacent. 

One  old  "See-catch"  was  pointed  out  to  me  at  the  "Gorbatch"  section  of  the  Reef  Rookery 
as  an  animal  that  was  long  known  to  the  natives  as  a  regular  visitor  close  by  or  on  the  same  rock 
every  season  during  the  past  three  years.  They  called  him  "Old  John,"  and  they  said  they  knew 
him  because  he  had  one  of  his  posterior  digits  missing,  bitten  off,  perhaps,  in  a  combat.  I  saw 
him  in  1872,  and  made  careful  drawings  of  him  in  order  that  I  might  recognize  his  individuality 
should  he  appear  again  in  the.  following  year,  and  when  that  time  rolled  by  I  found  him  not;  he 
failed  to  reappear,  and  the  natives  acquiesced  in  his  absence.  Of  course  it  was  impossible  to  say 
that  he  was  dead  when  there  were  ten  thousand  rousing,  fighting  bulls  to  the  right,  left,  and  below 
us,  under  our  eyes,  for  we  could  not  approach  for  inspection.  Still,  if  these  animals  came  each  to  a 
certain  place  in  any  general  fashion,  or  as  a  rule,  1  think  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  recog- 
nizing the  fact;  the  natives  certainly  would  do  so;  as  it  is,  they  do  not.  1  think  it  very  likely, 
however,  that  the  older  bulls  come  back  to  the  same  common  rookery-ground  where  they  spent 
the  previous  season;  but  they  are  obliged  to  take  up  their  position  on  it  just  as  the  circumstances 
attending  their  arrival  will  permit,  such  as  finding  other  Seals  which  have  arrived  Iwfore  them,  or 
of  being  whipped  out  by  stronger  rivals  from  their  old  stands. 

It  is  entertaining  to  note,  in  this  connection,  that  the  Russians  themselves,  with  the  object  of 
testing  this  mooted  query,  during  the  later  years  of  their  possession  of  the  islands,  drove  up  :i 
number  of  young  males  from  Lukannon,  cutoff  their  ears,  and  turned  them  out  to  sea  again.  The 
following  season,  when  the  droves  came  in  from  the  "hauliug-grounds"  to  the  slaughtering  lidds. 
quite  a  number  of  those  cropped  Seals  were  in  the  drives,  but  instead  of  being  found  all  at  one 


78  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

place — the  place  from  whence  they  were  driven  the  year  before — they  were  scattered  examples  of 
croppies  from  every  point  on  the  island.  The  same  experiment  was  again  made  by  our  people  in 
1870  (t lie  natives  having  told  them  of  this  prior  undertaking),  and  they  went  also  to  Lukannon,  drove 
tip  100  young  males,  cut  off  their  left  ears,  and  set  them  free  in  turn.  Of  this  number,  during  the 
summer  of  187'J,  when  I  was  there,  the  natives  found  in  their  driving  of  75,000  Seals  from  the  dif- 
ferent hanling-groundsof  Saint  Paul  up  to  the  village  killing-grounds,  two  on  Novostashnah  Rookery, 
ten  miles  north  of  Lukannon,  and  two  or  three  from  English  Bay  and  Tolstoi  Rookeries,  six  miles 
west  by  water;  one  or  two  were  taken  on  Saint  George  Island,  thirty-six  miles  to  the  southeast, 
and  not  one  from  Lukannon  was  found  among  those  that  weie  driven  from  there  ;  probably,  had 
all  the  young  males  on  the  two  islands  this  season  been  examined,  the  rest  of  the  croppies  that  had 
returned  from  the  perils  of  the  deep,  whence  (hey  sojourned  during  the  winter,  would  have  been 
distributed  quite  equally  about  the  Pribylov  hatiliiig-grounds.  Although  the  natives  say  that  they 
think  the  cutting  off  of  the  animal's  ear  gives  the  water  such  access  to  its  head  as  to  cause  its  death, 
yet  I  noticed  that  those  examples  which  we  had  recognized  by  this  auricular  mutilation  were 
normally  fat  and  well  developed.  Their  theory  does  not  appeal  to  my  belief,  and  it  certainly 
requires  confirmation. 

These  experiments  would  tend  to  prove  very  cogently  and  conclusively,  that  when  the  Seals 
approach  the  islands  in  the  spring,  they  have  nothing  in  their  minds  but  a  general  instinctive 
appreciation  of  the  fitness  of  the  land,  as  a  whole ;  and  no  special  fondness  or  determination  to  elect 
any  one  particular  spot,  not  even  the  place  of  their  birth.  A  study  of  my  map  of  the  distribution 
of  the  seal-life  on  Saint  Paul,  clearly  indicates  that  the  landing  of  the  Seals  on  the  respective 
rookeries  is  influenced  greatly  by  the  direction  of  the  wind  at  the  time  of  their  approach  to  the 
islands  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.  The  prevailing  airs,  blowing,  as  they  do  at  that  season, 
from  the  north  and  northwest,  carry  far  out  to  sea  the  odor  of  the  old  rookery  flats,  together  with 
the  fresh  scent  of  the  pioneer  bulls  which  have  located  themselves  on  these  breeding-grounds,  three 
or  four  weeks  in  advauce  of  their  kind.  The  Seals  come  up  from  the  great  North  Pacific,  and  hence 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  rookeries  of  the  south  and  southeastern  shores  of  Saint  Paul  Island  receive 
nearly  all  the  seal-life,  although  there  are  miles  of  perfectly  eligible  ground  at  Nahsayveruia,  or 
north  shore.  To  settle  this  matter  beyond  all  argument,  however,  I  know  is  an  exceedingly  difficult 
task,  for  the  identification  of  individuals,  from  one  season  to  another,  among  the  hundreds  of 
thousands,  and  even  millions,  that  come  under  the  eye  on  one  of  these  great  rookeries,  is  well  nigh 
impossible. 

AGE  OF  FEMALES  WHEN  FIKST  PREGNANT. — As  to  the  time  when  the  virgin  cow  is  first 
covered  by  the  bull,  I  found  a  strange  medley  of  ideas  among  the  people  on  the  island.  The  com- 
mon opinion  of  the  others  and  the  natives  was,  that  they  were  not  covered  until  they  were  three 
years  of  age,  bringing  forth  their  first  young  in  the  former  case,  in  the  generally  accepted  version, 
when  they  reached  their  fourth  year.  But  this,  on  examination,  was  not  a  difficult  problem  at  all 
to  solve.  The  evidence  every  year  decides  when  the  yearlings  are  driven  up  to  the  village  in  the 
fall,  that  although  to  external  appearance  there  is  no  difference  between  the  sexes,  an  examination 
conclusively  established  the  fact,  that  the  yearling  females  herded  with  the  yearling  males  on  the 
hauling-grounds,  each  about  equal  in  number,  and  that  when  the  balance  of  the  "  Ilolhischickic." 
two-year-olds  and  upward,  were  driven  in  they  never  found  a  female1  in  the  droves.  Where  were 
these  two-year-old  females  thenT  They  wereuotupon  the  hauling-grounds  with  the  yearling  females 
and  bachelors.  Where  were  they  f  The  answer  is,  they  have  come  up  on  the  breeding-grounds, 
clothed  with  desire  and  supplied  with  physical  life  to  meet  prospective  maternity. 

1 1.  «.,  virile  female. 


TIII:  FTI:  SI:AI.:  K.VITI.K.S  OF  TIIK  MAI.I-S.  79 

KELATIVK  DURATION  OP  MIL:  KKPRODUCTION  is  TKRHKSTRIAL.— This  tut  ;<!*<>  shows 
ttiat.  as  the  female  Fur  Seal  is  so  conspicuously  inferior  to  the  male,  physically  viewed,  as  to  size 
and  weight,  so  also  is  her  life  lessened.  In  other  words,  when  she  is  matured,  as  she  must  IK-  by 
her  third  year,  in  hearing  then  her  first  pup,  she  can  reasonably  be  exj>ected  to  live  no  longer  than 
nine  or  ten  years,  according  to  the  general  natural  law  governing  this  question;  while  the  male, 
not.  coming  to  his  maturity  and  physical  prime  until  he  is  five  or  six  years  of  age,  lives,  in  obedicnee 
to  the  same  law.  tit'teeu  or  twenty  years. 

OLD  AND  YOUNG  MALES  FIGHTING.— The  males  under  six  years  of  age,  although  hovering 
alxmt  the  sea  margins  of  the  breeding-grounds,  do  not  engage  in  much  fighting  there ;  it  is  the  six 
and  M-veii  year  old  males,  ambitious  and  flushed  with  their  reproductive  consciousness,  that  swarm 
out  and  do  battle  with  the  older  males  of  these  places.  The  young  male  of  this  latter  class  is, 
Imuever,  no  match  for  an  old  fifteen  or  twenty  year  old  bull,  provided  that  the  aged  "  Seecatchie" 
retains  his  teeth;  tor,  with  these  weapons,  his  relatively  harder  thews  ami  sinews  give  him  the 
advantage  in  almost  every  instance,  among  the  hundreds  of  combats  that  I  have  witnessed.  Tlie.-e 
trials  of  strength  between  the  old  and  the  young  are  incessant  until  the  rookeries  are  mapped  out; 
and  by  common  consent  the  males  of  all  classes  recognize  the  coming  of  the  females.  After  their 
arrival  and  settlement  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  breeding-grounds,  about  the  15th  July  at  the 
latest,  very  little  fighting  takes  place.1 

ONLY  ONE  PUP  BORN  AT  TIME  OF  PARTURITION.— Touching  the  number  of  young  born  at  a 
birth,  the  most  diligent  inquiry  and  scrutiny  of  observation  on  the  rookeries  have  satisfied  me  that 
it  is  confined  to  a  single  pup.  If  they  have  twins,  1  have  failed  to  discover  a  single  instance  of 
that  character.  I  also  failed  to  notice  a  malformed  pup  or  a  monster  anywhere  throughout  the 
multitudes  under  my  observation,  from  July  until  the  middle  of  November  every  season.  I  think 
this  somewhat  noteworthy,  as  it  presents,  peihaps,  better  than  any  other  exhibition  in  the  animal 


'It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  the  exquisite  power  of  scent  possessed  by  these  animals  enables  them  to  reach 
the  breeding-grounds  at  about  the  place  where  they  left  them  the  season  previously  ;  surely  the  nose  of  the  Fur  Seal 
is  endowed  to  a  superlative  degree  with  those  organs  of  smell,  and  its  range  of  appreciation  in  this  respect  must  be 
very  great. 

"  In  carnivorous  quadrupeds  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  nassl  cavities  is  more  intricate  thin  iu  the  her- 
bivorous, nnd  is  calculated  to  afford  a  far  more  extensive  sr.rface  for  the  distribution  of  the  nerve.  In  the  Real  iliii 
conformation  is  most  fully  developed  and  the  bony  platesarc  here  not  turbinatcd,  but  ramified,  as shown  in  tin-  wo<xlrut. 
Eight  or  more  principal  branches  rise  from  the  main  trunk,  and  each  of  these  is  divided  ami  subdivided  to  mi  extreme 
decree  of  minuteness,  so  as  to  form  in  all  many  hundred  plates.  The  olfactory  membrane,  with  all  its  nerved,  i-  clow  ly 
applied  to  every  plate  in  this  vast  assemblage,  as  well  as  to  the  main  trunk  and  to  the  internal  surface  of  the  surrounding 
cavity,  so  that  its  extent  cannot  be  less  than  120  square  inches  in  each  nostril.  An  organ  of  such  exquisite  sensibility 
requires  an  extraordinary  provision  for  securing  it  against  injury,  and  nature  has  supplied  a  mechanism  for  the 
purpose,  enabling  the  animal  to  close  at  pleasure  the  orifice  of  the  nostril." — HARWOOO:  Comp.  Anat.  and  I'hysiol., 
Bridgewaler  Treatise,  vol.  ii,  p.  402. 

I  noticed  in  all  sleeping  and  wakipg  Seals  that  the  nasal  apertures  were  never  widely  expanded  ;  and  that  they 
were  ut  intervals  rapidly  opened  and  closed  with  inhalation  and  exhalation  of  each  breath;  the  nostrils  of  the  Fur 
Seal  are,  as  a  rule,  well  opened  when  the  animal  is  out  of  wafer,  and  remain  so  while  it  is  on  land. 

The  distances  at  sea,  away  from  the  Prihylov  Islands,  in  which  Fur  Seals  are  found  during  the  breeding  semon, 
are  very  considi  ruble  :  scattered  records  have  been  made  of  seeing  large  bands  of  them  during  August  at  far  down  the 
northwest  coast  as  they  probably  range  at  any  season  of  the  year,  viz,  well  out  at.  sea  in  the  latitude  of  Cape  Flattery, 
IT  to  111  sou  111  hit  it  mle.  In  the  winter  anil  spring,  up  to  middle,  of  June,  all  classes  are  found  here  spread  out  over 
wide  arras  ut'  I  lie  oeeaii :  then,  by  the  l">th  June  they  will  have  all  departed,  the  first  and  the  latest,  en  route  for  the 
I'ribylov  Islands.  Then,  when  seen  a^niu  in  this  extreme  southern  range,  I  presume  the  unusually  early  examples  of 
return,  toward  the  end  of  August,  arc  squads  of  the  yearlings  of  both  sexes,  for  this  division  is  always  the  last  to  land 
on,  and  (he  first  to  Ieu\e,  the  Seal  Islands,  annually.  Also,  the  two-year-old  females  which  have  been  covered  on  the 
breeding-grounds  during  Juno  nnd  .Inly  undoubtedly  .stray  back  to  sea,  and  down  again  from  tin-  1'rihylov  gionp,  very 
early  iu  August,  some  of  them  as  fur  as  the  eoagt-lu-ads  of  Fuca  Straits;  at  least,  many  of  them  at  one  time  are  never 
-i -i-ii  massed  »n  I  lie  rookeries,  and  as  they  do  not  consort  with  the  llolliisrhickie  and  yearlings  on  laud,  quite  •  number 
<>t'  tlieir  large  aggregate  doubtless  make  frequent  and  extended  ushing  excursions  during  the  height  of  the  breeding 


80  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

kingdom,  the  survival  of  the  fittest  in  the  struggle  for  existence;  for  these  bulls,  by  their  own 
evolution,  permit  only  the  strongest  and  most  perfect  of  their  kind  to  stamp  their  impress  on  the 
coming  generations. ' 

From  the  time  of  the  first  arrival  in  May  up  to  the  beginning  of  June,  or  as  late  as  the  middle 
of  that  month,  if  the  weather  be  clear,  is  an  interval  in  which  everything  seems  quiet.  Very  few 
Seals  are  added  to  the  pioneers  that  have  landed,  as  we  have  described.  By  the  1st  of  June,  how- 
ever, sometimes  a  little  before,  and  never  much  later,  the  seal-weather — the  foggy,  humid,  oozy 
damp  of  summer — sets  in;  and  with  it,  as  the  gray  banks  roll  up  and  shroud  the  islands,  the  bull 
Seals  swarm  from  the  depths  by  hundreds  and  thousands,  and  locate  themselves  in  advantageous 
positions  for  the  reception  of  the  females,  which  are  generally  three  weeks  or  a  mouth  later  than 
this  date  in  arrival. 

TEE-EMPTION  OF  THE  ROOKEIIIES:  BATTLES  OF  THE  SEALS. — The  labor  of  locating  and 
maintaining  a  position  on  the  rookery  is  really  a  terribly  serious  business  for  those  bulls  which 
come  in  last;  and  it  is  so  all  the  time  to  those  males  that  occupy  the  water-line  of  the  breeding- 
grounds.  A  constantly  sustained  fight  between  the  newcomers  and  the  occupants  goes  on 
morning,  noon,  and  night,  without  cessation,  frequently  resulting  in  death  to  one  or  even  both  of 
the  combatants. 

It  appears,  from  my  survey  of  these  breeding-grounds,  that  a  well-understood  principle  exists 
among  the  able-bodied  bulls,  to  wit:  that  each  one  shall  remain  undisturbed  on  his  ground,  which 
is  usually  about  six  to  eight  feet  square,  provided  that  at  the  start,  and  from  that  time  until  the 
arrival  of  the  females,  he  is  strong  enough  to  hold  this  ground  against  all  comers;  inasmuch  as  the 
crowding  in  of  the  fresh  arrivals  often  causes  the  removal  of  those  which,  though  equally  able- 
bodied  at  first,  have  exhausted  themselves  by  fighting  earlier  and  constantly,  they  are  finally 
driven  by  these  fresher  animals  back  farther  and  higher  up  on  the  rookery,  and  sometimes  off 
altogether. 

Many  of  these  bulls  exhibit  wonderful  strength  and  desperate  courage.  1  marked  one  veteran 
at  Gorbatch,  who  was  the  first  to  take  up  his  position  early  in  May,  and  that  position,  as  usual, 
directly  at  the  water-line.  This  male  Seal  had  fought  at  least  forty  or  fifty  desperate  battles,  and 
fought  off  his  assailants  every  time — perhaps  nearly  as  many  different  Seals  which  coveted  his 
position — and  when  the  fighting  season  was  over  (after  the  cows  are  mostly  all  hauled  up),  I  saw 
him  still  there,  covered  with  scars  and  frightfully  gashed;  raw,  festering,  and  bloody,  one  eye 
gouged  out,  but  lording  it  bravely  over  his  harem  of  fifteen  or  twenty  females,  who  were  all 
huddled  together  on  the  same  spot  of  his  first  location  and  around  him. 

This  fighting  between  the  old  and  adult  males  (for  none  others  fight)  is  mostly,  or  rather  entirely, 
done  with  the  mouth.  The  opponents  seize  one  another  with  their  teeth,  and  then  clenching  their 
jaws,  nothing  but  the  sheer  strength  of  the  one  and  the  other  tugging  to  escape  can  shake  them 
loose,  and  that  effort  invariably  leaves  an  ugly  wound,  the  sharp  canines  tearing  out  deep  gutters 
in  the  skin  and  furrows  in  the  blubber,  or  shredding  the  flippers  into  ribbon-strips. 

They  usually  approach  each  other  with  comically  averted  heads,  just  as  though  they  were 
ashamed  of  the  rumpus  which  they  were  determined  to  precipitate.  When  they  get  near  enough 
to  reach  one  another  they  enter  upon  the  repetition  of  many  feints  or  passes,  before  either  one  or 
the  other  takes  the  initiative  by  gripping.  The  heads  are  darted  out  and  back  as  quick  as  a  flash ; 


'A  trained  observer,  Kumlien,  who  passed  the  winter  of  1S77-'78  in  Cumberland  Sound,  and,  speaking  of  this 
feature  in  the  Kinged  Seal  ( Phoca  fastida),  says,  "  There  is  usually  but  one  young  at  a  birth ;  still  twins  are  not  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  one  instance  came  under  my  observation  where  there  were  triplets;  but  they  were  -mall,  and  two  of 
them  probably  would  not  have  lived  had  they  been  born." 


THE  FUR  SEAL:  ATTITUDES  AND  COLORATION.  gl 

tlirir  hoarse  roaring  and  shrill,  piping  whistle  never  census,  while  their  fat  bodies  writho  and  swell 
with  exertion  and  rage;  furious  lights  gleam  in  their  eyes;  their  hair  flies  in  the  air,  and  their  blood 
streams  down;  all  combined,  makes  a  picture  so  fierce  and  HO  strange  that,  from  its  unexi>ected 
position  and  its  novelty,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  brutal  conte  ts  man  can 
witneM. 

In  these  bat t Irs  of  the  Seals,  the  parties  are  always  distinct;  the  one  is  offensive,  the  other 
defensive.  If  tin-  latter  proves  the  weaker  he  withdraws  from  the  position  occupied,  and  is  never 
followed  by  his  conqueror,  who  complacently  throws  up  one  of  his  hind  flippers,  fans  himself,  as  it 
were,  to  cool  his  fevered  wrath  and  blood  from  the  heat  of  the  conflict,  sinks  into  comparative  quiet, 
only  uttering  a  ]>eculiar  chuckle  of  satisfaction  or  contempt,  with  a  sharp  eye  open  for  the  next 
covetous  bull  or  "See-catch."1 

ATTITUDES  AND  COLORATION  OF  THE  Fun  SEAL. — The  period  occupied  by  the  males  in 
taking  and  holding  their  positions  on  the  rookery,  offers  a  very  favorable  opportunity  to  study 
them  in  the  thousand  and  one  different  attitudes  and  postures  assumed,  between  the  two  extremes 
of  desperate  conflict  and  deep  sleep — sleep  so  profound  that  one  can,  if  he  keeps  to  the  leeward, 
approach  closo  enough,  stepping  softly,  to  pull  the  whiskers  of  any  old  male  taking  a  nap  on  a 
clear  place;  but  after  the  first  touch  to  these  moustaches,  the  trifler  must  jump  with  electrical 
celerity  back,  if  he  has  any  regard  for  the  sharp  teeth  and  tremendous  shaking  which  will  surely 
overtake  him  if  he  does  not.  The  younger  Seals  sleep  far  more  soundly  than  the  old  ones,  and  it  is 
a  favorite  pastime  for  the  natives  to  surprise  them  in  this  manner — favorite,  because  it  is  attended 
with  no  personal  risk;  the  little  beasts,  those  amphibious  sleepers,  rise  suddenly,  and  fairly  shrink 
to  the  earth,  spitting  and  coughing  their  terror  and  confusion. 

The  neck,  chest,  and  shoulders  of  a  fur-seal  bull  comprise  more  than  two-thirds  of  his  whole 
weight;  and  in  this  long,  thick  neck,  and  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  fore-limbs  and  shoulders,  is 
embodied  the  larger  portion  of  his  strength.  When  on  land,  with  the  fore  hands  he  does  all  climb- 
ing over  the  rocks  and  grassy  hummocks  back  of  the  rookery,  or  shuffles  his  way  over  the  smooth 
parades;  the  hind-feet  being  gathered  up  as  useless  trappings  after  every  second  step  forward, 
which  we  have  described  at  the  outset  of  this  chapter.  These  anterior  flippers  are  also  the  propel- 
ling power  when  in  water,  the  exclusive  machinery  with  which  they  drive  their  rapid  passage;  the 
hinder  ones  floating  behind  like  the  steering  sweep  to  a  whale-boat,  used  evidently  as  rudders,  or 
as  tin-  tail  of  a  bird  is  while  its  wings  sustain  and  force  its  rapid  flight. 

The  covering  to  tlie  body  is  composed  of  two  coats,  one  being  a  short,  crisp,  glistening  over- 
hair,  and  the  other  a  close,  soft,  elastic  pelage,  or  fur,  which  gives  the  distinctive  value  to  the  pelt. 
I  can  call  it  readily  to  the  mind  of  my  readers,  when  I  say  to  them  that  the  down  and  feathers  on 
the  breast  of  a  duck  lie  relatively  as  the  fur  and  hair  do  upon  the  skin  of  the  Seal. 

At  this  season  of  first  "hauling  up,"*  in  the  spring,  the  prevailing  color  of  the  bulls,  after  they 
dry  off  and  have  been  exposed  to  the  weather,  is  a  dark,  dull  brown,  with  a  sprinkling  in  it  of 
lighter  brown-black,  and  a  number  of  hoary  or  grizzled  gray  coats  peculiar  to  the  very  old  males. 
On  the  shoulders  of  all  of  them,  that  is,  the  adults,  the  over-hair  is  either  a  gray  or  rufous  ocher, 
or  a  very  emphatic  "pepper  and  salt";  this  is  called  the  "wig."  The  body-colors  are  most  intense 
and  pronounced  upon  the  back  of  the  head ,  neck,  and  spine,  fading  down  on  the  flanks  lighter,  to 
much  lighter  ground  on  the  abdomen ;  still  never  white,  or  even  a  clean  gray,  so  beautiful  and 
peculiar  to  them  when  yourig,  and  to  the  females.  The  skin  of  the  muzzle  and  flippers  is  a  dark 


1  "  8ee-catch,"  native  name  for  the  bulls  on  the  rookeries,  especially  those  which  are  able  to  maintain  their  position. 
•"Hauling  up,"  a  technical  term,  applied  to  the  action  of  the  Seal*  when  they  land  from  the  snrf  and  haul  np  or 
drag  themselves  over  the  beach.     It  is  expressive  and  appropriate,  as  are  most  of  the  sealing  phrases. 

6  f 


82  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

bluish-black,  fading  in  tbe  older  examples  to  a  reddish  and  purplish  tint.  The  color  of  the  ears 
and  tail  is  similar  to  that  of  the  body,  being  somewhat,  if  anything,  a  trifle  lighter;  the  ears  on  a 
bull  Fur  Seal  are  from  one  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length ;  the  pavilions  or  auricles  are  tightly 
rolled  up  on  themselves,  so  that  they  are  similar  in  shape  to,  and  exactly  the  size  of,  the  little  linger 
on  the  human  hand,  cut  off  at  the  second  phalangeal  joint,  a  trifle  more  cone-shaped,  however,  as 
they  are  greater  at  the  base  than  they  are  at  the  tip.  They  are  haired  and  furred  as  the  body  is. 

I  think  it  probable  that  this  animal  has  and  does  exert  the  power  of  compressing  or  dilating 
this  scroll-like  pavilion  to  its  ear,  just  according  as  it  dives  deeper  or  rises  in  the  water;  and  also, 
I  am  quite  sure  that  the  Hair  Seal  has  this  control  over  the  meatus  externus,  from  what  I  have  seen 
of  it.  I  have  not  been  able  to  verify  it  in  either  case  by  actual  observation ;  yet  such  opportunity 
as  I  have  had  gives  me  undoubted  proof  of  the  fact,  that  the  hearing  of  the  Fur  Seal  is  wonderfully 
keen  and  surpassingly  acute.  If  you  make  any  noise,  no  matter  how  slight,  the  alarm  will  be  given 
instantly  by  these  insignih'cant-looking  auditors,  and  the  animal,  rising  up  from  deep  sleep  with  a 
single  motion  erect,  gives  you  a  stare  of  stupid  astonishment,  and  at  this  season  of  defiance, 
mingling  it  with  incessant,  surly  roaring,  growling,  and  "spitting." 

VOICE  OF  THE  FUR  SEAL. — This  spitting,  as  I  call  it,  is  by  no  means  a  fair  or  full  expression 
of  the  most  characteristic  sound  or  action  peculiar,  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  to  the  Fur  Seals  alone, 
the  bulls  in  particular.  It  is  the  usual  prelude  to  all  their  combats,  and  it  is  their  signal  of  aston- 
ishment. It  follows  somewhat  in  this  way:  when  the  two  disputants  are  nearly  within  reaching 
or  striking  distance,  they  make  a  number  of  feints  or  false  passes,  as  fencing-masters  do,  at  one 
another,  with  the  mouth  wide  open,  lifting  the  lips  or  snarling  so  as  to  exhibit  the  glistening  teeth. 
and  with  each  pass  of  the  head  and  neck  they  expel  the  air  so  violently  through  the  larynx,  as 
to  make  a  rapid  choo-choo-choo  sound,  like  steaui-pnffs  as  they  escape  from  the  smoke-stack  of  a 
locomotive  when  it  starts  a  heavy  train,  especially  when  the  driving-wheels  slip  on  the  rail. 

All  of  the  bulls  have  the  power  and  frequent  inclination  to  utter  four  distinct  calls  or  notes. 
This  is  not  the  case  with  the  Sea  Lion,1  whose  voice  is  confined  to  a  single  bass  roar,  or  that  of  the 
walrus,  which  is  limited  to  a  dull  grunt,  or  that  of  the  Hair  Seal,2  which  is  inaudible.  This 
volubility  of  the  Fur  Seal  is  decidedly  characteristic  and  prominent;  he  utters  a  hoarse,  resonant 
roar,  loud  and  long;  he  gives  vent  to  a  low,  entirely  different,  gurgling  growl ;  he  emits  a  chuckling, 
sibilant,  piping  whistle,  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  convey  an  adequate  idea,  for  it  must  be  heard 
to  be  understood;  and  this  spitting  or  choo  sound  just  mentioned.  The  cows-'1  have  but  one  note — 
a  hollow,  prolonged,  bla  .i-ting  call,  addressed  only  to  their  pups;  on  all  other  occasions  they  are 
usually  silent.  It  is  something  strangely  like  the  cry  of  a  calf  or  an  old  sheep.  They  also  make  a 
spitting  sound  or  snort  when  suddenly  disturbed—  a  kind  of  a  cough,  as  it  were.  The  pups  "blaat" 
also,  with  little  or  no  variation,  their  sound  being  somewhat  weaker  and  hoarser  than  their  mother's, 
after  birth;  they,  too,  comically  spit  or  cough  when  aroused  suddenly  from  a  nap  or  driven  into  a 
corner,  opening  their  little  mouths  like  young  birds  in  a  nest,  when  at  bay,  backed  up  in  some 
crevice,  or  against  some  tussock. 


1  Eumetojrias  Stelleri. 

2 1'linea  ritnlina. 

•"Without  explanation,  I  may  be  considered  as  making  lisa  of  paradoxical  language  by  using  those  terms  of 
description;  for  the  inconsistency  of  talking  of  "pups"  with  "cows,"  and  "bulls,''  and  "rookeries,"  on  Ihr  brccding- 
grouuds  of  Ihe  same,  cannot  fail  to  be  noticed;  but  this  nomenclature  has  been  given  and  used  by  the  An:crican  iind 
English  whaling  and  sealing  parties  for  many  years,  and  iln>  characteristic  features  of  the  Seals  themselves  so  suit  tint 
naming,  that  I  have  felt  satisfied  to  retain  the  style  throughout  as  rendering  my  description  more  intelligible,  especial! . 
so  to  t  lin-f-  who  are  engaged  in  the  business,  or  may  be  hereafter.  The  Russians  are  more  consistent,  but  not  so  "pat"; 
they  call  the  bull  "See-catch," a  term  implying  strength,  vigor,  etc.;  the  cow,  "Matkah,"  or  mother;  the  pups, 
"Kotickie,"  or  little  seals;  the  non-breeding  males  under  six  and  seven  years,  "Holluschickie,"  or  bachelors.  The 
name  applied  collectively  to  the  Fur  Seal  by  them  is  "— Morskie-kot,"  or  Sea  Cat. 


THE  FUR  SEAL:  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT.  83 

Indeed. >o  similar  is  tin-  sound,  that  I  noticed  a  number  of  sheep  which  tin-  Alaska  Commercial 

i' paiiy  had  brought  up  from  San  Francisco  to  Saint  George  Island,  during;  the  .summer  of  1873, 

were  constantly  attracted  l<>  the  rookeries,  and  were  running  in  among  the  "  Holluschickie";  so 
much  so  that  they  neglected  the  good  pasturage  on  the  uplands  beyond,  and  a  small  boy  had  to  be 
leuularly  employed  to  lu-rd  them  where  they  could  feed  to  advantage.  These  transported  OriWo-, 
though  they  could  not  possibly  lind  anything  in  their  eyes  suggestive  of  companionship  among  the 
Seals,  had  their  ears  so  charmed  by  the  sheep-like  accents  of  the  female  pinnipeds,  as  to  persuade 
them  against  their  senses  of  vision  and  smell. 

The  sound  which  arises  from  these  great  breeding-grounds  of  the  Fur  Seal,  where  thousands 
upon  tens  of  thousands  of  angry,  vigilant  bulls  are  roaring,  chuckling,  and  piping,  and  multitudes 
of  seal-mothers  are  calling  in  hollow,  blaatiug  tones  to  their  young,  that  in  turn  respond  inces- 
santly, is  simply  defiance  to  verbal  description.  It  is,  at  a  slight  distance,  softened  into  a  deep 
booming,  as  of  a  cataract;  and  I  have  heard  it,  with  a  light,  fair  wind  to  the  leeward,  as  far  as  six 
miles  out  from  land  on  the  sea;  and  even  in  the  thunder  of  the  surf  and  the  roar  of  heavy  gales, 
it  will  rise  up  and  over  to  your  ear  for  quite  a  considerable  distance  away.  It  is  the  monitor  which 
the  sea-captains  anxiously  strain  their  ears  for,  when  they  run  their  dead  reckoning  up,  and  are 
laying  to  for  the  fog  to  rise,  in  order  that  they  may  get  their  bearings  of  the  land;  once  heard, 
they  hold  on  to  the  sound  and  feel  their  way  in  to  anchor.  The  seal-roar  at  "Novostashnah," 
dining  the  summer  of  1872,  saved  the  life  of  the  surgeon,'  and  six  natives  belonging  to  the  island, 
who  had  pushed  out  on  an  egging- trip  from  Northeast  Point  to  Walrus  Island.  1  have  sometimes 
thought,  as  I  have  listened  through  the  night  to  this  volume  of  extraordinary  sound,  which  never 
ceases  with  the  rising  or  the  setting  of  the  sun  throughout  the  entire  season  of  breeding,  that  it 
was  fully  equal  to  the  churning  boom  of  the  waves  of  Niagara.  Night  and  day,  throughout  the 
season,  this  din  upon  the  rookeries  is  steady  and  constant. 

EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  ON  THE  SEALS. — The  Seals  seem  to  suffer  great  inconvenience  and  positive 
misery  from  a  comparatively  low  degree  of  heat.  I  have  been  often  surprised  to  observe  that, 
when  the  temperature  was  46°  and  48°  Fahr.  on  laud  during  the  summer,  they  would  show  every- 
where signs  of  distress,  whenever  they  made  any  exertion  in  moving  or  fighting,  evidenced  by 
panting  and  the  elevation  of  their  hind-flippers,  which  they  used  incessantly  as  so  many  fans. 
With  the  thermometer  again  higher,  as  it  is  at  rare  intervals,  standing  at  55°  and  <JO°,  they  then 
seem  to  suffer  even  when  at  rest;  and  at  such  times  the  eye  is  struck  by  the  kaleidoscopic  appear 
ance  of  a  rookery — in  anj-  of  these  rookeries  where  the  Seals  are  spread  out  in  every  imaginable 
position  their  lithesome  bodies  can  assume,  all  industriously  fan  themselves;  they  use  sometimes 
the  fore-flippers  as  ventilators,  as  it  were,  by  holding  them  aloft  motionless,  at  the  same  time 
fanning  briskly  with  the  hinder  ones,  according  as  they  sit  or  lie.  This  wavy  motion  of  fanning 
or  flapping  gives  a  hazy  indistinctness  to  the  whole  scene,  which  is  difficult  to  express  in  language; 
but  one  of  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of  the  Fur  Seal,  and  perhaps  the  most  unique  feature^ 
is  this  very  fanning  manner  in  which  they  use  their  flippers,  when  seen  on  the  breeding-grounds 
at  this  season.  They  also,  when  idle  as  it  were,  off-shore  at  sea,  lie  on  their  sides  in  the  water 
\\ith  only  a  partial  exposure  of  the  body,  the  head  submerged,  and  then  hoist  up  a  tore-  or  hind- 
flipper  clear  out  of  the  water,  at  the  same  time  scratching  themselves  or  enjoying  a  mome:  lar\ 
nap;  but  in  this  ixxsition  there  is  no  fanning.  I  say  ••  si  patching,"  because  the  Seal,  in  common 


'Dr.  Otto  Cramer.  The  suddenness  with  which  foj;  and  wind  shut  down  and  swi-ejt over  the  HP*  here,  even  wln-ii 
the  day  opeiis  moM  ausjiii  ionsly  for  a  nhort  hoat-vo\aj;e.  h:i»  M>  ahirmed  tin-  unlives  in  time*  past,  that  a  \icil  i'  MOW 
nrv.T  made  l>v  tin-in  tniiii  island  to  inland,  nuletw  on  our  of  ;ln-  i  umpaiij's  vemtels.  Several  Imlnrrahs  have  never  been 
heard  from,  which,  in  earlier  times,  attempted  to  nail,  with  picked  crews  of  the  imtiven,  from  one  island  to  the  other. 


84  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

with  all  animals,  is  preyed  upon  by  vermin,  and  it  has  a  peculiar  species  of  louse,  or  parasitic  tick, 
that  belongs  to  it. 

SLEEPING  AFLOAT. — Speaking  of  the  Seal  as  it  rests  in  the  water,  leads  me  to  remark  that 
they  seem  to  sleep  as  sound  and  as  comfortably,  bedded  on  the  waves  or  rolled  by  the  swell,  as  i hex- 
do  on  the  land ;  they  lie  on  their  backs,  fold  the  fore-flippers  across  the  chest,  and  turn  the  hind 
ones  up  and  over,  so  that  the  tips  rest  on  their  necks  and  chins,  thus  exposing  simply  the  nose 
and  the  heels  of  the  hind-flippers  above  water,  nothing  else  being  seen.  In  this  position,  unless  it 
is  very  rough,  the  Seal  sleeps  as  serenely  as  did  the  prototype  of  that,  memorable  song,  who  was 
"rocked  in  the  cradle  of  the  deep." 

FASTING  OF  TUP,  SEALS  AT  THE  ROOKERIES:  INTESTINAL  WORMS. — All  the  bulls,  from  the 
very  tirst,  that  have  been  able  to  hold  their  positions,  have  not  left  them  from  the  moment  of  their 
landing  for  a  single  instant,  night  or  day;  nor  will  they  do  so  until  the  end  of  the  rutting  season, 
which  subsides  entirely  betxveen  the  1st  and  10th  of  August,  beginning  shortly  after  the  coming 
of  the  cows  in  Juue.  Of  necessity,  therefore,  this  causes  them  to  fast,  to  abstain  entirely  from  food 
of  any  kind,  or  xvater,  for  three  months  at  least;  and  a  few  of  them  actually  stay  out  four  mouths,  iu 
total  abstinence,  before  going  back  into  the  water  for  the  first  time  after  "hauling  up"  in  May; 
they  then  return  as  so  many  bony  shadows  of  what  they  were  only  a  few  mouths  anteriorly; 
covered  with  wounds,  abject  and  spiritless,  they  laboriously  crawl  back  to  the  sea  to  renew  a  fresh 
lease  of  life. 

Such  physical  endurance  is  remarkable  enough  alone;  but  it  is  simply  wonderful,  when  we 
come  to  associate  this  fasting  with  the  unceasing  activity,  restlessness,  and  duty  devolved  upon  the 
bulls  as  the  heads  of  large  families.  They  do  not  stagnate  like  hibernating  bears  iu  caves;  there 
is  not  one  torpid  breath  drawn  by  them  in  the  whole  period  of  their  fast;  it  is  evidently  sustained 
and  accomplished  by  the  self-absorption  of  their  own  fat,  with  which  they  are  so  liberally  supplied 
when  they  tirst  come  out  from  the  sea  and  take  up  their  positions  on  the  breeding-grounds,  and 
which  gradually  disappears,  until  nothing  but  the  staring  hide,  protruding  tendons  and  bones, 
marks  the  limit  of  their  abstinence.  There  must  be  some  remarkable  provision  made  by  nature  for 
the  entire  torpidity  of  the  Seals'  stomachs  and  bowels,  in  consequence  of  their  being  empty  and 
unsupplied  during  this  long  period,  coupled  with  the  intense  activity  and  physical  energy  of  the 
animals  during  the  same  time,  which,  however,  in  spite  of  the  violation  of  a  supposed  physiological 
law,  does  not  seem  to  aflect  them,  for  they  come  back  just  as  sleek,  fat,  and  ambitious  as  ever,  in 
the  following  season. 

I  have  examined  the  stomachs  of  hundreds  which  were  driven  up  and  killed  immediately  after 
their  arrival  in  the  spring,  near  the  village;  I  have  the  word  of  the  natives  here,  who  have  seen 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  them  opened  during  the  slaughtering  seasons  past,  but  in  no  single  case 
has  anything  ever  been  found,  other  than  the  bile  and  ordinary  secretions  of  healthy  organs  of 
this  class,  with  the  marked  exception  of  finding  iu  every  one  a  snarl  or  cluster  of  worms,1  from  the 
«ize  of  a  walnut  to  a  bunch  as  large  as  a  man's  fist.  Fasting  apparently  has  no  effect  upon  the 
worms,  for  on  the  rare  occasion,  and  perhaps  the  last  one  that  will  ever  occur,  of  killing  three  or 
four  hundred  old  bulls  late  in  the  fall  to  supply  the  natives  with  canoe  skins,  I  was  present,  and 
again  examined  their  paunches,  finding  the  same  worms  within.  The  worms  were  lively  in  these 
empty  stomachs,  and  their  presence.  I  think,  gives  some  reason  for  the  habit  which  the  old  bulls 
have  (the  others  do  not)  of  swallowing  small  water- worn  bowlders,  the  stones  in  some  of  the 
stomachs  weighing  half  a  pound  apiece,  in  others  much  smaller.  In  one  paunch  I  found  over  five 

lNematoda. 


THE  FUR  SEAL:  PARASITIC1  WOlfMS.  <.". 

|Miiiinls.  in  tin-  aggregate,  of  large  pebbles,  which,  in  grinding  against  one  another,  I  believe,  must 
comfort  tin'  Seal  by  aiding  to  destroy,  in  a  great  measure,  these  intestinal  pests. 

The  Sea  Lion  is  also  troubled  in  the  same  way  by  a  similar  sj>ecies  of  worm,  and  I  preserved 
the  .stomach  of  one  of  these  animals  in  which  there  was  more  than  ten  pounds  of  stones,  some  of 
them  alone  very  great  in  size.  Of  this  latter  animal,  I  suppose  it  could  swallow  bowlders  that 
weigh  two  and  three  pounds  each.  I  can  ascribe  noothercaiise  for  this  habit  among  these  animals 
than  that  given,  as  they  are  the  highest  type  of  the  carnivora,  eating  tish  as  u  regular  means  of 
subsistence,  varying  the  monotony  of  this  diet  with  occasional  juicy  fronds  of  sea-weed  or  kelp, 
and  perhaps  a  crab  or  such  once  in  a  while,  provided  it  is  small  and  tender  or  soft  six  lied.  I  know 
that  the  sailors  say  that  the  Callorhittti*  swallows  these  stones  to  "ballast"  himself;  in  other  words, 
to  enable  him  to  dive  deeply  and  quickly ;  but  I  noticed  that  the  females  and  the  "  Ilollnschickie" 
ilhe  nuickcr  and  swim  better  than  the  old  fellows  above  specified,  ami  they  do  so  without  any 
ballast.  They  also  have  less  muscular  power,  only  a  tithe  of  that  which  the  ''Sea  catch"  possesses. 
Xo,  the  ballast  theory  is  not  tenable. 

AIJKIVAL  OF  THE  cow  SEALS  AT  TUK.KOOKEKiKS.— Between  the  12th  and  14th  of  June,  the 
first  of  the  cow  Seals,  as  a  rule,  come  up  from  the  sea;  then  the  long  agony  of  the  waiting  bulls  is 
over,  and  they  signalize  it  by  a  period  of  universal,  spasmodic,  desperate  tighiing  among  them- 
selves. Though  they  have  quarreled  all  the  time  from  the  moment  they  first  landed,  and  continue 
to  do  so  until  the  end  of  the  season,  in  August,  yet  that  righting  which  takes  place  at  this  date  is 
the  bloodiest  and  most  vindictive  known  to  the  Seal.  I  presume  that  the  heaviest  percentage  of 
mutilation  and  death  among  the  old  males  from  these  brawls  occurs  in  this  week  of  the  earliest 
appearance  of  the  females. 

A  strong  contrasi  now  between  the  males  and  females  looms  up,  both  in  size  and  shape, 
which  is  heightened  by  the  air  of  exceeding  peace  and  dove-1  ke  amiability  which  the  latter  class 
exhibit,  in  contradistinction  to  the  ferocity  and  saturnine  behavior  of  the  males. 

DKsci.'ti'i  ION  OF  THE  COW  SEAL. — The  cows  are  from  four  to  four  and  a  half  feet  in  length 
from  head  to  tail,  and  much  more  shapely  in  their  proportions  than  the  bulls;  there  is  no  wrapping 
around  their  necks  and  shoulders  of  unsightly  masses  of  blubber;  their  lithe,  elastic  forms,  from 
the  first  to  the  last  of  the  season,  are  never  altered  ;  this  they  are,  however,  enabled  to  keep, 
because  in  the  provision  of  seal  economy,  they  sustain  no  protracted  fasting  period ;  for,  soon  after 
the  birth  of  their  young,  they  leave  it  on  the  ground  and  go  to  the  sea  for  food,  returning  perhaps 
to-morrow,  perhaps  later,  even  not  for  several  days  in  fact,  to  again  suckle  and  nourish  it ;  having 
in  the  mean  time  sped  far  off  to  distant  fishing  banks,  and  satiated  a  hunger  which  so  active  and 
highly  organized  an  animal  must  experience,  when  deprived  of  sustenance  for  any  length  of  time, 

As  the  females  come  up  wet  and  dripping  from  the  water,  they  are  at  first  a  dull,  dirty-gray 
color,  dark  on  the  back  and  upper  parts,  but  in  a  few  hours  the  transformation  in  their  appearance 
made  by  drying  is  wonderful.  You  would  hardly  l>elieve  that  they  could  be  the  same  animals,  for 
they  now  fairly  glisten  with  a  rich  steel  and  maltese  gray  luster  on  the  back  of  the  head,  the  neck, 
and  along  down  the  spine,  which  blends  into  an  almost  snow-white  over  the  chest  and  on  the 
abdomen.  But  this  beautiful  coloring  in  turn  is  again  altered  by  exposure  to  the  same  weather; 
for  after  a  few  days  it  will  gradually  change,  so  that  by  the  lapse  of  two  or  three  weeks  it  is  a 
dull,  rufous-ocher  below,  and  a  cinereous  brown  and  gray  mixed  above.  This  color  they  retain 
throughout  the  breeding  season,  up  to  tin-  time  of  shedding  their  coat  in  August. 

The  head  and  eye  of  the  female  aie  exceedingly  beantiiul ;  the  expression  is  really  attractive, 
gentle,  and  intelligent;  the  large,  lustrous,  blue-back  eyes  arc  humid  and  soil  with  the  teuderest 
expression,  while  the  small,  well  formed  head  is  poised  as  giacefully  on  her  neck  as  can  be  well 


86  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

imagined;  she  is  tbe  very  picture  of  benignity  and  satisfaction,  when  she  is  perched  up  on  some 
convenient  rock,  and  has  an  opportunity  to  quietly  fan  herself,  the  eyes  half-closed  and  the  head 
thrown  back  ou  her  gently-swelling  shoulders. 

The  females  land  on  these  islands  not  from  the  slightest  desire  to  see  their  uncouth  loids  and 
masters,  but  from  an  accurate  and  instinctive  appreciation  of  the  time  in  which  their  period  of 
gestation  ends.  They  are  in  fact  driven  up  to  the  rookeries  by  this  cause  alone ;  the  young  cannot 
be  brought  forth  in  the  water,  and  in  all  cases  marked  by  myself,  the  pups  were  born  soon  after 
landing,  some  in  a  few  hours,  but  most  usually  a  day  or  so  elapses  before  delivery. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ROOKERIES. — They  are  noticed  and  received  by  the  males  on  the 
•water-line  stations  with  attention;  they  are  alternately  coaxed  and  urged  up  ou  to  the  rocks,  as 
far  as  these  beach-masters  can  do  so,  by  chuckling,  whistling,  and  roaring,  and  then  they  are 
immediately  under  the  most  jealous  supervision  ;  but,  owing  to  the  covetous  and  ambitious  nature 
of  the  bulls  which  occupy  these  stations  to  the  rear  of  the  water-line  and  way  back,  the  little  cows 
have  a  rough-and-tumble  time  of  it  when  they  begin  to  arrive  in  small  numbers  at  first,  for  no 
sooner  is  the  pretty  animal  fairly  established  on  the  station  of  male  number  one,  wbo  has  welcomed 
her  there,  than  he,  perhaps,  sees  another  one  of  her  style  in  the  water  from  whence  she  has  come, 
and,  in  obedience  to  his  polygamous  feeling,  he  devotes  himself  anew  to  coaxing  the  later  arrival, 
by  that  same  winning  manner  so  successful  in  her  case ;  then  when  bull  number  two,  just  back, 
observes  bull  number  one  off  guard,  he  reaches  out  with  his  long  strong  neck  and  picks  up  the 
unhappy  but  passive  cow  by  the  scruff  of  her's,  just  as  a  cat  does  a  kitten,  and  deposits  her  upon 
Ids  seraglio  ground ;  then  bulls  number  three  and  four,  and  so  on,  in  the  vicinity,  seeing  this 
high-handed  operation,  all  assail  one  another,  especially  number  two,  and  for  a  moment  have  a 
tremendous  fight,  perhaps  lasting  half  a  minute  or  so,  and  during  this  commotion  the  little  cow  is 
generally  moved,  or  moves,  farther  back  from  the  water,  two  or  three  stations  more,  where,  when 
all  gets  quiet  again,  she  usually  remains  in  peace.  Her  last  lord  and  master,  not  having  the 
exposure  to  such  diverting  temptation  as  her  first,  gives  her  such  care  that  she  not  only  is  unable 
to  leave,  did  she  wish,  but  no  other  bull  can  seize  upon  her.  This  is  only  a  faint  (and  I  fully 
appreciate  it),  wholly  inadequate  description  of  the  hurly-burly  and  the  method  by  which  the 
rookeries  are  filled  up,  from  first  to  last,  when  the  females  arrive.  This  is  only  one  instance  of 
the  many  trials  and  tribulations  which  both  parties  ou  the  rookery  subject  themselves  to,  before 
the  harems  are  filled. 

Far  back,  fifteen  or  twenty  "  See-catchie"  stations  deep  from  the  water-line,  and  sometimes 
more,  but  generally  not  over  an  average  of  ten  or  fifteen,  the  cows  crowd  in  at  the  close  of  the 
season  for  arriving,  which  is  by  the  10th  or  14th  of  July;  then  they  are  able  to  go  about  pretty 
much  as  they  please,  for  the  bulls  have  become  so  greatly  enfeebled  by  this  constant  fasting, 
fighting,  and  excitement  during  ihe  past  two  months,  that  they  are  quite  content  now  even  with 
only  one  or  two  partners,  if  they  should  have  no  more. 

The  cows  seem  to  haul  up  in  compact  bodies  from  the  water,  filling  in  the  whole  ground  to 
the  rear  of  the  rookeries,  never  scattering  about  over  the  surface  of  this  area ;  they  have  mapped 
out  from  the  first  their  chosen  resting  places,  and  they  will  not  lie  quietly  in  any  position  outside 
of  the  great  mass  of  their  kind.  This  is  due  to  their  intensely  gregarious  nature,  and  admirably 
adapted  for  their  protection.  And  here  I  should  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  they  select  this 
rookery-ground  with  all  the  skill  of  civil  engineers.  It  is  preferred  with  special  reference  to  the 
drainage,  for  it  must  lie  so  that  the  produce  of  the  constantly  dissolving  fogs  and  rain-clouds 
shall  not  lie  upon  them,  having  a  great  aversion  to  and  a  firm  determination  to  rest  nowhere  on 
water-puddled  ground.  This  is  admirably  exhibited,  and  will  be  understood  by  a  study  of  my 


THE  FUR  SEAL:  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  KOOKI.IMHS.  87 

.-.ken -h -ni;i]>s  which  follow,  illustrative  of  these  rookeries  and  the  area  and  position  of  the  Seals 
upon  them.  Kvery  one  of  these  breeding-grounds  slopes  up  gently  from  the  sea,  and  on  no  one 
of  them  is  there  anything  like  ;i  muddy  Hat. 

I  found  it  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter  to  satisfy  myself  as  to  a  fair  general  average  number 
of  cows  to  each  bull  on  the  rookery;  but,  after  protracted  study,  I  think  it  will  be  nearly  correct 
when  I  a»i.mi  t<>  each  male  a  general  ratio  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  females  at  the  stations  nearest 
the  water:  and  for  those  back  in  order  from  that  line  to  the  rear,  from  five  to  twelve;  but  there 
are  so  many  exceptional  cases,  so  many  instances  where  forty-five  and  flfty  females  are  all  under 
the  charge  of  one  male;  and  then,  again,  where  there  are  two  or  three  females  only,  that  this 
question  was  and  is  uot  entirely  satisfactory  in  its  settlement  to  my  mind. 

Near  Ketavie  Point,  and  just  above  it  to  the  north,  is  an  odd  washout  of  the  basalt  by  the 
surf,  which  has  chiseled,  as  it  were,  from  the  foundation  of  the  island,  a  lava  table,  with  a  single 
roadway  or  land  passage  to  it.  Upon  the  summit  of  this  footstool  I  counted  forty-five  cows,  all 
under  the  charge  of  one  old  veteran.  He  had  them  penned  up  on  this  table-rock  by  taking  his 
stand  at  the  gate,  as  it  were,  through  which  they  passed  up  and  passed  down — a  Turkish  brute 
typified. 

UNATTACHKD  MALES. — At  the  rear  of  all  these  rookeries  there  is  invariably  a  large  number 
of  able-bodied  males  who  have  come  late,  but  who  wait  patiently,  yet  in  vain,  for  families;  most 
of  them  having  had  to  fight  as  desperately  for  the  privilege  of  being  there  as  any  of  their  more 
fortunately  located  neighbors,  who  are  nearer  the  water,  and  in  succession  from  there  to  where 
they  are  themselves ;  but  the  cows  do  not  like  to  be  in  any  outside  position.  They  caunot  be 
coaxed  out  where  they  are  not  in  close  company  with  their  female  mates  and  masses.  They  lie 
most  quietly  and  contentedly  in  the  largest  harems,  and  cover  the  surface  pf  the  ground  so  thickly 
that  there  is  hardly  moving  or  turning  room  until  the  females  cease  to  come  from  the  sea.  The 
inaction  on  the  part  of  the  males  in  the  rear  during  the  breeding-season  only  serves  to  qualify 
them  to  move  into  the  places  which  are  necessarily  vacated  by  those  males  that  are,  in  the  mean 
time,  obliged  to  leave  from  virile  exhaustion,  or  incipient  wounds.  All  the  surplus  able  bodied 
males,  that  have  not  been  successful  in  ettecting  a  landing  on  the  rookeries,  cannot  at  any  one 
time  during  the  season  be  seen  here  on  this  rear  line.  Only  a  portion  of  their  numl>er  are  in 
six  lit :  the  others  are  either  loafing  at  sea,  adjacent,  or  are  hauled  out  in  morose  squads  between 
the  rookeries  on  the  beaches. 

COURAGE  OF  THE  FUR  SEALS. — The  courage  with  which  the  Fur  Seal  holds  his  ]>osition  as 
the  head  and  guardian  of  a  family,  is  of  the  higliest  order.  I  have  repeatedly  tried  to  drive  them 
from  their  harem  posts,  when  they  were  fairly  established  on  their  stations,  and  have  always 
failed,  with  few  exceptions.  I  might  use  every  stone  at  my  command,  making  all  the  noise  I  could. 
Finally,  to  put  their  courage  to  the  fullest  test,  I  have  walked  up  to  within  twenty  feet  of  an  old 
veteran,  toward  the  extreineeud  of  Tolstoi,  who  had  only  four  cows  in  charge,  and  commenced  with  my 
double-barreled  fowling  piece  to  pepper  him  all  over  with  tine  mustard-seed  shot,  being  kind  enough, 
in  spite  of  my  zeal,  not  to  put  out  his  eyes.  1 1  is  bearing,  in  spite  of  the  noise,  smell  of  powder,  and 
painful  irritation  which  the  fine  shot  must  have  produced,  did  not  change  in  the  least  from  Un- 
usual attitude  of  determined  plucky  defense,  which  nearly  all  of  the  bulls  assumed  when  attacked 
with  showers  of  stones  and  noise;  he  would  dart  out  right  and  left  with  his  long  neck  and  catch 
the  timid  cows,  that  furtively  attempted  to  run  after  each  report  of  my  gun,  fling  and  drag  them 
back  to  their  places  under  his  head;  and  then,  stretching  up  to  his  full  height  look  me  directly 
and  detiaiitly  in  the  face,  roaring  and  chuckling  most  vehemently.  The  cows,  however,  -oon  ^ot 
away  from  him;  they  could  uot  stand  my  racket  in  spite  of  their  dread  of  Imn;  but  he  still  M<>»d 


88  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

his  ground,  making  little  charges  on  me  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  a  succession  of  gallops  or  hinges, 
spitting  furiously,  and  then  comically  retreating  to  the  old  position,  with  an  indescribable  leer  and 
swagger,  back  of  which  he  would  not  go,  fully  resolved  to  hold  his  own  or  die  in  the.  attempt. 

This  courage  is  all  the  more  noteworthy  from  the  fact  that,  in  regard  to  man,  it  is  invariably 
of  a  defensive  character.  The  Seal  is  always  on  the  defensive ;  he  never  retreats,  and  he  will  not 
attack.  If  he  makes  you  return  when  you  attack  him,  he  never  follows  you  much  farther  than 
the  boundary  of  his  station,  and  then  no  aggravation  will  compel  him  to  take  the  offensive,  so  far 
as  I  have  been  able  to  observe.  I  was  very  much  impressed  by  this  trait. 

BEHAVIOR  OF  THE  FEMALE  SEALS  ON  THE  ROOKERIES. — The  cows,  during  the  whole  season, 
do  great  credit  to  their  amiable  expression  by  their  manner  and  behavior  on  the  rookery;  they 
never  fight  or  quarrel  one  with  another,  and  never  or  seldom  utter  a  cry  of  pain  or  rage  when  they 
are  roughly  handled  by  the  bulls,  which  frequently  get  a  cow  between  them  and  actually  tear  the 
skin  from  her  back  with  their  teeth,  cutting  deep  gashes  in  it  as  they  snatch  her  from  mouth  to 
mouth.  If  sand  does  not  get  into  these  wounds  it  is  surprising  how  rapidly  they  heal;  and,  from 
the  fact  that  I  never  could  see  scars  on  them  anywhere  except  the  fresh  ones  of  this  year,  they 
must  heal  effectually  and  exhibit  no  trace  the  next  season. 

The  cows,  like  the  bulls,  vary  much  in  weight,  but  the  extraordinary  disparity  in  the  size  of 
the  sexes,  adult,  is  exceedingly  striking.  Two  females  taken  from  the  rookery  nearest  to  Saint 
Paul  Village,  right  under  the  bluffs,  and  almost  beneath  the  eaves  of  the  natives'  houses,  called 
"Nah  Speel,"  after  they  had  brought  forth  their  young,  were  weighed  by  myself,  and  their 
respective  returns  on  the  scales  were  fifty-six  and  one  hundred  pounds  each,  the  former  being 
about  three  or  four  years  old,  and  the  latter  over  six — perhaps  ten;  both  were  fat,  or  rather  in 
good  condition — as  good  as  they  ever  are.  Thus"  the  female  is  just  about  one-sixth  the  size  of 
the  male.1  Among  the  Sea  Lions  the  proportion  is  just  one  half  the  bulk  of  the  male,2  while  the 
Hair  Seals,  as  I  have  before  stated,  are  not  distinguishable  in  this  respect,  as  far  as  I  could  observe, 
but  my  notice  was  limited  to  a  few  specimens  only. 

ATTITUDES  OF  FUR  SEALS  ON  LAND. — It  s  quite  beyond  my  power,  indeed  entirely  out  of 
the  question,  to  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  thousand  and  one  positions  in  which  the  Seals  compose 
themselves  and  rest  when  on  land.  They  may  be  said  to  atsnme  eveiy  possible  attitude  which  a 
flexible  body  can  be  put  into,  no  matter  how  characteristic  or  seemingly  forced  or  constrained. 
Their  joints  seem  to  be  double-hinged;  in  fact,  all  ball  and  socket  union  of  the  bones.  One  favorite 
position,  especially  with  tire  females,  is  to  perch  upon  a  point  or  edge-top  of  some  rock,  and  throw 
their  heads  back  upon  their  shoulders,  with  the  nose  held  directly  up  and  aloft;  and  then  closing 
their  eyes,  to  take  short  naps  without  changing  their  attitude,  now  and  then  softly  lifting  one  or 
the  other  of  their  long,  slender  hitid-tiippers,  which  they  slowly  wave  with  their  peculiar  fanning 
motion  to  which  I  have  alluded  heretofore.  Another  attitude,  and  one  of  the  most  common,  is  to 
curl  themselves  up  just  as  a  dog  does  on  a  hearth  rug,  bringing  the  tail  and  nose  close  together. 
They  also  stretch  out,  laying  the  head  close  to  the  body,  and  sleep  an  hour  or  two  without  rising, 
holding  one  of  the  hind  flippers  up  all  the  time,  now  and  then  gently  moving  it,  the  eyes  being 
tightly  closed. 

1  ought,  perhaps,  to  define  here  the  anomalous  tail  of  the  Fur  Seal.  It  is  just  about  as 
important  as  the  caudal  appendage  to  a  bear,  even  less  significant:  it  is  the  very  emphasis  of 
abbreviation.  In  the  old  males  it  is  positively  only  lour  or  five  inches  in  length,  while  among  the 
females  only  two  and  a  half  to  three  inches,  wholly  inconspicuous,  and  not  even  recognized  by  the 
casual  observer. 


'Adult  male  anil  female — Callurliinun  untiling. 
•Adult  male  and  female — Kametoijiae  Slelleri. 


Till-    ITR  SEAL:  SM-IKPINC    IIA111TS.  39 

SLEEPING  SEALS. — I  come  now  to  speak  of  another  feature  which  interested  me  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  as  much  as  any  other  characteristic  of  this  creature;  ami  that  ia  their  fashion  of  slumber. 
Tiie  sleep  of  the  Fur  Seal,  seen  on  land,  from  the  old  male  down  to  the  youngest,  is  always  accom- 
panied by  mi  involuntary,  nervous,  muscular  twitching  and  slight  shifting  of  the  flippers,  together 
with  ever  and  anon  quivering  and  uneasy  rollings  of  the  body,  accompanied  by  a  quick  folding 
anew  of  the  fore-flipper*)  all  of  which  may  be  signs,  as  it  were,  in  fact,  of  their  simply  having 
nightmares,  or  of  sporting,  in  a  visionary  way,  far  ott'  in  some  dream  land  sea;  but  ]>erhaps  very 
much  as  an  old  nurse  said,  in  reference  to  the  smiles  on  a  sleeping  child's  face,  they  are  distur!>ed 
by  their  intestinal  parasites.  I  have  studied  hundreds  of  such  somnolent  examples.  Stealing 
softly  up,  so  closely  that  I  could  lay  my  hand  upon  them  from  the  point  where  I  was  sitting,  did 
I  wish  to,  and  watching  the  sleeping  Seals,  I  have  always  found  their  sleep  to  1x3  of  this  nervous 
description.  The  respiration  is  short  and  rapid,  but  with  no  breathing  (unless  the  ear  is  brought 
very  close)  or  snoring  sound;  the  quivering,  heaving  of  the  thinks  only  indicates  the  action  of  the 
lungs.  I  have  frequently  thought  that  I  had  succeeded  in  finding  a  snoring  Seal,  especially  among 
the  pups;  but  a  close  examination  always  gave  some  abnormal  reason  for  it;  generally  a  slight 
distemper,  never  anything  severer,  however,  than  some  trifle  by  which  the  nostrils  were  stopped 
up  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

The  cows  on  the  rookeries  sleep  a  great  deal,  but  the  males  have  the  veriest  cat-naps  that  can 
be  imagined.  I  never  could  time  the  slumber  of  any  old  male  on  the  breeding-grounds,  which 
lasted  without  interruption  longer  than  five  minutes,  day  or  night;  while  away  from  these  places, 
however,  I  have  known  them  to  He  sleeping  in  the  manner  I  have  described,  broken  by  these  fitful, 
nervous,  dreamy  starts,  yet  without  opening  the  eyes,  for  an  hour  or  so  at  a  time. 

With  the  exception  of  the  pups,  the  Fur  Seal  seems  to  have  very  little  rest  awake  or  sleeping; 
perpetual  motion  is  well  nigh  incarnate  with  its  being. 

FUR-SEAL  PUPS. — As  I  have  said  before,  the  females,  soon  after  landing,  are  delivered  of  their 
young.  Immediately  after  the  birth  of  the  pup  (twins  are  rare,  if  ever)  the  little  creature  finds  its 
voice,  a  weak,  husky  blaat,  and  begins  to  paddle  about  with  its  eyes  wide  open  from  the  start,  in  a 
confused  sort  of  way  for  a  few  minutes,  until  the  mother  turns  around  to  notice  her  offspring  and 
give  it  attention,  and  still  later  to  suckle  it;  and  for  this  purpose  she  is  supplied  with  four  small, 
brown  nipples,  almost  wholly  concealed  in  the  fur,  and  which  are  placed  about  eight  inches  apart, 
lengthwise  with  the  body,  on  the  abdomen,  between  the  fora-  and  hind  flippers,  with  about  four 
inches  of  space  between  them  transversely.  These  nipples  are  seldom  visible,  and  then  faintly 
seen  through  the  hair  and  fur.  The  milk  is  abundant,  rich,  and  creamy.  The  pups  nurse  very 
heartily,  almost  gorging  themselves,  so  much  so  that  they  often  have  to  yield  up  the  excess  of  what 
they  have  taken  down,  mewling  and  puking  in  the  most  orthodox  manner. 

The  pup  from  birth,  and  for  the  next  three  months,  is  of  a  jet-black  color,  hair  and  flipi>ers, 
save  a  tiny  white  patch  just  back  of  each  forearm.  It  weighs  first  from  three  to  four  pomiil.-.  and 
is  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  long.  It  does  not  seem  to  nurse  more  than  once  every-  two  or  thrro 
days,  but  in  this  I  am  very  likely  mistaken,  for  they  may  have  received  attention  Irorn  the  mother 
in  the  night,  or  other  times  in  the  day  when  1  was  unable  to  keep  up  my  watch  over  the  individuals 
which  I  had  marked  for  this  supervision. 

The  apathy  with  which  the  young  are  treated  by  the  old  on  the  breeding-grounds,  especially 
by  the  mothers,  was  very  strange  to  me,  and  I  was  considerably  surprised  at  it.  1  have  ne\ei  >cen 
a  seal-mother  caress  or  fondle  her  offspring;  and  should  it  stray  to  a  short  distance  from  the  hare  . 
I  could  step  to  and  pick  it  up,  and  even  kill  it  before  the  inniher'.- e\e.  without  cau.-ing  her  tin- 
slightest  concern,  as  far  as  all  outward  signs  and  manifestation  would  indicate.  The  sa iudifler- 


90  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ence  is  also  exhibited  by  the  male  to  all  that  may  take  place  of  this  character  outside  of  the 
boundary  of  his  seraglio;  but  the  moment  the  pups  are  inside  the  limits  of  his  harem-ground,  he  is 
a  jealous  and  a  fearless  protector,  vigilant  and  determined;  but  if  tV-e  little  animals  are  careless 
enough  to  pass  beyond  this  boundary,  then  I  can  go  up  to  them  and  carry  them  off  before  the  eye 
of  the  old  Turk  without  receiving  from  him  the  slightest  attention  iu  their  behalf— a  curious 
guardian,  forsooth! 

It  is  surprising  to  me  how  few  of  these  young  pups  get  crushed  to  death  while  the  ponderous 
males  are  floundering  over  them,  engaged  in  lighting  and  quarreling  among  themselves.  I  have 
seen  two  bulls  dash  at  each  other  with  all  the  energy  of  furious  rage,  meeting  right  iu  the  midst  of 
a  small  "pod"  of  forty  or  fifty  pups,  tramp  over  them  with  all  their  crushing  weight,  and  bowling 
them  out  right  and  left  in  every  direction  by  the  impetus  of  their  movements,  without  injuring  a 
single  one,  as  far  as  I  could  see.  Still,  when  wo  come  to  consider  the  fact  that,  despite  the  great 
weight  of  the  old  males,  their  broad,  flat  flippers  and  yielding  bodies  may  press  down  heavily  on 
these  little  fellows  without  actually  breaking  bones  or  mashing  them  out  of  shape,  it  seems 
questionable  whether  more  thau  one  per  cent,  of  all  the  pups  born  each  season  on  these  great 
rookeries  of  the  Pribylov  Islands  are  destroyed  in  this  manner  on  the  breeding-grounds.1 

The  vitality  of  the  Fur  Seal  is  simply  astonishing.  His  physical  organization  passes  beyond 
the  fabled  nine  lives  of  the  cat.  As  a  slight  illustration  of  his  tenure  of  life,  I  will  mention  the 
i'act,  that  one  morning  the  chief  came  to  me  with  a  pup  in  his  arms,  which  had  just  been  born,  and 
was  still  womb-moist,  saying  that  the  mother  had  been  killed  at  Tolstoi  by  accident,  and  he  sup- 
pose! that  I  would  like  to  have  a  "choochil."2  I  took  it  up  into  my  laboratory,  and  finding  that 
it  could  walk  about  and  make  a  great  noise,  I  attempted  to  feed  it,  with  the  idea  of  having  a 
comfortable  subject  to  my  pencil,  for  life-study  of  the  young  in  the  varied  attitudes  of  sleep  and 
motion.  It  refused  everything  that  I  could  summon  to  its  attention  as  food;  and,  alternately 
sleeping  and  walking,  iu  its  clumsy  fashion,  about  the  floor,  it  actually  lived  nine  days — spending 
the  halt  of  every  day  in  floundering  over  the  floor,  accompanying  all  movement  with  a  persistent, 
hoarse,  blaating  cry — and  I  do  not  believe  it  ever  had  a  single  drop  of  its  mother's  milk. 

In  the  pup,  the  head  is  the  only  disproportionate  feature  at  birth,  when  it  is  compared  with 
the  adult  form;  the  neck  being  also  relatively  shorter  and  thicker.  The  eye  is  large,  round, and 
full,  but  almost  a  "navy  blue"  at  times,  it  soon  changes  into  the  blue  black  of  adolescence. 

The  females  appear  to  go  to  and  come  from  the  water  to  feed  and  bathe,  quite  frequently,  after 
bearing  their  young,  and  the  immediate  subsequent  coitus  with  the  male;  and  usually  return  to 
the  spot  or  its  immediate  neighborhood,  where  they  leave  their  pups,  crying  out  for  them,  and 
recogniy.ing  the  individual  replies,  though  ten  thousand  around,  all  together,  should  bloat  at  once. 
They  quickly  single  out  their  own  and  nurse  them.  It  would  certainly  be  a  very  unfortunate  matter 
if  the  mothers  could  not  identify  their  young  by  sound,  since  their  pups  get  together  like  a  great 
swarm  of  bees,  and  spread  out,  upon  the  ground  in  what  the  sealers  call  "  pods,"  or  clustered  groups, 
while  they  are  young  and  not  very  large;  but  from  the  middle  or  end  of  September,  until  they 
leave  the  islands  for  the  dangers  of  the  great  Pacific,  in  the  winter,  along  into  the  heat  of  November, 
they  gather  in  this  manner,  sleeping  and  frolicking  by  tens  of  thousands,  bunched  together  at 
various  places  all  over  the  islands  contiguous  to  the  breeding-grounds,  and  right  on  them.  A 
mother  comes  up  from  the  sea,  whither  she  has  been  to  wash,  and  perhaps  to  feed,  for  the  last  day 
or  two,  feeling  her  way  along  to  about  where  she  thinks  her  pup  should  be— at  least  where  she  left 

'The  only  damage  which  those  little  fellows  have  up  here,  is  being  caught  by  an  October  gale  down  at  the  surf- 
margin,  when  they  have  not  fairly  learned  to  swim  ;  large  numbers  have  been  destroyed  by  sudden  "nips"  of  this 
character. 

'A  specimen  to  stuff. 


Tin:  i •[  n  SEAL:  HABITS  OF  THE  PUPS.  91 

it  l;ist — luit  perhaps  she  misses  it,  and  finds  instead  a  swarm  of  pups  in  which  it  has  been  incor- 
porated, owing  to  its  great  fondness  for  society.  The  mother,  without  tirst  entering  into  the  crowd 
of  thousands,  calls  out  just  us  a  sheep  docs  for  a  lamb;  and,  out  of  all  the  din  she — if  not  at  first, 
at  the  end  of  a  few  trials — recognizes  the  voice  of  her  offspring,  and  then  advances,  striking  out 
right  and  left,  toward  the  position  from  which  it  replies.  Hut  if  the  pup  happens  at  this  time  to 
be  asleep,  it  gives,  of  course,  no  response,  even  though  it  were  close  by ;  iu  the  event  of  this  silence 
the  cow,  after  calling  for  a  time  without  being  answered,  curls  herself  up  and  takes  a  nap,  or  lazily 
basks,  to  be  usually  more  successful,  or  wholly  so,  when  she  calls  again. 

The  pups  themselves  do  not  know  their  own  mothers — a  fact  which  1  ascertained  by  careful 
observation ;  but  they  are  so  constituted  that  they  incessantly  cry  out  at  short  intervals  during 
the  whole  time  they  are  awake,  and  in  this  way  the  mother  can  pick  out  from  the  monotonous 
blaating  of  thousands  of  pups,  her  own,  and  she  will  not  prrmit  any  other  to  suckle  it ;  but  the 
"Kotickie"  themselves  attempt  to  nose  around  every  seal-mother  that  comes  in  contact  with  them. 

I  have  repeatedly  watched  young  pups  aa  they  made  advances  to  nurse  from  another  pup's 
mother;  the  result  invariably  being,  that  while  the  mother  would  permit  her  owu  offspring  to 
suckle  freely,  yet,  when  these  little  strangers  touched  her  nipples,  she  would  either  move  abruptly 
away,  or  else  turn  quickly  down  upon  her  stomach,  so  that  the  maternal  fountains  were  inaccessible 
to  the  alien  and  hungry  "Kotickie."  I  have  witnessed  so  many  examples  of  the  females  turning 
pups  away,  to  suckle  only  some  particular  other  one,  that  I  feel  sure  I  am  entirely  right  in  saying 
that  the  seal-mothers  know  their  own  young;  and  that  they  will  not  permit  any  others  to  nurse 
save  their  owu.  I  believe  that  this  recognition  of  them  is  due  chiefly  to  the  mother's  scent  and 
hearing. 

DISORGANIZATION  OF  THE  BOOKERIKS. — Between  the  end  of  July  and  the  5th  or  8th  of 
August  of  every  year,  the  rookeries  are  completely  changed  iu  appearance;  the  systematic  and 
regular  disposition  of  the  families  or  harems  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  breeding-ground  has 
disappeared;  all  that  clock-work  order  which  has  heretofore  existed  seems  to  be  broken  up.  The 
breeding-season  over,  those  bulls  which  have  held  their  positions  since  the  first  of  May  leave,  most 
of  them  thin  in  flesh  and  weak,  and  of  their  number  a  very  large  proportion  do  not  come  out  again 
on  land  during  the  season;  but  such  as  are  seen  at  the  end  of  October  and  November,  are  in  good 
flesh.  They  have  a  new  coat  of  rich,  dark,  gray-brown  hair  and  fur,  with  gray  or  grayish  ocher 
"wigs"  of  longer  hair  over  the  shoulders,  forming  a  fresh,  strong  contrast  to  the  dull,  rusty  brown 
and  umber  dress  in  which  they  appear  to  us  during  the  summer,  and  which  they  had  begun  to 
sh.'d  about  the  tirst  of  August,  in  common  with  the  females  and  the  "Hollnschiekie."  After  these 
males  leave,  at  the  close  of  their  season's  work  and  of  the  rutting  for  the  year,  those  of  them  that 
happen  to  return  to  the  land  in  any  event  do  not  come  back  until  the  end  of  September,  and  do 
not  haul  upon  the  rookery-grounds  again.  As  a  rule  they  prefer  to  herd  together,  like  the  younger 
males,  upon  the  sand-beaches  and  rocky  points  close  to  the  water. 

The  cows  and  pups,  together  with  those  bulls  which  we  have  noticed  in  waiting  in  the  rear  of  the 
rookeries,  and  which  have  been  in  retirement  throughout  the  whole  of  the  breeding-season,  now 
take  possession,  in  a  very  disorderly  manner,  of  the  rookeries.  There  come,  also,  a  large  nunilivr 
of  young,  three,  four,  and  live  year  old  males,  which  have  been  prevented  by  the  menacing  threats 
of  the  older,  stronger  bulls,  from  landing  among  the  females  during  the  mtting-season. 

Before  the  middle  of  August  three-fourths,  at  least,  of  the  cows  at  this  date  are  oft'  in  the 
•water,  only  coming  ashore  at  irregular  intervals  to  nurse  ami  look  after  their  pups  a  short  time. 
They  presented  to  my  eye,  from  the  summits  of  the  blulls  round  about,  a  picture  more  suggoiivc 
than  anything  I  have  ever  seen  presented  b\  animal  life,  of  entire  comfort  and  enjoyment.  Here, 


92  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

just  out  and  beyond  the  breaking  of  the  rollers,  they  idly  lie  on  tbe  rocks  or  sand -beaches,  ever 
and  anon  turning  over  and  over,  scratching  their  backs  and  sides  with  their  fore-  and  hind-flippers. 
The  Seals  on  the  breeding  ground  appear  to  get  very  lousy. 

The  Fur  Seal  spends  a  great  deal  of  time,  both  at  sea  and  on  land,  in  scratching  its  hide;  for  it 
is  annoyed  by  a  species  of  louse,  a  Pediculus,  to  just  about  the  same  degree  and  in  the  same  manner 
that  our  dogs  are  by  fleas.  To  scratch,  it  sits  upon  its  haunches,  and  scrapes  away  with  the 
toe-nails  of  first  one  and  then  the  other  of  its  hind-flippers;  by  which  action  it  reaches  readily  all 
portions  of  its  head,  neck,  chest,  and  shoulders ;  and,  with  either  one  or  the  other  of  its  fore- 
flippers,  it  rubs  down  its  spinal  region  back  of  the  shoulders  to  the  tail.  By  that  division  of  labor 
with  its  feet,  it  can  promptly  reduce,  with  every  sign  of  comfort,  any  lousy  irritation  wheresoever 
on  its  body.  This  Pediculus,  peculiar  to  the  Fur  Seal,  attaches  itself  almost  exclusively  to  the 
pectoral  regions;  a  few,  also,  are  generally  found  at  the  bases  of  the  auricular  pavilions. 

When  the  Fur  Seal  is  engaged  in  this  exercise,  it  cocks  its  head  and  wears  exactly  the  same 
expression  that  our  common  house-dog  does  while  subjugating  and  eradicating  fleas;  the  eyes  are 
partly  or  wholly  closed;  the  tongue  lolls  out;  and  the  whole  demeanor  is  one  of  quiet  but  intense 
satisfaction. 

The  Fur  Seal  appears  also  to  scratch  itself  in  the  water  with  the  same  facility  and  unction  so 
marked  on  land;  only  it  varies  the  action  by  using  its  fore-hands  principally,  in  its  fluviatile 
exercise,  while  its  hind-feet  do  most  of  the  terrestrial  scraping. 

While  1  have  written  with  much  emphasis  upon  the  total  absence  of  any  record  as  to  the  prev- 
alence of  an  epidemic  in  these  large  rookeries,  I  should,  perhaps,  mark  the  fact  that  no  symptoms 
of  internal  diseases  have  ever  been  noticed  here,  such  as  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  etc.,  which 
invariably  attack  and  destroy  the  Fur  Seal  when  it  is  taken  into  confinement,  as  well  as  the  Sea 
Lions  also;  the  latter,  however,  have  a  much  greater  power  of  endurance  under  such  artificial 
circumstances  of  life.  The  thousands  upon  thousands  of  disemboweled  Pribylov  fur  seal  carcasses 
have  never  presented  abnormal  or  diseased  viscera  of  any  kind. 

MANGY  cows  AND  PUPS. — The  frequent  winds  and  showers  drive  and  spatter  sand  into  their 
fur  and  eyes,  often  making  the  latter  quite  sore.  This  occurs  when  they  are  obliged  to  leave;  the 
rocky  rookeries  and  .follow  their  paps  out  over  the  sand-ridges  and  flats,  to  which  they  always 
have  a  natural  aversion.  On  the  hauling  grounds  they  pack  the  soil  under  foot  so  hard  and  tightly 
in  many  places,  that  it  holds  water  in  the  surface  depressions,  just  like  so  many  rock-basins.  Out 
of  and  into  these  puddles  the  pups  and  the  females  flounder  and  patter  incessantly,  until  evapora- 
tion slowly  abates  the  nuisance.  This  is  for  the  time  only,  inasmuch  as  Hie  next  day,  perhaps, 
brings  more  rain,  and  the  dirty  pools  arc  replenished. 

The  pups  sometimes  get  so  thoroughly  plastered  in  these  muddy.,  slimy  puddles,  that  the  hair 
falls  oft'  in  patches,  giving  them,  at  first  sight,  the  appearance  of  being  troubled  with  scrofula  or 
some  other  plague:  from  my  investigations,  directed  to  this  point,  I  became  satisfied  that  they 
were  not  permanently  injured,  though  evidently  very  much  annoyed.  With  reference  to  this 
suggestion  as  to  sickness  or  distemper  among  the  Seals,  I  gave  the  subject  direct  and  continued 
attention,  and  in  no  one  of  the  rookeries  could  I  discover  a  single  Seal,  no  matter  how  old  or  young, 
which  appeared  to  lie  suffering  in  the  least  from  any  physical  disorder,  other  than  that  which  they 
themselves  had  inflicted,  one  upon  the  other,  by  fighting.  The  third  season,  passing  direclly  under 
my  observation,  failed  to  reward  my  search  with  any  manifestation  of  d'seasc  among  the  Seals 
which  congregate  in  such  mighty  numbers  on  the  rookeries  of  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  (leorge.  The 
remarkable  freedom  from  all  such  complaints  enjoyed  by  these  animals  is  noteworthy,  and  the 


TIIK  rci;  SKA!,:  \I.\M;IM;SS.  «»;; 

must  trenchant  :ni(l  penetrating  cross-questioning  of  the  natives,  also,  failed  to  Rive  me  any  history 
or  evidence  of  an  epidemic  in  the  past. 

HOSPITALS.— The  observer  will,  however,  notice  every  summer,  gathered  in  melancholy  squads 
of  a  dozen  to  one  hundred  or  so,  scattered  along  the  coast  where  the  healthy  Seals  never  go,  those 
sick  and  disabled  bulls  which  have,  iu  the  earlier  part  of  the  season,  been  either  internally  injured 
or  dreadfully  scarred  by  the  teeth  of  their  opponents  iu  lighting.  Sand  is  blown  by  the  winds  into 
the  fresh  wounds  and  causes  an  inflammation  and  a  sloughing,  which  very  often  finishes  the  life  of 
the  victim.  The  sailors  term  these  invalid  gatherings  "hospitals,"  a  phrase  which,  like  most  of 
their  homely  expressions,  is  quite  appropriate. 

YOUNU  SEALS  LKARNINO  TO  SWIM.— Early  in  August,  usually  by  the  8th  or  10th,  1  noticed 
one  of  the  remarkable  movements  of  the  season.  I  refer  to  the  pup's  h'rst  essay  in  swimming.  Is 
it  not  odd — paradoxical — that  the  young  Seal,  fro-n  the  moment  of  his  birth  until  he  is  a  month  or 
six  weeks  old,  is  utterly  unable  to  switnf  If  lie  is  seized  by  the  najR'  of  the  neck  and  pitched  out 
a  rod  into  the  water  from  shore,  his  bullet-like  head  will  drop  instantly  below  the  surface,  and  his 
attenuated  posterior  extremities  Hap  impotently  on  it;  suffocation  is  the  question  of  only  a  few 
minutes,  the  stupid  little  creature  not  knowing  how  to  raise  his  immersed  head  and  gain  the  air 
again.  After  they  have  attained  the  age  1  indicate,  their  instinct  drives  them  down  to  the  margin 
of  the  surf,  where  the  alternate  ebbing  and  flowing  of  its  wash  covers  and  uncovers  the  rocky  or 
sandy  beaches.  They  first  smell  and  then  touch  the  moist  pools,  and  flounder  in  the  upper  wash 
of  the  surf,  which  leaves  them  as  suddenly  high  and  dry  as  it  immersed  them  at  first.  After  this 
beginning  they  make  slow  and  clumsy  progress  in  learning  the  knack  of  swimming.  For  a  week 
or  two,  when  overhead  in  depth,  they  continue  to  flounder  about  in  the  most  awkward  manner, 
thrashing  the  water  as  little  dogs  do,  with  their  fore  feet,  making  no  attempt  whatever  to  UNC  the 
hinder  ones.  Look  at  that  pup  now,  launched  out  for  the  first  time  Iwyond  his  depth;  see  how  be 
struggles — his  mouth  wide  open,  and  his  eyes  fairly  popping.  He.  turns  instantly  to  the  beacb, 
ere  he  has  fairly  struck  out  from  the  point  whence,  he  launched  in,  and,  as  the  receding  swell  which 
at  first  carried  him  off  his  feet  and  out,  now  returning  leaves  him  high  and  dry,  for  a  few  minutes 
he  seems  so  weary  that  he  weakly  crawls  up,  out  beyond  its  swift  returning  wash,  and  coils 
himself  up  immediately  to  take  a  recuperative  nap.  He  sleeps  a  few  minutes,  perhaps  half  an  hour, 
then  awakes  as  bright  as  a  dollar,  apparently  rested,  and  at  his  swimming  lesson  he  goes  again. 
By  repeated  and  persistent  attempts,  the  young  Seal  gradually  becomes  familiar  with  the  water 
and  acquainted  witli  his  own  power  over  that  element,  which  is  to  be  his  real  home  and  his  whole 
support.  Once  boldly  swimming,  the  pup  fairly  revels  in  his  new  happiness.  He  and  his  brethren 
have  now  begun  to  haul  and  swarm  along  the  whole  length  of  Saint  Paul  coast,  from  Northeast 
Point  down  and  around  to  Zapadnie,  lining  the  alternating  sand-beaches  and  rocky  shingle  with 
their  plump,  black  forms.  How  they  do  delight  in  it!  They  play  with  a  zest,  and  chatter  like 
our  own  children  in  the  kindergartens — swimming  in  endless  evolutions,  twisting,  turning,  or 
diving — and  when  exhausted,  drawing  their  plump,  round  bodies  up  again  on  the  beach.  Shaking 
themselves  dry  as  young  dogs  would  do,  they  now  either  go  to  sleep  on  the  spot,  or  have  a  lazy 
terrestrial  frolic  among  themselves. 

How  an  erroneous  impression  ever  got  iuto  the  mind  of  any  man  in  this  matter  of  the  pup's 
learning  to  swim,  I  confess  that  1  am  wholly  unable  to  imagine.  I  have  not  seen  any  "driving" 
of  the  young  pups  iuto  the  water  bv  the  old  ones,  in  order  to  teach  them  this  proc.---..  ;i^  certain 
authors  have  pointedly  affirmed.1  There  is  not  the  slightest  supervision  by  the  old  mother  or  father 
of  the  pup,  from  the  first  moment  of  his  birth,  in  this  respect,  until  he  leaves  for  the  North  Pacific, 

1  AIO.F.X  :  Hiatory  of  North  American  Piunipeds,  p.  387. 


94  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

I'u II  fledged  with  amphibious  power.  At  the  close  of  the  breeding-season,  every  year,  the  pups  are 
restlessly  and  constantly  shifting  back  and  forth  over  the  rookery  ground  of  their  birth,  in  huge 
squads,  sometimes  numbering  thousands  vipon  thousands.  In  the  course  of  this  change  of  position 
they  all  sooner  or  later  come  in  contact  with  the  sea ;  they  then  blunder  into  the  water  for  the  ttrst 
time,  in  a  most  awkward,  ungainly  manner,  and  get  out  as  quick  as  they  can ;  but  so  far  from 
showing  .any  fear  or  dislike  of  this,  their  most  natural  element,  as  soon  as  they  rest  from  their 
exertion  they  are  immediately  ready  for  a  new  trial,  and  keep  at  it,  provided  the  sea  is  not  too 
stormy  or  rough.  During  all  this  period  of  self-tuition  they  seem  thoroughly  to  enjoy  the  exercise, 
in  spite  of  their  repeated  and  inevitable  discomfitures  at  the  beginning. 

PODDING  OF  THE  PUPS. — The  "  podding"  of  these  young  pups  in  the  rear  of  the  great  rookeries 
of  Saint  Paul,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  phases  of  this  remarkable  exhibition  of 
highly  organized  life.  When  they  first  bunch  together  they  are  all  black,  for  they  have  not  begun 
to  shed  the  natal  coat:  they  shine  with  an  unctuous,  greasy  reflection,  and  grouped  in  small 
armies  or  great  regiments  on  the  sand-dune  tracts  at  Northeast  Point,  they  present  a  most  extraor- 
dinary and  fascinating  sight.  Although  the  appearance  of  the  "  Holluschickie"  at  English  Bay 
fairly  overwhelms  the  observer  with  the  impre-sion  of  its  countless  multitudes,  yet  I  am  free  to 
declare,  that  at  no  one  point  iu  this  evolution  of  the  seal-life,  during  the  reproductive  season,  have 
I  been  so  deeply  stricken  by  the  sense  of  overwhelming  enumeration,  as  I  have,  when,  standing  on 
the  summit  of  Cross  Hill,  I  looked  down  to  the  southward  and  westward  over  a  reach  of  six  miles 
of  alternate  grass  and  sand-dune  stretches,  mirrored  upon  which  were  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
these  little  black  pups,  spread  in  sleep  and  sport  within  this  restricted  field  of  vision.  They 
appeared  as  countless  as  the  grains  of  the  sand  upon  which  they  rested. 

SECOND  CHANGE  OF  COAT. — By  the  15th  of  September,  all  the  pups  born  during  the  year 
have  become  familiar  with  the  water;  they  have  all  learned  to  swim,  and  are  now  nearly  all  down 
by  the  water's  edge,  skirting  in  large  masses  the  rocks  and  beaches  previously  this  year  unoccupied 
by  Seals  of  any  class.  Now  they  are  about  five  or  six  times  their  original  weight,  or,  in  other 
words,  they  are  thirty  to  forty  pounds  avoirdupois,  as  plump  and  fat  as  butter-balls,  and  they 
begin  to  take  on  their  second  coat,  shedding  their  black  pup-hair  completely.  This  second  coat 
does  not  vary  iu  color,  at  this  age,  between  the  sexes.  They  effect  this  transformation  in  dress 
very  slowly,  and  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  said  to  have  ceased  their  molting  until  the  middle  or  20th  of 
October. 

This  second  coat  or  sea  going  jacket,  of  the  pup,  is  a  uniform,  dense,  light-gray  over  hair,  with 
an  under-fur  which  is  slightly  grayish  in  some,  but  in  most  cases  is  a  soft,  light-brown  hue.  The 
over-hair  is  fine,  close,  and  elastic,  from  two-thirds  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  while  the  fur  is 
not  quite  half  an  inch  long.  Thus  the  coarser  hair  shingles  over  and  conceals  the  soft  under  wool 
completely,  giving  the  color  by  which,  after  the  second  year,  the  sex  of  the  animal  is  recogni/.eil. 
The  pronounced  difference  between  the  sexes  is  not  effected,  however,  by  color  alone  until  the 
third  year  of  the  animal.  This  over-hair  of  the  young  pup's  new  jacket  on  the  back,  neck,  and 
head,  is  a  dark  chinchilla-gray,  blending  into  a  stone-white,  just  tinged  with  a  grayish  tint  on  the 
abdomen  and  chest.  The  upper  lip,  upon  which  the  whiskers  or  moustaches  take  root,  is  covered 
with  hair  of  a  lighter  gray  than  that  of  the  body.  This  moustache  consists  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
longer  or  shorter  bristles,  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  length,  some  brownish,  horn-colored, 
and  others  whitish-gray  and  translucent,  on  each  side  and  back  and  below  the  nostrils,  leaving  the 
muzzle  quite  prominent  and  hairless.  The  nasal  openings  and  their  surroundings  are,  as  I  have 
before  said  when  speaking  of  this  feature,  similar  to  those  of  a  dog. 

EYES  OF  THE  PUP-SEALS. — The  most  attractive  feature  about  the  fur-seal  pup,  and  that 


Tin:  rri;  SI:AI.:  i:vi:s  <»r  vorxG.  '.»;> 

which  liolds  this  place  MS  il  -rows  .MI  ;iml  older,  is  tin-  eye.  This  organ  is  cM-ecdinnl>  dear,  .lark, 
and  lii|iiid,  with  which,  lor  beauty  and  amiability,  together  with  real  intelligence  "I  expression, 
those  of  no  other  animal  that  I  have  ever  seen,  or  have  ever  read  of,  ran  bo  compared ;  indeed, 
then-  arc  lew  c\es  in  tin-  orbits  of  men  and  women  which  suggest  more  pleasantly  the  ancient 
thought  of  their  being  "windows  to  the  soul."  The  lids  to  the  eye  are  fringed  with  long,  perfect 
lashes,  and  the  slightest  annoyance,  in  the  way  of  dust  or  sand,  or  other  foreign  substances,  seems 
tn  cause  them  exquisite  annoyance,  accompanied  by  immoderate  weeping.  This  involuntary  tear- 
fulness  so  moved  Steller  that  he  ascril>ed  it  to  the  processes  of  the  Seal's  mind,  and  declared  that 
the  seal  mothers  actually  shed  tears. 

RANGE  OP  VISION. — I  do  not  think  that  their  range  of  vision  on  land,  or  out  of  the  water,  is 
very  great.  I  have  experimented  frequently  with  adult  Fur  Seals,  by  allowing  them  to  catch 
sight  of  my  person,  so  as  to  distinguish  it  as  of  foreign  character,  three  and  four  hundred  paces 
oil.  taking  the  precaution  of  standing  to  the  leeward  of  them  when  the  win«l  was  blowing  strong, 
and  then  walking  unconcernedly  up  to  them.  I  have  invariably  noticed,  that  they  would  allow  me 
to  approach  quite  close  before  recognizing  my  strangeness;  this  occurring  to  them,  they  at  once 
made  a  lively  noise,  a  medley  of  coughing,  spitting,  snorting,  and  blaating,  and  plunged  in  spasmodic 
lopes  and  shambled  to  get  away  from  my  immediate  neighborhood;  as  to  the  pups,  they  all  stupidly 
siaie  at  the  form  of  a  human  being  until  it  is  fairly  on  them,  when  they  i'lso  repeat  in  miniature 
these  vocal  gymnastics  and  physical  efforts  of  the  older  ones,  to  retreat  or  withdraw  a  few  rods, 
sometimes  only  a  few  feet,  from  the  spot  upon  which  you  have  cornered  them,  after  wliich  they 
instantly  resume  their  previous  occupation  of  either  sleeping  or  playing,  as  though  nothing  had 
happened. 

BEHAVIOR  OF  FHR  SEALS  AT  NIGHT. — I  naturally  enough,  when  beginning  my  investigation 
of  these  seal-rookeries,  expected  to  find  the  animals  subdued  at  night,  or  early  morning,  on  the 
Itreeding-grounds;  but  a  few  consecutive  nocturnal  watches  satisfied  me  that  the  family  organiza- 
tion and  noise  was  as  active  at  one  time  as  at  another  throughout  the  whole  twenty-four  hours.  If, 
however,  the  day  preceding  had  chanced  to  be  abnormally  warm,  I  never  failexl  then  to  find  the 
rookeries  much  more  n<  isy  and  active  during  the  night  than  they  were  by  daylight.  The  Seals,  as 
a  rule,  come  and  go  to  and  from  the  sea,  fight,  roar,  and  vocalize  as  much  during  midnight  moments 
as  they  «lo  at  noonday  times.  An  aged  native  endeavored  to  satisfy  me  that  the  "Seec  tckie"  could 
see  much  better  by  twilight  and  night  than  by  daylight.  I  am  not  prepared  to  prove  to  the 
coutran ,  but  I  think  that  the  fact  of  his  not  being  able  to  see  so  well  himself  at  that  hour  of 
darkness  was  the  true  cause  of  most  of  his  belief  in  the  improved  nocturnal  vision  of  the  Seals. 

At  1  write,  this  old  Aleut,  Phillip  Vollkov,  has  passed  to  his  final  rest— "un  konchielsnh"- 
winter  of  187S-'7i».  He  was  one  of  the  real  characters  of  Saint  Paul;  he  was  esteemed  by  the 
whites  on  account  of  his  relative  intelligence,  and  beloved  by  the  natives,  who  called1  him  their 
"wise  -nan,"  and  who  exulted  in  his  piety.  Phillip,  like  the  other  people  thereof  his  kind,  was 
not  much  comfort  to  me  when  I  asked  questions  as  to  the  Seals.  He  usually  answered  important 
inquiries  b\  Bussing  himself,  and  replying,  "God  knows."  There  was  no  appeal  from  this. 

SULI.KNNKSS  OF  ou>  MALE  SEALS. — The  old  males,  when  grouped  together  by  themselves, 
at  thi- close  of  the  breeding-season,  indulge  in  no  humor  or  frolicsome  festivities  whatsoever.  On 
the  contrary,  they  treat  each  other  with  surly  indillerence.  The  mature  females,  however,  do 
not  appear  to  le-se  their  good  nature  to  anything  like  so  marked  a  dcgicc  as  do  their  lords  and 
masters,  for  they  will  at  all  seasons  of  their  presence  on  the  islands  be  observed,  now  and  then, 
to  suddenly  unbend  from  severe  matronly  gravity  by  i-o.vly  and  amiably  tickling  and  gently  teasing 
oni  another,  as  they  rest  in  the  harems,  or  later,  when  strolling  in  September.  Then' is  no  sign 


96  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

given,  however,  by  these  seal-mothers  of  desire  or  action  in  fondling  or  caressing  their  pups ;  nor 
do  the  young  appear  to  sport  with  any  others  than  the  pups  themselves,  when  together.  Some- 
times a  yearling  and  a  five  or  six  months  old  pup  will  have  a  long-continued  game  between  them- 
selves. They  are  decidedly  clannish  in  this  respect — creatures  of  caste,  like  Hindoos. 

POWER  OF  SCENT:  ODOR  OF  THE  SEALS. — The  greatest  activity  displayed  by  any  one  of 
the  five  senses  of  the  Seal,  is  evidenced  in  its  power  of  scent.  This  faculty  is  all  that  can  be 
desired  in  the  line  of  alertness.  I  never  failed  to  awaken  an  adult  Seal  from  the  soundest  sleep, 
when  from  a  half  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant,  no  matter  how  softly  I  proceeded,  if  I  got  to  the 
windward,  though  the.y  sometimes  took  alarm  when  I  was  a  mile  off. 

They  leave  evidences  of  their  being  on  these  great  reproductive  fields,  chiefly  at  the  rookeries, 
in  the  hundreds  of  dead  carcasses  which  mark  the  last  of  those  animals  that  have  been  rendered 
intirin,  sick,  or  were  killed  by  fighting  among  themselves  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  or  of  those 
which  have  crawled  far  away  from  the  scene  of  battle  to  die  from  death-wounds  received  in  the 
bitter  struggle  for  a  harem.  On  the  rookeries,  wherever  these  lifeless  bodies  rest,  the.  living,  old 
and  young,  clamber  and  patter  backward  and  forward  over  and  on  the  putrid  remains,  and  by  this 
constant  stirring  up  of  decayed  matter,  give  rise  to  an  exceedingly  disagreeable  and  far-reaching 
"funk."  This  has  been,  by  all  writers  who  have  dwelt  on  the  subject,  referred  to  as  the  smell 
which  these  animals  emit  for  another  reason — erroneously  culled  the  "  rutting  odor."  If  these 
creatures  have  any  od<>r  peculiar  to  them  when  in  this  condition,  I  will  frankly  confess  that  I  am 
unable  to  distinguish  it  from  the  fumes  which  are  constantly  being  stirred  up  and  rising  out  of 
these  decaying  carcasses  of  the  older  Seals,  as  well  as  from  the  bodies  of  the  few  pups  which  have 
been  killed  accidentally  by  the  heavy  bulls  fighting  over  them,  charging  back  and  forth  against 
one  another,  so  much  of  the  time. 

They  have,  however,  a  very  characteristic  and  peculiar  smell,  when  they  are  driven  and  get 
heated;  their  breath  exhalations  possess  a  disagreeable,  faint,  sickly  odor,  and  when  I  have 
walked  within  its  influence  at  the  rear  of  a  seal-drive,  1  could  almost  fancy,  as  it  entered  my 
nostrils,  that  1  stood  beneath  an  ailanthus  tree  in  bloom;  but  this  odor  can  by  no  means  be 
confounded  with  what  is  universally  ascribed  to  another  cause.  It  is  also  noteworthy,  that  if 
your  finger  is  touched  ever  so  lightly  to  a  little  fur-seal  blubber,  it  will  smell  very  much  like 
that  which  I  have  appreciated  and  described  as  peculiar  to  their  breath,  which  arises  from  them 
when  they  are  driven,  only  it  is  a  little  stronger.  Both  the  young  and  old  Fur  Seals  have  this 
same  breath  taint  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

REVIEW  OF  STATEMENTS  CONCERNING  LIFE  IN  THE  ROOKERIES. — To  recapitulate  and  sum 
up  the  system  and  regular  method  of  life  and  reproduction  on  these  rookeries  of  Saint  Paul  and 
Saint  George,  as  the  Seals  seem  to  have  arranged  it,  I  shall  say  that — 

First.  The  earliest  bulls  land  in  a  negligent,  indolent  way,  at  the  opening  of  the  season,  soon 
after  the  rocks  at  the  water's  edge  are  free  from  ice,  frozen  snow,  etc.  This  is,  as  a  rule,  about 
the  1st  to  the  5th  of  every  May.  They  land  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  season  in  perfect 
confidence  and  without  fear;  they  are  very  fat,  and  will  weigh  at  an  average  500  pounds  each; 
some  stay  at  the  water's  edge,  some  go  to  the  tier  back  of  them  again,  and  so  on  until  the  whole 
rookery  is  mapped  out  by  them,  weeks  in  advance  of  the  arrival  of  the  first  female. 

Second.  That  by  the  10th  or  12th  of  June,  all  the  male  stations  on  the  rookeries  have  been 
mapped  out  and  fought  for,  and  held  in  waiting  by  the  "Seecatchie."  These  males  are,  as  a  rule, 
bulls  rarely  ever  under  six  years  of  age;  most  of  them  are  over  that  age,  being  sometimes  three, 
and  occasionally  doubtless  four,  times  as  old. 

Third.  That  the  cows  make  their  first  appearance,  as  a  class,  on  or  after  the  12th  or  15th  of 


LIFE  IN  THE  FUR  SEAL  ROOK  I.1MES.  97 

.June,  in  very  small  numbers;  but  rapidly  after  the  23d  and  25th  of  this  mouth,  every  year,  they 
begin  to  flock  up  in  MH-II  numbers  as  to  fill  the  harems  very  perceptibly;  and  by  the  8th  or  10th 
of  July,  they  have  all  come,  as  a  rule — a  few  stragglers  excepted.  The  average  weight  of  the 
females  now  will  not  be  much  more  than  eighty  to  ninety  pounds  each. 

Fourth.  That  the  breediug-season  is  at  its  height  from  the  10th  to  the  15th  of  July  every  year, 
and  that  it  subsides  entirely  at  the  end  of  this  month  and  early  in  August;  also,  that  its  method 
and  system  are  confined  entirely  to  the  land,  never  effected  in  the  sea. 

Fifth.  That  the  females  bear  their  first  young  when  they  are  three  years  old,  and  that  the 
period  of  gestation  is  nearly  twelve  months,  lacking  a  few  days  only  of  that  lapse  of  time. 

Sixth.  That  the  females  bear  a  single  pup  each,  and  that  this  is  born  soon  after  lauding;  no 
exception  to  this  rule  has  ever  been  witnessed  or  recorded. 

Seventh.  That  the  "Seecatchie"  which  have  held  the  harems  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  season,  leave  for  the  water  in  a  desultory  and  straggling  manner  at  its  close,  greatly 
emaciated,  and  do  not  return,  if  they  do  at  all,  until  six  or  seven  weeks  have  elapsed,  when  the 
regular  systematic  distribution  of  the  families  over  the  rookeries  is  at  an  end  for  the  season.  A 
general  medley  of  young  males  now  are  free,  which  come  out  of  the  water,  and  wander  over  all 
these  rookeries,  together  with  many  old  males,  which  have  not  been  on  seraglio  duty,  and  great 
numbers  of  the  females.  An  immense  majority  over  all  others  present  are  pups,  since  only  about 
25  per  cent,  of  the  mother-seals  are  out  of  the  water  now  at  any  one  time. 

Eighth.  That  the  rookeries  lose  their  compactness  and  definite  boundaries  of  true  breeding 
limit  and  expansion  by  the  25th  to  the  28th  of  July  every  year;  then,  after  this  date,  the  pups 
begin  to  haul  back,  and  to  the  right  and  left,  in  small  squads  at  first,  but  as  the  season  goes  on, 
by  the  18th  of  August,  they  depart  without  reference  to  their  mothers;  and  when  thus  scattered, 
the  males,  females,  and  young  swarm  over  more  than  three  and  four  times  the  area  occupied  by 
them  when  breeding  and  born  on  the  rookeries.  The  system  of  family  arrangement  and  uniform 
compactness  of  the  breeding  classes  breaks  up  at  this  date. 

Ninth.  That  by  the  8th  or  10th  of  August  the  pups  born  nearest  the  water  first  begin  to  learn 
to  swim ;  and  that  by  the  15th  or  20th  of  September  they  are  all  familiar,  more  or  less,  with  the 
exercise. 

Tenth.  That  by  the  middle  of  September  the  rookeries  are  entirely  broken  up;  confused, 
straggling  bands  of  females  are  seen  among  bachelors,  pups,  and  small  squads  of  old  males, 
crossing  and  recrossing  the  ground  in  an  aimless,  listless  manner.  The  season  now  is  over. 

Eleventh.  That  many  of  the  Seals  do  not  leave  these  grounds  of  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George 
before  the  end  of  December,  and  some  remain  even  as  late  as  the  12th  of  January;  but  that  by  the 
end  of  October  and  the  beginning  of  November  every  year,  all  the  Fur  Seals  of  mature  age — five 
and  six  years,  and  upward — have  left  the  islands.  The  younger  males  go  with  the  others:  many 
of  the  pups  still  range  about  the  islands,  but  are  not  hauled  to  any  great  extent  on  the  beaches  or 
the  flats.  They  seem  to  prefer  the  rocky  shore-margin,  and  to  lie  aa  high  up  as  they  can  get 
on  such  bluffy  rookeries  as  Tolstoi  and  the  Reef.  By  the  end  of  this  month,  November,  they  are, 
as  a  rule,  all  gone. 

Such  is  the  sum  and  the  substance  of  my  observations  which  relate  to  the  breeding-grounds 
alone  on  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George.  It  is  the  result  of  summering  and  wintering  on  them, 
and  these  definite  statements  I  make  with  that  confidence  which  one  always  feels,  when  he  speaks 
of  that  which  has  entered  into  his  mind  by  repeated  observation,  amd  has  been  firmly  grounded 
by  careful  deductions  therefrom. 

THE  "HoLLUsoHiCKifi"  OK  "BACHELOB"  SEALS:  A  DESCEIPTION.— I  now  call  the  attention 
7  F 


98  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  the  reader  to  auother  very  remarkable  feature  in  the  economy  of  the  seal-life  on  these  islands. 
The  great  herds  of  "  Holluschiekie," '  numbering  from  one- third  to  one  half,  perhaps,  of  the  whole 
aggregate  of  near  5,000,000  Seals  known  to  the  Pribylov  group,  are  never  allowed  by  the  "  See- 
catchie,'' under  the  pain  of  frightful  mutilation  or  death,  to  put  their  flippers  on  or  near  the  rookeries. 

By  reference  to  my  map,  it  will  be  observed  that  I  have  located  a  large  extent  of  ground — 
markedly  so  on  Saint  Paul — as  that  occupied  by  the  Seals'  "hauling-grounds";  this  area,  in  fact, 
represents  those  portions  of  the  island  upon  which  the  "Holluschickie"  roam  in  their  heavy 
squadrons,  wearing  oft1  and  polishing  the  surface  of  the  soil,  stripping  every  foot,  which  is  indicated 
on  the  chart  as  such,  of  its  vegetation  and  mosses,  leaving  the  margin  as  sharply  defined  on  the 
bluffy  uplands  and  sandy  flats  as  it  is  on  the  map  itself. 

The  reason  that  so  much  more  land  is  covered  by  the  "Holluschickie"  than  by  the  breeding 
Seals — ten  times  as  much  at  least — is  due  to  the  fact,  that  though  not  as  numerous,  perhaps,  as  the 
breeding  Seals,  they  are  tied  down  to  nothing,  so  to  speak — are  wholly  irresponsible,  and  roam 
hither  and  thither  as  caprice  and  the  weather  may  dictate.  Thus  they  wear  off  and  rub  down  a 
much  larger  area  than  the  rookery  Seals  occupy ;  wandering  aimlessly,  and  going  back,  in  some 
instances,  notably  at  English  Bay,  from  one-half  to  a  whole  mile  inland,  not  traveling  in  desultory 
files  along  winding,  straggling  paths,  but  sweeping  in  solid  platoons,  they  obliterate  every  spear  of 
grass  and  rub  down  nearly  every  hummock  in  their  way. 

DEFINITION  OF  "HOLLUSCHICKIE." — All  the  male  Seals,  from  six  years  of  age,  are  compelled 
to  herd  apart  by  themselves  and  away  from  the  breeding-grounds,  in  many  cases  far  away ;  the 
large  hauling-grounds  at  Southwest  Point  being  about  two  miles  from  the  nearest  rookery.  This 
class  of  Seals  is  termed  "Holluschickie"  or  the  "Bachelor"  Seals  by  the  natives,  a  most  fitting  and 
expressive  appellation. 

The  Seals  of  this  great  subdivision  are  those  with  which  the  natives  on  the  Pribylov  group  are 
the  most  familiar :  naturally  and  especially  so,  since  they  are  the  only  ones,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  thousand  pups,  and  occasionally  an  old  bull  or  two,  taken  late  in  the  fall  for  food  and  skins, 
which  are  driven  up  to  the  killing  grounds  at  the  village  for  slaughter.  The  reasons  for  this  exclu- 
sive attention  to  the  "Bachelors"  are  most  cogent,  and  will  be  given  hereafter  when  the  "business" 
is  discussed. 

LOCATING  THE  HAULING-GROUNDS:  PATHS  THROUGH  THE  ROOKERIES. — Since  the  "Hollu- 
schickie" are  not  permitted  by  their  own  kind  to  land  on  the  rookeries  and  stop  there,  they  have 
the  choice  of  two  methods  of  locating,  one  of  which  allows  them  to  rest  in  the  rear  of  the  rookeries, 
and  the  other  on  the  free  beaches.  The  most  notable  illustration  of  the  former  can  be  witnessed 
on  Eeef  Point,  where  a  pathway  ij  left  for  their  ingress  and  egress  through  a  rookery — a  path  left 
by  common  consent,  as  it  were,  between  the  harems.  On  these  trails  of  passage  they  come  and  go 
in  steady  files  all  day  and  all  night  during  the  season,  unmolested  by  the  jealous  bulls  which  guard 
the  seraglios  on  either  side  as  they  travel ;  all  peace  and  comfort  to  the  young  Seal  if  he  minds 
his  business  and  keeps  straight  on  up  or  down,  without  stopping  to  nose  about  right  or  left;  all 
woe  and  desolation  to  him,  however,  if  he  does  not,  for  in  that  event  he  will  be  literally  torn  in 
bloody  griping,  from  limb  to  limb,  by  the  vigilant  old  "  Seecatchie." 

Since  the  two  and  three  year  old  "Holluschickie"  come  up  in  small  squads  with  the  first  bulls 
in  the  spring,  or  a  few  days  later,  such  common  highways  as  those  between  the  rookery-ground 
and  the  sea  are  traveled  over  before  the  arrival  of  the  cows,  and  get  well  defined.  A  passage  for 
the  "Bachelors,"  which  I  took  much  pleasure  in  observing  day  after  day  at  Polavina,  another  at 
Tolstoi,  and  two  on  the  Reef,  in  1872,  were  entirely  closed  up  by  the  "Seecatchie"  and  obliterated, 


1  The  Russian  term  "  Holluschiclde  "  or  "Bachelors"  is  very  appropriate,  and  is  usually  employed. 


II  I;  SKA  I.  1 1AULING-G  HOUNDS.  99 

when  I  again  searched  lor  them  iii  1874.  Similar  passages  existed,  however,  on  several  of  the 
large  rookeries  of  Saint  Paul;  one  of  tho>c  ;ii  Tolstoi  exhibits  this  feature  very  finely,  for  here  the 
hauling-ground  extends  around  from  Knglish  Hay,  and  lies  up  back  of  the  Tolstoi  Rookery,  over  a 
tlat  and  rolling  summit,  from  l»o  to  P_'(»  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  young  males  and  yearlings 
of  both  sc\cs  come  through  and  between  the  harems,  at  the  height  of  the  breeding-season, on  two 
of  i  licse  narrow  pathways,  and  before  reaching  the  ground  above,  are  obliged  to  climb  up  an  almost 
abrupt  blutf,  which  they  do  by  following  and  struggling  in  the  water-runs  and  washes  which  are 
worn  into  its  face.  As  this  is  a  large  hauling-ground,  on  which,  every  favorable  day  during  the 
season,  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand  commonly  rest,  the  sight  of  skillful  seal-climbing  can  be 
witnessed  here  at  any  time  during  that  period;  and  the  sight  of  such  climbing  as  this  of  Tolstoi 
is  exceedingly  novel  and  interesting.  Why,  verily,  they  ascend  over  and  upon  places  where  an 
ordinary  man  might,  at  first  sight,  with  great  positiveness  say  that  it  was  utterly  impossible  for 
him  to  climli. 

HAULING-GROUNDS  ON  THE  BEACHES. — The  other  method  of  coming  ashore,  however,  is  the 
one  most  followed  and  favored.  In  this  case  they  avoid  the  rookeries  altogether,  and  repair  to  the 
unoccupied  beaches  between  them,  and  then  extend  themselves  out  all  the  way  back  from  the  sea, 
as  far  from  the  water,  iu  some  cases,  as  a  quarter  and  even  half  of  a  mile.  I  stood  on  the  Tolstoi 
sand  dunes  one  afternoon,  toward  the  middle  of  July,  and  had  under  my  eyes,  in  a  straightforward 
sweep  from  my  feet  to  Zapaduie,  a  million  and  a  half  of  Seals  spread  ont  on  these  hauling-gronnds. 
Of  these,  I  estimated  that  fully  one-half,  at  that  time,  were  pups,  yearlings,  and  "Holluschickie." 
The  rookeries  across  the  bay,  though  plainly  in  sight,  were  so  crowded,  that  they  looked  exactly  as 
I  have  seen  surfaces  appear  upon  which  bees  had  swarmed  in  obedience  to  that  din  and  racket 
made  by  the  watchful  apiarian,  when  he  desires  to  hive  the  restless  honey-makers. 

The  great  majority  of  yearlings  and  "Hollnschickie"  are  annually  hauled  out  and  packed 
thickly  over  the  sand-beach  and  upland  hanling-grounds,  which  lie  between  the  rookeries  on  Saint 
Paul  Island.  At  Saint  George  there  is  nothing  of  this  extensive  display  to  be  seen,  for  here  is 
only  it  tithe  of  the  seal-life  occupying  Saint  Paul,  and  no  opportunity  whatever  is  afforded  for  an 
amphibious  parade. 

GENTLENESS  OP  THE  SEALS. — Descend  with  me  from  this  sand-dune  elevation  of  Tolstoi,  and 
walk  into  that  drove  of  "Holluschickie  "  below  us;  we  can  do  it ;  yon  do  not  notice  much  confusion 
or  dismay  as  we  go  in  among  them ;  they  simply  open  out  before  us  and  close  in  behind  our  tracks, 
stirring,  crowding  to  the  right  and  left  as  we  go,  twelve  or  twenty  feet  away  from  us  on  each  side. 
Look  at  this  small  flock  of  yearlings,  some  one,  others  two,  and  even  three  years  old,  which  are 
coughing  and  spitting  around  us  now,  staring  up  in  our  faces  iu  amazement  as  we  walk  ahead; 
they  struggle  a  few  rods  out  of  our  reach,  and  then  come  together  again  behind  us,  showing  no 
further  sign  of  notice  of  ourselves.  You  could  not  walk  into  a  drove  of  hogs  at  Chicago,  without 
exciting  as  much  confusion  and  arousing  an  infinitely  more  disagreeable  tumult ;  and  as  for  sheep 
on  the  plains,  they  would  stampede  far  quicker.  Wild  animals  indeed !  You  can  now  readily 
understand  how  easy  it  is  for  two  or  three  men,  early  in  the  morning,  to  come  where  we  are,  turn 
aside  from  this  vast  herd  in  front  of  and  around  us  two  or  three  thousand  of  the  best  examples, 
and  drive  them  back,  up  and  over  to  the  village.  That  is  the  way  they  get  the  Seals;  there  is  not 
any  ''hunting"  or  "chasing"  or  "capturing"  of  Fur  Seals  on  these  islands. 

"HOLLUSCHICKIE"  DO  NOT  FAST. — While  the  yonng  male  Seals  undoubtedly  have  the  power 
of  going  for  lengthy  intervals  without  food,  they,  like  the  female  Seals  on  the  breeding-grounds, 
certainly  do  not  maintain  any  long  fasting  periods  on  land ;  their  coming  and  going  from  the  shore 
is  frequent  and  irregular,  largely  influenced  by  the  exact  condition  of  the  weather  from  day  to  day ; 


100  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

for  instance,  three  or  four  thick,  foggy  days  seem  to  call  them  out  from  the  water  by  hundreds  of 
thousands  upon  the  different  hauling-grounds  (which  the  reader  observes  recorded  on  my  map). 
In  some  cases,  I  have  seen  them  lie  there  so  close  together  that  scarcely  a  foot  of  ground,  over 
whole  acres,  is  bare  enough  to  be  seen;  then  a  clear  and  warmer  day  follows,  and  this  seal  covered 
ground,  before  so  thickly  packed  with  animal  life,  will  soon  be  almost  deserted:  comparatively  so 
at  least,  to  be  filled  up  immediately  as  before,  when  favorable  weather  shall  agaiii  recur.  They 
must  frequently  eat  when  here,  because  the  first  yearlings  and  "  Holluschickie"  that  appear  in  the 
spring  are  no  fatter,  sleeker,  or  livelier  than  they  are  at  the  close  of  the  season ;  in  other  words, 
their  condition,  physically,  seems  to  be  the  same  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  their  appearance 
here  during  the  summer  and  fall.  It  is  quite  different,  however,  with  the  "Seecatch";  we  know 
how  and  where  it  spends  two  to  three  months,  because  we  find  it  on  the  grounds  at  all  times,  day 
or  night,  during  that  period. 

SPORTS  AND  PASTIMES  OF  THE  YOUNG  "  BACHELORS." — A  small  flockof  the  young  Seals,  one 
to  three  years  old,  generally,  will  often  stray  from  these  hauling-ground  margins,  up  and  beyond, 
over  the  fresh  mosses  and  grasses,  and  there  sport  and  play  one  with  another,  just  as  little  puppy- 
dogs  do;  and  when  weary  of  this  gamboling  a  general  disposition  to  sleep  is  suddenly  manifested, 
and  they  stretch  themselves  out  and  curl  up  in  all  the  positions  and  all  the  postures  that  their 
flexible  spines  and  ball-and-socket  joints  will  permit.  They  seem  to  revel  in  the  unwonted  vege- 
tation, and  to  be  delighted  with  their  own  efforts  in  rolling  down  and  crushing  the  tall  stalks  of 
the  grasses  and  umbelliferous  plants;  one  will  lie  upon  its  back,  hold  np  its  hind-flippers,  and  lazily 
wave  them  about,  while  it  scratches,  or  rather  rubs,  its  ribs  with  the  fore-hands  alternately,  the 
eyes  being  tightly  closed  during  the  whole  performance;  the  sensation  is  evidently  so  luxurious 
that  it  does  not  wish  to  have  any  side-issue  draw  off  its  blissful  self-attention.  Another,  curled  up 
like  a  cat  on  a  rug,  draws  its  b»eath,  as  indicated  by  the  heaving  of  its  flanks,  quickly  but  regu 
larly,  as  though  in  heavy  sleep;  another  will  lie  flat  upon  its  stomach,  its  hind-flippers  covered  and 
concealed,  while  it  tightly  folds  its  fore-feet  back  against  its  sides,  just  as  a  fish  carries  its  pectoral 
fins — and  so  on  to  no  end  of  variety,  according  to  the  ground  and  the  fancy  of  the  animals. 

These  "Bachelor"  Seals  are,  I  am  sure,  without  exception,  the  most  restless  animals  in  the 
whole  brute  creation,  which  can  boast  of  a  high  organization.  They  frolic  and  lope  about  over  the 
grounds  for  hours,  without  a  moment's  cessation,  and  their  sleep,  after  this,  is  exceedingly  short, 
and  it  is  ever  accompanied  with  nervous  twitchings  and  uneasy  muscular  movements;  they  seem 
to  be  fairly  brimful  and  overrunning  with  spontaneity — to  be  surcharged  with  fervid,  electric  life. 

Another  marked  feature  which  I  have  observed  among  the  multitudes  of  "Holluschickie," 
which  have  come  under  my  personal  observation  and  auditory,  and  one  very  characteristic  of  this 
class,  is,  that  nothing  like  ill-humor  appears  in  all  of  their  playing  together;  they  never  growl  or 
bite,  or  show  even  the  slightest  angry  feeling,  but  are  invariably  as  happy,  one  with  another,  as 
can  be  imagined.  This  is  a  very  singular  trait;  they  lose  it,  however,  with  astonishing  rapidity, 
when  their  ambitiou  and  strength  develop  and  carry  them,  in  due  course  of  time,  to  the  rookery. 

The  pups  and  yearlings  have  an  especial  fondness  for  sporting  on  the  rocks  which  are  just  at 
the  water's  level  and  awash,  so  as  to  be  covered  and  uncovered  as  the  surf  rolls  in.  On  the  bare 
summit  of  these  wave-worn  spots,  they  will  struggle  and  clamber  in  groups  of  a  dozen  or  two  at  a 
time  throughout  the  whole  day,  in  endeavoring  to  push  off  that  one  of  their  number  which  has  just 
been  fortunate  enough  to  secure  a  landing;  the  successor  has,  however,  but  a  brief  moment  of 
exultation  in  victory,  for  the  next  roller  that  comes  booming  in,  together  with  the  pressure  by  its 
friends,  turns  the  table,  and  the  game  is  repeated,  with  another  Seal  on  top.  Sometimes,  as  well 
as  I  could  see,  the  same  squad  of  "Holluschickie"  played  for  a  whole  day  and  night,  without  a 


mi:  KIM;  SKAI,:  SPORTIVI-:  n.vr.irs. 

• 

moment's  cessation,  around  such  a  rock  as  this,  oft'  Nah  Speel  Rookery;  but  in  this  observation 
I  may  bo  mistaken,  because  the  Seals  cannot  be  told  apart. 

SKAI.S  AMONG  THE  BREAKERS.— The  graceful  unconcern  with  which  the  Fu^Seal  sports 
safely  in,  amon^,  and  under  booming  breakers,  during  the  prevalence  of  the  numerous  heavy  gales 
at  the  islands,  ha,s  afforded  me  many  consecutive  hours  of  spell-bound  attention  to  them,  absorbed 
in  watching  their  adroit  evolutions  within  the  foaming  surf,  that  seemingly,  every  moment,  would, 
in  its  fierce  convulsions,  dash  these  hardy  swimmers,  stunned  and  lifeless,  against  the  iron-bound 
foundations  of  the  shore,  which  alone  checked  the  furious  rush  of  the  waves.  Not  at  all.  Through 
the  wildest  and  most  ungovernable  mood  of  the  roaring  tempest  and  storm-tossed  waters  attending 
its  transit,  I  never  failed,  on  creeping  out,  and  peering  over  the  bluffs,  in  such  weather,  to  see 
squads  of  these  perfect  watermen — the  most  expert  of  all  amphibians — gamboling  in  the  seething, 
creamy  wake  of  mighty  rollers,  which  constantly  broke  in  thunder  tones  over  their  alert,  dodging 
heads.  The  swift  succeeding  seas  seemed,  every  instant,  to  poise  the  Seals  at  the  very  verge  of 
death.  Yet  the  Callorhinwi,  exulting  in  his  skill  and  strength,  bade  defiance  to  their  wrath,  and 
continued  his  diversions. 

SWIMMING  FEATS  OF  THE  "BACHELORS." — The  "Ilolluschickie"  are  the  champion  swimmers 
of  all  the  seal  tribe;  at  least,  when  in  the  water  around  the  islands,  they  do  nearly  every  fancy 
tumble  and  turn  that  can  be  executed.  The  grave  old  males  and  their  matronly  companions  sel- 
dom indulge  in  any  extravagant  display,  as  do  these  youngsters,  jumping  out  of  the  water  like  so 
many  dolphins,  describing  beautiful  elliptic  curves  sheer  above  its  surface,  rising  three  and  even 
four  feet  from  the  sea,  with  the  back  slightly  arched,  the  fore-flippers  folded  tightly  against  the 
sides,  and  the  hinder  ones  extended  and  pressed  together  straight  out  behind,  plumping  in  head 
first,  to  reappear  in  the  same  manner,  after  an  interval  of  a  few  seconds  of  submarine  swimming, 
like  the  flight  of  a  bird,  on  their  course.  Sea  Lions  and  Hair  Seals  never  jump  in  this  manner. 

All  classes  will  invariably  make  these  dolphin-jumps,  when  they  are  surprised  or  are  driven 
into  the  water,  curiously  turning  their  heads  while  sailing  in  the  air,  between  the  "rises"  and 
"plumps,"  to  take  a  look  at  the  cause  of  their  disturbance.  They  all  swim  rapidly,  with  the 
exception  of  the  pups,  and  may  be  said  to  dart  under  the  water  with  the  velocity  of  a  bird  on  the 
wing;  as  they  swim  they  are  invariably  submerged,  running  along  horizontally  about  two  or  three 
feet  below  the  surface,  guiding  their  course  by  the  hind-flippers  as  by  a  rudder,  and  propelling 
themselves  solely  by  the  fore-feet,  rising  to  breathe  at  intervals  which  are  either  very  frequent  or 
else  so  wide  apart  that  it  is  impossible  to  see  the  speeding  animal  when  he  rises  a  second  time. 

How  long  they  can  remain  under  water  without  taking  a  fresh  breath,  is  a  problem  which  I 
had  not  the  heart  to  solve,  by  instituting  a  series  of  experiments  at  the  island;  but  I  arn  inclined 
to  think  that,  if  the  truth  were  known  in  regard  to  their  ability  of  going  without  rising  to  breathe, 
it  would  be  considered  astounding.  On  this  point,  however,  I  have  no  data  worth  discussing,  but 
will  say  that,  in  all  their  swimming  which  I  have  had  a  chance  to  study,  as  they  passed  under  the 
water,  mirrored  to  my  eyes  from  the  bluff  above  by  the  whitish-colored  rocks  below  the  rookery 
waters  at  Great  Eastern  Rookery,  I  have  not  been  able  to  satisfy  myself  how  they  used  their  long, 
flexible  hind-feet,  other  than  as  steering  media.  If  these  posterior  members  have  any  perceptible 
motion,  it  is  so  rapid  that  my  eye  is  not  quick  enough  to  catch  it;  but  the  fore-flippers,  however, 
can  be  most  distinctly  seen,  as  they  work  in  feathering  forward  and  sweeping  flatly  back,  opposed 
to  the  water,  with  great  rapidity  and  energy.  They  are  evidently  the  sole  propulsive  power  of  the 
Fur  Seal  in  the  water,  as  they  are  its  main  fulcrum  and  lever  combined,  for  progression  on  land. 
I  regret  that  the  shy  nature  of  the  Hair  Seal  never  allowed  me  to  study  its  swimming  motions,  but 
it  seems  to  be  a  general  point  of  agreement  among  authorities  on  the  Phocidcr,  that  all  motion  in 


1.02  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

water  by  them  arises  from  that  power  which  they  exert  and  apply  with  the  hind  feet.  So  far  as 
my  observations  on  the  Hair  Seal  go,  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  this  opinion. 

All  their  movements  in  water,  whether  they  are  traveling  to  some  objective  point  or  are  in 
sport,  are  quick  and  joyous;  and  nothing  is  more  suggestive  of  intense  satisfaction  and  pure  physi- 
cal comfort,  than  is  that  spectacle  which  we  can  see  every  August,  a  short  distance  out  at  sea  from 
any  rookery  where  thousands  of  old  males  and  females  are  idly  rolling  over  in  the  billows  side  by 
side,  rubbing  and  scratching  with  their  fore-  and  hind-flippers,  which  are  here  and  there  stuck  up 
out  of  the  water  by  their  owners,  like  the  lateen-sails  of  the  Mediterranean  feluccas,  or,  when  the 
hind-flippers  are  presented,  like  a  "  cat-o'-nine  tails."  They  sleep  in  the  water  a  great  deal,  too, 
more  than  is  generally  supposed,  showing  that  they  do  not  come  on  land  to  rest — very  clearly  not. 

LEAPING  OUT  OF  WATER:  "  DOLPHIN- JUMPS." — As  I  never  detected  the  Sea  Lions  or  the  Hair 
Seals  leaping  from  the  water  around  these  islands,  in  those  peculiar  dolphin-like  jumps  which  I  have 
hitherto  described,  I  made  a  note  of  it  early  during  my  first  season  of  observation,  for  corrobora- 
tion  in  the  next.  It  is  so:  neither  the  Sea  Lion  nor  the  Hair  Seal  here  ever  leaped  from  the  ocean 
in  this  agile  and  singular  fashion  heretofore  described.  Allen,  so  conservative  usually,  seems,  how- 
ever, to  have  fallen  into  an  error  by  reading  the  notes  of  Mr.  J.  H.  Blake,  descriptive  of  the  Sea 
Lions  of  the  Gallapagos  Islands.  As  Allen  quotes  them  entire  in  a  foot-note,1  I  am  warranted  in 
calb'ng  attention  to  the  fact,  that  no  authentic  record  has  as  yet  been  made  of  such  peculiar 
swimming  by  Plwcidcc,  or  the  sea-lion  branch  of  the  OtariidcK,  My  notice  has  been  called  to  this 
mistake  by  Professor  Allen's  own  note,  page  367,  upon  a  quotation  from  my  work,  citing  Mr. 
Blake's  notes  above  referred  to,  which  are  themselves  very  interesting,  but  do  not  even  hint  at  a 
dolphin-jump. 

How  fast  the  Fur  Seal  can  swim,  when  doing  its  best,  I  am  naturally  unable  to  state.  I  do  know 
that  a  squad  of  young  "  Holluschickie"  followed  the  "Reliance,"  in  which  I  was  sailing,  down  from 
the  latitude  of  the  Seal  Islands  to  Akootan  Pass  with  perfect  ease,  laying  around  the  vessel,  while 
she  was  logging  straight  ahead,  14  knots  to  the  hour. 

The  Fur  Seal,  the  Sea  Lion,  the  Walrus,  and  the  Hair  Seal  all  swim  around  these  islands,  and 
in  these  waters,  submerged,  extended  horizontally  and  squarely  upon  their  stomachs.  I  make  this 
note  here  because  I  am  surprised  to  read2  that  the  Harp  (Hair)  Seal's  "favorite  position  when 
swimming,  as  affirmed  by  numerous  observers,  is  on  the  back  or  side,  in  which  position  they  also 
sleep  in  the  water."  Although  this  is  a  far-distant,  geographically  speaking,  relative  of  the  Hair 
Seal  of  Saint  Paul  Island,  yet  the  remarkable  difference  in  fashion  of  swimming  seems  hardly 
warranted,  when  the  two  animals  are  built  exactly  alike.  Still,  I  have  no  disposition  to  question, 
earnestly,  the  truth  of  the  statement,  inasmuch  as  I  have  learned  of  so  many  very  striking  radical 
differences  in  habits  of  anima's  as  closely  related,  as  to  pause,  ere  seriously  doubting  this  assertion 
that  a  Harp  Seal's  favorite  way  in  swimming  is  to  lie  upon  its  back  when  so  doing.  It  is  simply 
an  odd  contradiction  to  the  method  employed  by  the  Hair  Seals  of  the  North  Pacific  and  of  Bering 
Sea. 

While  I  am  unable  to  prove  that  the  Fur  Seal  possesses  the  power  to  swim  to  a  very  great  depth, 
by  actual  tests  instituted,  yet  I  am  free  to  say  that  it  certainly  can  dive  to  the  uttermost  depths, 
where  its  food-fish  are  known  to  live  in  the  ocean;  it  surely  gives  full  and  ample  evidence  of 
possessing  the  muscular  power  for  that  enterprise.  In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  cite 
the  testimony  of  Mr.  F.  Borthen,  the  proprietor  of  the  Fro  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islets  off 
Trondhjems  Fiord,  in  Norway;  this  gentleman  has  had  an  opportunity  of  watching  the  Gray  Seal 


1  History  of  Nortti  American  Pinnipeds,  p.  211. 
•ALLEN:  op.  tit.,  p.  651. 


TIIK  KM:  SKAI.:  I.I-:APIN»;  IIAIUTS.  103 

(JIalichteru*  ijrypun)  as  it  l>ivd  and  rested  on  these  rocks  duriiigan  extended  period  of  time.  Among 
many  interesting  notes  as  to  tbo  biology  of  this  large  Hair  Seal,  he  says:  "  As  a  proof  that  they  [the 
Seals]  fetrh  their  food  from  a  considerable  depth,  it  is  related  that  a  few  years  ago  a  young  one  was 
found  caught  by  one  of  the  hooks  of  a  tishing  line  that  was  placed  at  a  depth  of  between  seventy 
and  eighty  fathoms,  on  the  outer  side  of  the  islands.  Gray  Seals  have  several  times  been  seen  to 
come  up  to  the  surface  with  lings  (A/of pa  eulgaru)  and  other  deep-water  fishes  in  their  mouths, 
such  fishes  seldom  or  never  found  at  a  less  depth  than  between  sixty  and  seventy  fathoms."1 

CLASSING  THE  "HOLLUSCHICKIE"  BY  AGE.— When  the  "Holluschickie"  are  up  on  land  they 
can  be  readily  separated  into  their  several  classes  as  to  age  by  the  color  of  their  coats  and  size, 
when  noted,  namely,  the  yearlings,  the  two,  three,  four,  and  five  years  old  males.  When  the 
yearlings,  or  the  first  class,  haul  out,  they  are  dressed  just  as  they  were  after  they  shed  their  pup- 
coats  and  took  on  the  second  covering  during  the  previous  year  in  September  and  October;  and 
now,  as  they  come  out  in  the  spring  and  summer,  one  year  old,  the  males  aud  females  cannot  be 
distinguished  apart,  either  by  color  or  size,  shape  or  action ;  the  yearlings  of  both  sexes  have  the 
same  steel-gray  backs  and  white  stomachs,  aud  are  alike  in  behavior  and  weight. 

Next  year  these  yearling  females,  which  are  now  trooping  out  with  the  youthful  males  on  the 
hauling-grounds,  will  repair  to  the  rookeries,  while  their  male  companions  will  be  obliged  to  come 
again  to  this  same  spot. 

SHEDDING  THE  HAIR:  STAGEY  SEALS.— About  the  15th  and  20th  of  every  August,  they 
have  become  perceptibly  "stagey,"  or,  in  other  words,  their  hair  is  well  under  way  in  shedding. 
All  classes,  with  the  exception  of  the  pups,  go  through  this  process  at  this  time  every  year.  The 
process  requires  about  six  weeks  between  the  first  dropping  or  falling  out  of  the  old  over-hair,  and 
its  full  substitution  by  the  new.  This  takes  place,  as  a  rule,  between  August  1  and  September  28. 

The  fur  is  shed,  but  it  is  so  shed  that  the  ability  of  the  Seal  to  take  to  the  water  and  stay 
there,  and  not  be  physically  chilled  or  disturbed  during  the  process  of  molting,  is  never  impaired. 
The  whole  surface  of  these  extensive  breeding-grounds,  traversed  over  by  us  after  the  Seals  had 
gone,  was  literally  matted  with  the  shed  hair  and  fur.  This  under  fur  or  pelage  is,  however,  so 
fine  and  delicate,  aud  so  much  concealed  and  shaded  by  the  coarser  over  hair,  that  a  careless  eye 
or  a  superficial  observer  might  be  pardoned  in  failing  to  notice  the  fact  of  its  dropping  and  renewal. 

The  yearling  cows  retain  the  colors  of  the  old  coat  in  the  new,  when  they  shed  it  for  the  first 
time,  and  from  that  time  on,  year  after  year,  as  they  live  and  grow  old.  The  young  three-year- 
olds  aud  the  older  cows  look  exactly  alike,  as  far  as  color  goes,  when  they  haul  up  at  first  and  dry- 
out  on  the  rookeries,  every  June  and  July. 

The  yearling  males,  however,  make  a  radical  change  when  they  shed  for  the  first  time,  for 
they  come  out  from  their  "staginess"  in  a  nearly  uniform  dark  gray,  and  gray  aud  black  mixed, 
and  lighter,  with  dark  ocher  to  whitish  on  the  upper  and  under  parts,  respectively.  This  coat, 
next  year,  when  they  appear  as  two-year-olds,  shedding  for  the  three-year-old  coat,  is  a  very  much 
darker  gray,  and  so  on  to  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  season;  then  after  this,  with  age,  they  begin, 
to  grow  more  gray  and  brown,  with  rufous-ocher  and  whitish-tipped  over-hair  on  the  shoulders. 
Some  of  the  very  old  bulls  change  in  their  declining  years  to  a  uniform  shade  all  over  of  dull- 
grayish  ocher.  The  full  glory  and  beauty  of  the  Seal's  moustache  is  denied  to  him  until  he  baa 
attained  his  seventh  or  eighth  year. 

COMPARATIVE  SIZE  OF  FEMALES  AND  MALES.— The  female  does  not  get  her  full  growth  and 
weight  until  the  end  of  her  fourth  year,  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  but  she  does  most  of  her 

1  ROBKRT  COLJ.KTT  :  On  the  Gray  Seal.    Proceedings  Zoological  Society  London,  p»rt  •>)  18S1-  P- 3frt- 


104 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQtIATIC  ANIMALS. 


growing  longitudiually  in  the  first  two;  after  she  has  passed  her  fourth  and  fifth  years,  she  weighs 
from  thirty  to  fifty  pounds  more  than  she  did  in  the  days  of  her  youthful  maternity. 

The  male  does  not  get  his  full  growth  and  weight  until  the  close  of  his  seventh  year,  but 
realizes  most  of  it,  osteologically  speaking,  by  the  end  of  the  fifth ;  and  from  this  it  may  be 
perhaps  truly  inferred,  that  the  male  Seals  live  to  an  average  age  of  eighteen  or  twenty  years, 
if  undisturbed  in  a  normal  condition,  and  that  the  females  attain  ten  or  twelve  seasons  under  the 
same  favorable  circumstances.  Their  respective  weights,  when  fully  mature  and  fat  in  the  spring, 
will,  in  regard  to  the  male,  strike  an  average  of  from  four  to  five  hundred  pounds,  while  the 
females  will  show  a  mean  of  from  seventy  to  eighty  pounds. 

I  did  not  permit  myself  to  fall  into  error  in  estimating  this  matter  of  weight,  because  I  early 
found  that  the  apparent  huge  bulk  of  a  sea-lion  bull  or  fur-seal  male,  when  placed  upon  the 
scales,  shrank  far  below  my  notions:  I  took  a  great  deal  of  pains,  on  several  occasions,  during  the 
killing  season,  to  have  a  platform  scale  carted  out  into  the  field,  and  as  the  Seals  were  knocked 
down,  and  before  they  were  bled,  I  had  them  carefully  weighed,  constructing  the  following  table 
from  my  observations : 

Table  showing  the  weight,  size,  and  growth  of  the  Fur  Seal  (CaUorhinus  ursinm),  from  the  pup  to  the 

adult,  male  and  female. 


Age. 

Length. 

Girth. 

Gross 
weight  of 
body. 

Weight 
ofsBn. 

V 

Remarks. 

Jneha. 
12  to  14 

Inchet. 
10  to  10) 

Poundt. 
6to7J 

Pounds. 

24 

25 

30 

3 

88 

25 

39 

41 

45 

30 

58 

54 

52 

36 

87 

7 

58 

42 

135 

12 

65 

52 

200 

16 

72 

64 

280 

25 

Eight  to  twenty 
years. 

75  to  80 

70  to  71 

400  to  500 

45  to  50 

An  estimate  only,  calculating  on  their  weight  when  fat,  and  early  in  the  season. 

WEIGHT  OF  FEMALE  SEALS. — The  adult  females  will  correspond  with  the  three-year-old 
males  in  the  above  table,  the  younger  cows  weighing  frequently  only  seventy-five  pounds,  and 
many  of  the  older  ones  going  as  high  as  one  hundred  and  twenty,  but  an  average  of  eighty  to 
eighty-five  pounds  is  the  rule.  Those  specimens  of  the  females  which  I  have  weighed  were 
examples  taken  by  me  for  transmission  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  otherwise  I  should  not 
have  been  permitted  to  make  this  record  of  their  weight,  inasmuch  as  weighing  them  means  to 
kill  them;  and  the  law  and  the  habit,  or  rather  the  prejudice  of  the  entire  community  up  there,  is 
unanimously  in  opposition  to  any  such  proceeding,  for  they  never  touch  females  here,  and  never 
set  their  foot  on  or  near  the  breeding-grounds  on  such  an  errand.  It  will  be  noticed,  also,  that  I 
have  no  statement  of  the  weights  of  those  exceedingly  fat  and  heavy  males  which  first  appear  on 
the  breeding-grounds  in  the  spring;  those  which  I  have  referred  to,  in  the  table  above  given,  were 
very  much  heavier  at  the  time  of  their  first  appearance  in  May  and  June,  than  at  the  moment 
when  they  were  in  my  hands,  in  July;  but  the  cows,  in  the  other  class,  do  not  sustain  protracted 
fasting,  and  therefore  their  weights  may  be  considered  substantially  the  same  throughout  the  year. 

CHANGE  IN  WEIGHT. — Thus,  from  the  fact  that  all  the  young  Seals  and  females  do  not  change 
much  in  weight  from  the  time  of  their  first  coming  out  in  the  spring,  till  that  of  their  leaving  in 
the  fall  and  early  winter,  I  feel  safe  in  saying  that  they  feed  at  irregular  but  not  long  intervals, 


THE  FUR  SEAL:  CHANGES  IN  WEIGHT.  105 

during  the  time  that  they  are  hero  under  our  observation,  since  they  are  constantly  changing  from 
land  to  water  and  from  water  to  land,  day  in  and  day  out.  I  do  not  think  that  the  young  males 
fast  longer  than  a  week  or  ten  days  at  a  time,  as  a  rule. 

DISPERSAL  OF  THE  "  HOLLUSCHICKIE."— By  the  end  of  October  and  the  10th  of  November, 
the  great  mass  of  the  "Ilollnschickie,"  the  trooping  myriads  of  English  Bay,  Southwest  Point, 
Heef  Parade,  Lukannon  Sands,  the  table-lands  of  Polavina,  and  the  mighty  hosts  of  Novostashnah, 
at  Saint  Paul,  together  with  the  quota  of  Saint  George,  had  taken  their  departure  from  its  shores, 
and  had  gone  out  to  sea,  spreading  with  the  receding  schools  of  fish  that  were  now  returning  to 
the  deep  waters  of  the  North  Pacific,  where,  in  that  vast  expanse,  over  which  rolls  an  unbroken 
billow,  five  thousand  miles  from  Japan  to  Oregon,  they  spend  the  winter  and  the  early  spring, 
until  they  reappear  and  break  up,  with  their  exuberant  life,  the  dreary  winter  isolation  of  the  land 
which  gave  them  birth. 

TASTE  OF  THE  SEALS  IN  THE  MATTER  op  WEATHER. — A  few  stragglers  remain,  however, 
as  late  as  the  snow  and  ice  will  permit  them  to,  in  and  after  December;  they  are  all  down  by  the 
water's  edge  then,  and  haul  up  entirely  on  the  rocky  beaches,  deserting  the  sand  altogether;  but 
the  first  snow  that  falls  makes  them  very  uneasy,  and  I  have  seen  a  large  hauling-ground  so 
disturbed  by  a  rainy  day  and  night,  that  its  hundreds  of  thousands  of  occupants  fairly  deserted 
it.  The  Fur  Seal  cannot  bear,  and  will  not  endure,  the  spattering  of  sand  into  its  eyes,  which 
always  accompanies  the  driving  of  a  rain-storm";  they  take  to  the  water,  to  reappear  when  the 
nuisance  shall  be  abated. 

The  weather  in  which  the  Fur  Seal  delights  is  cool,  moist,  foggy,  and  thick  enough  to  keep  the 
sun  always  obscured,  so  as  to  cast  no  shadows.  Such  weather,  which  is  the  normal  weather  of 
Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George,  continued  for  a  few  weeks  in  June  and  July,  brings  up  from  the  sea 
millions  of  Fur  Seals.  But,  as  I  have  before  said,  a  little  sunshine,  which  raises  the  temperature 
as  high  as  50°  to  55°  Fahr.,  will  send  them  back  from  the  hauling-grouuds  almost  as  quickly  as 
they  came.  Fortunately  these  warm,  sunny  days  on  the  Pribylov  Islands  are  so  rare  that  the 
Seals  certainly  can  have  no  ground  of  complaint,  even  if  we  may  presume  they  have  any  at  all. 
Some  curious  facts  in  regard  to  their  selection  of  certain  localities  on  these  islands,  and  their 
abandon  men  t  of  others,  I  will  discuss  in  a  succeeding  chapter,  descriptive  of  the  rookeries ;  this 
chapter  is  illustrated  by  topographical  surveys  made  by  myself. 

ALBINOS. — I  looked  everywhere  and  constantly,  when  treading  my  way  over  acres  of  ground 
which  were  fairly  covered  with  seal-pups,  and  older  ones,  for  specimens  that  presented  some 
abnormity,  that  is,  monstrosities,  albinos,  etc.,  such  as  I  have  seen  in  our  great  herds  of  stock ;  but 
I  was,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  unable  to  note  anything  of  the  kind.  I  have  never  seen  any 
malformations  or  "monsters"  among  the  pups  and  other  classes  of  the  Fur  Seals,  nor  have  the 
natives  recorded  anything  of  the  kind,  so  far  as  I  could  ascertain  from  them.  I  saw  only  three 
albino  pups  among  the  multitudes  on  Saint  Paul,  and  none  on  Saint  George.  They  did  not  differ, 
in  any  respect,  from  the  normal  pups  in  size  and  shape.  Their  hair,  for  the  first  coat,  was  a  dull 
ocher  all  over;  the  fur  whitish,  changing  to  a  rich  brown,  the  normal  hue;  the  flippers  and  muzzle 
were  a  pinkish  flesh-tone  in  color,  and  the  iris  of  the  eye  sky-blue.  When  they  shed  the  following 
year,  they  are  said  to  have  a  dirty,  yellowish- white  color,  which  makes  them  exceedingly  conspic- 
uous when  mixed  in  among  a  vast  majority  of  black  pups,  gray  yearlings,  and  "Holluschiekie"  of 
their  kind. 

MONSTROSITIES  AMONG  THE  SEALS'. — Touching  this  question  of  monstrosities,  I  was  led  to 
examine  a  number  of  alleged  examples  presented  to  my  attention  by  the  natives,  who  took  some 
interest,  in  their  sluggish  way,  as  to  what  I  was  doing  here.  They  brought  me  an  albino  fur-seal 


106  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

pap,  nothing  else,  and  gravely  assured  me  that  they  knew  it  owed  its  existence  to  the  fecundation 
of  a  sea-lion  cow  by  a  fur-seal  bull;  if  not  so,  how  could  it  get  that  color!  I  was  also  confronted 
with  a  specimen — a  full  and  finely  grown  four-year-old  Callorhinus  which  had,  at  some  earlier  day, 
lost  its  testicles  either  by  fighting  or  accident  while  at  sea;  perhaps  shaven  off  by  the  fangs  of  a 
saw-toothed  shark,  and  also  gravely  asked  to  subscribe  to  the  presence  of  a  hermaphrodite ! 

Undoubtedly  some  abnormal  birth  shapes  must  make  their  appearance  occasionally ;  but  at 
no  time  while  I  was  there,  searching  keenly  for  any  such  manifestation  of  malformation  on  the 
rookeries,  did  I  see  a  single  example.  The  morphological  symmetry  of  the  Fur  Seal  is  one  of  the 
most  salient  of  its  characteristics,  viewed  as  it  rallies  here  in  such  vast  numbers,  but  the  osteological 
differentiation  and  asymmetry  of  this  animal  are  equally  surprising. 

WHERE  DO  THE  SEALS  DIE  ? — It  is  perfectly  evident  that  a  large  percentage  of  this  immense 
number  of  Seals  must  die  every  year  from  natural  limitation  of  life.  They  do  not  die  on  these 
islands ;  that  much  I  am  certain  of.  Not  one  dying  a  natural  death  could  I  find  or  hear  of  on  the 
grounds ;  they  evidently  lose  their  lives  at  sea,  preferring  to  sink  with  the  riyor  mortis  into  the 
cold,  blue  depths  of  the  great  Pacific,  or  beneath  the  green  waves  of  Bering  Sea,  rather  than  to 
encumber  and  disfigure  their  summer  haunts  on  the  Pribylov  Islands. 

THE  REPRODUCTION  OF  THE  FUR  SEAL.' — By  treating  this  subject  at  length,  my  object  is  to 
fix  attention  upon  several  points  connected  with  the  reproduction  of  the  Fur  Seal  which  have  vital 
importance  to  its  relation  with,  and  residence  upon,  the  breeding-grounds  of  these  islands  under 
discussion.  In  the  first  place,  naturalists  generally  have  taken  notice  of  the  generative  appara- 
tus exhibited  by  the  Phocidce  ;  and,  while  they  have  spoken  at  length  in  anatomical  detail  and 
discussion  of  the  male  organs  of  the  Otariidce,  yet  they  exhibit  a  strange  neglect  or  oversight 
with  respect  to  those  of  the  female.  The  singular  cloaca!  arrangement  of  the  female  organs  of 
generation  in  the  Phocidce  has  excited  comment  and  description  from  the  earliest  times. 

The  modification  of  the  generative  apparatus  peculiar  to  the  male  Otariidce,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  those  organs  possessed  by  the  male  Phocidcc,  has  been  noticed  to  some  extent  by  several 
authorities2  prior  to  the  date  of  this  publication;  but,  while  calling  attention  to  this  marked  change 
in  the  morphology  of  the  male  organs  of  the  Otariida;,  they  are  silent  in  regard  to  the  fact  that, 
though  the  Phocidce  are  very  distinct,  by  the  armature  of  the  males,  from  the  Otariidce,  yet  the 
cloacal  arrangement  of  the  females  in  both  genera  is  identical.  This  is  in  itself,  as  I  view  it,  quite 
as  remarkable  with  regard  to  the  females  as  it  is  noteworthy  in  respect  to  the  males.  Surely  the 
wonderful  modification  of  the  physical  structure  of  the  male  Fur  Seal  from  that  of  his  kindred, 
the  Hair  Seal,  is  very  great ;  and  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  his  generative  organs  are  pro- 
nounced, in  common  with  all  the  others,  distinct.  So  the  females  differ,  physically,  in  every  respect, 
to  as  great  a  degree,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  intra-uterine  life,  and  the  cloacal  form  of 
the  external  generative  organs. 

NECESSITY  OF  UNDERSTANDING  THE  SUBJECT. — This  subject  of  the  method  of  reproduction, 

'When  they  the  approaching  time  perceive, 
They  flee  the  deep,  and  watery  pastures  leave : 
On  'the  dry  ground,  far  from  the  swelling  tide, 
Bring  forth  their  young,  and  on  the  shores  abide 
Till  twice  six  times  they  see  the  Eastern  gleams 
Brighten  the  hills,  and  tremble  on  the  streams, 
The  thirteenth  morn,  soon  as  the  early  dawn 
Hangs  out  its  crimson  folds  or  spreads  its  lawn, 
No  more  the  fields  and  lofty  coverts  please, 
Each  hugs  her  own,  and  hastes  to  rolling  seas. 

— Old  Roman  poem :  Hair  Sealt  of  the  Mediterranean. 
»  ALLEN:  North  American  Pinnipeds,  1880.    MURIE:  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.,  1869-72. 


THE  FUR  SEAL:  REPRODUCTION.  107 

as  carried  out  by  the  Fur  Seals  on  the  breeding-grounds  of  the  Pribylov  Islands,  should  be  under- 
stood distinctly  and  authoritatively,  before  the  truth  or  falsity  of  certain  hypotheses,  which  depend 
upon  it,  can  be  intelligently  discussed.  The  general  impression  and  commonly-received  opinion 
in  the  popular,  as  well  as  the  scientific  world,  is  that  the  amphibian  life  of  the  ocean  breeds  in  the 
water  thereof;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  fertilization  of  the  seal-life  takes  place  by  coition  therein, 
and  that  the  young  may  be  born  in  this  watery  element,  safely  nurtured  and  cared  for  by  their 
mothers.1  No  end  of  fanciful  rumor  and  romance  has  been  published  touching  this  point.  We  are 
told  that  some  man  of  great  credibility  has  seen  Seals  in  the  water,  with  their  new-born  clasped 
to  their  bosoms,  rising  in  the  waves  to  look  at  their  disturbers,  and  then  sinking,  to  carry  away 
their  young  to  safety  and  quiet.  To  this  fanciful  description,  undoubtedly,  the  mermaid  owes  its 
origin  in  our  recent  mythology ;  for  the  Hair  Seal,  in  especial,  has  a  bland,  round,  full  physiog- 
nomy ;  the  large  circular  eyes  are  placed  more  in  front  of  the  skull  than  in  the  crania  of  any  other 
genera  of  its  kind.  Such  a  head  popping  up  suddenly  in  front  of  the  mariner  might  naturally 
suggest  a  human  face;  and  it  needs  but  a  very  little  embellishment  to  trim  it  with  long  hair, 
place  inammaB  on  its  bosom,  and  all  the  other  peculiar  attributes  of  the  yellow-haired  mermaid 
so  celebrated  in  song  and  art. 

FINE  OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  OBSERVATION. — Therefore,  what  I  wish  to  distinctly  settle  with 
regard  to  the  reproduction  of  the  Fur  Seal,  which  I  now  have  under  consideration,  is  that  mooted 
question  as  to  the  place,  the  manner,  and  the  time  of  the  union  of  the  two  sexes  necessary  for  the 
reproduction  of  its  kind.  I  have  no  personal  knowledge  of  the  system  of  fertilization  employed, 
with  reference  to  it,  by  the  Phocidce;.  hence  I  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  it.J  What  I  have 

1  Reasonably  enough,  the  closet  naturalist,  no  matter  how  able,  will  be  deceived  now  and  then  in  this  manner  by 
untrustworthy  statements  made  by  those  who  are  supposed  to  know  by  personal  observation  of  what  they  affirm. 

As  an  apt  illustration  of  this  confusion  which  the  best  of  closet  natnralists  are  thrown  into  by  untrustworthy 
information  touching  this  very  matter,  I  may  cite  the  case  of  Hamilton,  who,  in  1839,  while  writing  of  the  Fur  Seal  of 
Cook  and  Forster,  discovered  in  particular  by  them  on  South  Georgia,  in  1771,  declares  it  to  be  no  Fur  Seal  at  all !  He 
feels  warranted  in  doing  so,  because  one  Captain  Weddell  says  so.  This  authority  was  a  hardy  sailor  who  made  sealing 
a  specialty  in  the  Antarctic  during  I-.'it-'-ji;.  Hamilton,  after  specifying  the  wide  range  of  this  Arctocephalu*,  "at 
Dusky  Bay,  New  Zealand,  in  New  Georgia,  Staten  Land,  Juan  Fernandez,  and  the  Gallapagos,"  goes  on  to  say : 

"  It  will  be  observed  that  several  of  these  authorities,  particularly  Damptur  and  Cook,  speak  of  the  fineness  of  the 
fur  of  this  Seal.  It  is  probably  these  statements  which  have  led  the  able  author  of  the  article  Phoque  in  the  "Diet. 
Classiqne  d'Hist.  Natarelle  "  to  state  that  this  Seal  is  the  Fur  Seal  of  commerce.  His  words  are  :  '  L'otarii  de  Forster 
est  le  Phoqne  a  fourrures  des  pecheara  europeens.'  But  this,  we  suspect,  is  a  mistake.  No  one  will  doubt  that  Captain 
\\Yililrll  was  familiar  with  the  Fur  Seal.  He  was  also  familiar  with  the  Ursine  Seal,  both  as  encountered  in  its  haimU 
and  as  described  by  naturalists ;  and  yet,  when  speaking  of  the  Ursine  Seal  (so  denominated  by  him),  he  never  once 
hints  that  its  fur  has  any  peculiar  value,  but  the  contrary." — Amphibious  Carnivora.  Edinbnrg,  1339,  p.  265. 

Thus  Hamilton  quotes  this  old  sailor,  Weddell,  throughout  his  whole  memoir,  with  the  utmost  tnist;  and  in  the 
same  manner  others  have  been  cited.  They  are  worthless,  unless  taken  "  cum  grano  salis."  The  "  long  and  short"  of 
it  is  this :  when  most  of  the  seafaring  sealers  and  whalers  are  in  the  field,  they  are  blind  to  everything  except  the 
mere  capture  of  their  quarry.  When  they  return,  they  are  importuned,  usually  at  first,  for  details  which,  in  fact,  they 
have  never  thought  of,  while  away. 

9  "  The  inconsequential  numbers  of  the  Hair  Seal  around  and  on  the  Pribylov  Islands,  seem  to  be  characteristic  of 
all  Alaskan  waters  and  the  northwest  coast ;  also,  the  Photida  are  equally  scant  on  the  Asiatic  littoral  margins.     Only 
the  following  four  species  are  known  to  exist  throughout  the  entire  extent  of  that  vast  marine  area,  viz : 
PHOCA  VITUUNA— Everywhere,  between  Bering  Straits  and  California. 
Pnocx  FffiTiDA— Plover  Bay,  Norton's  Sound,  Knskokvim  month,  and  Bristol  Bay,  of  Bering  Sea ;  Cape  Startle 

Kammin,  Arctic  Ocean  to  Point  Barrow. 

ERIONATHUS  BARBATUS— Kamtchatkan  coast,  Norton's  Sound,  Knskokvim  month,  and  Bristol  Bay,  of  Bering  Sea. 
HISTRIOPHOCA  FASCIATA— Yukon  month,  and  coast  south  to  Bristol  Bay,  of  Bering  Sea  and  drifting  ice  therein. 

Then,  in  addition  to  this,  Mr.  Ivan  Pi-trov,  the  special  agent  of  the  Tenth  Census,  United  State*  Army,  report* 
the  presence  of  a  land-locked  Seal  in  the  fresh  waters  of  Iliamna  Lake,  and  also  in  Lake  Walker.  It  may  be  as  distinct 
from  any  of  the  Phocid<r  above  enumerated  as  is  the  Baikal  or  the  Caspian  Seals;  and,  as  such,  I  suggest  that  it  shall 
receive  the  name  of  I'hoca  petroH,  when  it  is  eventually  secured,  and  if  identified  as  new  to  our  liste. — Preliminary 
Report  of  Progress,  Census  of  Alaska :  Ivan  Petrov,  Washington,  December,  1880,  p.  46. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  a  somewhat  curious  fact  that  the  description  which  Aristotle  [300  B.  C.]  give*  of  the 


108  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

heard  from  the  natives  would  point  clearly  to  the  fact,  that  they  know  nothing  really  worthy  of 
scientific  attention ;  but  in  regard  to  the  Fur  Seal  I  have  had  unusual  advantages,  and  an  extended 
experience,  ranging  over  four  consecutive  breeding-seasons,  in  which  thousands  of  these  animals, 
all  perfectly  in  accord,  have  passed  within  the  scope  of  my  observation  and  record. 

GENITALIA  OF  THE  MALE  AND  FEMALE  FUR  SEAL. — Considering  the  male  Callorhinus: 
When  it  is  first  born  the  external  organs  of  generation  are  not  evidenced  to  the  sight,  and  it 
requires  a  nice  touch  to  find  them  under  the  skin.  It  is  not  until  this  animal  has  rounded  off  the 
second  year  of  its  existence,  that  the  testes  descend  and  become  externally  exposed:  first  faintly, 
but  rapidly  succeeding  to  the  same  prominence  and  same  relative  position  that  they  occupy  in  the 
example  of  the  dog.  When  this  creature  becomes  three  and  four  years  old,  its  testes  hang  pendant 
in  a  somewhat  flabby  scrotum,  which  in  the  old  male  is  as  pendulous  as  that  of  an  ordinary 
bull;  the  sack  is  smooth  and  shiny,  entirely  devoid  of  hair,  and  black,  with  a  slightly  wrinkled 
surface.  The  sheath  of  the  penis  is  so  merged  with  the  skin  of  the  abdomen  that  it  does  not  lie 
ribbed  there  and  prominent  as  in  the  other  carnivora ;  but  it  is  an  erectile  organ,  with  a  bony 
skeleton,  measuring,  when  fully  developed,  from  five  to  seven  inches  in  length.  The  females  have 
their  parts  of  generation  exactly  as  they  are  described  by  Owen  and  Huxley — which  descriptions 
are  based  upon  examples  of  the  well-known  Phocidcc;  their  external  organs  are  entirely  concealed, 
by  the  fact  that  the  rectum  terminates  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  vulva;  and  a  common,  somewhat 
flaccid,  sphincter  closes  both  apertures.  In  other  words,  the  anal  and. genital  openings  of  the 
female  are  united  into  a  single  one,  through  which  the  regular  secretions  of  the  body  pass,  and  the 
forces  of  reproduction  are  received  and  introduced.  Thus,  while  the  female  PJwcidce  correspond 
in  this  respect  with  the  female  Otariidce,  yet  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  male  organs  in 
the  Otariida;  are  quite  marked,  when  contrasted  with  those  peculiar  to  the  Phocidas.1 

No  EVIDENCE  OF  BUTTING  ODORS:  SPEEDY  BIRTH  OF  PUPS. — When  the  male  Fur  Seals 
or  "  Seecatchie,"  as  the  natives  call  them — a  term  implying  strength  and  virility — arrive  first 
upon  the  breeding  grounds,  long  before  the  coming  of  the  females,  as  described  in  a  preceding 
chapter  of  this  monograph,  they  give  no  evidence  of  being  in  rut ;  nor  do  they  emit  any  odor 
during  the  rest  of  the  season  which  at  all  resembles  the  "  rutting  odor  "  ascribed  to  many  animals. 
I  call  attention  to  this  because  a  common  blunder  has  been  made,  and  likely  will  be  made,  whereby 
the  smell  upon  the  rocks,  so  far-reaching  and  so  offensive,  is  called  the  "  rutting  funk."  It  is,  as 
I  have  also  stated,  due  to  other  causes  which  are  conspicuous  and  which  have  been  specified  here- 
tofore. When  the  females  came  to  land  upon  the  breeding  grounds,  I  noticed  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  virgin  cows,  they  were  heavy  with  young ;  that  the  period  of  their  gestation  must 
soon  culminate  by  the  birth  of  their  offspring,  which  usually  took  place  within  a  couple  of  hours 
after  they  reached  the  shore,  or  within  as  many  days  at  the  most.  Frequently  I  have  observed 
the  mothers  land,  and  ere  they  were  dry  the  young  would  be  expelled ;  and  the  thought  rose  then 
to  my  mind  "  how  wonderfully  well-timed  the  return  of  those  gravid  cows  was " — for,  in  spite  of 
tempests  and  currents,  and  many  of  them  quite  two  and  three  thousand  miles  from  their  winter 

Hair  Seal  (Monachus  dibit-enter,  very  likely)  is,  in  most  respects,  correct ;  while  Bnffon,  the  celebrated  French  zoologist, 
as  late  as  1785,  has  not,  despite  his  vast  advantages,  been  nearly  as  accurate  in  his  treatment  of  the  Pinnipeds.  That 
this  old  Grecian  philosopher,  three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  should  have  done  better  in  this  respect 
than  that  world-wide  distinguished  academician  did  more  than  two  thousand  years  afterward,  affords  an  entertaining 
suggestion  as  to  the  alleged  degeneracy  of  the  present  age,  especially  so  since  the  monument  erected  over  Buffon's 
remains  bears  au  inscription  which  declares  that  he  possessed  •'  a  mind  equal  to  the  majesty  of  nature."  (!) 

1  See  Owen's  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  vol.  iii,  p.  699,  London,  1868.    The  Phocidce  are  the  subject  of  this  eminent 
author's  examination  and  report. 


Till:    I  IK  SEAL:  Sl'KKDY  B1ETH.  109 

feeding  places,  yet  they  reach  this  land-speck  in  Bering  Sea  just  in  season  for  instant  delivery  after 
arrival." 

PANGS  OF  IMPENDING  PARTURITION  ALONE  PROMPT  FEMALES  TO  LAND.— The  females  do 
not  land  until  they  are  obliged  to  by  the  precipitation  of  this  event  of  parturition.  They  land 
upon  the  breeding  grounds  of  Saint  Paul  just  as  they  come  in  contact  with  the  shore — guided  and 
influenced  at  the  moment  of  approach  to  the  islands  by  only  one  ruling  thought,  and  that  is,  to 
reach  as  near  as  possible  the  locality  upon  which  they  resided  in  former  years.  Soon  after  lauding, 
which  I  have  heretofore  described,  the  birth  of  the  young  takes  place,  and  in  this  wise:  the  cow 
shows,  an  hour  or  so  prior  to  delivery,  great  nervous  agitation ;  she  trembles  all  over ;  her  eyes 
blinking,  and  flippers  twitching;  rolling,  stretching,  and  thoroughly  uneasy,  until  the  labor-pains. 
If  the  ground  where  she  happens  to  rest  is  rocky,  she  manages  to  lie  upon  the  top  of  a  bowlder, 
her  hind-flippers  working  spasmodically  with  a  wavy,  fan-like  motion  backward  and  forward,  as 
she  rests  full  upon  her  stomach,  with  the  fore-flippers  alternately  pressed  tightly  to  the  rock  or 
closely  to  her  sides,  like  pectoral  fins ;  she  sways  her  head,  her  eyes  are  partly  closed  and  her 
mouth  slightly  opened  in  panting,  during  the  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  which  usually  ensue 
between  the  first  contraction  of  the  uterus,  until  the  expulsion  of  the  intra-uterine  life  takes  place. 
These  labor-pains  are  not,  in  my  opinion,  at  all  very  severe  or  abnormal  in  any  respect.  The  pup 
carries  with  it,  at  the  moment  of  birth,  the  entire  placental  pouch  or  "after-birth."  This  envelope 
is  broken,  usually  by  the  mother,  in  forcing  the  labor  and  during  the  first  expulsion  of  the  pup's 
head,  which  is  always  presented  in  advance.  Tho  little  "Kotick"  may  be  said  to  fairly  drop  upou 

1  If  there  is  any  one  faculty  better  developed  than  the  others  in  the  brain  of  the  intelligent  CaUarkinut,  it  must  bo 
its  "bump  "  of  locality.  The  unerring  directness  with  which  it  pilots  its  nnnnal  course  back  through  thousands  of 
miles  of  watery  waste  to  these  spots  of  its  birth— small  fly-dots  of  land  in  the  map  of  Bering  8t>a  and  the  North 
Pacific — is  a  very  remarkable  exhibitiou  of  its  skill  in  navigation.  While  the  Russians  were  established  at  Bodega 
and  Ross,  California,  sixty  years  ago,  they  frequently  shot  Fur  Seals  at  sea,  when  hunting  the  Sea  Otter  off  the  coast 
between  Fuca  81  rails  and  the  Farallones.  Many  of  these  animals,  late  in  May  and  early  in  June,  were  so  far  advanced 
in  pregnancy  that  it  was  deemed  certain  by  their  captors  that  some  shore  must  be  close  at  hand  upon  which  the  near 
impending  birth  of  the  pnp  took  place ;  thereupon,  the  Russians  searched  over  every  rod  of  the  roast-line  of  th«  main- 
land and  the  archipelago,  between  California  and  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  vainly  seeking  everywhere  there  fur  a  fur- 
seal  rookery.  They  were  slow  to  understand  how  animals,  so  close  to  the  throes  of  parturition,  could  strike  out  into 
broad  ocean  to  swim  fifteen  hundred  or  two  thousand  miles  within  a  week  or  ten  days  ere  they  landed  on  the  Pribylov 
group,  and  almost  immediately  after  gave  birth  to  their  offspring. 

There  is  no  record  made  which  shows  that  the  Fur  Seals  have  any  regular  or  direct  course  of  travel  np  or  down  the 
northwest  coast.  They  are  principally  seen  in  the  open  sea,  eight  or  ten  miles  from  land,  outside  the  heads  of  the 
Straits  of  Fuca,  and  from  there  as  far  north  as  Dixon  Sound.  During  May  and  June  they  are  aggregated  in  greatest 
numbers  here,  though  examples  are  reported  the  whole  year  around.  The  only  Fur  Seal  which  I  saw,  or  which  was 
noticed  by  the  crew  of  the  Reliance,  iu  her  cruise,  Juno  1  to  9,  from  Port  Townsend  to  Sitka,  was  a  solitary  "Hollu- 
sehack"  that  we  disturbed  at  sea  well  out  from  the  lower  end  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island;  then,  from  Sitka  to  Kadiak, 
we  saw  nothing  of  the  Fur  Seal  until  we  hauled  off  from  Point  Greville,  and  corning  down  by  Ookamok  Islet,  a  squad 
of  agile  "Holliischii-kit'"  suddenly  appeared  among  a  school  of  hump-back  whales,  sporting  in  the  most  extravagant 
manner  around,  under,  and  even  leaping  over  the  wholly  indifferent  cetacea.  From  this  eastern  extremity  of  Kadiak 
Inland  clear  up  to  the  Pribylov  group  we  daily  saw  them  here  and  there  in  small  bands,  or  also  as  lonely  voyageura, 
all  headed  for  one  goal.  We  were  badly  outsailed  by  them  ;  indeed,  the  chorus  of  a  favorite  "South  Sea  pirate's" 
song,  as  incessantly  sung  on  the  cutter's  "'tween  decks,"  seemed  to  have  special  adaptation  to  them  : 

"For  they  bore  down  from  the  windwi'ard, 
A  sailln'  wren  knot*  to  our  fonr'n." 

The  ancient  Greeks  seemed  to  have  been  impressed  somewhere  by  rookery  odors,  for  old  Homer  say* — 

' '  The  web-footed  seals  forsake  the  stormy  swell. 
And,  sleeping  in  herds,  exhale  nauseous  smell." 

Where  this  illustrious  bard  sniffed  up  this  characteristic  unpleasantness  of  breeding-seals,  I  am  at  loss  to  say. 
The  Pribylov  Islands  and  the  great  Antarctic  grounds  were,  as  far  from  that  poet  then  as  the  moon  is  from  us  to-day. 
He  must  have  been  introduced  to  it  within  the  confines  of  th«  Caspian  Sea,  or  else  credibly  informed,  by  trustworthy 
authority,  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  large  herds  of  Phocidir  in  those  waters.  Small  bands,  however,  of  Hair  Seals  breed 
now,  as  they  bred  then,  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas.  He  may  have  stumbled  upon  a  few  of  them  while 
provoking  his  muse  in  lonely  travels  over  Grecian  pelagic  shores. 


110  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

its  feet,  for  the  moment  it  appears  from  within  the  natal  walls  it  seems  to  be  in  full  possession  of 
all  its  faculties;  its  eyes  are  wide  open,  and  its  voice  is  raised  in  weak,  husky  bleatings,  as  it  feebly 
paddles  around,  still  attached  to  the  umbilical  cord,  which  it,  by  its  own  efforts,  pulls  asunder  as 
it  flounders  about  on  the  rocks  or  ground  of  the  rookery.  The  mother,  in  the  mean  time,  gives  her 
offspring  none  of  that  attention  so  marked  in  the  case  of  the  Ganidce  and  other  carnivores,  not  even 
turning  to  look  at  it;  but  she  draws  herself  up  with  an  expression  of  intense  comfort  and  relief, 
throwing  her  head  back  with  a  gentle,  swaying  motion,  as  she  fans  herself  slowly  with  either  one 
or  both  of  the  hind-flippers.  She  also  pays  no  attention  to  the  cleansing  of  her  own  person,  the 
after-birth  lying  undisturbed  by  her,  it  being  speedily  trampled  under  foot  and  ground  out  of 
recognizance  by  the  restless  multitudes  around  her,  which  pass  to  and  fro.  The  pup  quickly  dries 
off,  with  rapid  alternations  of  short  naps  with  awakenings,  in  which  it  gets  up  and  on  its  flippers 
to  essay  brief  scrambles  over  the  rocks  and  ground  until,  in  nosing  about,  it  claims  the  attention 
of  its  mother  (sometimes  hours  after  birth) :  this  she  gives  by  gently  elevating  her  abdomen  and 
turning  her  parts  posteriorly,  so  that  one  or  two  of  the  obscure  teats,  filled  with  milk,  can  be  seized 
by  the  hungry  pup,  which  now  nurses  therefrom  greedily,  even  to  gorging  itself. 

MILK  OF  THE  FUR  SEAL. — The  milk  of  the  Fur  Seal  mother  is  very  rich  and  creamy,  and 
the  secretion  is  always  abundant,  but  there  is  not,  under  any  circumstances,  the  enlarged  udder 
and  mammae  peculiar  to  dogs  and  similar  animals ;  the  nipples  are  scarcely  distinguishable,  even 
when  exposed  to  the  reach  and  notice  of  the  young. 

IRREGULAR  FEEDING  OF  THE  PUPS. — The  umbilicus  of  the  pup  rapidly  sloughs  off,  and  the 
little  fellow  grows  apace,  nursing  to-day  heartily  in  order  that  he  may,  perhaps,  go  the  next  two, 
three,  or  four  days  without  another  drop  from  the  maternal  fount;  for  it  is  the  habit  of  the  mother 
Seal  to  regularly  and  frequently  leave  her  young,  on  this  spot  of  its  birth,  to  repair  for  food  in  the 
sea;  she  is  absent  on  these  excursions,  on  account  of  the  fish  not  coming  inshore  within  a  radius 
of  at  least  one  hundred  miles  of  the  breeding-grounds,  through  intervals  varying,  as  I  have  said, 
from  a  single  day  to  three  or  four,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  manner  in  which  she  returns  after 
feeding,  and  in  which  she  singles  out  by  scent,  and  at  a  glance,  her  own  offspring  from  many 
thousands  surrounding  it,  I  have  clearly  described  in  a  foregoing  chapter.1 

PRELIMINARY  ADVANCES  OF  THE  SEXUAL  UNION. — The  pup  being  born,  the  cow  rapidly  passes 
into  "heat."  I  have  noticed  examples  where  ten  hours  only  elapsed  between  the  event  of  the  birth 
and  that  of  copulation,  and  I  doubt  not  of  full  impregnation  for  another  period.  But  as  a  rule 
forty-eight  hours  is  a  fair  figure  to  express  the  time  from  the  birth  to  the  state  known  as  "being 
in  heat."  The  cow  always  makes  the  first  advances  to  the  bull.  If  she  is  one  of  the  earlier  subjects 
for  his  attention,  the  union  is  soon  accomplished ;  but  should  she  be  of  the  later  applicants  in  his 


1  When  the  females  first  come  ashore  there  is  DO  sign  of  affection  manifested,  whatever,  between  the  sexes.  The 
males  are  surly  aud  morose,  and  the  females  entirely  indifferent  to  such  reception.  They  are,  however,  subjected  to 
very  harsh  treatment  sometimes  in  the  progress  of  battles  between  the  males  for  their  possession,  and  a  few  of  them 
are  badly  bitten  and  lacerated  every  season. 

One  of  the  cows  that  arrived  at  Nah  Speel,  Saint  Paul  Island,  early  in  June,  1872,  was  treated  to  a  cruel  mutilation 
in  this  manner,  under  my  eyes.  When  she  had  finally  lauded  on  the  ban-en  rocks  of  one  of  the  numerniiH  "Seecatchie" 
at  the  water  front  of  this  small  rookery,  and  while  I  was  carefully  making  a  sketch  of  her  graceful  outlines,  a  rival 
bull,  adjacent,  reached  out  from  his  station  and  seized  her  with  his  month  at  the  nape  of  the  neck,  just  as  a  cat  lifts 
a  kitten.  At  the  game  instant,  almost  simultaneously,  the  old  male  that  was  rightfully  entitled  to  her  charms,  turned, 
and  canght  her  in  his  teeth,  by  the  skin  of  her  posterior  dorsal  region.  There  she  was,  lifted  and  suspended  in  mid  air, 
between  the  jaws  of  her  furious  rivals,  until,  in  obedience  to  their  powerful  struggles,  the  hide  of  her  back  gave 
way,  and,  as  a  ragged  flap  of  the  raw  skin  more  than  six  inches  broad  and  a  foot  in  length  was  torn  up  and  from  her 
spine,  she  passed,  with  a  rush,  into  the  possession  of  the  bull  who  had  covetously  seized  her.  She  uttered  no  cry 
during  this  barbarous  treatment,  nor  did  she,  when  settled  again,  tutu  to  her  torn  and  bleeding  wound  to  notice  it  in 
any  way  whatsoever  that  I  could  observe. 

When  severe  inflammation  takes  place,  they  seek  the  water,  disappearing  promptly  from  your  scrutiny. 


IMM;  SKAI,:  i:r:ri:ouucTlon.  Ill 

harem.  :ift«T  lie  has  lu-cn  IMOIV  or  less  exhausted  liy  the  vital  drafts  made  upon  him. -h,-  must  wait. 
I  have  observed  instances  of  this  cliaracter  iu  which  the  female  teased  the  male  for  hours  aud 
hours  before  arousing  him. 

I'KLAGIC  COITION  IMPOSSIBLE. — In  this  act  of  coition  ou  these  breeding-grounds  of  Saint  Paul 
and  Saint  George,  I  have  noticed  the  fact  that,  whenever  the  female  was  well  covered  by  the 
male  on  the  tlat  or  smooth  shelves  of  rock  or  earth,  they  moved  and  shuffled  about  without  any 
particular  effective  coition  until  brought  up  agaiut  a  rougher  inequality,  or  some  fragments  of  lava 
shingle,  so  characteristic  of  the  rookery  grounds.  The  reason  for  this  is  due  to  the  fact,  that  in 
spite  of  the  great  weight  of  the  male,  six  times  more  than  that  of  the  female  which  he  covers,  the 
orgasms  are  so  rapid  and  violent  that,  unless  the  female  is  held  by  some  other  agency  than  the 
weight  of  the  male,  she  is  literally  shoved  ahead  and  away  from  under  him.  This  fact  I  call 
attention  to,  as  it  alone  is  sufficient,  upon  the  slightest  reflection,  to  satisfy  any  judicial  mind  that 
it  is  a  physical  impossibility  for  these  Seals  to  copulate  in  the  water.  Under  no  conceivable  position 
assumed  for  this  supposed  pelagic  coition  could  effectual  sexual  connection  be  made.1 

ACTION  OF  REPRODUCTION. — The  male  serves  the  female  exactly  as  a  big  Newfoundland  dog 
would  serve  a  small  terrier  slut.  The  "Seecatchie"  draws  his  heavy  body  over  and  upon  the  out- 
stretched spine  of  the  female,  who  lies  prone  before  him  on  her  stomach;  HO  that  when  the  male 
has  adjusted  himself,  which  he  does  by  arching  his  back  from  the  shoulders  to  the  o*  coccyx,  he 
covers  her  so  completely  that  nothing  of  her  body  can  be  seen,  except  a  portion  of  her  head  just 
peering  out  from  between  his  fore  flippers  aud  under  his  broad  chest. 

Notwithstanding  their  great  rapidity  and  the  muscular  power  employed,  the  orgasms  last, 
without  interruption,  for  the  surprising  space  of  from  eight  to  fourteen  minutes — not  a  second's 
intermission.  Of  course,  toward  the  close  of  the  season,  when  the  male  is  tired,  he  does  not  remain 
in  coitu  longer  than  three  or  four  minutes.  On  account  of  the  vigor  and  duration  of  this  first 
coitus,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  that  female  has  no  further  intercourse  with  that  male,  or  any 
other  one,  during  the  rest  of  the  season.  She  is  satisfied,  and  passes  rapidly  out  of  heat.  Certain 
it  is  that  she  is  not  noticed  by  him  again;  she  goes  up  to  his  seraglio-grounds,  to  and  from  the  sea, 
seeking  her  young  and  feeding  undisturbed  for  the  balance  of  the  time;  also,  that  the  other  bulls 
seem  to  recognize  this  condition  of  passed  sexual  requirement  aud  satisfaction,  in  her  case,  by 
paying  her  no  attention. 

PERIOD  OF  GESTATION. — Thus  it  is  apparent  that  the  period  of  gestation  in  the  Fur  Seal  is 
nearly,  lacking  a  few  days,  twelve  calendar  months;  for  the  next  year  finds  her  again  heavy  with 
young  at  almost  exactly  the  same  day  that  she  gave  birth  to  her  previous  offspring  in  the  prior 
season.  The  systematic  and  regular  appearance  of  the  females  every  year  upon  the  Pribylov 
Islands  at  such  a  time,  usually  in  June  or  July,  without  the  slightest  regard  to  what  the  weather 

Those  extremely  heavy  adult  males  which  arrive  flret  in  the  season,  and  take  their  stations  on  the  rookeries,  are 
MI  tat  that  they  do  not  exhibit  a  wrinkle  or  a  fold  of  the  skins  enveloping  their  blubber-lined  bodies;  most  of  this 
fatty  deposit  is  fonnd  aronnd  the  shoulders  and  the  neck,  though  a  warm  coat  of  blubber  covers  all  the  other  pnrlimiN 
of  the  body  save  the  flippers;  this  blubber  thickening  of  the  neck  and  chest  is  characteristic  of  the  adult  males  only, 
which  are,  by  its  provisions,  enabled  to  sustain  the  extraordinary  protracted  fasting  periods  incident  to  their  habit  of 
life  and  reproduction. 

When  those  superlatively  fleshy  bulls  first  arrive,  a  cnrions  body  tremor  seems  to  attend  every  movement  which 
the  animals  make  ou  land;  their  fat  appears  to  ripple  backward  and  forward  under  their  hides,  like  waves;  as  they 
alternate  with  their  flippers  in  walking,  the  whole  form  of  the  "Seecatchie"  shakes  as  a  bowl  full  of  j«-lly  does  when 
agitated  on  the  table  before  us. 

There  is  also  a  perfect  uniformity  in  the  coloration  of  the  breeding  coats  of  the  Fur  Seals;  and  it  is  strikingly 
manifest  while  inspecting' the  rookeries  late  in  .July,  when  they  arc  wilidly  mawd  tlim-on.  At  a  quarter  mile  distance, 
the  whole  immense  aggregate  of  animal  life  seems  to  be  fused  into  a  huge  homogeneous  body  that  is  alN-rnat.-ly  roused 
np  in  sections  and  then  composed,  just  as  a  quantity  of  iron  filings,  covering  the  bottom  of  a  saucer,  will  rise  and  fall, 
when  a  magnet  is  passed  over  aud  aronnd  the  dish. 


112  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

may  have  been  during  the  winter  and  spring  previous,  or  is  when  they  land,  establishes  without 
doubt  this  exact  limit  of  their  gestation. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THIS  SERVICE. — The  reason  why  I  dwell  upon  these  details  is  because 
they  have  a  vei-y  important  bearing  upon  the  question  as  to  what  ratio  of  males  every  year  is 
needed  for  service  on  this  great  breeding-ground  of  Bering  Sea.  If  the  common  opinion,  hitherto 
entertained,  was  tenable,  of  free  and  effective  pelagic  coition,  then  it  will  be  readily  understood 
that  nearly  all  the  males  from  four  years  up,  and  on,  could  have  easy  access  to  the  females ;  and 
that  it  would  be  a  matter  of  very  small  concern  how  many  old  males,  or  rather  those  males  upon 
the  land  located  over  the  rookeries,  were  fit  for  service.  But  understanding,  as  I  now  do,  without 
a  shadow  of  tenable  contradiction,  that  these  "Seecatchie"  which  receive,  fight  for,  and  cover  the 
females  on  the  rookeries,  are  the  only  active  fertilizing  powers  toward  the  reproduction  and 
perpetuation  of  their  kind,  the  importance  of  my  detailed  description  of  the  method  of  coition  is 
evident;  for  it  shows  conclusively  that  unless  we  see  every  year,  long  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the 
females,  a  full  supply  of  able-bodied  "Seecatchie"  holding  out  upon  and  located  over  the  rookeries 
of  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George — unless  we  see  such  a  number  in  good  condition — we  may  safely 
count  upon  the  fact  that  danger  will  arise  of  imperfect  and  nugatory  fertilization  for  the  coming 
year.  It  will  not  do  to  indulge  the  hope,  should  a  scarcity  or  diminution  of  the  old  males  ever 
occur,  when  the  rookeries  are  mapped  out  in  spring,  of  the  deficiency  being  made  good  by  the 
young  males  which  are  swimming  around  everywhere  in  the  water. 

VITALITY  OF  THE  MALE. — I  believe  that  an  able-bodied  adult  "Seecatchie"  is  capable  of 
serving  well  from  the  14th  June  to  the  14th  July,  during  which  period  the  height  of  the  breeding 
season  occurs,  one  hundred  females.  If  he  is,  however,  as  he  frequently  is,  enfeebled  by  previous 
fighting  and  struggling  with  other  males  to  hold  the  station  which  he  has  selected  and  fought  for, 
it  is  more  than  likely  that  his  virility  will  not  extend  beyond  the  proper  serving  of  twenty  or  thirty 
cows.  As  I  have  said  in  another  place,  I  found  great  difficulty  in  finding,  to  my  own  satisfaction, 
a  fair  number  of  females  as  the  average  to  every  harem  on  the  rookery.1  Some  instances  occur 
where  the  male  treats  forty -five  or  fifty  females,  owing  to  the  peculiar  configuration  of  the  landing 
grounds;  but  most  generally,  and  as  the  rule,  I  think  fifteen  or  twenty  cows  to  every  bull  is  a  true 
computation;  hence  I  do  not  believe,  under  any  normal  circumstances  and  all  normal  disad- 
vantages, such  as  fighting  involves  by  weakening  the  males,  that,  when  the  females  arrive,  there 
is  the  least  risk  of  a  single  one  of  them  getting  back  to  the  water  without  a  perfect  and  effectual 
impregnation.  A  common  opinion  was  prevalent  on  the  islands  among  the  employe's  touching  this 
matter,  that,  when  the  female  was  not  instantly  covered  during  her  first  heat,  she  went  to  the 
water,  cooled  off,  and  on  returning,  sexual  desire  never  reappeared,  and  she  became  a  farrow  or 
barren  cow  from  that  time  to  the  end  of  her  natural  life.  Analogous  physiology  confutes  this 

1  This  striking  and  accurate  average  is  still  further  complicated  by  that  unknown  distribution  of  the  virgin  females 
which  come  np  to  the  rookeries  every  year  for  their  first  meeting  with  the  virile  males.  What  proportion  of  them 
reach  the  rear  of  the  breeding-grounds  compared  with  their  numbers  which  are  served  at  the  water-line  T  I  surely  am 
at  fault  to  say,  for  they  do  not  leave  that  tangible  evidence  which  the  other  older  cows  do  in  the  forms  of  their  young. 
One  of  the  cnriong  contradictions  to  generally  received  ideas  of  the  habit  of  Seals  is  the  fact  that  (ho  Fur  Seal  will 
not  rest  either  upon  snow  or  ice  ;  it  seems  to  positively  avoid  all  contact  with  either  of  those  substances  upon  which 
the  Phocidce  wholly,  and  the  Sea  Lions  to  some  degree,  delight  in  hauling  over.  Callorhinuf  has  the  warmest  of  sea] 
coats,  by  all  odds,  yet  it  dreads  a  snowy  or  an  icy  bed  with  as  much  sincerity  as  any  habitne'  of  the  tropics  can.  The 
Sea  Lions  and  Hair  Seals  have  often  been  surprised  in  sporting,  or  sleeping  on  the  ice  floes  of  Bering  Sea  in  the  spring, 
by  whalemen  while  cruising  at  the  edge  of  the  frozen  pack,  wailing  for  the  channel  to  open,  clear  into  the  Arctic 
O'.ean  ;  as  neither  Eumetopian  uor  Phoca  has  any  under  wool,  their  sea-jackets  are  not  half  as  heavy  as  those  peculiar 
to  the  bodies  of  Fur  Seals;  hence  in  taking  personal  notice  of  this  odd  aversion  of  the  Callorhinvs  to  snow  and  ice,  I 
believe  that  its  dislike  is  one  of  pure  sentimentality  rather  than  one  based  on  physical  inability  to  rest  upon  as  cold 
Hiirfaces,  for  there  is  not  much  difference  between  the  water's  temperature  and  that  of  the  snow  and  ice  in  the  spring — 
10°  Fahr.,  perhaps— both  cold  enough  at  all  events. 


THK  FITK  SEAL—VITALITY  OF  MALES. 

completely;  that  such  warm-blooded,  highly-organized  creatures  should  never  have  a  ni]>iil 
recurrence  of  sexual  desire,  in  common  with  all  other  animals  of  their  class,  until  it  is  gratified 
in  the  u«ual  way,  is  not  at  all  probable,  though  it  may  be  possible. 

SMALL  NUMBER  OF  BARREN  FEMALES. — To  show,  however,  that  a  very  small  proportion  of 
the  myriads  of  breeding  females  are  barren,  I  have  only  to  present  this  illustration,  which  is  happy 
in  ito  conclusion,  and  easily  portrayed:  Whenever  a  female  ceases  to  breed  she  refuses  to  haul 
upon  the  rookeries;  she  roams  with  the  "nolluschickie,"  or  the  "Bachelors,"  growing  a  third 
heavier  and  marked  with  corresponding  darker  tones  to  her  coat,  yet  still  preserving  the  familial- 
pattern  of  the  female,  so  that  she  can  be  picked  out  quickly  by  an  experienced  eye  from  the  old 
and  young  males  around  her.  In  driving  up  every  season  the  " Holluschickie"  to  the  killing- 
grounds,  the  natives  noticed,  and  pointed  out  to  me,  those  barren  females  in  the  drive,  several  of 
which  were  secured  for  my  examination  and  measurement;  but  the  proportion  of  barren  females 
is  not  more  than  one  in  a  thousand  to  the  "Uolluschickie"  with  which  they  consort. 
8P 


114  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


C.— THE    SIRENIANS   OR   SEA-COWS. 

By  FREDERICK  W.  TRUE. 
31.  THE  AMERICAN  MANATEES. 

SPECIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  MANATEES. — The  uumerous  zoologists  and  travelers  who 
have  written  upon  the  American  Manatees  are  not  agreed  as  regards  the  number  of  existing  species. 
In  the  many  and  oftentimes  discoidant  descriptions  and  observations  extant,  some  see  but  the 
variations  of  a  single  species;1  others  discern  two  species,2  one  of  Florida,  the  other  of  South  and 
Central  America;  and  others  still  are  able  to  distinguish  three  species,  one,  as  before,  in  Florida, 
but  two  in  South  America,  a  marine  and  a  fluviatile  species.  I  have  satisfied  myself  by  examina- 
tion of  specimens  in  the  National  Museum  that  there  are  at  least  two  species,  and  that,  both  occur 
within  the  borders  of  the  United  States.  Regarding  the  Manatee  of  the  upper  water-courses  of 
South  America  I  am  still  in  doubt.  In  the  following  pages  I  shall  refer  to  the  southern  form, 
Ttichevhux  manatux,  Liuue,  as  the  South  American  Manatee,  and  to  the  Floridan  form,  Tricheclmx 
latirostrix,  (Harlan)  True,  as  the  Florida  Manatee. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THK  FLORIDA  MANATEE. — We  have,  then,  upon  our  coasts  two  representa- 
tives of  the  Sireniaus.  The  Florida  Manatee,  the  lea.-t  widely  spread  species,  apparently  inhabits 
only  the  Floridan  Peninsula  and  the  eastern  Gulf  States.  Regarding  its  distribution  Mr.  Silas 
Stearns  of  Pensacola,  Fla.,  contributes  the  following  notes: 

"It  is  gent-rally  supposed  in  Florida  and  the  Gulf  State-  that  there  are  very  few  Manatees  in 
existence  in  this  country,  and  that  these  are  to  be  found  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Florida 
Peninsula,  in  the  fresh- water  rivers,  both  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  sides.  I  have  heard  of  their 
being  taken  or  seen  in  the  Myakka  River,  Peace  Creek,  Caloosahatchie  River,  and  other  small 
streams  south  of  Charlotte  Harbor  and  Okeechobee  Lake,  on  the  Gulf  side,,  and  in  the  Sainte  Lncie 
River  on  the  Atlantic  side. 

"On  the  Gulf  coast  (where  I  am  better  acquainted)  the  oldest  settlers  say  that  ten,  fifteen,  or 
twenty  years  ago  Manatees  were  occasionally  seen  in  nearly  all  the  inland  waters  from  Key  West 
westward  to  civilization  at  Pensacola,  Mobile,  and  New  Orleans.  It  is  evident  that  they  have 
been  abundant  along  the  entire  Gulf  coast,  and  probably  on  the  Atlantic  as  far  north  as  the 
Carolinas,  for  their  bones  can  be  found  along  the  shore  nearly  everywhere  that  civilization 
lias  not  reached. 

"Those  generally  found  in  the  salt  water  along  sand-beaches  are  petrified  and  black.  I  have 
reason  to  think  that  there  are  still  scattering  individuals  all  through  Florida,  for  during  the 
summer  of  1880  I  saw  one  in  Santa  Rosa  Sound,  some  twenty  miles  east  of  Pensacola,  where  there 
has  been  none  seen  for  many  years.  While  landing  a  sail-boat  on  the  island  we  surprised  the 
aniin.il  in  shoal  water  and  had  a  fine  opportunity  to  examine  it  as  it  swam  by  into  deeper  water. 
As  they  are  so  shy,  there  may  be  many  more  existing  in  the  Stat«  than  we  are  aware  of,  and  their 
range  may  include  the  whole  State  of  Florida." 

Mr.  Goode  informs  me  that  specimens  could  be  taken  from  time  to  time  in  the  year  1878  near 
Saiute  Lucie  on  Indian  River. 


1  GRAV  :  Cat.  Seals  ami  Whales,  Brit.  Museum,  I860,  p.  35H,  and  others.     (Manatun  auttralit.) 
*HARI.AN  :  Journal  Aea<l.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  first  series,  iii,  I*i4,  pp.  :!90-:('J4. 


TIIK   MANATKKS:  <!  F.c  ><;  I!  A  I'll  M'AI.   DISTRIBUTION.  1]5 

A  writer  in  tin-  journal  "Forest  and  Stream,"  of  June  11,  1874,  under  the  heading  "The. 
Manatee  at  Saint  Augustine,  Fla.,"  quotas  from  the  Saint  Augustine  "Press,"  as  follows: 

"The  .Manatee  continues  her  domicile  in  Bar  Creek  (Saint  Augustine).  Fishermen  have  again 
reported  it  and  eiti/ens  are  anxious  to  go  after  it.  .  .  .  There  are  also  vague  rumors  of  a  very 
large  animal  of  the  same  species  having  been  seen  roaming  about  a  place  on  the  North  River  called 
Oleander  Town.  If  so,  the  one  is  probably  the  dam  and  the  other  the  ealf  that  have  In-come  sep- 
arated. It  is  also  probable  that  during  some  of  the  heavy  blows  along  the  coast  between  here  and 
Indian  Kiver  some  herd  of  these  animals  has  become  disjiersed  and  these  two  may  have  wandered 
into  our  harbor.  It  will  be  remembered  that  two  or  three  years  ago  a  very  large  one  was  seen  in 
this  harbor,  which  came  up  to  the  water-battery  of  the  fort,  where  it  remained  until  pelted  by  the 
boys.  Fishermen  report  them  as  having  been  frequently  seen  in  the  harbor." 

Mr.  C.  J.  Maynard,  who  lias  been  much  in  Florida,  has  recorded  some  valuable  notes  on  the 
distribution  of  the  Florida  Manatee.  lie  writes:  "  This  singular  animal  is  found  in  large  mi  ml  UTS 
about  the  inlets  of  Indian  River,  and  Capt.  Dummctt  informs  me  that  he  has  captured  specimens 
as  far  north  as  his  place,  which  is  within  five  miles  of  the  head  of  the  river.  I  have  been  informed 
by  creditable  authorities  that  it  is  remarkably  abundant  upon  the  western  coast  in  the  various 
rivers  and  creeks  which  abound  between  Tampa  Bay  and  Cape  Sable.  I  have  never  seen  it  in 
Mosquito  or  Halifax  Lagoons,  and  am  confident  that  it  does  not  occur  there.  This  species  is  said 
to  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the  mangrove  during  the  night."1 

Dr.  von  Frantzius  stated  some  years  ago,  in  an  essay  on  the  mammals  of  Costa  Rica,  that 
the  Florida  Manatee  was  the  only  species  found  in  that  country.  He  writes  as  follows:  "If  we 
recognize  M.  latirostriv  as  a  separate  species,  we  shall  be  able  to  say  that  only  this  species  is  found 
on  the  coast  of  Costa  Rica."*  It  is  evident,  however,  that  he  lias  confounded  the  two  species,  for  a 
few  lines  further  on  he  says:  "Nearly  all  the  museum  specimens  arriving  in  Europe  in  later  years 
come  from  Surinam  and  belong  to  the  species  known  as  M.  latirnslrig;  so  far  as  1  know  no  speei- 
metis  from  the  coast  of  Costa  Rica  or  from  Greytown  have  ever  been  sent  to  Enroj>e.  I  had  but 
one  opportunity  of  seeing  the  Manatees  on  the  shores  of  the  Sarapiqui,  and  that  at  a  distance."3 

This  statement  is  in  part  erroneous;  a  large  proportion  of  the  different  figures  of  specimens 
in  European  museums  are  those  of  the  southern  form,  Trickeckm  manatu*. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THB  SOUTH  AMERICAN  MANATEE. — The  South  American  Manatee  in 
most  abundant  in  the  northern  part  of  that  continent  and  in  Central  America.  Its  range  extends 
much  farther  north,  I  believe,  than  is  generally  supposed.  A  skull  in  the  National  Museum, 
belonging  undoubtedly  to  this  species,  was  received  from  Texas  in  1855.  It  would  seem  that  the 
animal  must  occur  in  some  abundance  along  the  Mexican  coast.  Its  range  extends  on  the  south  at 
least  as  far  as  the  Saint  Matthew's  River  in  Brazil.4  Manatees  are  found  in  nearly  all  the  rivers 
of  northern  South  America,  particularly  in  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  and  in  the  Orinoco. 
Those  which  are  found  in  the  upper  water-courses,  as  has  been  already  stated,  are  by  some  regarded 
as  distinct,  and  by  others  as  identical  with  those  of  the  lower  regions  and  the  sea. 

THE  MANATEE  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES. — A  species  of  Manatee  occurs  more  or  less  abmidanth 
in  the  West  Indies,  particularly  about  Cuba,  San  Domingo,  and  Porto  Rico,  but  whether  it  is 
the  Florida  or  South  American  species  seems  not  to  have  been  ascertained.  It  is  supposalily. 
however,  the  Florida  Manatee. 


1  MAYXAKD,  C.  J. :  Cat.  Mammal*  of  Klnriita.     Ex.  Bull.  Ewtrx  Institute,  iv,  9-10,  l^r-.'.  j. 
'Vox  KUAN  I /.i  i  •<:  Siiiigi-tliiere  Costa  Hi  can,  in  Wiegmann'H  Archiv,  xxxv,  .la  lire,   i,  pp.  304-307. 
3  Loc.  cit. 
'Prince  Maximilian. 


116  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

BOUNDARIES  OF  THE  RANCH  OF  AMERICAN  MANATEES. — The  entire  range,  therefore,  of 
the  American  Manatees  extends  over  about  forty-nine  degrees  of  latitude — that  is,  from  30°  north 
to  19°  south.  It  is  probable,  as  Mr.  Stearns  surmises,  that  the  existing  species  ranged  farther 
north  in  former  days,  and,  furthermore,  it  is  not  definitely  known  that  the  southern  Manatee  does 
not  extend  south  of  19°  south  in  Brazil.  It  is  certain,  however,  as  Burmeister  distinctly  states, 
that  it  is  not  found  on  the  coast  of  the  Argentine  Republic.1 

As  an  instance  of  the  unusual  wandering  of  (probably)  the  Florida  Manatee,  it  may  be  noted 
that  an  animal,  the  description  of  which  fairly  portrayed  the  appearance  of  that  species,  was  cast 
on  the  coast  of  Shetland  in  1785.  It  was  described  by  the  British  zoologist  Fleming  as  probably 
being  a  Rhytina,  but  this  seems  very  unlikely  to  one  acquainted  with  the  facts  of  the  geographical 
range  and  size  of  that  animal.  Gray  refers  it  to  his  Munatm  australis,  which  includes  both  the 
Florida  and  South  American  Manatees.  It  seems  to  me  that  if  it  was  carried  across  the  ocean  by 
the  Gulf  Stream,  as  Gray  suggests,  it  most  probably  "set  sail"  from  the  Floridan  coast.2 

Dr.  Leidy  has  described  the  teeth  of  two  fossil  species,  Manatus  antiquiti;'*  and  Manatus  inor- 
natug,4  from  the  "phosphate  beds"  of  the  Ashley  River,  South  Carolina,  showing  that,  as  in  the 
case  of  many  other  American  genera,  there  has  been  a  movement  southward  in  geological  time. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  NAME  "MANATEE." — I  doubt  if  it  is  possible  to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory 
conclusion  regarding  the  origin  of  the  name  Manatee.  Certain  it  is  that  it  was  first  used  by  the 
early  Spanish  and  Portuguese  explorers.  Pietro  Martire,  who  is  the  first  to  record  the  existence 
of  the  animal,  in  1500,  as  I  gather  from  Ramusio's  collection  of  early  voyages,  does  not  give  it  a 
name.5  The  notes  which  he  gives  regarding  the  animal  were  probably  taken  from  the  original 
records  of  Columbus's  fourth  voyage,  in  the  midst  of  the  narrative  of  which  they  are  given. 
Oviedo,  in  1535,  calls  it  "Manati";6  Exquemelin,  about  1650,  states  that  the  Spanish  call  it 
"Manentine";7  Atkins  in  1735  uses  "Manatea";  Gumilla,  in  1741,  uses  "Manati."8  The  French 
writers,  beginning  with  Biet,  in  1604,  employ  the  names  "Lamantin,"  "Lament-in"  (Condamine, 
1745),  and  "Manaty"  (Du  Tetre,  1667).  The  appellation  "Manatee"  occurs  for  the  first  time,  so 
far  as  I  am  aware,  in  1703.  in  Dampier's  account  of  his  voyages  round  the  world.  The  word  in 
this  form,  or  as  "  Manati,"  has  been  used  by  most  English  writers.  Whether  this  name,  in  its 
various  forms,  refers  to  the  peculiar  fore-legs  of  the  Manatee  or  to  its  means  of  suckling  its  young, 
can  only  be  decided  by  the  investigations  of  philologists  more  learned  and  more  zealous  than 
myself. 

DIFFERENT  NAMES  OF  THE  MANATEE. — Other  names  for  the  Manatee  occur,  most  of  which 
define,  as  it  were,  the  characteristics  of  the  animal.  Such  are  "Pegebuey,"  a  native  Amazonian 
name,  employed  by  Acufia  in  1641,  and  its  translations:  "Ox  Fish,"  as  written  by  Sloane  in  his 
natural  history  of  Jamaica,  in  1725,  and  "Poisson  breuf,"  as  given  by  Condamine,  in  1667,  in  his 
history  of  the  Antilles.  The  French  name,  "Vache  marin,"  and  the  corresponding  English  word, 
»<  Sea-cow,"  occur  in  numerous  instances  in  scientific  literature.  In  Guiana  the  natives  use  the 
name  "Cojumero"  (Gray).  Bellin  (1763)  alludes  to  "Lamenum."  The  term  "Petit  Lamentin  du 
nord,"  used  by  French  writers  to  distinguish  the  South  American  Manatee  from  the  Floridau 
species,  is,  I  believe,  of  later  origin. 


'BUKMEISTEK:  DesTiption  physique.  R<$pnl>.  Argentine,  iii,  part  i,  187!),  p.  530. 

"FLEMING:  British  Animals,  p.  30.     QUAY:  Cat.  Seals  and  Whales,  Brit.  Museum,  1866,  p.  359. 

3  LEIDY,  in  Prnc.  Aeod.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  viii,  1856,  p.  165. 

*  LEIDY,  in  Kept.  U.  8.  Geological  Survey,  4°,  i,  1873,  p.  376,  pi.  xxxvii,  figs.  16,  17. 

•Oceani  Doc.  Hispali,  1500,  fol.,  libr.  8,  fide  Brandt. 

"OviKDO:  Hist,  general  de  las  I m lias,  1535,  lib.  xii,  c.  10. 

7  EXCJCKMELIX:  Buccaneers  of  America,  English  translation,  1684,  p.  82. 

"OUMILLA:  El  Orinoco  Illustrado,  1741. 


THE  MANATI-KS.  SIXK  AND  WEIGHT.  H7 

SIZE  OF  TIIK  Kl.OHIDA  M  \\.\  I  I.K.— III  treating  i»f  (lie  si/c  of  the  Amciicall  Manatees,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  consider  tin-  two  species  separately,  although  tlic  adults  seein  to  attain  nearly 
equal  proportions.  Harlan  gives,  as  the  maximum  length  of  the  Florida  Man, itee,  eight  or  ten  fuel, 
but  these  ineasureiiieiits  weie  not  made  liy  hiiiiseli'.1  Mr.  VV.  A.  Coiikliii,  director  of  the  Central 
Park  menagerie,  in  New  York  City,  gives  the  following  dimensions  of  a  specimen  kept  alive  in  that 
establishment  in  1ST.'!:  "The  following  are  its  absolute  dimensions:  length,  0  feet  9i  inches;  cir- 
cumference around  the  body,  4  feet  9  inches;  length  of  flipper,  1  foot;  width  of  same,  4jj  inches; 
width  of  tail  joining  body,  1  foot  OJ  inches;  greatest  width  of  tad,  1  foot  84  inches;  weight,  450 
pounds."  * 

I  am  not  aware  that  any  other  -measurements  of  the  Florida  Manatee,  under  its  pro|>er  name, 
are  on  record. 

SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  MANATEK.— The  size  of  the  South  American 
Manatee  has  been  differently  estimated  by  different  observers.  "This  Creature,"  says  Dampier, 
"is  about  the  bigness  of  a  Horse,  and  10  or  12  foot  long.  ...  I  have  heard  that  some  have 
weighed  above  1200  L.  but  I  never  saw  any  so  large."3 

Stedman,  alluding  to  a  Manatee  which  floated  past  his  encampment  on  the  river  Cottica,  in 
Surinam,  says:  "This  Manatee  was  exactly  sixteen  feet  long,  almost  shapeless,  being  an  enormous 
lump  of  fat,  tapered  back  to  a  fleshy,  broad,  horizontal  tail  "4 

Smyth  and  Lowe  captured  a  Manatee  in  1835  in  Peru,  at  their  encampment  at  Sarayacu,  on 
the  Ucayali.  "We  had  one  opportunity,"  they  relate,  "while  at  this  place,  of  examining  a  taca 
marina,  or  manatee,  that  was  just  caught;  but,  not  being  anatomists,  are  unable  to  give  a  scientific 
account  of  it.  The  animal  was  seven  feet  eight  inches  long  from  the  snout  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail.  .  .  .  This  was  not  considered  a  large  one.  .  .  .  When  the  animal  was  killed,  it 
took  the  united  strength  of  at  least  forty  men  to  drag  it  up  from  the  water  to  the  town,  which  they 
effected  by  means  of  our  ropes."5 

In  1872  Dr.  Murie  published  a  valuable  memoir  on  the  South  American  Manatee,  in  which  he 
gives  measurements  of  two  specimens  which  reached  London  in  18GO,  fresh  but  not  alive.  The 
length  of  one,  a  young  male,  from  the  Maroui  River,  in  Surinam,  was  forty  eight  inches  or  four 
feet;  that  of  the  second  specimen,  a  young  female,  from  Porto  Rico,  sixty-live  inches,  or  five  feet 
tive  inches.  In  his  remarks  on  these  animals,  Dr.  Murie  says:  "When  studying  in  the  Stuttgart 
Museum,  I  derived  much  information  from  Professor  Krauss,  the  nble  director.  Among  other 
things  he  mentioned  that  their  large  stuffed  specimen  of  Manatee  was  the  mother  of  our  Society's 
young  male,  as  attested  by  Herr  Koppler,  of  Surinam,  who  transmitted  it.  The  length  of  the  female 
mounted  skin  I  ascertained  to  be  122  inches  [ten  feet  two  inches],  therefore  twice  and  a  hall  tin- 
length  of  the  young  animal  possibly  six  or  eight  months  old.  Another  slutted  male  s|M-ciinen  ut 
Stuttgart  measures  94  inches.  Both  of  the  above  are  doubtless  stretched  to  their  fullest  extent; 
still,  one  is  justified  in  assuming  the  adult  Manatux  to  be  from  9  to  10  feet  long.""  Of  the  weight 
of  the  s|>ecimens  he  remarks:  "According  to  Mr.  Greey,  the  entire  carcass  of  the  Zoological 
Society's  female,  when  weighed  immediately  after  death  on  board  ship,  was  228  Ibs.  That  of  the 
young  male  as  ascertained  by  myself  was  01  Ibs."4 


•  HAIM.AN:  Fuuua  Americana,  18£>,  |».  277. 

'CONKLIN:  The  Manatee  at  Ontrnl  Park,  in  "  Forest  mid  Stream."  i,  1874,  p.  166. 
'DAMIMKR:  A  New  Voyage  round  the  World,  i,  ITo.:.  ]>]>.  :I3,34. 
*STKDMAX:  Narrative  of  an  expedition  to  Surinam,  ii.  K'.iii,  p.  IT.'i. 
'SMYTH  nnd  LOWK:  Journey  from  Lima  to  Para.     London,  I85(i,  p.  197. 

•MuitlK:  On  the  form  and  structure  of  the  Manatee.     Transaction*  Zixilogiral  Society  of  Ixmdon.  viii,  1873,  pp. 
129-131. 


118  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

Another  specimen,  a  female,  received  by  the  same  society  from  Surinam,  measured  eighty 
inches,  but  no  indication  of  its  age  is  given.1  Still  another  specimen,  this  time  a  male,  arrived 
in  London.  When  dead,  measurements  showed  its  length  to  be  ninety-four  and  five-tenths  inches 
or  seven  feet  ten  and  one-half  inches.2 

Of  two  male  Surinam  specimens  which  died  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Philadelphia,  one 
measured  exactly  six  feet  from  snout  to  tip  of  tail,  the  other  six  and  a  half  feet.3 

General  Thomas  Jordan,  writing  in  "Forest  and  Stream,"  in  1873,  says:  "Three  of  these  huge 
mammals  I  saw  on  Indian  Kiver,  in  1849-'oO,  each  weighing  at  least  fifteen  hundred  pounds,  and 
between  fifteen  and  twenty  feet  in  length."  He  adds:  "The  Florida  species  (T.  latirostris)  are 
much  larger  than  those  found  in  the  Antilles,  South  America,  or- Africa."4  This  last  statement  can 
scarcely  be  strictly  correct.  Other  writers,  as  we  have  seen,  have  found  quite  as  large  specimens 
as  those  here  referred  to  in  South  America. 

BREEDING  HABITS  OF  MANATEES. — In  relation  to  the  breeding  of  Manatees,  and  the  size  and 
habits  of  the  young,  almost  nothing  is  known.  Ogilby,  in  his  account  of  Cuba,  says:  "No  less 
wonderful  is  the  Fish  Manaie;  it  breeds  for  the  most  part  in  the  Sea,  yet  sometimes  swimming  up 
the  Rivers,  comes  ashore  and  eats  Grass."5 

This  account,  however,  is  of  little  value,  as  it  was  copied  by  Ogilby,  who  does  not  state 
•whence  he  derived  it.  Du  Tertre  states  that  two  calves  are  born  at  a  time.  "  If  the  mother  is 
taken,"  he  writes,  "one  is  assured  of  having  the  young:  for  they  follow  their  mother  and  continue 
to  move  about  the  canoe  until  they  are  made  companions  of  her  misfortune."6 

Descourtlitz,  writing  regarding  his  own  observations  in  1809,  says:  "The  Manatees  possess  a 
gentle  and  amiable  nature,  and  lament  when  they  are  separated  from  their  young,  which  the 
mother  nourishes  with  much  tenderness.  They  appear  sensitive  and  intelligent;  they  weep  when 
they  are  taken  without  having  received  any  bad  treatment,  seeming  to  regret  that  they  can  never 
return  to  their  haunts.  Although  sometimes  they  appear  to  avoid  man,  at  other  times  they  regard 
him  without  suspicion  and  seem  to  implore  his  pity.  The  young  do  not  quit  the  mother  for  many 
years,  and,  sharing  her  dangers,  often  become  the  victims  of  their  filial  devotion."7 

Brandt,  who  has  examined  much  of  the  literature  of  the  subject,  states  that  it  is  said  that  the 
period  of  gestation  lasts  eleven  months,  and  that  the  young  follow  the  mother  a  half  year.8 

FOOD  OF  SIBENIANS. — The  Sireuians,  as  a  group,  are  very  strictly  graminivorous,  and  the 
American  Manaiees  form  110  exception.  The  structure  of  their  lips  and  teeth  is  such  that  this  i'act 
might  be  surmised  were  nothing  known  of  their  habits.  Living  as  they  do  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
and  about  the  coast,  or  in  the  upper  waters  of  streams,  they  find  no  lack  of  aquatic  vegetation  on 
which  to  subsist.  Exactly  what  plants  they  thrive  best  upon  has  been  the  subject  of  inquiry  by 
several  observers,  especially  those  who  have  been  interested  in  the  attempt  to  keep  the  Manatee  in 
captivity.  Mr.  Chapman  informs  us  that  the  specimen  at  the  Philadelphia,  gardens  ate  freely  of 
various  garden  vegetables — cabbage,  celery  tops,  spinach,  kale,  baked  apples,  and  others,  while 
they  devoured  as  well  quantities  of  the  aquatic  plant  Vallineria  spiral™,  and  the  sea-weed  Ulva 
latissima?  The  Central  Park  specimen  seems  to  have  been  more  dainty.  "A  variety  of  aquatic 


'GARROD:  Transactions  Zoological  Society  of  London,  x,  1877,  p.  137. 

SMUBIE:  Transactions  Zoological  Society  of  London,  xi,  1880,  p.  27. 

'CHAPMAN:  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  xxvii,  1875,  p.  452. 

«  Forest  and  Stream,  i,  1873,  p.  169. 

s OGILBY:  America,  1671,  p.  :!!">. 

6Du  TKIITUB:  Hiwtoire.  Nat.  des  Antilles,  1607,  pp.  201,2(U. 

*  DESCOURTLITZ  :  Voyage  <Fnn  Natnralistc,  ii,  1809,  pp.  274,275. 

•BRANDT:  Symbol*  Sireuologica;,  fasc.  iii,  I861-'t>8,  p.  256. 

"CHAPMAN.  H.  C.,  in  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Philadelphia,  xxvii,  1875,  pp.  459-461. 


Till!   MANATKKS:   FOOD. 

plants  were  placed  before  its  month."  sa\  s  Mr.  ( 'onklin,  -and  cacli  in  Mien  rejected  At  length 
some  canna.  ('niiini  iinlii-n,  was  procured,  which  it  (U'voiirc<l  greedily,  and  wliidi  it  continues  to  n-.e 
alternately  with  sea  weed.  1'in-iis  i-ixiriilnsnx,  nlitajned  in  tlie  Fast  Kiver."1  The  process  of  eating 
takes  place  under  water,  which  seems  strange,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  animal  cannot  breathe 
while  therein  engaged. 

Dr.  Mnrie  thus  intcrcstingh  narrates  the  feeding  habits  of  the  Maiwtee  at  the  London 
Zoological  Ciardeiis  in  1878:  "On  first  arrival  at  the  H(|iiaritun,  cabbage,  lettuce,  water  ci ess, ' 
pieces  of  carrot  and  turnip,  loose  and  bundles,  of  ha\ ,  and  quantities  of  pond  weed  were  put  into 
the  tank,  both  floating  and  sunk  by  weights  attached.  Occasionally  it  would  snitt"  or  examine 
these  by  snout  and  lips  without  chewing  or  swallowing,  until  its  appetite  returned  as  above 
mentioned.  It  then  showed  a  preference  to  water-cress,  though  often  taking  cabbage,  but  after- 
wards it  chose  lettuce,  and  entirely  eschewed  the  others.  When  in  the  height  of  health  it  consumed, 
according  to  Mr.  C'aniugtou,  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twelve  pounds  of  green  food  daily. 
As  lettuce  became  scarce  and  dear  it  cost  ten  shillings  a  day  to  supply  it  with  the  French  sort;  and 
although  cabbage,  etc.,  was  then  cheap  and  abundant,  it  daintily  chose  the  former,  and  as  steadily 
avoided  and  refused  the  latter."1 

KAKLY     ALLUSIONS    TO     THE    HABITS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    MANATEES:    BY    COLUMBUS. — 

What  relates  to  the  food  of  the  Manatee  in  the  writings  of  travelers  and  explorers  is  so  connected 
with  observations  on  its  habits  in  general,  that  I  may  be  pardoned  for  not  withdrawing  the  facts 
for  insertion  in  the  previous  paragraph.  We  shall  find  in  reviewing  the  various  accounts  of  the 
habits  of  Sea  cows  that  there  is  not  always  a  harmony  of  statements,  and  it  will  be  necessary  lo 
look  with  a  critical  eye  upon  the  narratives  of  some  of  the  earlier  voyagers,  who  seem  to  have  been 
a  little  confused  sometimes  by  the  unfamiliar  phenomena  with  which  they  were  surrounded. 

The  first  apparent  reference  to  the  Americaji  Manatees  in  literature  appears  to  be  that  in  the 
nairativc  of  Columbus's  tiist  voyage,  at  the  stage  of  his  first  departure  for  Spain,  in  1493.  Taking 
up  the  thread  of  the  narrative  as  given  by  Herrara,  we  read  as  follows: 

"  ]\'r<lnrxilai/  the  ninth  of  January,  he  hoised  sail,  came  to  Punta  Roxa,  or  Hed  Point,  which  is 
thirty  six  Leagues  Fast  of  Monte  Christo,  and  there  they  took  Tortoises  as  big  as  bucklers,  as  they 
\\ent  to  lay  their  eggs  ashore.  The  Admiral  [Columbus]  aftirm'd  he  had  thereabouts  seen  three 
Mermaids,  that  i  ais'd  themselves  far  above  the  Water,  and  that  they  were  not  so  handsome  as  they 
are  painted,  that  they  had  something  like  a  human  Face,  and  that  he  had  seen  others  on  the  Coast 
of  Gui>i«i." 

The  probability  of  the  fact  that  the  mermaids  here  referred  to  were  really  Manatees  is  in 
Columbus'*  statement  of  having  seen  others  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  as  it  is  in  that  region  that  the 
African  Manatee,  T.  senegalcmis,  is  abundant.  Not  many  years  later,  in  1502,  on  the  occasion  of 
Coltimlms's  fourth  voyage  to  America,  the  Manatee  became  well  known  to  the  adventurers  while 
at  San  Domingo.  Oviedo,  as  quoted  by  ilerrara,  says: 

"The  Spaniards  at  this  Time  found  a  new  sort  of  Fish,  which  was  a  considerable  advantage  to 
them:  tho'  in  those  parts  there  is  much  Variety.  It  is  call'd  Manati,  in  shape  like  a  skin  they  use 
to  carry  Wine  in,  having  only  two  Feet  at  the  Slionldars,  with  which  it  swims,  and  it  is  found  both 
in  the  Sea  and  in  Hivers.  From  the  Middle  it  sharpens  off  to  the  Tail,  the  Mead  of  it  is  like  that 
of  an  Ox,  but  shorter,  and  more  fleshy  at  the  Snout :  the  Fyes  small,  the  Colour  of  it  grey,  the  Skin 
very  hard,  and  some  scattering  Hairs  on  it.  Some  of  them  are  twenty  Foot  long,  and  ten  in  Thick- 


TONKI.IX,  in  Knnwt  ami  Strraiu.  i.  1-71.  ]>.  Hii. 
'  Mi  1:11:.  in  Trans.  Xnnlii^ii-iil  Sm-ii-ty  l.omlmi.  xi,  1880,  pp.  • 
•JHKUUAlt\  (STKVKXS):   Hist.  Ainrrica,  i,  l"ir>,  p.  Hi. 


120  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ness.  The  Feet  are  round,  and  have  four  Claws  on  each  of  them.  The  Females  bring  forth  like 
the  Cows,  and  have  two  Dugs  to  give  suck.  .  .  .  Sometimes  they  are  taken  ashore,  grazing 
near  the  Sea,  or  Elvers,  and  when  young  they  are  taken  with  Nets."1 

Then  follows  the  oft  repeated  story  of  the  tame  Manatee  of  the  Cazique  Carametex: 

"Thus  the  Cazique  Carametex  took  one,  and  fed  it  twenty  six  Years  in  a  Pond,  and  it  grew 
sensible  and  tame,  and  would  come  when  eall'd  by  the  name  of  Mato,  which  signifies  Noble.  It 
would  eat  whatsoever  was  given  it  by  Hand,  and  went  out  of  the  Water  to  feed  in  the  House, 
would  play  with  the  Boys,  let  them  get  upon  him,  was  pleas'd  with  Musick,  carry'd  Men  over  the 
Pool,  and  took  up  ten  at  a  Time,  without  any  Difficulty."2 

FATHEK  ACUNA  UPON  THE  "  PEGEBX'EY."— In  the  fourth  decade  of  the  succeeding  century 
Father  Acuna,  in  narrating  his  adventures  on  the  Amazon  River,  makes  mention  of  the  South 
American  Manatee  somewhat  at  length.  Au-ong  other  things  he  says:  "But  above  all,  the  fish, 
that  like  a  king  lords  it  over  all  the  others,  and  which  inhabits  this  river  from  its  sources  to  its 
mouth,  is  the  Pegebuey  (Fish  Ox),  a  fish  which  when  tasted  only  can  retain  the  name,  for  no  one 
could  distinguish  it  from  well-seasoned  meat.  It  is  large  as  a  calf  a  year  and  a  half  old,  but  on  its 
head  it  has  neither  ears  nor  horns.  .  .  .  This  fish  supports  itself  solely  on  the  herbage  on 
which  it  browses,  as  if  in  reality  a  bullock;  and  from  this  circumstance  the  flesh  derives  so  good 
a  flavour,  and  is  so  nutritious,  that  a  small  quantity  leaves  a  person  better  satisfied  and  more 
vigorous  than  if  he  had  eaten  double  the  amount  of  mutton.  It  cannot  keep  its  breath  long 
under  water;  and  thus,  as  it  goes  along,  it  rises  up  every  now  and  then  to  obtain  more  air,  when 
it  meets  with  total  destruction  the  moment  it  comes  in  sight  of  its  enemy."3 

ROCIIEFORT  UPON  THE  HABITS  OF  THE  ANTILLEAN  MANATEE. — After  Oviedo,  Gotnara,  and 
Acuna  no  one  seems  to  have  added  any  new  facts,  or  supposably  new  facts,  to  the  history  of  the 
habits  of  the  Manatees  until  Hernandez  and  Rocbefort  published  their  narratives.  The  work  of 
the  former  I  have  not  had  at  ( ommand,  but  from  F.  Cuvier's  notes  it  would  seem  that  it  contains 
nothing  of  importance.  Rocbefort,  the  second  edition  of  whose  work  on  the  Antilles  was  pub- 
lished in  ]665,  gives  the  following  information:  "This  fish  1'eeds  upon  plants  which  it  collects 
about  the  rocks  and  on  the  shallows  which  are  not  covered  with  more  than  a  fathom  (brasxe)  of 
water.  The  females  breed  at  the  same  season  as  do  cows,  and  have  two  mammae  with  which  they 
suckle  their  young.  Two  calves  are  born  at  a  birth,  which  are  not  adaudoned  by  the  mother  until 
they  have  no  more  need  of  special  nourishment,  or  until  they  can  browse  upon  plants  like  the 
mother."4 

15.  BIET'S  AND  Du  TERTRE'S  ACCOUNTS. — Biet  repeats  these  observations,  although  it  is  to 
be  believed  independently,  saying  that  the  Manatee  roams  about  the  shores  near  the  sea  browsing 
on  the  plants  which  grow  there.5 

Du  Tertre  in  effect  repeats  the  little  that  his  predecessors  have  laid  down,  but  adds  some 
additional  observations  which  are  interesting  if  sufficiently  substantiated.  "The  food  of  this 
fish,"  he  says,  "  is  a  little  plant  which  grows  in  the  sea,  and  on  this  it  browses  after  the  manner  of 
an  ox.  After  being  filled  with  this  food  it  seeks  the  fresh-water  streams,  where  it  drinks  and 
bathes  twice  a  day.  Having  eaten  and  been  refreshed  it  goes  to  sleep  (Jen  dart)  with  its  snout 
half  out  of  water,  a  sign  by  which  its  presence  is  recognized  by  the  fishers  from  afar."6 


(STEVENS):  His'ory  of  Anieiicu,  i,  1/25,  p.  27H. 
"IlKKKARA  (STEVENS):  History  of  America,  i,  1725,  p.  279. 

'ClIRISTOVAL  BE  AcuS*  :  River  of  the  Amazons  1041,  pp.  68-91).     (Hakluyt  Society.) 
4RocilKKOi:T:  HiHtoiro  cles  lies  Antilles,  2<1  cd.,  1665,  pp.  194, 195. 
*BiET:  Voyage  en  I'Islo  <le  Cayenne,  1GG4,  p.  346. 
«Du  TEHTHE  :  Hint,  gdne'ralo  <les  Antilles,  1667,  p.  200. 


THK  MANATEES:   HABITS.  121 

THE  BUCCANEER  EXQUKMKU.VS  ACCODNT.— Only  a  few  years  later  \ve  tinil  the  buccaneers 
making  lair  use  of  the  Manatee  in  replenishing  their  oftentimes  empty  larders,  and,  in  the  interval 
of  slaughtering  the  defenseless  Indians  and  colonists,  one  of  these  hardy  pirates  Amis  time  to 
record  some  O!>M-I  \  aiions  regarding  the  aiiiuial.  After  the  destruction  of  1'anamu,  in  1070, 
Exqiicmclin  and  his  companions  sail  along  the  coast  of  Costa  Uica,  en  route  for  Jamuica.  He 
alludes  to  the  Sea-cow  in  the  following  language: 

"This  Accident  and  Encounter  retarded  our  Journey,  in  the  space  of  two  days,  more  than  we 
could  regain  in  a  whole  Fortnight.  This  was  the  occasion  that  obliged  us  to  return  unto  our 
former  Station,  where  we  remained  for  a  fax  days.  From  thence  we  directed  our  Course  for  a 
I  Mace,  called  lioca  del  Dragon,  there  to  make  Provisions  of  Flesh.  Especially  of  a  certain  Animal 
which  the  Spaniards  call  Manentinct,  and  the  Dutch,  Sea  Cow*,  because  the  llead,  Nose,  and 
Teeth,  of  this  Beast,  are  very  like  unto  those  of  a  Cow.  They  are  found  commonly  in  such 
places,  as  under  the  depth  of  the  Waters,  are  very  full  of  Grass,  on  which,  it  is  thought,  they 
do  pasture.  .  .  .  Their  manner  of  engendering  likewise,  is  the  same  with  the  usual  manner 
of  the  Land-Cow,  the  Male  of  this  kind  being  in  similitude,  almost  one  and  the  same  thing  with 
a  Bull.  Yet  notwithstanding  they  conceive  and  breed  but  once.  But  the  space  of  time  that  they 
go  with  Calf,  I  could  not  as  yet  learn.  These  Fishes  have  the  sense  of  Hearing  extremely  acute, 
in  so  much  as  iu  taking  them,  the  Fishermen  ought  not  to  make  the  least  noise,  nor  row, 
unless  it  be  very  slightly."1 

The  buccaneer  seems  to  have  gathered  correct  information  as  to  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
Manatee,  but  as  to  their  breeding  but  once,  although,  as  1  believe,  we  have  no  facts  to  disprove 
the  statement,  analogical  considerations  would  lead  us  to  reject  it. 

CONDAMiNfc's  ACCOUNT. — Coudamine  is,  perhaps,  the  only  other  early  wiiter  to  whom  it  will 
be  necessary  to  refer.  He  alludes  to  the  South  American  Manatee  among  other  fish,  in  which 
group  of  animals  all  the  early  explorers  insisted  in  placing  it.  "  It  is  not  amphibious,  properly 
speaking,"  he  says,  "because  it  never  comes  entirely  out  of  the  water,  and  cannot  walk,  not  having 
but  the  two  fins  near  the  head,  in  the  form  of  wings  10  inches  long,  which  serve  in  place  of  arms 
and  feet;  it  lifts  only  the  head  out  of  the  water,  and  that  to  gather  the  plants  along  the  shore." 

In  regard  to  the  habits  of  Manatees  in  confinement,  I  can  only  quote  from  the  writings  of  the 
American  and  English  observers  who  have  had  the  opportunity  to  study  the  specimens  in  tin1  Phila- 
delphia, New  York,  and  London  zoological  gardens.  Of  the  Central  Park  specimen  Mr.  Conklin 
states:  "It  manifests  at  times  extreme  playfulness,  and  will  answer  the  call  of  the  keeper  by  a 
peculiar  noise,  somewhat  resembling  the  squeak  of  a  mouse.  Some  time  ago  the  epidermis  on  tin- 
back  peeled  off  in  small  pieces,  leaving  a  bright  new  skin  similar  to  that  of  a  snake  just  after  slied- 
ding.  It  was  kept  out  in  the  open  air  until  the  thermometer  fell  to  53°,  when  it  was  removed  to 
a  building.  It  appears  to  be  very  sensitive  to  cold,  curling  up  its  back  if  the  water  is  in  the  least 
chilly.  It  has  been  observed  to  remain  under  water  five  or  six  minutes  at  a  time  without  coming 
to  the  surface  to  breathe."2 

Miss  CRANE'S  OBSERVATIONS. — Miss  Agnes  Crane,  who  attentively  observed  the  South 
American  Manatees  at  the  Brighton  Aquarium  in  1870,  has  given  us  some  interesting  fact* 
regarding  the  mode  of  respiration  of  the  Sirenians  and  their  attitudes  when  at  rest.  After  stating 
that  the  specimens  were  received  from  Trinidad,  she  says: 

"The  young  male,  a  fine  animal  in  robust  condition,  measured,  in  November,  187!>,  lour  feet 
ten  inches  from  snout  to  tail,  with  a  maximum  girth  of  four  feet.  The  female  was  four  feet  eight 


1  EXQCKMKI.IX  :  Buccaneers  of  America,  Kiinlit.li  translation.  KM,  pp.  82,83. 
:CiiXKi.ix,  in  Forest  anil  Stream,  i.  1*7:1,  p.  16(5. 


122  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

inches  in  length,  of  a  lighter  slate-colour  than  her  companion,  i>f  more  slender  build  and  proportions. 
Both  are  marked  with  white  on  the  under  sides  of  their  bodies.  The  pair  occupied  a  tank  twelve 
feet  six  inches  in  length  by  eight  feet  six  inches  in  breadth,  with  an  almost  Hat  bottom.  Temper- 
ature of  water,  about  70°  F.  :  depth,  two  feet  six  inches  in  the  daytime,  reduced  to  six  inches 
at  night.  The  water  is  run  off  daily,  a  fresh  supply  being  admitted  at  the  requisite  heat  from  a 
neighboring  tank  filled  with  warmed  fresh  water.  Although  the  area  of  these  quarters  appear 
somewhat  limited  when  compared  with  the  bulk  of  the  animals,  the  Manatees  seem  perfectly 
comfortable,  and,  being  of  a  sluggish  disposition,  rarely  explore  the  whole  of  their  small  domain. 
Nor  do  they,  so  far  as  I  observed,  avail  themselves  of  the  shallowness  of  the  water  and,  by  sup- 
porting their  bodies  on  the  tail  tin.  keep  their  heads  above  the  surface  and  avoid  the  constant 
repetition  of  the  upward  movement  iu  order  to  breathe  the  necessary  air.  They  habitually  rest 
side  by  side  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  with  the  caudal  flu  stretched  out  quite  straight,  and  the 
tips  of  the  fore  fins  just  touching  the  ground. 

"Thence  they  rise  gently,  often  with  the  least  perceptible  movement  of  the  tail  and  flapping 
motion  of  the  paddles,  raising  the  upper  part  of  the  body  until  the  head  reaches  the  surface,  when 
the  air  is  admitted  through  the  nostril  flap-valves,  which  are  closely  shut  after  the  operation,  and 
the  original  and  usual  position  is  gently  resumed.  They  seem  generally  to  be  compelled  to  rise  to 
the  surface  for  aerial  respiration  every  two  or  three  minutes,  but  the  interval  between  respiration 
varies  much  at  different  times.  In  one  quarter  of  an  hour,  during  which  one  was  carefully  timed, 
it  rose  nine  times,  at  very  irregular  intervals.  I  have  been  informed  that  they  occasionally  remain 
under  the  water  for  a  much  longer  period,  but  have  never  observed  them  to  exceed  six  minutes, 
although  I  have  timed  them  before  and  after  feeding,  and  at  all  hours  of  the  day.  The  respiratory 
movement  appears  to  be  repeated  almost  mechanically  and  without  effort."1 

The  fact  that  these  Manatees  in  confinement  kept  constantly  beneath  the  surface  does  not 
accord  with  the  observations  of  Du  Tertre,  already  quoted.  It  is  probable  that  the  air  about  the 
aquarium  was  not  sufficiently  warm  to  induce  them  to  float  with  the  head  out  of  water,  as  they  do 
in  their  native  haunts.  The  same  observer  furnishes  some  facts  of  a  highly  important  character 
regarding  the  attempts  made  by  the  Manatees  at  terrestrial  progression. 

"The  habits  of  the  animals  in  captivity,  while  affording  occasional  evidence  of  the  ease  and 
rapidity  with  which  they  move  in  the  water,  do  not  furnish  much  support  to  the  views  of  their 
capability  of  habitual  active  progression  on  land.  Yet  it  must  be  admitted  that,  supplied  with  a 
NiiflBeiency  of  nicely  varied  food,  they  have  no  inducement  to  leave  the  water,  and  that  the  con- 
struction of  their  straight-walled  tank  precludes  such  efforts,  as  a  rule.  The  male,  however,  has 
recently  been  observed  to  make  some  slight  attempts  at  terrestiial  movement,  turning  himself 
round  and  progressing  a  few  inches  when  his  tank  was  empty.  With  jaws  and  tail-fin  pressed 
closely  to  the  ground,  the  body  of  the  animal  becomes  arched,  and  is  moved  by  a  violent  lateral 
effort,  aided  and  slightly  supported  by  the  fore-paddles,  which  are  stretched  out  in  a  line  with  the 
month."  But  the  effect  of  these  very  labored  efforts  was  not  commensurate  with  their  violence;  in 
fact,  their  relation  to  active  locomotion  may  be  compared  to  those  of  a  man  lying  prone,  with 
fettered  feet  and  elbows  tied  to  side.  Nor  does  the  Manatee  seem  at  all  at  ease  out  of  water,  as  he 
lies  apparently  oppressed  with  his  own  bulk,  while  he  invariably  makes  off  to  the  deepest  corner 
of  his  tank  directly  the  water  is  readmitted."2 

ABUNDANCE  OF  THE  FLOUIDA  MANATEE.  —  In  the  great  struggle  for  life  no  animal  is,  in  a  man- 
ner, more  destructive  than  man  himself.  The  fierce  carnivora  may  prey  upon  tiie  more  peaceful 


'CliAXK,  AOXES,  in  Proc.  Zoological  Society  of  Londiiii.  IHSO,  pp.  456-457. 
*Loc.  oil.,  pp.  459,  4HO. 


Till:   MANATKF.S:  AHUNDANCE.  1  L>M 

graminivora,  but  the  attack  must  be  made,  one  may  say,  in  person,  subject  to  all  the  dangers 
attendant  ii|ion  an  encounter  with  those  weapons  which  a  long  course  of  selection  has  developed 
ill  tin1  prey.  Man  ensnares  alike  the  lion  and  the  deer  by  the  devices  of  his  brain,  with  lit  tie  or  no 
danger  to  himself.  Notwithstanding,  the  fleetest  animals  oftentimes  csca|>e  him  and  the  strongest 
intimidate  him;  but  such  drowsy  beasts  as  the  Sirenians  fall  helpless  victims  to  his  strategy.  The 
past  century  witnessed  the  extinction  of  one  of  these  animals,  the  Hhytina,  through  no  other 
apparent  agent  than  man.  The  inquiry  intrudes  itself,  Will  the  Manatees  succumb  to  the  same 
fate  which  overtook  their  huge  relative! 

It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that  the  American  Manatees  an-  much  less  abundant  in  many  regions 
than  they  were  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America.  They  have  withdrawn  before  the  advance 
of  civilization  into  the  more  inaccessible  places  out  of  the  reach  of  man. 

In  regard  to  the  Floridan  Manatee,  the  statement  of  Harlan  (whoobtaiiied.it  from  Dr.  Burrows), 
made  so  laie  as  18lio,  namely,  that  tin  Indian  could  readily  obtain  a  dozen  in  a  year,1  is  now  doubt- 
fully true.  The  statements  of  Mr.  Stearns,  given  in  the  early  part  of  this  essay,  show  that  it  has 
disappeared  from  some  localities  in  Florida  within  a  comparatively  recent  period.  Nevertheless, 
the  Florida  Manatee  cannot  yet  be  considered  as  threatened  with  extinction,  and  in  Southwestern 
Florida,  if  we  may  lielicve  Mr.  Maynard,  is  still  abundant.  S|>ecimens  art'  received  from  time  to 
time  for  our  uiiksenms  and  zoological  gardens,  and  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  the  gaping  crowds  at 
the  circus.  The  prices  obtained  for  specimens  of  both  American  Manatees  in  this  country  and  in 
Kngland  show,  however,  that  they  are  not  to  be  obtained  without  difficulty.1 

Gundlach  refers, to  the  abundance  of  the  Manatee  in  Cuba  in  the  following  t«-rms:  "  In  former 
times  very  abundant ;  at  present  much  reduced  in  numbers,  but  not  rare  though  difficult  to  capliiie."3 

According  to  Dr.  Von  Frant/Jus,  the  South  American  Manatee  was  abundant  along  the  western 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  especially  in  Costa  llica.  "They  are  still  very  common,"  he  says, 
'•along  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  they  find  abundant  nourishment  in  the  numerous  lagoons  (Haff 
IriltluHt/ni),  and  likewise  the  needed  protection  ;  they  pass  into  the  rivers  and  are  found  abundantly 
in  San  Juan  and  neighboring  streams,  the  Uio  Colorado,  Sarapiqui,  and  San  Carlos.  Apparently 
they  are  prevented  from  going  lar  into  the  San  Carlos  on  account  of  the  rapids  which  occur  near 
its  month,  and  hence  are  not  found  in  the  Kio  Frio  nor  in  Lake  Nicaragua  itself."4 

ABUNDANCE  OF  THK  SOUTH  AMERICAN  MANATEE. — In  relation  to  the  present  abundance 
of  Manatees  in  South  America,  it  is  perhaps  unnecessary  for  me  to  enter  into  details  here. 
I'.randt  has  reviewed  the  subject  at  length  quite  recently,  giving  many  particulars.''  His  investi- 
gations show  that  in  many  regions,  particularly  about  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  in  other  places 
\\heie  sufficient  shelter  is  wanting,  the  Sea-cows  are  disappearing  or  have  become  entirely  extinct. 
In  the  upper  waters  of  the  rivers,  however,  where  the  native  Indians  are  few  and  civili/ation  has 
not  reached,  little  diminution  is  probable. 

I'iKiiiAiiiLiTV  OK  EXTINCTION. — Putting  all  the  facts  together,  it  seems  evident  that  not  many 
cent uiics  will  pass  before  Manatees  will  be  extremely,  rare,  especially  in  our  own  country.  •  More 
specimens  should  be  accumulated  in  our  museums,  both  of  the  entire  animal  and  of  its  bones,  and 
its  wanton  destruction  .should  cease. 

MODES  OK  CAI'TUHE. — The  methods  of  capturing  Manatees  are  numerous.  In  Florida,  Mr. 
Goode  informs  me,  strong  rope  nets,  with  large  mesh,  are  often  employed.  The  details  of  this 


1  1 1  \i:i  \  s  :  Fauna  Americana,  1825,  p.  277. 

•Trail*.  Zoological  Swii-ty  London,  xi,  1*0,  |>.  21.     Howards'  <Jui<le  to  Florida.  1"7:>.  |> 

*GUNI>L\cil:  Hi-vistu  y  Cat. lie  lot*  Muinili-nm  riihanos.     Kr|x-rt.  FiMro-nal.  ilr  Ciiliii.  ii,  n<>.  '-',  1*'*,  P-  5fl 

••Vox  KKANTZICS:  Sangi-tliM-ro  Ci»ta  liii-as.     Arcliiv  fur  Xatnr^wM-liirlite.  xxxv,  i.  IrtSH  (f),  pp.  304-ll>. 

'UiiANirr:  Symbol*  Sirviiolojru-H'.  (W.  iii.  l-*il-'<^,  p.  2.">:». 


124  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

method  are  given  in  the  notes  of  an  observer,  Mr.  J.  Francis  Le  Baron,  writing  from  Titusville  in  1880. 
His  account  of  the  fishery,  given  with  much  lullness,  bears  all  the  evidences  of  correctness.  I  may 
be  allowed  to  quote  the  part  which  pertains  to  my  subject:  "The  manatee  hunter  aims  to  catch 
the  animal  alive,  and  for  this  purpose  quite  an  extensive  outfit  is  required.  It-consists,  first,  ot  a 
large  seine  net,  about  one  hundred  yards  long  and  six  or  eight  feet  wide,  made  of '  spun  yarn,'  so 
called,  which  consists  of  three  or  four  rope  yarns  spun  into  one  line,  about  the  size  of  a  Clothes- 
line, and  very  strong.  The  meshes  are  fifteen  inches  wide.  The  head-line  consists  of  a  strong 
rope,  and  floats  made  of  wood,  shaped  like  a  double  ended  boat,  are  placed  at  intervals  along  this 
to  keep  the  top  of  the  net  near  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  bottom  is  weighted  with  small 
pieces  of  brick  or  stone,  just  enough  to  cause  the  net  to  hang  perpendicularly  in  the  water.  A 
large  sail-boat  is  also  required.  The  hunter,  taking  the  net  in  the  boat,  proceeds  quietly  to  the 
part  of  the  river  frequented  by  the  manatee,  and  keeps  a  sharp  lookout  for  the  animals,  which 
have  a  habit  of  passing  up  and  down  the  river  by  certain  points.  If  the  lookout  perceives  a 
manatee  in  the  river  above  him  he  knows  that  sooner  or  later  the  animal  will  take  a  cruise  down 
the  river,  and  he  proceeds  accordingly  to  stretch  his  net  across  the  channel.  One  end  of  the  net  he 
first  makes  fast  to  a  small  bush  or  twig,  or,  if  no  tree  is  available,  to  a  stake  driven  for  the  purpose 
into  i  he  bank.  To  this  the  shore  end  of  the  net  is  fastened  by  a  small  cord  secured  to  the  head- 
line, and  the  stake  or  bush  before  mentioned,  care  being  taken  to  use  a  cord  so  small  that  in  its 
struggles  it  will  be  easily  broken  by  the  animal,  for  a  reason  which  will  appear  hereatter.  The 
boat  is  then  rowed  across  the  stream  with  the  other  end  of  the  net,  and  when  the  latter  is  stretched 
to  its  full  length,  the  boat  is  anchored  and  the  net  secured  by  a  similar  easily  broken  cord  to  the 
boat  in  such  a  manner  that  the  first  struggle  of  the  animal  will  be  felt  by  the  occupants  of  the  boat, 
being  communicated  by  the  cord  to  a  tell-tale,  or  the  cord  is  fastened  to  the  body  of  one  of  the 
hunters,  who  now  go  to  sleep  if  night  has  come  on,  or  perhaps  while  away  the  time  by  a  game  of 
cards,  keeping  perfectly  quiet.  There  are  very  likely  several  manatee  in  the  river,  and  before  long 
one  attempts  to  pass  by  the  boat.  His  progress  is  of  course  arrested  by  the  net,  and  his  struggles 
to  force  a  passage  are  at  once  communicated  by  the  tell-tale  cord.  Unsuccessful  in  his  first  attempt 
to  effect  a  passage,  the  manatee  increases  his  efforts,  and  the  result  is  that  the  slender  cords  holding 
the  net  to  the  shore  and  the  boat  are  broken,  and  the  net  with  the  manatee  entangled  drifts  away 
with  the  current.  The  frantic  efforts  of  the  animal  only  serve  to  closer  enwind  him  in  the  meshes 
of  the  net,  which  doubles  and  wraps  itself  around  him  closer  and  closer.  It  is  now  that  the  objects 
of  the  light  sinkers  and  slender  holding  cords  are  apparent.  The  manatee  is  a  warm-blooded 
animal  and  must  come  to  the  surface  for  air  every  few  minutes.  If  the  sinkers  are  too  heavy,  or  if 
the  net  is  immovable  in  the  water,  he  is  unable  to  do  this  and  is  drowned.  The  large  floats  serve 
now  to  show  the  hunters  the  location  of  the  prey,  and  they  bear  down  upon  it  and  tow  it  with  the 
confined  animal  into  shoal  water.  Here  a  large  box  or  tank  is  ready.  The  net  is  unwound,  ropes 
are  placed  around  the  animal,  and  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  hunters,  he  is  transferred  to  the  box. 
The  box  is  then  towed  to  the  'crawl,'  which  is  an  iuclosure  formed  by  driving  stakes  close  together 
in  the  water  with  their  tops  projecting  several  feet  above,  and  is  generally  near  the  home  of  the 
hunters.  The  box  is  floated  into  the  crawl  and  the  animal  let  out.  He  is  there  kept  and  fed  daily 
until  an  opportunity  occurs  for  shipment.  This  is  made  in  the  same  large  box,  which  is  water- 
tight and  about  half  filled  with  water.  Such  is  the  method  employed  by  the  Indian  Hiver  hunters 
for  catching  the  manatee  alive.  It  is,  however,  often  shot  with  a  rifle,  from  the  shore  or  a  boat, 
when  feeding  or  coming  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  but  the  hunter  must  be  very  quick  and  expert 
with  his  weapon,  as  they  show  only  one-third  of  the  head,  and  that  only  for  a  second.  The  profits 
of  manatee  hunting  are  large.  The  skeleton,  if  properly  cleaned,  will  readily  bring  a  hundred 


IHI-:  M.\N.\TKi:s:  MODB8  OF  CAPTURE.  125 

dollars,  anil  (In-  skin  a  like  stun  if  t:ik<>n  oil   whole,  IH-IIIU  in  demand  by  seientiMs  for  MIIIM-IUIIS  all 
ovo.-  the  win  Id."1 

"So  valuable  an  animal."  says  Wood,  alluding  more  particularly  to  the  South  American 
Manatee,  "is  subject  to  great  persecution  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  who  display  groat  activity, 
skill,  and  courage  in  the  pursuit,  of  their  arn]>hibious  quarry.  Tln>  skin  of  the  Manatee  is  so  thick 
ami  stroii-:  that  the  wretched  steel  of  which  their  weapons  are  composed — the  '  machetes'  or  sword- 
knives,  with  which  they  are  almost  universally  armed,  being  sold  in  England  for  three  shillings 
and  six  pence  per  do/en — is  quite  unable  to  penetrate  the  tough  hide.  Nothing  is  so  effectual 
a  weapon  for  this  service  as  a  common  English  three-cornered  file,  which  is  fastened  to  a  spear- 
shaft.  amll>iorc.es  through  the  tough  hide  with  the  greatest  ease."2 

Many  of  the  early  explorers  give  lively  accounts  of  the  manatee  fishery  in  South  America. 
"Diners  oilier  fishes."  says  Oviedo.  in  alluding  to  the  fishes  of  the  Orinoco  River,  as  quaintly 
translated  by  Pnrchas,  "both  great  ami  small,  of  sundrie  sorts  and  kinds,  are  accustomed  to  follow 
•  In  ships  going  vnder  saile,  of  the  which  I  will  speak  somewhat  when  I  have  written  of  Manatee, 
which  is  the  third  of  the  three  whereof  I  have  promised  to  entreat.  Manatee,  therefore,  is  a  fish 
of  the  M'a,  of  the  biggest  sort,  and  much  greater  than  the  Tibvron  in  leng'h  and  breadth,  ami  is 
very  brutish  and  vile,  so  that  it  appeareth  in  forme  like  vnto  one  of  those  great  vessels  made  of 
Goats  skins,  wherein  they  vse  to  carry  new  wine  in  Medina  ae  Campo  or  in  Arenalc :  the  head  of 
this  beast  is  like  the  head  of  an  Oxe,  with  also  like  eyes,  and  hath  in  the  place  of  urines,  two  great 
stumps  wherewith  he  swimmeth.  It  is  a  very  gentle  and  tame  beast,  and  commeth  oftentimes  out 
of  the  water  to  the  next  shoare,  where  if  he  findc  any  herbes  or  grasse,  ho  feedeth  thereof.  Our 
men  an1  accustomed  to  kill  many  of  these,  and  diners  other  good  fishes,  with  their  Crosse-bowes, 
pursuing  them  in  Barkes  or  Canoas,  because  they  swim  in  manner  aboue  the  water,  the  which 
thing  when  they  see,  they  draw  them  with  a  hooke  tyod  at  a  small  corde,  but  somewhat  strong. 
As  the  fish  fleeth  away,  Archer  letteth  goe,  and  proloageth  the  corde  by  little  and  little,  vntill  he 
have  let  it  goe  many  fathoms:  at  the  end  of  the  corde,  there  is  tyed  a  corke,  or  a  piece  of  light 
wood,  and  when  the  fish  is  gone  a  little  way,  and  hath  coloured  the  water  with  his  bloud,  and 
feeleth  himselfe  to  faint  and  draw  toward  the  end  of  his  life,  he  lesorteth  to  the  shoare,  and  the 
Archer  followeth,  gathering  vp  his  corde,  whereof  while  there  yet  remaine  sixe  or  eight  fathoms 
or  somewhat  more  or  lesse,  he  draweth  it  toward  the  Land,  and  draweth  the  fish  therewith  by 
little  and  little,  as  the  wanes  of  the  Sea  helpe  him  to  doe  it  the  more  easily:  then  with  the  hclpe  of 
the  reste  of  his  companie,  he  lifteth  this  great  beast  out  of  the  Water  to  the  Land,  being  of  such 
bignesse,  that  to  couvey  it  from  thence  to  the  Citie,  it  shull  be  requisite  to  haue  a  Cart  with  a  goixl 
yoke  of  Oxen,  and  sometimes  more,  according  as  these  fishes  are  of  bignesse,  some  being  much 
greater  then  other  some  in  the  same  kinde,  as  is  scene  of  other  beasts:  Sometimes  they  lift  these 
fishes  into  the  Canoa  or  Barke  without  drawing  them  to  the  Land  as  before,  for  as  soone  as  they 
are  slaine,  they  flote  aboue  the  water :  And  I  beleeue  verily  that  this  fish  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
world  to  the  taste,  and  the  likest  vnto  flesh,  especially  so  like  vnto  beefe,  that  who  so  hath  not 
scene  it  whole,  can  iudge  it  to  be  nother  when  bee  seeth  it  in  pieces  then  very  Beefe  <>r  Vealo.  and 
is  certainly  so  like  vnto  flesh,  that  all  the  men  in  the  world  may  herein  be  deceiued :  the  taste 
likewise,  is  like  unto  the  taste  of  very  good  Veale.  and  lasteth  long,  if  it  be  powdred:  .-<>  that  in 
fine,  the  Beefe  of  these  parts  is  by  no  means  like  vnto  this.  Tl  e  Manatee  hath  a  ci-rtaim-  stone,  or 
rather  bone  in  his  head  within  the  braine  which  is  of  qiialitie  greatly  appropriate  against  the 
disease  of  the  stone,  if  it  be  bin  ni  and  ground  into  small  powder,  and  taken  tasting  in  the  morning 

'LE  BAHON:  In  I-W.-st  ami  Sin-am,  xiii.  1880,  p.  1005,  1006. 
'WOOD:  lllustraloil  Natural  History.      MaiiunaN.  |>. 


126  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

when  the  paineisfelt,  in  such  quantities  as  may  lye  vpon  a  peny  with  a  draught  of  good  white 
wine.  For  being  thus  taken  three  or  foure  mornings  it  acquieteeth  the  griefe,  as  diners  haue  told 
me  which  haue  proved  it  true,  and  I  my  selfe  by  testiinonie  of  sight  doe  witnesse  that  I  have  seen 
this  stone  sought  of  divers  for  this  effect."1 

Du  Tertre,  whose  narrative  we  have  already  several  times  quoted,  gives  an  account  of  the 
mode  of  capture,  which  has  all  the  tokens  of  accuracy.  He  writes : 

"  Three  or  four  men  go  in  a  small  canoe  (which  is  a  small  boat,  all  of  one  piece,  made  of  a  single 
tree  in  the  form  of  a  canoe).  The  oarsman  is  at  the  back  of  the  canoe  and  dips  the  blade  of  his 
paddle  right  and  left  in  the  water  in  such  a  way  that  he  not  only  governs  the  course  of  the  canoe 
but  makes  it  advance  as  swiftly  as  if  it  were  propelled  by  a  light  wind  or  under  reef.  '  The  Vareur 
(who  lances  the  beast)  stands  on  a  small  plank  at  the  bow  of  the  canoe  holding  the  lance  in  his 
hand  (that  is  to  say,  a  sort  of  spear,  at  the  end  of  which  a  harpoon  or  javelin  of  iron  is  fastened). 
The  third  man,  in  the  middle  of  the  canoe,  arranges  the  line,  which  is  attached  in  order  to  be  paid 
out  when  the  animal  is  struck. 

"All  keep  a  profound  silence,  for  the  hearing  of  this  animal  is  so  acute  that  the  least  noise 
of  water- against  the  canoe  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  take  flight  and  frustrate  the  hopes  of  the 
fishers.  There  is  much  enjoyment  in  watching  them,  for  the  harpooner  is  fearful  lest  the  animal 
escape  him,  and  continually  imagines  that  the  oarsman  is  not  employing  half  his  force,  although 
he  does  all  that  he  is  able  with  this  arms  and  never  turns  his  eyes  from  the  harpoon,  with  the  point 
of  which  the  liarpooner  points  out  the  course  he  must  follow  to  reach  the  animal,  which  lies  asleep. 

"  When  the  canoe  is  three  or  four  paces  away  the  harpooner  strikes  a  blow  with  all  his  force 
and  drives  the  harpoon  at  least  half  a  foot  into  the  flesh  of  the  animal.  The  staff  falls  into  the  water, 
but  the  harpoon  remains  attached  to  the  animal,  which  is  already  half  caught.  When  the  animal 
feels  itself  thus  rudely  struck  it  collects  all  its  forces  and  employs  them  for  its  safety.  It  plunges 
like  a  horse  let  loose,  beats  the  billows  as  a  negro  beats  the  air,  and  makes  the  sea  foam  as  it 
passes.  It  thinks  to  escape  its  enemy,  but  drags  him  everywhere  after  it  so  that  one  might  take 
the  harpooner  for  a  Neptune  led  in  triumph  by  this  marine  monster.  Finally,  after  having  dragged 
its  misfortune  after  it,  and  having  lost  a  great  part  of  its  blood,  its  power  fails,  its  breath  gives  out, 
and  being  reduced  to  distress,  it  is  constrained  to  stop  short  in  order  to  take  a  little  rest ;  but  it 
no  sooner  stops  than  the  harpoouer  draws  in  the  line  and  strikes  it  a  second  blow  with  a  harpoon 
better  aimed  and  more  forcibly  thrown  than  the  first.  At  this  second  blow  the  animal  makes  a 
few  more  feeble  efforts,  but  is  soon  reduced  to  extremities,  and  the  fishermen  readily  drag  it  to  the 
shore  of  the  nearest  island,  where  they  place  it  in  their  canoe,  if  the  latter  is  of  sufficient  size."^ 

Barbot,  after  quoting  the  account  of  the  fishery  by  Acufia,  in  the  quaint  translation  which  1 
shall  quote  on  a  following  page,  adds  some  valuable  notes  on  the  commercial  transactions  which 
are  carried  on  in  connection  with  salted  Manatee  meat.  He  says: 

"The  ManatPs  flesh  used  at  Cayenne  is  brought  ready  salted  from  the  river  of  the  Amazon*; 
several  of  the  principal  inhabitants  sending  the  barks  and  brigantines  thither  with  men  and  salt 
to  buy  it  of  the  Indians  for  beads,  knives,  white  hats  of  a  low  price,  some  linen,  toys,  and  iron 
tools.  When  those  vessels  are  enter'd  the  river  of  the  Amazons,  the  Indians,  who  always  follow 
the  Manati  fishery,  go  aboard,  take  the  salt,  and  with  it  run  up  the  river  in  canoes  or  Piragtiux  to 
catch  the  ManatVs;  which  they  cut  in  pieces,  and  salt  as  taken,  returning  with  that  salt  fish  to  the 
brigantines;  which  go  not  up,  because  the  Portuguene  who  dwell  to  the  eastward,  at  Para,  and 
other  places  of  Brazil,  claim  the  sovereignty  of  the  north  side  of  that  river,  and  give  no  quarter 


iPnrchas  big  Pilgrimes,  iii,  1625,  pp.  887,  988. 

3 Du  TERTRE:  HiHtoire  des  Antilles,  ii,  1667, pp. 200, 201. 


TIII;  MAN.MT.F.S:  <  .\ri  i  I;K.  127 


to  the  l-'r<'ii<-h  or  other  l-'iiKipcnnx  they  ran  lake  in  tlii'ir  liberties,  whicli  has  occasional  many 
disputes  ami  quarrels  bet  wren  them.  as  I  shall  observe  hereafter. 

"That  controversy  was  decided  by  Hie  tieaty  of  I'tiei-ht;  in  the  year  1713.  The  Portiigneite 
some  \e;u-s  since  designing  to  settle  on  the  west  si<k-  of  the  Amazon*,  cruelly  massacred  many,  who 
bel'oie  used  to  yo  nninoleste<l,  anil  consequently  inisti  listing  no  danger. 

"The  brigantincs  having  got  their  lading  of  salted  Manati,  return  to  Cayenne,  and  sell  it  then", 
commonly  at  three  pence  a  pound."1 

"The  tlesh  of  the  Manatee  being  much  esteemed,"  writes  Descourtlitz,  in  1800,  from  his  own 
observations,  "and  its  fat  never  becoming  rancid,  the  negroes  employ  many  means  to  destroy 
them,  sometimes  by  the  use  of  nets,  in  the  places  where  they  teed,  sometimes  by  shooting  them 
from  canoes;  more  commonly  they  harpoon  them  when  they  are  able  to  approach  sufficiently 
near,  but  as  the  animal,  although  seriously  wounded,  does  not  die  immediately,  they  let  out  a  cord 
in  order  not  to  lose  so  precious  a  prey,  which  one  sees  reappear  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  drowned 
and  lifeless."* 

PRODUCTS  FUKNISIIED  BY  MANATEES.  —  The  Sirenians  possess  the  quality,  most  fatal  to 
them,  of  furnishing  palatable  food  for  man.  The  huge  Sea-cow  of  Bering  Sea  disappeared  IVoj.i 
this  cause,  and  the  Dugong,  the  Sirenian  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Manatees  sutler  not  less  on 
the  same  account.  For  the  Indian  of  South  America  the  Manatee  is  a  fund  of  wealth.  On  its 
flesh  he  subsists,  with  its  oil  be  anoints  himself,  from  its  skin  he  makes  shields  and  cords,  in  its 
bones  he  finds  medicine.  The  early  explorers  were  not  long  in  discovering  its  virtues.  Ilerrara. 
gathers  the  following  estimate  of  its  importance  from  their  accounts  of  America: 

"The  Taste  of  it  is  beyond  Fish:  when  fresh  it  is  like  Veal,  and  salted  like  Tunny-Fish,  but 
better,  and  will  keep  longer:  the  Fat  of  it  is  sweet,  and  di.es  not  grow  rusty.  Leather  for  Slims 
is  dress'd  with  it.  The  Stones  it  has  in  the  head3  are  good  against  the  Pleurisy  and  the  Stone."  4. 

Rochefort  is  not  less  impressed  with  the  good  qualities  of  the  animal.  He  exclaims:  "Among 
all  the  fishes  there  is  none  having  so  good  flesh  as  the  Lamantin.  Two  or  three  of  these  beasts 
will  till  a  large  canoe,  anff  the  flesh  is  like  that  of  a  land  animal,  firm,  pink  and  appeti/.ing,  and 
mixed  with  fat,  which  being  rendered  never  becomes  rancid.  When  it  has  been  two  or  tlnee  days 
in  pickle,  it  is  better  for  the  health  tli'an  when  eaten  entirely  fresh."5  He  also  gives  some  very 
good  advice  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  ear  bones  for  medicine.  "The  superstitions,"  he  sajs,  -'lay 
great  store  by  the  stones  which  are  found  in  the  head,  because  they  possess  the  power,  they  say, 
when  reduced  to  powder,  to  stop  the  formation  of  calcareous  deposits,  and  to  remove  those  already 
formed;  but,  since  the  remedy  is  very  violent,  no  one  ought  to  use  it  without  the  advice  of  a  wise 
and  experienced  physician.1" 

I'.iet  mentions  the  Manatee  tirst  in  his  list  of  the  fishes  [tic]  of  the  He  de  Cayenne.  Alluding 
to  the  flesh,  he  says:  "It  is  ver.  excellent,  and  although  one  may  have  other  provisions,  it  will  be 
preferred  to  beef.  Its  fat,  also,  is  as  sweet  as  butter,  and  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  all  kinds  of 
pastrx,  fricasees,  and  soup-." 

Barbot  seems  to  have  summed  up  all  that  was  known  of  the  Manatee  of  South  America  up  to 
his  time,  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  quotes,  also,  Father  Acufia,  in  a  translation  which, 


1  IUnnoT:   (>i>.  ril.,  |>.  !>(«. 

In  -i  ciritn  IT/.  :   V«i\»^e  il'tin  Natnralistr.  ii.  1HK),  ]>.•/<(!. 
1Tllr  rar  lionrs. 

1  Hi  I:I:.M:A  :   History  <>f  Ainrrira,  i,  17'2.r),  p.278. 
•ROCIIKKOUT:  Xal.  llistoirv  tlrs  ll<-n  Antilli-R,  -M  <•<!..  IfifiS,  p.  195. 
•  Ijv:  cil.,  |i.  lll.">. 
'BlKT:  Voyage  ••"  I'll''  <!'•  <  a.M-ini.-,  IOG4,  H>.  W>,  347. 


1  28  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

according  to  my  notion,  is  preferable  to  that  of  the  Hakluyt  Society.     Having  alluded  to  its  small 
eye,  but  quick  ear,  and  to  other  characteristics  of  its  organization,  he  says: 

"The  flesh  of  this  creature  is  excellent,  very  wholesome,  and  tastes  very  much  like  veal  of 
Europe,  when  young:  for  the  biggest  are  not  so  delicate  and  agreeable  to  the  palate.  Their  fat  is 
hard,  and  very  sweet,  as  that  of  onr  hogs;  the  flesh  resembles  veal.  It  dies  with  very  little  loss 
of  blood,  and  is  not  observ'd  to  come  upon  dry  land;  nor  is  there  any  likelihood  it  should, 
considering  its  shape,  as  in  the  cut,  whence  it  is  concluded  not  to  be  amphibious. 

"The  Spaniards  about  the  island  of  St.  Margaret,  or  Maryarita,  called  the  Manati  Pcce-Bury, 
that  is,  Ox  Fish;  and  particularly  value  the  stomach  and  belly  part  of  it,  roasted  on  spits.  Others 
cut  long  slices  of  the  flesh  of  its  back,  which  they  salt  a  little,  only  for  two  days,  and  then  dry  it 
in  the  air;  after  which  it  will  keep  three  or  four  months.  This  they  roast  and  baste  with  butter, 
and  reckon  delicious  meat.  A  gentleman  has  assur'd  me,  that  at  Jamaica  they  give  eighteen  pence 
a  pound  for  young  Manati.  At  Cayenne  it  yields  but  three  pence  a  pound  salted. 

"  F.  Christopher  de  Acunna,  in  the  relation  of  his  voyage  on  the  river  of  the  Amazon*,  chap.  25, 
describes  this  fish  as  follows: 

"The  Pece-Buey,  says  he,  is  of  a  delicious  taste;  any  one  that  eats  it,  would  think  it  to  be 
most  excellent  flesh  well  season'd.  This  fish  is  as  big  as  a  heifer  of  a  year  and  a  half  old;  it  has  a 
head  and  ears  just  like  those  of  a  heifer,  and  the  body  of  it  is  all  cover'd  with  hair,  like  the  bristles 
of  a  white  hog;  it  swims  with  two  little  amis,  and  under  its  belly  has  teats,  with  which  it  suckles 
its  young  ones.  The  skin  of  it  is  very  thick,  and  when  dressed  into  leather,  serves  to  make 
targets,  which  are  proof  against  a  musket  bullet.  It  feeds  upon  grass,  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
like  an  ox;  from  which  it  receives  so  good  nourishment,  and  is  of  so  pleasant  taste,  that  a  man  is 
more  strengthen'd  and  better  satisfy'd  with  eating  a  small  quantity  of  it,  than  with  twice  as 
much  mutton. 

"It  has  not  a  free  respiration  in  the  water,  and  therefore  often  thrusts  out  its  snout  to  take 
breath,  and  so  is  disco ver'd  by  them  that  seek  after  it.  When  the  Indians  get  sight  of  it  they 
follow  it  with  their  oars  in  little  canoes;  and  when  it  appears  above  wa(pr  to  take  breath,  cast  their 
harping-tools  made  of  shells,  with  which  they  stop  its  course,  and  take  it.  When  they  have 
kill'd  it,  they  cut  it  into  pieces,  and  dry  it  upon  wooden  grates,  which  they  call  Boucan;  and  thus 
dressed,  it  will  keep  good  above  a  month.  They  have  not  the  way  of  salting  and  drying  it  to  keep 
a  long  while,  for  want  of  plenty  of  salt;  that  which  they  use  to  season  their  meat  being  very  scarce, 
and  made  of  the  ashes  of  a  sort  of  palm-tree,  so  that  it  is  more  like  salt-petre  than  common  salt."1 

For  the  Romanist  of  South  America  the  Manatee  is,  as  the  old  voyagers  persisted  in  calling  it, 
a  fish.  It  is,  therefore,  eaten  on  days  when  a  meat  diet  is  forbidden  by  the  rites  of  the  church. 

CONCLUSION. — In  the  Manatee,  then,  we  have  an  animal  of  great  size,  of  gentle  disposition 
and  apparently  of  rapid  growth,  which  lives  in  places  readily  accessible  to  man,  and  is  easily 
captured,  and  which  furnishes  meat  which  is  not  inferior,  oil  which  is  remarkably  fine,  and 
leather  which  possesses  great  toughness.  From  these  considerations  it  would  seem  evident  that, 
with  the  proper  protection,  it  would  furnish  no  small  revenue  to  the  people  in  those  portions  of 
our  country  which  it  inhabits,  for  centuries  to  come. 

32.  THE  ARCTIC  SEA-COW. 

THE  EXTINCTION  ov  SPECIES  IN  HISTORICAL  TIME. — The  catalogue  of  animals  which  are 
known  to  have  become  extinct  within  historical  times  is  not  a  long  one.  I  do  not  allude,  of 


1  BAHBOT:  A  Description  of  tint  Island  of  Cayenne,  in  Appendix  to  Description  of  the  t'onstx  of  Not-ill  and  South 
Guinea,  I  ;::•.',  p.  563. 


THE  ARCTIC  SEA-COW:  EXTINCTION.  129 

course,  to  those  aniuiiils  which  liavo  been  driven  from  their  native  haunts  before  advancing  civili- 
zation, and  which  with  its  decline  would  flourish  again  amidst  the  fallen  columns  and  crumbling 
walls,  but  to  those  of  which  no  remnant  remains,  whose  existence  as  the  representatives  of  certain 
definite  stages  of  organic  development  is  forever  closed.  Such  a  one  is  the  Rhytina  (Rhytina 
gigas,  Ziinmermann),  which  inhabited  Bering  Sea  until  within  about  a  century.  The  story  of  its 
discovery  and  extermination  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  pages  of  zoological  history. 

THE  GREAT  NORTHERN  EXPEDITION.— At  the  opening  of  the  last  century  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  Russian  Empire  was  one  of  the  least  known  quarters  of  the  globe.  The  barrenness 
of  the  land,  the  dreadful  winter,  and  the  almost  impassable  sea,  had  deterred  travelers  and  voyagers 
to  a  large  extent  from  penetrating  into  its  wilds.  Those  who  adventured  in  the  frozen  seas  went 
principally  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage,  or  in  pursuit  of  other  matters  relating  to  geography 
and  commerce,  and  paid  little  attention  to  the  products  of  the  land  or  of  the  waters.  Early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  however,  Peter  the  Great,  desirous  of  knowing  whether  Asia  and  America 
were  contiguous,  gave  orders  that  an  expedition  should  proceed  to  ascertain  the  truth.  Before 
they  could  be  executed  he  died,  but  the  Empress  Catherine  commanded  that  they  should  be  fulfilled. 
Capt.  Vitus  Bering  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  expedition,  and  Gmelin,  of  the  St.  Petersburg 
Academy,  was  appointed  chief  naturalist.  After  several  preliminary  cruises  had  been  made  which 
extended  over  a  number  of  years,  two  ships  set  sail  from  Kamtchatka  on  the  15th  (4th)  of  June, 
1741.  Before  the  departure  of  this  final  voyage,  however,  Gmelin  had  withdrawn  on  account  of 
ill-health,  and  George  William  Steller,  who  had  been  sent  out  by  the  St.  Petersburg  Academy  as 
his  assistant,  was  commissioned  to  complete  the  scientific  researches. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OP  BERING  ISLAND  AND  WRECKING  OF  THE  "Si.  PETER."— The  two 
vessels,  the  "St.  Peter,"  commanded  by  Bering,  and  the  "St.  Paul,"  in  charge  of  Tschirikov,  sailed 
eastward  toward  the  American  continent.  Before  arriving,  however,  on  the  1st  of  July  (20th  of 
June)  a  storm  separated  them.  Having  touched  at  Alaska,  Bering  started  westward  again,  encoun- 
tering before  long  the  most  tempestuous  weather.  The  crew  grew  weak  and  sick  through  long- 
continued  hardship.  On  the  10th  of  November  (30th  of  October)  the  ship  approached  Bering 
Island,  then  unknown.  A  few  days  after  the  storm  drove  her  upon  the  rocks,  and  the  crew  were 
forced  to  take  up  winter  quarters  on  the  island. 

DEATH  OF  BERING. — Many  of  the  sick  died  as  soon  as  they  were  removed  to  the  land,  and  on 
the  19th  (8th)  of  December  the  commander  also  perished.  After  some  days  ''it  was  resolved  to 
examine  what  store  of  provisions  there  was,  and  compute  how  long  they  would  last,  to  regulate 
the  distribution  of  the  shares  accordingly,  notwithstanding  which  thirty  persons  died  on  the 
island.  They  found  the  stores  were  so  much  exhausted  that  if  they  had  not  l>een  supplied 
with  the  flesh  of  sea-animals  they  must  have  all  perished  for  want  of  food."1 

USE  OF  THE  RHYTINA  TO  THE  SURVIVORS. — Prominent  among  the  animals  which  served 
them  as  food  was  the  Rhytina.  Its  well-flavored  flesh  and  pleasant  fat  proved  a  great  boon  to 
them.  "And  the  sick  found  themselves  considerably  better,  when,  instead  of  the  disagreeable 
hard  beaver's  flesh,  they  eat  of  the  Manati,  tho'  it  cost  them  more  trouble  to  catch  than  one  of  the 
beavers.  They  never  came  on  the  land,  but  only  approached  tho  coast  to  eat  sea-grass,  which 
grows  on  the  shore,  or  is  thrown  out  by  the  sea.  This  good  food  may,  perhaps,  contribute  a  great 
deal  to  give  the  flesh  a  more  disagreeable*  taste  than  that  of  the  other  animals  that  live  on  fish. 
The  young  ones,  that  weighed  1,200  pounds  and  upwards,  remained  sometimes  at  low  water  on  the 
dry  land  between  the  rocks,  which  afforded  a  fine  opportunity  for  killing  them;  but  the  old  ones, 

1  M  i  1 1  r  ii :  Voyages  from  Asia  to  America.   English  translation,  Jeffeiys,  1761,  p.  58. 
*  This  is  surely  a  typographical  error  for  ayrrtable. 
9  F 


130  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

which  were  more  cautious,  and  went  off  at  the  right  time  with  the  ebb,  could  be  caught  no  other- 
wise than  with  harpoons  fixed  to  long  ropes.  Sometimes  the  ropes  were  broke,  and  the  animal 
escaped  before  it  could  be  struck  a  second  time.  This  animal  was  seen  as  well  in  the  winter  as  in 
the  summer  time.  They  melted  some  of  the  fat,  with  which,  like  hogs,  they  are  covered  from  three 
to  four  inches  thick,  and  used  it  as  butter.  Of  the  flesh,  several  casks  full  were  pickled  for  ship's 
provision,  which  did  excellent  service  on  their  return."1 

STELLER'S  OBSERVATIONS. — In  the  midst  of  these  privations,  Steller  did  not  fail  to  make  and 
record  observations  relative  to  the  animals  which  came  about  the  island.  To  his  most  praise- 
worthy perseverance  we  owe  all  that  we  know  of  the  appearance  and  habits  of  the  Ehytiua.  Not 
a  word  has  been  added  to  his  account  of  the  characteristics  of  the  animal,  which  a  few  years  later 
became  extinct. 

THE  RETURN  TO  KAMTCHATKA  ;  MISFORTUNES  OF  STELLER. — In  the  summer  of  1742  the 
shipwrecked  crew  of  the  "St.  Peter"  built  a  boat  from  the  wreck  of  their  vessel,  and  on  the  21st 
(10th)  of  August  sailed  toward  Kamtchatka.  "The  next  day  at  noon  they  were  in  sight  of  the 
southeast  point  of  Bering's  Island,  at  a  distance  of  four  leagues  N.  by  E.,  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  of  CapeManati;  from  the  above-mentioned  Sea-cows,  which  herd  more  here  than  in  any  other 
parts."2  Shortly  after  they  arrived  safely  in  Kamtchatka.  But  while  some  of  the  crew  soon 
afterward  reached  St.  Petersburg,  and  had  distinctions  conferred  upon  them  by  the  government, 
Steller  was  most  shamefully  treated  because  he  dared  to  condemn  the  abuses  of  the  officials,  and 
finally  died,  in  November,  1746,  in  an  obscure  town,  with  but  a  single  friend  to  sympathize  with 
him.3  His  observations  on  the  Rhytiua,  which  I  shall  quote  at  length,  together  with  those  on 
other  marine  animals,  were  published  by  the  St.  Petersburg  Academy  in  1751. 

His  statements,  it  should  be  remembered,  relate  to  the  occurrence  of  Ehytina  on  Bering 
Island  only.  The  somewhat  numerous  facts  which  have  accumulated  regarding  the  reality  or 
probability  of  its  occurrence  in  other  regions,  I  shall  cite  on  another  page. 

After  giving  a  table  of  measurements,  and  a  very  detailed  description  of  external  and  internal 
parts,  which  I  am  not  at  liberty  to  quote  in  this  connection,  Steller  expands  upon  the  natural  history 
of  the  Sea-cow.4  The  following  translation  of  the  original  Latin  is  the  product  of  the  unremunerated 
labor  of  my  brother,  Mr.  A.  Charles  True,  of  the  State  Normal  College,  Westfield,  Massachusetts, 
who  has  taken  pains  to  make  it  as  accurate  as  possible. 

STELLER'S  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  SEA-COW.— "It  was  my  fortune 
on  an  unlucky  occasion,"  writes  the  naturalist,  "  to  observe  daily  during  ten  months  the  habits  and 

l£oc.  tit.,  pp.  61,62. 

*Loc.  tit.,  p.  64. 

3  "As  to  the  academical  company  of  travellers,"  says  Mtiller, "  Gmelin  and  I  arrived  at  Petersburg  on.  Feb.  15  [26],  1743, 
having  passed  through  all  the  ports  of  Siberia.  But  Steller,  who  stayed  in  Kamtschatka  after  Waxel,  to  make  researches 
in  natural  history,  did  not  enjoy  this  good  luck.  He  immcrged  himself  without  necessity,  though  with  good  inten- 
tion, in  masters  that  did  not  belong  to  his  department ;  for  which  he  was  called  to  an  account  by  the  provincial  chancery 
at  Jakutzk.  Steller  vindicated  himself  so  perfectly  that  the  Vice  Governor  there  gave  him  permission  to  proceed  on  his 
journey.  The  proceedings  were  not  sent  to  the  Senate  at  Petersburg  so  soon  as  transacted.  The  Senate,  who  had 
intelligence  of  his  passing  through  Tobolsk,  sent  an  express  to  meet  him,  and  to  carry  him  back  to  Jakutzk.  And  soon 
after  advice  being  received  from  Irkutsk,  of  his  acquittal,  another  express  was  dispatched  to  annul  the  first  order.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  first  express  met  Steller  at  Solikamsk,  and  had  carried  him  back  as  far  as  Tara,  before  the  second 
express  overtook  him.  He  then  proceeded  without  delay  on  his  return  for  Petersburg  by  the  way  of  Tobolsk,  but  got 
no  farther  than  Tumen,  where  ho  died  of  a  fever  in  November,  1746,  in  company  of  one  Uau,  a  surgeon,  who  had  been 
with  him  in  the  Kamtschatka  expedition.  I  have  thought  it  necessary  to  relate  these  circumstances,  because  many 
falsities  have  been  propagated  abroad  concerning  him,  nay,  even  his  death  has  been  doubted.  He  was  born  on  the 
10th  of  March  (21st),  1709,  at  Winshfim  in  Franconia."— MCLLER :  op.  tit.,  pp,  65, 66.  Scheerer  (fide  Nordeuskiold),  in  his 
biography,  attached  to  Steller's  account  of  Kamtchatka,  states  that  Steller  got  as  far  as  Moscow  when  ordered  to 
return,  and  was  frozen  by  the  way. 

4 STELLER,  GEORGK  WILLIAM:  De  bestiis  marinis  auctore  Georgio  Wilhelmo  Stellero.  <Nov.  Comrn.  Acad. 
Imp.  Petropolitante,  torn,  ii,  1751,  pp.  289,  294,  et  seq. 


Till:    AIM  TIC   SKA    COW:   STKI.I.KK'S   ACCOl   NT. 

manners  of  these  animals  before   tin-  door  of  my  hut.    Hence  in  a  few  words  1  will  subjoin  the 
facts  which  were  mosi  faith  fully  observed  by  me. 

"These  animals  love  shallow  and  sandy  places  about  the  shore  of  the  sea,  but  most  willingly 
spend  their  lime  about  the  months  of  rivers  and  small  streams,  allured  by  the  pleasant  motion  of 
the  running  waters,  and  they  are  always  found  in  herds.  In  feeding  they  drive  before  them  those 
who  are  tender  and  not  yet  full  grown,  surround  them  carefully  on  the  Hanks  and  in  the  rear,  and 
always  keep  them  in  the  middle  of  the  herd,  and  when  the  tide  is  risen  they  approach  so  near  the 
shore  that  they  not  only  have  been  often  attacked  by  me  with  a  stick  or  a  spear,  but  sometimes  I 
stroked  their  backs  oven  with  my  hand. 

••  I  laving  received  any  severe  injury,  they  do  nothing  else  than  to  depart  farther  from  the  shore, 
and  after  a  short  t  ime  ;  having  forgotten  the  injury,  they  again  approach  nearer.  Whole  families  of 
tin-in  live  most  harmoniously  as  neighbors,  the  male  and  female  with  one  full-grown  and  one  young 
offspring.  They  seem  to  me  to  be  monogamous;  they  produce  their  young  at  any  season  of  the 
year,  but  most  commonly  in  the  autumn,  as  I  inferred  from  the  number  of  new-born  yonng  seen 
about  that  time;  and  from  the  fact  that  I  observed  them  in  sexual  intercourse  most  especially  in 
the  early  spring  I  concluded  that  the  period  of  gestation  covers  more  than  a  year,  and  fiom  the 
shortness  of  the  horns  and  the  dual  number  of  the  breasts  I  conclude  that  they  produce  not  more 
than  a  single  calf,  and  besides  I  never  observed  more  than  one  calf  near  a  mother. 

"Moreover,  these  animals  eat  most  voraciously  and  without  limit,  and  on  account  of  too  great 
greed  have  the  head  always  under  the  water.  They  are  not  at  all  anxious  about  life  or  safety,  so 
that  in  a  boat  or  as  a  naked  swimmer  you  can  go  into  their  midst  and  safely  select  whichever  one 
you  wish  to  strike  with  the  harpoon.  Four  or  five  minutes  having  been  passed  in  this  intense 
devotion  to  eating,  they  breathe  out  air  and  a  little  water  with  a  noise  like  the  neighing  of  horses. 
Wnile  feeding  they  move  one  foot  after  another  slowly  forward  and  so  partly  swim  quietly,  partly, 
as  it  were,  walk  after  the  manner  of  feeding  cows  or  sheep.  Half  of  the  body,  the  back  ami  sides, 
always  rises  above  the  water.  During  the  feeding  of  the  Khytina,  gulls  are  wont  to  sit  on  his 
back  and  refresh  themselves  with  the  fleas  clinging  to  his  skin  in  the  same  way  as  crows  are  wont 
to  feed  on  the  fleas  which  infest  hogs  and  sheep.  Moreover,  they  do  not  devour  all  sea-plants 
promiscuously,  but  especially,  (1)  a  fucus  with  the  crisped  leaf  of  the  Savoy  cabbage,  (2)  a  club- 
shaped  fucus,  (3)  a  fucus  with  the  form  of  an  ancient  Roman  whip,  (4)  a  very  long  fucus  with  wavy 
edges  whose  sinuses  reach  to  the  nerves. 

"  Where  they  have  pastured  even  for  n  single  day  great  heaps  of  roots  and  stems  are  seen  thrown 
out  by  the  waves  upon  the  shore.  When  their  bellies  are  Wiled  some  among  them,  lying  on  their 
backs,  sleep,  and  retreating  farther  from  the  shore,  lest  they  should  bo  left  on  dry  ground  by  the 
receding  tide,  are  often  choked  in  winter  by  the  ice  floating  around  the  shore,  which  also  happens 
if,  caught  by  the  waves  dashing  violently  about  the  rocks,  they  are  thrown  against  the  latter.  In 
winter  these  animals  are  so  lean  that  besides  the  spine  all  the  ribs  appear.  Coition  takes  place 
in  the  spring,  and  especially  about  evening,  in  a  tranquil  sea.  They  perform  many  gambols  in 
anticipation.  The  female  swims  quietly  hither  and  thither  in  the  sea  while  the  male  continually 
pursues.  For  a  long  time  the  female  eludes  him  with  many  turnings  and  meanderings  until  herself 
impatient  of  further  delay,  as  if  wearied  and  overpowered,  she  throws  herself  on  her  hack,  when  the 
male,  rushing  upon  her  furiously,  extorts  the  trilnitum  Veneris  and  both  mutually  embrace. 

"Their  capture  was  accomplished  with  a  great  iron  harpoon,  the  point  of  which  resembled  the 
flattened  blade  of  an  anchor  Hnke,  and  the  other  extremity,  with  the  aid  of  an  iron  ring,  was 
fastened  to  a  very  long  and  strong  cable.  A  vigorous  man  took  this  harpoon,  and,  together  with 
four  or  five  others,  embarked  in  a  boat,  and  while  one  guided  the  helm  and  three  or  four  rowed 


132  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

hastened  out  to  the  herd.  The  striker  stood  in  the  prow,  held  the  harpoon  in  his  hand,  and,  as 
soon  as  he  was  near  enough  to  strike  the  animal  from  the  boat,  hurled  his  weapon.  As  soon  as 
this  was  done  thirty  men  standing  on  the  shore,  seizing  the  other  extremity  of  the  rope,  held  the 
animal,  and  in  spite  of  his  desperate  efforts  to  resist  drew  him  with  great  labor  toward  the  shore. 
Those  who  wree  in  the  boat  re-enforced  themselves  with  another  rope  and  wearied  the  animal  with 
repeated  blows  until,  exhausted  and  quiet,  he  was  dispatched  with  dirks,  knives,  and  various 
weapons,  and  was  drawn  to  the  shore.  Some  cut  great  pieces  from  the  living  animal.  All  that  the 
animal  did  was  violently  to  move  his  tail  and  struggle  so  with  his  fore  limbs  that  often  great  pieces  of 
the  skin  split  off.  He  breathed  heavily,  and  as  with  a  groan.  From  his  wounded  back  the  blood 
was  Ihrown  in  a  spray  high  up  after  the  manner  of  a  spouting  fountain.  As  long  as  the  head  was 
hidden  under  the  water  the  blood  did  not  flow,  but  as  soon  as  he  raised  his  head  and  breathed  the 
blood  gushed  out.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  lungs,  situated  on  the  back,  were  wounded  first, 
and  as  often  as  these  were  afterward  filled  with  air  they  increased  the  strength  of  the  flow  of  blood. 
From  this  phenomenon  I  almost  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  this 
animal,  as  in  the  seal,  is  completed  in  a  twofold  manner — in  the  open  air  through  the  lungs,  but 
under  water  through  an  oval  aperture  (foramen  ovale)  and  arterial  duct,  though  I  did  not  find 
both.  But  that  they  at  the  same  time  respire  in  a  different  way  from  fishes  I  think  happens  on 
account  of  the  deglutition  of  solid  food  rather  than  because  of  a  forward-moving  circulation. 

"The  full-grown  and  very  large  animals  are  captured  more  easily  than  the  calves,  because  the 
calves  move  with  a  far  more  violent  motion ;  and  though  the  harpoon  remains  intact,  yet  when  the 
skin  is  broken  they  easily  escape,  a  thing  which  is  repeatedly  attempted. 

"But  if  an  animal  captured  by  the  harpoon  begins  to  move  quite  violently,  those  near  or  in  a 
neighboring  herd  are  frequently  stirred  and  are  aroused  to  bear  aid  to  the  captive.  On  account  of 
this,  sometimes  they  attempt  to  overturn  the  boat  with  their  backs,  sometimes  they  fall  upon  the 
rope  and  strive  to  break  it,  or,  by  the  vibration  of  the  tail,  labor  to  extract  the  harpoon  from  the 
back  of  the  wounded  animal,  which  oftentimes  they  attempt  not  without  success.  It  is  a  most 
curious  proof  of  their  disposition  and  conjugal  affection  that  when  the  female  has  been  taken  and 
drawn  in  with  the  harpoon,  the  male,  after  he  has  attempted  her  liberation  with  all  his  strength, 
but  in  vain,  and  lias  been  struck  many  blows  by  us,  none  the  less  will  follow  her  even  to  the  shore, 
and  sometimes  unexpectedly  and  suddenly  will  approach  her  when  she  is  already  dead.  On  the 
next  day  at  early  dawn  when  we  came  to  cut  the  flesh  in  pieces  and  carry  it  home  we  have  found 
the  male  still  standing  near  his  female,  and  I  have  even  seen  this  on  the  third  day  when  I 
approached  alone  for  the  sake  of  examining  the  intestines. 

"As  regards  voice,  the  animal  is  mute  and  does  not  give  forth  any  sound,  but  only  breathes 
heavily,  and  when  wounded  sighs. 

"How  much  power  lies  in  his  eyes  and  ears  I  dare  not  affirm,  but  frequently  he  sees  and 
hears  very  little  for  the  reason  that  he  keeps  the  head  continually  under  water;  nay,  the  animal 
himself  seems  to  neglect  and  despise  the  use  of  these  organs.  Among  all  who  have  written  con- 
cerning Sea  cows,1  no  one  has  produced  a  more  full  and  careful  account  than  the  most  curious  and 
diligent  Captain  Dampier  in  the  narrative  of  his  travels  published  in  London  in  1702.  As  I  read 
his  account,  nothing  seemed  to  me  to  be  worthy  of  censure,  although  some  few  things  did  not  agree 
with  our  animal.  For  he  says  that  two  species  of  Sea  cow  exist,  one  of  which  has  stronger  eyes 
than  ears  and  the  other  stronger  ears  than  vision.  What  he  says  concerning  the  hunting  of  this 
animal,  namely,  that  the  Americans  approach  it  without  any  noise  or  talking  lest  the  Sea-cow  flee, 


'The  allusions  to  the  "Sea-cow"  in  this  paragraph  relate  to  the  American  and  African  Manatees.     Steller  at  this 
time  seems  to  have  regarded  both  these  and  the  Rhytinia  as  forming  but  a  single  species. 


THE  ARCTIC  SEA  COW:   STELLER'8  ACCOUNT.  133 

is  without  doubt  so  InkMtttfefWlttro  they  are  frequently  captured  mid  l»y  long  experience  have 
learned  that  men  aro  hostile  to  them,  in  the  same  way  as  others,  otters  and  seals,  which  in  this 
deserted  island  never  before  have  seen  men,  nor  have  been  disturbed  in  their  enjoyment  of  secure 
peace,  and  were  killed  by  us  strangers  on  Bering's  Island  without  any  labor,  have  already  been 
rendered  equally  wild,  and  in  the  Knmtehatkan  land,  not  only  when  an  enemy  is  seen,  but  when 
they  scent  his  tracks,  hastily  commit  themselves  to  flight.    It  happens  sometimes  that  these 
animals  are  thrown  out  dead  by  the  tempests  around  the  promontory  called  Kronozkoi  Nos,  and 
also  around  Awatscha  Land,  and  are  called  by  the  Eamtchatkans,  on  account  of  their  use  for  food, 
in  their  language,  Kapnstnik,  'Kraut  Eraser,'  which  fact  I   learned  after  my  return  in  1742. 
Finally,  concerning  the  use  of  the  parts  of  this  animal,  according  to  Hernandes,  the  thick,  firm,  and 
tough  skin  is  used  by  the  Americans  for  the  soles  of  shoes  and  for  belts.    I  hear  that  the  skin  is 
used  by  the  Tschuktschi  for  boats.    They  are  accustomed  to  stretch  the  skin  on  sticks,  and  to  treat 
it  in  the  same  way  as  the  tribe  of  Koraeccica  do  the  skins  of  the  very  large  seals  called  Lachtak. 
"The  fat  encircling  the  whole  body  under  the  skin,  a  span,  and  in  some  places  almost  nine 
inches  thick,  glandulons,  consistent,  white,  when  exposed  to  the  sun  turning  yellow  like  hog's 
lard,  of  a  very  pleasant  odor  and  flavor,  is  to  be  compared  with  the  fat  of  no  marine  animals, 
nay,  rather  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  fat  of  quadrupeds ;  for  besides  that  it  can  be  heated  for  a 
very  long  time  on  the  warmest  days  and  not  become  rancid  or  otherwise  offensive  to  the  smell, 
when  tried  out  it  is  so  sweet  and  palatable  that  it  took  from  us  all  desire  for  butter ;  in  paste  it 
comes  very  near  to  the  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  and  can  be  applied  to  the  same  uses  as  butter ;  in  a 
lamp  it  burns  brightly  without  smoke  or  smell.    Nor,  indeed,  is  its  use  for  medicine  to  be  despised, 
since  it  gently  relaxes  the  bowels ;  drunk  from  cups  it  causes  neither  nausea  nor  loss  of  appetite, 
and,  as  I  think,  for  those  afflicted  with  gravel  the  Sea-cow  would  be  of  more  benefit  than  the 
masticatory  bones  or  stones  (masticatoria  ossa  seu  lapides),  so  called.    The  fat  of  the  tail  is  harder 
and  more  consistent,  and  when  cooked  more  delicate.    The  flesh  consists  of  fibers  somewhat  more 
stout  and  thick  than  those  of  neat  cattle,  is  a  deeper  red  than  the  flesh  of  terrestrial  animals,  and, 
what  is  wonderful,  even  in  the  hottest  days  warms  in  the  open  air  a  very  long  time  without  stench, 
though  it  is  beset  on  every  side  with  worms.    The  reason  I  allege  for  this  fact  is,  that  since  the 
animal  subsists  only  on  marine  fuci  and  herbs,  and  these  foci  are  more  sparingly  composed  of  sul- 
phur and  more  largely  of  sea  salt  and  niter,  these  salts  prevent  the  exhalation  of  sulphur  and  the 
softening  and  resolution  of  the  flesh  in  the  same  way  as  salts  or  salt  brine  sprinkled  on  flesh,  and 
the  more  because  these  salts  are  mingled  intimately  with  the  substance  of  the  flesh  and  cohere  very 
strongly  to  sulphurous  parts.    Though  the  flesh  must  be  cooked  a  longer  time,  yet  when  cooked 
it  is  of  the  best  flavor  and  not  easily  t«  be  distinguished  from  the  flesh  of  neat  cattle.    The  fat  of 
the  calves  so  resembles  fresh  hog's  lard  that  you  can  scarcely  perceive  the  difference ;  and  the  flesh 
does  not  differ  at  all  from  veal,  is  quickly  softened  with  cooking,  and,  that  continuing,  so  swells, 
like  the  flesh  of  a  young  pig,  that  it  claims  for  itself  very  much  greater  room  in  the  pot  than  before. 
The  tendinous  fat  about  the  head  and  tail  is  scarcely  fit  for  boiling;  on  the  other  hand,  the  mnscles 
of  the  abdomen,  back,  and  sides  are  far  to  be  preferred.    It  not  only  does  not  resist  salting,  as 
many  have  thought,  but  only  grows  soft;  so  that  it  comes  out  like  salted  beef  in  all  respects,  and 
very  palatable.    The  viscera,  heart,  liver,  and  kidneys  are  too  hard,  and  were  not  much  sought 
after  by  us  because  there  was  a  very  abundant  supply  of  flesh. 

"  The  full-grown  animal  weighs  about  8,000  pounds  (eighty  hundredweight),  or  200  Russian 
puds. 

"There  is  so  great  a  multitude  of  these  animals  about  this  single  island  that  they  continually 
suffice  to  support  the  inhabitants  of  Kamtchatka. 


134  NATUEAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"The  Ehytina  is  infested  with  a  peculiar  insect,  like  a  louse,  which  is  wont  to  occupy  and 
inhabit  in  large  numbers  especially  the  wrinkled  limbs,  breasts,  nipples,  pudendum,  anus,  and  tho 
rough  cavities  of  the  skin,  and  which  bore  through  the  cnticula  and  cutis.  From  the  extra  vasa  ted 
lymphatic  fluid  conspicuous  warts  arise  everywhere;  the  gulls  (Lari)  are  also  allured  to  hunt  with 
their  sharp  beaks  these  insects  (clinging  to  the  backs  of  these  animals),  a  pleasant  food,  and  more- 
over the  birds  perform  a  friendly  and  grateful  office  for  the  animals  troubled  by  these  parasites." ' 

ADDITIONAL  OBSERVATIONS. — This  narrative,  as  I  have  already  stated,  contains  all  that  we 
know  of  the  natural  history  of  the  Arctic  Sea-cow,  and,  I  venture  to  say,  all  that  we  shall  ever 
know  from  visual  observation.  There  are  a  number  of  facts,  however,  bearing  upon  the  mode  of 
capture,  geographical  distribution,  and  the  history  of  the  extinction  of  this  animal  which  have 
been  the  theme  of  writers  after  Steller.  Dr.  Brandt,  a  celebrated  naturalist  of  St.  Petersburg,  and 
the  Danish  explorer  Nordenskiold,  have  taken  pains  to  bring  together  all  that  is  known  on  these 
topics  up  to  the  present  time.  Most  of  the  books  and  manuscripts  from  which  they  have  gathered 
their  information  being  inaccessible  to  me,  I  must  content  myself  with  summing  up  the  results  of 
their  investigations. 

THE  EXTINCTION  OF  EHYTINA. — The  extinction  of  the  Ehytina  followed  close  upon  its 
discovery.  If  we  may  accept  the  results  of  Nordenskiold's  investigations  upon  this  point,  the 
animal  was  last  seen  in  1854,  or  a  little  more  than  a  century  after  its  discovery.  Long  before  this, 
at  all  events,  it  had  become  so  diminished  in  numbers  as  not  to  furnish  any  considerable  food 
supply. 

It  appears  that  the  existence  of  the  Sea-cow  on  Bering  Island  had  no  sooner  been  made 
known  in  Eussia  than  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  fur  trade  in  Bering's  Sea  began  to  make  a 
practice  of  wintering  on  the  island,  in  order  to  take  in  a  supply  of  the  flesh  of  the  animal  for 
food.  That  this  custom  became  general  in  a  few  years,  appears  from  Scherer's  narrative  of  the  first 
Eussian  hunting  expeditions  to  the  Aleutian  Islands.  "Ivan  Krasselnikoff's  vessel,"  he  writes, 
"started  first  in  1754,  and  arrived  on  the  8th  October  at  Bering  Island,  where  all  the  vessels 
fitted  out  for  hunting  the  sea-otter  on  the  remote  islands  are  wont  to  pass  the  winter,  in  order  to 
provide  themselves  with  a  sufficient  stock  of  the  flesh  of  the  Sea-cow."2 

The  next  year,  1755,  the  engineer  Jakovlev,  who  visited  Bering  Island  and  the  adjacent 
Copper  Island,  in  search  of  copper,  recorded  in  his  journal  the  mode  of  capturing  Ehytina,  which 
differs  in  no  way  from  the  method  employed  by  Steller  and  his  companions.  Jakovlev,  however, 
was  so  impressed  with  the  rapidity  with  which  the  Sea-cow  was  disappearing  from  the  islands 
that  he  petitioned  the  Kamtchatkan  authorities  that  its  capture  might  be  restricted.  It  appears 
that  at  the  time  of  his  visit  the  Ehytina  had  been  driven  away  from  Copper  Island.3 

Scherer  informs  us  of  the  landing  of  three  other  hunting  expeditions  at  Bering  Island, 
between  1757  and  1762,  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  Sea-cows,  implying  at  the  same  time,  as  in 
the  instance  already  quoted  from  him,  that  such  was  the  custom  of  all  expeditions  sent  thither. 
His  allusions  to  the  subject  are  as  follows:  "The  autumn  storms,  or  rather  the  wish  to  take  on 
board  a  stock  of  provisions,  compelled  them  (a  number  of  hunters  sent  out  by  the  merchant 
Tolstyk  under  command  of  the  Cossack  Obeuchov)  to  touch  at  Commander's  Island  (Bering 
Island),  where,  during  the  winter  up  to  the  24th  (13th)  June,  1757,  they  obtained  nothing  else 
than  sea-cows,  sea-lions,  and  large  seals." 


1  Specimens  of  this  crustacean  were  found  in  a  small  piece  of  Rhytina  skin  discovered  in  1  lie  Rritish  Museum. 

"SCHERER:  Nene  Nachrichteu  von  denen  neuentdeckten  Insuln  in  der  See  zwiseben  Asien  tiiul  Amerika,  177C, 
p.  38,  fide  Nordenskiold. 

» Jakovlev'g  diary  was  published  in  Russian  in  1867,  by  Pekavski,  and  translated  into  Latin  nnd  republished  in 
1868  by  Brandt.  See  BRANDT:  Symbolie  Sirenologicre,  fasc.  iii,  pp.  29.">, 296. 


Tin:  AIMTIC  si:.\  ro\v.    KXTINVTION. 

Again:  "They  (a,  Russian  hunting  vessel  under  Studenzov,  in  IT.Vs)  landed  on  Behring 
to  kill  Sea  cows,  as  all  vessels  are  accustomed  to  do."  On  another  page  he  states  that  "alter 
Korovin,  in  1762  (on  Bering  Island),  had  provided  himself  with  a  miflicient  stock  of  the  flesh  and 
hides  of  the  Sea-cow  for  his  boats  ...  he  sailed  on."'  Saner,  in  his  account  of  Bering's 
voyages,  published  in  1802,  alluding  to  the  Rhytiua,  says:  "The  last  was  killed  on  Behring  Island 
in  ITiis,  ;iiid  none  has  been  seen  since  then."* 

In  this  conclusion  most  authorities  are  agreed.  Nordenskiold,  however,  obtained  information, 
of  a  character  which  he  regards  reliable,  which  would  seem  to  show  that  the  Sea-cow  was  not 
entirely  exterminated  before  1854.  The  first  informant  was  a  Creole.  Nordenskiold  writes:  "A 
Creole  (that  is,  the  offspring  of  a  Russian  and  an  Aleutian),  who  was  sixty-seven  years  of  age,  of 
intelligent  appearance,  and  in  the  full  possession  of  his  mental  faculties,  stated  'that  his  father 
died  in  1847  at  the  age  of  eighty -eight.  He  had  come  from  Volhynia,  his  native  place,  to  Behring 
Island  at  the-  age  of  eighteen,  accordingly  in  1777.  The  two  or  three  first  years  of  his  stay  there, 
i.e.,  until  1779  or  1780,  sea-cows  were  still  being  killed  as  they  pastured  on  sea-weed.  The  heart 
only  was  eaten,  and  the  hide  used  for  baydars.  In  consequence  of  its  thickness  the  hide  was  split 
in  two,  and  the  two  pieces  thus  obtained  hat!  goue  to  make  a  bayilur  twenty  feet  long,  seven  and  a 
half  feet  broad,  and  three  feet  deep.  After  that  time  no  sea-cows  had  been  killed.' 

"There  is  evidence,  however,  that  a  sea-cow  had  been  seen  at  the  island  still  later.  Two 
Creoles,  Feodor  Mertchenin  and  Stepnotf,  stated  that  about  twenty-five  years  ago  [in  1854]  at 
Tolstoj-mys,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  they  had  seen  an  animal  unknown  to  them  which  was 
very  thick  before,  but  grew  smaller  behind,  had  small  fore-feet,  and  appeared  witti  a  length  of  about 
lifteen  feet  above  water,  now  raising  itself  up,  now  lowering  itself.  The  animal  'blew,'  not  through 
blow-holes,  but  through  the  mouth,  which  was  somewhat  drawn  out.  It  was  brown  in  colour  with 
some  lighter  spots.  A  back  fin  was  wanting,  but  when  the  animal  raised  itself  it  was  horrible,  on 
account  of  its  great  leanness,  to  see  its  backbone  projecting.  I  instituted  a  thorough  examination 
of  both  my  informants.  Their  accounts  agreed  completely,  and  appeared  to  have  claims  to  be 
regarded  as  trustworthy.  That  the  animal  that  they  saw  was  actually  a  sea-cow,  is  clearly  proved 
both  by  the  description  of  the  animal's  form  and  way  of  pasturing  in  the  water,  and  by  the  account 
of  the  way  in  which  it  breathed,  its  colour,  and  leanness.  In  Ausfiirliche  Benchreibung  ron  nontler- 
baren  Meerthieren,  Steller  says,  page  97:  'While  they  pasture,  they  raise  every  fourth  or  fifth  min- 
ute  their  nose  from  the  water  in  order  to  blow  out  air  and  a  little  water.  Page  98:  'During  winter 
they  are  so  lean  that  it  is  possible  to  count  their  vertebra?  and  ribs';  and  page  54,  'some  sea-cows 
have  pretty  large  white  spots  and  streaks,  so  that  they  have  a  spotted  appearance.'  As  these 
natives  had  no  knowledge  of  Steller's  description  of  the  animal,  it  is  impossible  that  their  state- 
ments can  be  false.  The  death-year  of  the  Rhy  Una  race  must  therefore  be  altered  at  least  to  1854."3 

Neither  of  the  statements  appear  improbable,  but  they  should  be  accepted,  I  believe,  with 
caution.  At  all  events,  the  Sea-cow  was  practically  extinct  within  four  decades  from  the  time  of 
its  discovery. 

CAUSES  OF  THE  EXTINCTION. — Two  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  rapid  destniction. 
The  most  generally  accepted  notion  is  that  the  rate  of  capture  much  exceeded  that  of  the  increase 
of  the  animal,  and  that  extinction  followed  as  a  matter  of  course.  Nordenskiold,  however,  and,  in 
a  certain  way,  Brandt  also  avows  his  belief  that  the  Sea-cow  had  gotten  ont  of  harmony  with  its 
environment  many  years  before  the  Russians  discovered  it,  and  that  its  extermination  would  have 


1  SCIIERKB:  Op.  fit..  ji|i.  lo.  .i.'i.  and  -J,  fid*  Xordcnskiold. 

*SAUKR:  RTiii;;'*  Voyage,  1802,  p.  \*\,fidr  Xordeuskiold. 

3NouDENSKiou>:  Voyage  of  llu-  V<'jj:i.     Iji^lish  tranalntion,  ii,  1881,  |>p.  277,!I78. 


136  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

occurred  within  a  comparatively  short  time  without  the  intervention  of  man.  The  fact  that  in 
Steller's  time  the  range  of  the  animal  was  much  circumscribed,  seems  to  give  weight  to  the  latter 
view. 

The  range  of  the  Sea-cow,  when  discovered  by  Europeans,  seems  to  have  been  confined  to 
Bering  and  Copper  Islands,  but  the  investigations  of  Brandt  show  that  it  probably  extended 
from  Nishne-Kamtchatka  or  the  bay  of  Karaguescensi  to  the  coast  of  China  and  included  also  the 
outermost  islands  of  the  Aleutian  Archipelago.  Sailer's  statement  that  "  Sea-Cows  were  very 
common  on  Kamtchatka  and  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  when  they  were  first  discovered,"  seems  with- 
out foundation,  and  is  properly  rejected  by  Nordenskiold.  Whether  the  Sea-cow  ever  occurred  on 
the  Aleutian  Islands  appears  somewhat  uncertain.  Vosnessenski  found  a  rib  of  the  animal  on 
Attu,  the  last  island  of  the  archipelago,  but,  as  Brandt  suggests,  it  may  have  been  derived  from  a 
Rhytina  washed  thither  by  the  waves.  Mr.  Lucien  Turner  kindly  informed  me  that  an  aged  Aleut 
woman  stated  that  Rhytina  had  been  seen  at  Attu  by  her  father,  but  such  testimony  is,  perhaps, 
not  altogether  satisfactory. 


II 


THE  USEFUL  AQUATIC  REPTILES  AND  BATRACHIANS 


OF   THK 


UNITED    STA.TES 


FREDERICK    W.    TRUE. 


137 


ANALYSIS. 


E.— THE  ALLIGATOR  AND  THK  CROCODILE: 

XI.  The  Alligator  and  the  Crocodile 141 

F.— TORTOISES,  TURTLES,  AND  TBKRAIMNS: 

34.  The  Marine  Turtles  iu  general 147 

35.  The  Loggerhead  Turtle 147 

;tC.  The  Hawk's-bill  Turtles 14'-» 

37.  The  Green  Turtles I50 

38.  Tlie  Soft-shelled  Tortoises 162 

39.  The  Snapping  Turtles 163 

40.  The  Musk  Tortoises 13* 

41.  The  Fresh-water  Terrapins 166 

4JJ.  The  Dianioncl-back  or  Salt-water  Terrapin  166 

4X  The  Pond  Tortoises 167 

44.  The  Box  Tortoises I58 

i .      'I'm  AMPHIBIANS: 

4!>.  The  Bull-frog lr>9 

139 


ALLIGATOR  AND  THE  CROCODILE.  141 


E.— THE  ALLIGATOR  AND  THE  CROCODILE. 

33.  THE  ALLIGATOR  AND  THE  CROCODILE. 

THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  ALLIGATOR  AND  CROCODILE. — We  have  in  the  Uiiited  States  two 
reptiles  of  the  Crocodile  family,  one  a  true  Crocodile,  Crocodilutt  acutus,  Cuv.,  and  the  other  the 
well  known  Alligator  Alligator  mitisiiisippienHUi,  Daudin.1  The  former  animal  is  of  rare  occurrence, 
only  a  few  spedmi'iis  having  been  captured  in  the  United  States,  and  it  can,  therefore,  scarcely 
claim  attention  from  a  commercial  standpoint.9  I  shall  confine  iny  remarks  to  the  Alligator. 

ORIGIN  OP  THE  NAME  "ALLIGATOR." — The  origin  of  the  name  "Alligator"  is  involved 
somewhat  in  obscurity,  but  several  theories  have  been  entertained  regarding  it.  "Some,"  says 
Holbrook,3  "have  supposed  it  derived  from  the  word  'Legateer'  or  'Allegater,'  a  name  by 
which  the  young  Crocodile  is  distinguished  in  some  parts  of  India.  Cuvier  says  it  is  much 
more  probable  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  the  Portuguese  '  Lagarto,'  derived  from  the  Latin  *  LacertaJ 
as  Hawkins  writes  it  'Alagartos,'  and  Sloan,  in  his  'History  of  Jamaica,'  spells  it <  Allagator."* 

The  matter  was  undoubtedly  set  right  by  Cuvier.  In  the  writings  of  all  the  very  early 
English  explorers  which  I  have  been  able  to  consult  the  terms  "  Crocodile  "  and  "  Cayman  "  are 
generally  used  in  alluding  to  the  Alligator.  Under  the  name  "  Cayman  "  it  would  seem  that  the 
Alligator  and  the  true  Cayman  of  South  America  have  been  confounded.  In  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
account  of  his  travels  in  1595,  however,  he  used  the  name  "  Lagartos"  for  the  Alligator.  He  says.: 

"  Vpou  this  riuer  there  were  great  store  of  fowle,  and  of  many  sorts :  we  saw  in  it  diuers  sorts 
of  strange  fishes,  and  of  maruellous  bignes ;  but  for  lagartos  it  exceeded,  for  there  were  thousands 
of  those  vgly  serpents ;  and  the  people  call  it  for  the  abundance  of  them,  The  riuer  of  Lagartos,  in 
their  language." 4 

The  name  Alligator,  with  its  present  orthography,  seems  to  have  been  adopted  about  1730. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  geographical  range  of  the  Alligator  has  not  been  very 
accurately  defined.  Holbrook5  fixes  the  nQrthern  limit  on  the  Atlantic  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Neuse  River,  North  Carolina,  although  at  the  present  day  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  specimens 
could  be  found  so  far  north.  It  occurs  in  increasing  numbers  southward,  and  is  comparatively 
abundant  on  the  northeast  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  ascends  the  Mississippi  River  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River.  In  regard  to  the  western  limit  of  its  range,  Cope  states  that  "  it 

'A  recent  writer,  the  place  of  publishing  of  whoso  article  I  have  forgotten,  raise*  the  question  of  the  occurrence 
of  two  species  of  Alligator  in  the  South.  No  herpetologist,  however,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  has  made  such  a  distinction, 
and  I  cannot,  therefore,  give  the  matter  more  than  a  passing  notice  here. 

•I  have  been  able  to  gather  but  few  references  to  instances  of  the  actual  capture  of  C.  acute*  in  Florida.  Wyraan, 
I  believe,  first  pointed  ont  its  existence  in  that  state,  in  1869,  bating  his  remarks  on  the  features  of  a  skull  sent  from 
the  Miami  River  by  Mr.  William  H.  Hunt.  (See  Amer.  Journal  of  Sci.  &  Arts,  xlix,  1870,  pp.  105-106.) 

Another  specimen,  this  time  a  full-grown  animal,  was  obtained  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Ward,  of  Rochester,  New  York, 
in  Bascnyne  Bay,  Florida.  This  specimen  is  now  in  the  National  Museum. 

Still  another  Crocodile  was  said  to  have  been  captured  in  North  Lake,  Florida,  in  1875,  by  a  Mr.  William  Butler, 
but  whether  this  specimen  was  ever  sent  to  a  museum,  or  wan  identified  by  a  professional  hMpatolqgMy  I  am  unable 
to  say.  (See  Forest  and  Stream,  ir,  1878,  p.  167.)  Two  other  writers,  Mr.  C.  J.  Mayuard,  of  Ni-wtoiivillc,  Mnss., 
and  a  gentleman  concealed  under  the  pseudonym  "  Wanderer,"  claim  to  have  seen  the  Crocodile  in  Florida,  the  former 
in  1867.  (See  Forest  and  Stream,  xiii,  1880,  p.  867.) 

*  HOLBROOK:  North  American  Herpetology,  ii,  1842,  p.  61. 

«  RALEIOH  :  The  Discoverie  of  the  large,  rich,  and  beautifull  empire  of  Guiana.  <Haklnyt's  Collection  of  Voyage*, 
iv,  1811,  p.  137. 

•  Op.  cH. 


142  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

is  common  in  the  waters  of  the  Guadalupe  drainage,  and  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  San  Antonio 
River,  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  San  Antonio," '  and  Professor  Baird  has  recorded  a  specimen 
from  Brownsville,  Tex.,  on  the  Rio  Grande.2  From  thence  its  range  extends  southward  into 
South  America. 

ABUNDANCE. — The  Alligator  is  growing  less  and  less  abundant,  particularly  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Florida,  owing  to  the  increase  of  population  and  the  reckless 
manner  in  which  it  has  been  hunted  and  destroyed.  Many  persons  have  engaged  in  slaughtering 
these  creatures  merely  for  the  sport  which  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  so  doing,  no  use  having 
been  made  of  the  carcasses. 

SIZE. — The  Alligator  is  the  largest  living  reptile  occurring  within  the  United  States,  and  is 
approached  in  size  only  by  the  marine  turtles.  Holbrook  records  having  seen  one  which  was 
thirteen  and  a  half  feet  long,3  while  Bartram,  in  his  narrative  of  travels  in  Florida,  affirms  that 
they  attain  a  length  of  twenty  to  twenty-three  feet  in  that  region.4  The  latter  statement,  however, 
must  be  taken  with  some  caution;  if  true,  it  would  seem  that  the  Alligator  does  not  now  attain  his 
former  wonted  proportions.  From  a  note  in  "  Forest  and  Stream,"  of  1870,  we  learn  that  "  the 
largest  alligator  killed  in  Florida  for  many  years  was  shot  last  spring  [187G]  by  Dr.  De  Marmon,  of 
Kingsbridge,  N.  Y.  The  animal  measured  12  feet  6  inches  in  length  when  spread  on  the  dock.  It 
was  6  feet  10  inches  round  the  body,  5  feet  10  inches  around  the  jaws,  and  weighed  about  700 
pounds.  The  head,  which  is  now  in  the  doctor's  possession,  is  30  inches  long.  It  was  killed  on 
the  Homosassa  River,  about  two  miles  from  Alfred  Jones's  grove."5  The  average  length  would 
appear  to  be  about  ten  feet. 

FOOD  AND  MANNER  OF  OBTAINING  IT. — The  food  of  Alligators  consists  almost  exclusively 
of  fish  and  such  small  land  or  semi-aquatic  animals  as  it  is  able  to  secure.  It  would  appear  that 
they  are  also  expert  fly-catchers.  The  quaint  allusion  of  Exqtiemelin  to  this  subject  is  too 
interesting  to  be  omitted.  "The  Caymanes?  he  says,  "are  ordinarily  busied  in  hunting  and 
catching  of  flies,  which  they  eagerly  devour.  The  occasion  is,  because  close  unto  their  skin, 
they  have  certain  little  scales,  which  smell  with  a  sweet  sent,  something  like  unto  musk.  This 
aromatick  odour  is  coveted  by  the  flies,  and  here  they  come  to  repose  themselves  and  sting. 
Thus  they  both  persecute  each  other  continually,  with  an  incredible  hatred,  and  antipathy."6 

The  existence  of  this  habit,  I  have  recently  beeii  informed,  has  been  frequently  confirmed 
in  Louisiana  by  reliable  observers;  but  the  gentleman  who  informed  me  was  inclined  to  believe 
that  it  is  the  saliva  which  attracts  the  flies  into  the  gaping  jaws  of  the  Alligator.  The  manner 
in  which  the  reptile  secures  his  fill  of  fishes  is  related  by  Dowler  in  a  paper  written  in  1846,  who 
founded  his  remarks  on  the  statements  of  some,  to  him,  credible  observers.  He  writes  as  follows: 

"Many  authors  assert  that  Alligators  cannot 'swallow  under  water.  In  offering  some  facts 
to  disprove  this  assumption,  the  sagacity  of  these  animals  will  be  more  or  less  illustrated.  A 
gentleman,  on  two  occasions,  watched  Alligators  when  catching  sunfish,  which  were  swimming  in 
shoals  in  shallow  water.  The  Alligator  placed  his  long  body  at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  shore. 
As  soon  as  the  fish  came  between  him  and  the  land,  he  curved  his  body  so  that  they  could  not 
pass;  the  tail  was  moored  on  land;  the  mouth  was  opened  under  water,  and  brought  so  close  to 


1  COPE:  On  the  Zoological  Position  of  Texas.     Bull.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  No.  17,  1880,  p.  13. 

'GiRARD:  Herpetology,  U.  8.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  ii,  pt.  2,  p.  5. 

3  HOLBROOK  :  North  American  Herpetology,  ii,  1842,  p.  56. 

1  BARTRAM:  Travels  through  East  and  West  Florida,  1791,  p.  128. 

'Forest  and  Stream,  vii,  1876,  p.  84. 

•  I  Ivji  LMri.i.N  :  Buccaneers  of  America.     English  translation,  1684,  p.  48. 


TIIK   AI.I.HiATOK:    FOOD   A  M  t   KKKIHNG.  \.\:\ 

the  shore  that  tin-  fish  h;ul  no  method  of  escaping  but  through  the  month,  where  they  were 
cut  lapped.  Inriilit  ill  Si'i/IIiiin,  '/HI  rult  ritiii'r  (.'liin-i/l>ilim.ni 

PUGNACITY  ov  1111.  ALLIGATOR. — When  we  come  to  consider  the  possibility  of  the  Alligator's 
ability  to  attack  successfully  largo  terrestrial  animals,  such  as  horses  and  cows,  as  well  as  men, 
we  find  ourselves  in  great  doubt.  The  accumulated  testimony  of  travelers  and  observers  on 
this  point  can  hardly  be  set  aside,  although  several  critical  writers  have  done  so,  with  ridicule. 
Whether  it  was  that  the  earlier  observers,  misled  by  the  forbidding  appearance  of  the  Alligator, 
were  repeatedly  imposed  upon  by  fabulous  stories,  or  whether  they  actually  saw,  at  least  in  part, 
what  they  recorded,  seems  to  me,  I  must  confess,  a  very  open  question.  To  cite  all  the  accounts 
of  mishaps  which  are  said  to  have  occurred  to  man  and  beast  through  the  aggressiveness  of  the 
Alligator,  would  be  to  fill  many  pages  of  this  volume.  I  can  only  refer  to  one  or  two  prominent 
examples. 

llerrara  -jives  the  following  account  of  the  Alligator  in  the  harbor  near  Porto  Belo,  at  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  on  the  occasion  of  Goluinbus's  explorations  there  in  1502: 

"In  the  Harbour  there  were  extraordinary  large  Alligators,  that  went  to  sleep  ashore,  and 
smelt  like  Musk,  being  so  ravenous,  that  if  they  find  a  Man  asleep  on  the  Land,  they  drag  him 
away  to  devour  him:  tho'  they  are  so  timorous,  that  they  fly,  when  attack'd.  There  are  many  of 
them  in  these  Itivers  that  fall  into  the  North  Sea,  but  many  more  in  those  that  empty  themselves 
in  the  South  Sea,  and  they  are  very  like,  if  not  the  same  as  the  Crocodiles  of  the  Hirer  Nile."2 

Kaleigh.  after  his  allusion  to  the  "river  of  Lagartos,"  a  tributary  of  the  Orinoko,  as  already 
quoted,  adds:  "I  had  a  negro  a  very  proper  yoong  fellow,  who  leaping  out  of  the  galley  to  swim 
in  the  mouth  of  the  river,  was  in  all  our  sights  taken  and  devoured  with  one  of  those  lagartos."3 

llerrara,  again,  relating  what  happened  to  the  Spaniards  in  Central  America  in  1510,  writes: 

"At  Panama  an  Alligator  has  been  known  to  take  a  Man  oft'  from  the  Stearn  of  a  Boat,  and 
carry  him  away  to  the  Hocks,  where  as  he  was  tearing  him  in  pieces  he  was  kill'd  by  a  Musket 
Shot:  the  Man  being  recover'd  as  the  Monster  was  biting  him  oft'  near  the  Groin  was  carried  to  the 
Hospital,  where  he  liv'd  long  enough  to  receive  the  Kites  of  the  Church."4 

Velasquez  seems  also  to  have  been  impressed  with  the  ferocity  of  the  Alligator  during  his 
sojourn  in  Cuba.  By  Herrara  he  is  made  to  say : 

"On  the  South  Side  about  the  Middle  there  runs  down  into  the  Sea  a  mighty  Kiver,  which  the 
Indian*  call  Cauto,  the  Banks  of  it  are  very  agreeable,  and  in  it  are  a  vast  Multitude  of  Alligators. 
Those  who  happen  to  be  benighted  near  it,  must  be  upon  their  Guard,  for  those  Creatures  then 
come  out  of  the  Water,  walk  about  the  Laud,  and  if  they  can  surprize  a  Man,  they  drag  him  into 
the  Water,  and  devour  him.  They  sometimes  do  so  by  such  as  venture  to  ford  the  River,  and  even 
by  Horses.  They  are  to  be  found  all  over  the  Itidieg,  especially  to  the  southward,  but  in  Cuba  only 
in  this  Kiver."5 

• 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  writer  who  is  most  loud  in  the  denunciation  of  the  Alligator  is 
Bartram.  He  has  devoted  several  pages  of  his  book  to  the  relation  of  the  habits  of  these  animals, 
from  which  I  will  quote  a  few  lines.  Although  he  begins  his  account  with  a  query  as  to  how  ho 
shall  do  credit  to  what  he  observed  without  arousing  the  suspicion  of  his  readers  regarding  his 
veracity,  his  description  seems  overdrawn: 

"My  apprehensions  were  highly  alarmed  after  being  a  spectator  of  so  dreadful  a  battle;  it  was 
obvious  that  every  delay  would  but  tend  to  increase  my  dangers  and  difficulties,  as  the  sun  was 


'DOWLKR,  BENNET,  M.  D. :  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Alligator.     New  Orleans,  1846. 
•HKKKARA  (STKVKNS):  Hist.  Arner.,  i,  17'.ir>,  p.  $11. 

Iv  M.Miiiil :  tin:  ril..  p.  i:!7. 

1  III  1:1:  M:\    -MI.VKNS):  Hint.  Aiuer.,  ii,  1725,  p.  100. 
•HKKKAKA  (STEVENS):  Hint.  Ainer.,  ii,  1735,  pp.  11,  1 -. 


144  NATUKAL  HISTOKY  .OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

near  setting,  and  the  alligators  gathered  around  my  harbour,  from  all  quarters ;  from  these  con- 
siderations I  concluded  to  be  expeditious  in  my  trip  to  the  lagoou,  in  order  to  take  some  fish.  Not 
thinking  it  prudent  to  take  my  fusee  with  me,  lest  I  might  lose  it  overboard  in  case  of  a  battle,  which 
I  had  every  reason  to  dread  before  my  return,  I  therefore  furnished  myself  with  a  club  for  my 
defence,  went  on  board,  and  penetrating  the  first  line  of  those  which  surrounded  my  harbour, 
they  gave  way ;  but  being  pursued  by  several  very  large  ones,  I  kept  strictly  on  the  watch  and 
paddled  with  all  my  might  towards  the  entrance  of  the  lagoon,  hoping  to  be  sheltered  there  from 
the  multitude  of  my  assailants;  but  ere  I  had  half-way  reached  the  place,  I  was  attacked  ou  all 
sides,  several  endeavoring  to  overset  the  canoe. 

"My  situation  now  became  precarious  to  the  last  degree:  two  large  ones  attacked  me  closely, 
at  the  same  instant,  rushing  up  with  their  heads  and  part  of  their  bodies  above  the  water,  roaring 
terribly  and  belching  floods  of  water  over  me.  They  struck  their  jaws  together  so  close  to  my  ears 
as  almost  to  stun  me,  and  I  expected  every  moment  to  be  dragged  out  of  the  boat  and  instantly 
devoured,  but  I  applied  my  weapons  so  effectually  about  me,  though  at  random,  that  I  was  so 
successful  as  to  beat  them  off  a  little."1 

Writers  of  the  present  century  also  allude  to  cases  of  fatal  attacks  by  Alligators;  I  may 
quote  one  instance.  Wells,  writing  of  Lake  Nicaragua  in  1857,  says:  "Large  tiberones  (sharks) 
have  been  captured  in  the  lake  ;  and  a  few  months  previous,  a  woman  at  Virgin  Bay,  washing 
on  the  banks,  was  seized  and  killed  by  an  alligator."2  Many  other  similar  statements  are  on  record. 
The  mass  of  most  recent  writers  and  investigators,  however,  seem  inclined  to  regard  all  tales  of 
the  Alligator's  aggressiveness  as  idle  fiction,  and  contend  with  one  accord  that  he  is  sluggish, 
harmless,  and  even  timid,  and  that  the  damage  which  he  sometimes  does  with  tail  and  jaws 
when  wounded  and  tormented  is  due  to  aimless  madness  induced  by  pain,  and  not  to  any  deliberate 
attempt  at  revenge. 

The  stomach  of  Alligators  is  often  found  to  contain,  in  addition  to  its  natural  food,  a  num- 
ber of  rounded  masses  of  hard  material,  large  pebbles  and  other  indigestible  matter.  Zoologists 
are  not  agreed  regarding  the  function  of  these  objects,  some  supposing  that  they  aid  in  reducing 
other  matter  taken  into  the  stomach,  and  others  that  they  serve  to  keep  the  stomach  distended 
when  the  animal  is  in  a  state  of  hibernation  in  winter.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  they  are 
swallowed  by  mistake  for  better  food,  or  are  taken  down  with  more  nutritious  matter  when  he 
feeds  too  greedily. 

MODE  OP  LIFE. — Alligators  are  pre-eminently  fitted  for  an  aquatic  or  semi-aquatic  life.  In  the 
water  they  seem  perfectly  at  ease,  and  move  about  with  great  velocity,  propelling  themselves  by 
powerful  strokes  of  their  broad  paddle-like  tails.  The  peculiarities  of  their  internal  structure, 
too,  are  such  as  fit  them  for  remaining  a  considerable  time  beneath  the  surface.  On  land,  how- 
ever, the  Alligator  moves  slo  wly  and  with  evident  difficulty  on  account  qf  the  weight  of  the  body 
and  the  shortness  of  the  legs.  Nevertheless  they  come  frequently  to  shore,  being  very  fond  of 
sunning  themselves  for  hours  on  the  sandy  or  muddy  banks  of  the  streams  they  inhabit.  They 
are  protected  from  assault  while  indulging  in  these  siestas  by  their  dull  colors  and  their  perfect 
immobility.  Holbrook  states  that  "such  Alligators  as  dwell  in  ponds  and  streams  out  of  the 
influence  of  tide- water,  wander  much  further  from  the  banks  and  are  not  unfrequently  seen  a  mile 
or  more  from  water."1 

This  statement  is  confirmed  in  the  writings  of  other  observers.    "Following  the  lonely  track 

1  BARTRAM  :  Travels  in  East  and  West  Florida,  1791,  p.  119. 
•WELLS  :  Honduras,  1857,  p.  35. 
' HOLBROOK,  op.  tit.,  p.  57. 


TUK  ALLIGATOR:   HABITS.  145 

which  leads  for  thirty  three  miles  through  Savannah's  sand-hills  and  pine  barrens  from  Now 
Siii\  rna.  Florida,  to  the  St.  .John's  Uivcr,"  writesa  corresi>ondeiit  of  "Forest  and  Stream,"  "we  once 
came  upon  an  alligator  seven  feet  long,  taking  his  siesta  in  the  middle  of  the  road.  .  .  . 
Many  alligators  have  I  seen  in  Florida  lakes  and  rivers,  but  never  before  met  one  on  the  high 
road.  Prol>al>ly  tin-  dry  weather  had  drown  the  reptile  from  its  accustomed  haunts  in  search  of 
water."1 

VOICE. — In  spring  and  during  the  breeding  season  Alligators  utter  a  cry,  which  has  been 
likened  to  that  of  the  bull-frog,  but  intensified,  and  to  the  noise  of  distant  thunder.  It  is  probably 
to  tin's  cry  that  1 '.art  ram  frequently  refers,  as,  for  example,  in  the  following  sentences:  "But  what  is 
yet  most  surprising  to  a  stranger,  is  the  incredible  loud  and  terrifying  roar  which  they  are  capable 
of  making,  especially  in  the  spring  season,  their  breeding  time;  it  most  resembles  very  heavy 
distant  thunder,  not  only  shaking  the  air  and  waters,  but  causing  the  earth  to  tremble;  and 
when  hundreds  and  thousands  are  roaring  at  the  same  time,  you  can  scarcely  be  persuaded  but 
that  the  whole  globe  is  violently  and  dangerously  agitated."*  Most  evident  hyperbole! 

HIBERNATION. — At  the  approach  of  winter  the  Alligators  embed  themselves  in  holes  and  pits 
on  the  banks  of  their  favorite  streams,  and  remain  dormant  until  spring. 

BREEDING  HABITS. — When  the  breeding  season  arrives,  early  in  spring,  the  female  resorts  to 
a  sheltered  spot  on  the  bank  of  the  stream,  and  constructs  a  small  mound  of  mud  and  other  materials, 
in  which  she  deposits  her  eggs,  one  to  two  hundred  in  number.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  thirty 
days,  and  the  young  Alligators  immediately  take  to  the  water.  Although  I  am  loath  to  quote  so 
much  from  one  observer,  I  must  refer  again  to  the  narrative  of  Bartrain,  for  I  find  no  other  in  which 
the  nests  of  the  Alligator  are  so  fully  described,  with  so  great  an  appearance  of  accuracy.  He 
writes : 

"1  now  lost  sight  of  my  enemy  again.  Still  keeping  close  along  shore;  on  turning  a  point  or 
projection  of  the  river  bank,  at  once  I  beheld  a  great  number  of  hillocks  or  small  pyramids, 
resembling  hay  cocks,  ranged  like  an  encampment  along  the  banks,  they  stood  fifteen  or  twenty 
yards  distant  from  the  water,  on  a  high  marsh  about  four  feet  perpendicular  above  the  water;  I 
knew  them  to  be  the  nests  of  the  Crocodile,  having  had  a  description  of  them  before,  and  now 
expected  a  furious  and  general  attack,  as  I  saw  several  large  Crocodiles  swimming  abreast  of 
these  buildings. 

"These  nests  being  so  great  a  curiosity  to  me,  I  was  determined  at  all  events  immediately  to 
land  and  examine  them.  Accordingly  I  ran  my  bark  on  shore  at  one  of  their  landing  places, 
which  was  a  sort  of  nick  or  little  dock,  from  which  ascended  a  sloping  path  or  road  up  to  the  edge 
of  the  meadow,  where  their  nests  were;  most  of  them  were  deserted,  and  the  great  thick  whitish 
egg  shells  lay  broken  and  scattered  upon  the  ground  round  about  them. 

"The  nests  or  hillocks  are  of  the  form  of  an  obtuse  cone,  four  feet  high  and  four  or  five  feet 
in  diameter  at  their  bases;  they  are  constructed  with  mud,  grass,  and  herbage:  at  first  they 
lay  a  floor  of  this  kind  of  tempered  mortar  on  the  ground,  upon  which  they  deposit  a  layer  of 
eggs,  and  upon  this  a  stratum  of  mortar  seven  or  eight  inches  in  thickness,  and  then  another 
layer  of  eggs,  and  in  this  manner  one  stratum  upon  another,  nearly  to  the  top:  I  believe  they 
commonly  lay  from  one  to  two  hundred  eggs  in  a  nest:  These  are  hatched  I  suppose  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  and  perhaps  the  vegetable  substances  mixed  with  the  earth,  being  acted  upon  by  the 
sun,  may  cause  a  small  degree  of  fermentation,  and  so  increase  the  heat  in  those  hillocks.  The 
ground  for  several  acres  about  these  nests  shewed  evident  marks  of  a  continual  resort  of  alligators: 

'"  S.  C.  C."  [8.  C.  CLAIIKK]  in  Forest  and  Stream,  xii,  1679,  p.  307. 
•  lUuntAM  :  op.  oil.,  \t.  l-£). 
10  F 


146  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  grass  was  everywhere  beaten  down,  hardly  a  blade  or  straw  was  left  standing;  whereas,  all 
about,  at  a  distance,  it  was  five  or  six  feet  high,  and  as  thick  as  it  could  grow  together."1 

ECONOMICAL  VALUE. — The  principal  commercial  products  furnished  by  Alligators  are  leather, 
ivory,  oil,  and  musk.  The  first  two  are  by  far  the  most  important. 

Alligator  leather  is  quite  impervious  to  water,  and  consequently  a  valuable  material  from 
which  to  manufacture  shoes  and  boots.  Besides  serving  for  these  purposes,  however,  it  is  fre- 
quently more  carefully  prepared  and  used  iu  making  articles  which  require  a  soft  leather,  sucli  as 
satchels,  card- cases,  and  the  like,  the  oddity  of  its  appearance  being  much  admired.  It  has 
many  cheap  imitations.  Hides  of  large  size  and  good  quality  bring  about  eight  dollars  in  the 
market. 

The  ivory  is  obtained  from  the  teeth.  These  are  carved  into  a  variety  of  forms,  such  as 
whistles,  buttons,  and  cane-handles,  and  also  sold  as  jewelry.  This  industry  is  carried  on  prin- 
cipally in  Florida. 

Alligator  oil,  which  is  extracted  from  the  fat  of  the  animal,  has  been  recommended  for  the 
cure  of  quite  a  variety  of  diseases. 

The  musk  of  the  Alligator  is  obtained  from  glands  situated  in  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  not  of  the 
best  quality,  but  serves  as  the  basis  of  certain  perfumes. 

THE  FISHERY. — In  regard  to  the  capture  of  Alligators  in  Florida  for  the  products  they 
furnish,  and  their  consequent  diminution,  a  writer  in  "  Forest  and  Stream  "  states: 

"  Alligator  hunting  is  growing  less  and  less  successful  in  Florida  as  the  game  diminishes  in 
numbers.  From  being  simply  a  pastime  it  has  become  a  regular  business,  and  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  these  creatures  are  now  annually  slaughtered  for  the:r  hides  and  teeth.  The  former 
are  converted  into  leather,  and  make  a  valuable  commodity,  while  the  teeth  are  manufactured  into 
various  articles  of  use  and  ornament  At  the  rate  the  alligator  family  is  now  disappearing,  not 
many  years  will  elapse  before  the  supply  will  be  wholly  exhausted,  and  the  capture  of  an  alligator 
become  an  uncommon  event  in  sporting  life."2 

"  MODE  OF  CAPTURE. — There  is  but  one  mode  of  capturing  Alligators,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
namely,  that  of  shooting  them  with  the  rifle.  This  is  not  so  expeditious  a  method  as  would  at  first 
appear.  The  iron-like  hide  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  reptile's  body,  with  its  rugged  bosses, 
secures  him  impunity  against  the  ill-aimed  shot.  The  eye  is  the  most  vulnerable  spot,  and  it  is 
through  this  organ  that  the  rifle-ball  penetrates  into  the  vital  region,  the  brain. 

•BARTRAM:  op.  cit.,  pp.  126, 127. 

«  "  P.  H.  A."  in  Forest  and  Stream,  vi,  1876,  p.  264. 


TORTOISES,  TURTLES,  AND  Tl.IIKAI'INS.  147 


F.— TORTOISES,    TUKTLES,     AND    TERRAPINS. 

INTRODUCTION. — Th«  s]>ecies  of  Tortoises  wbich  inhabit  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
and  the  adjacent  seas  are  forty-two  or  forty-three  in  number.  With  the  exception  of  the  Musk 
Tortoises,  all  are  more  or  less  available  for  food  and  other  economic  uses.  The  number  of  species 
artually  in  demand,  however,  is  small.  It  includes  the  Marine  Turtles,  two  or  three  species  of 
Soft-shell  Turtles,  the  Snapping  Turtle,  three  or  four  kinds  of  Terrapins,  and  the  Gopher  or  Land 
Tortoise.  Some  are  too  small  to  be  of  any  great  value,  and  others  are  of  too  rare  occurrence,  at 
least  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 

For  convenience  of  treatment,  following  in  a  certain  way  the  classification  of  Dumeril,1  we 
may  separate  the  Tortoises  into  three  large  groups,  namely,  (1)  the  Marine  Turtles,  (2)  the  Marsh 
Tortoises,  and  (3)  the  Land  Tortoises. 

34.  THE  MARINE  TURTLES  IN  GENERAL. 

MODE  OF  LIFE. — The  Marine  Turtles  are  especially  adapted  for  their  aquatic  life.  Their  bodies, 
which  are  large  and  broad,  have  a  specific  gravity  almost  exactly  equivalent  to  that  of  the  water 
in  which  they  are  immersed,  so  that  they  are  able  to  sustain  themselves  at  the  surface  of  the  sea 
for  any  length  of  time  without  fatigue.  Their  feet  are  transformed  into  broad  paddles,  enabling 
them  to  swim  freely  and  rapidly.  The  fore-feet  are  used  in  propelling  the  body,  while  the  hind-feet 
serve  as  rudders.  The  motion  of  the  fore-feet  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a  bird's  wings,  and,  indeed, 
all  their  movements  are  more  those  of  flying  than  of  swimming.  These  Turtles  never  go  on  shore 
except  to  lay  their  eggs,  and  their  movements  at  such  times  are  slow  and  constrained. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  MARINE  TURTLES. — The  Marine  Turtle*  are  most  abundant  in  tropical 
regions,  and  occur  in  considerable  numbers  only  along  the  extreme  southern  portions  of  our  coast. 
Specimens  are  occasionally  seen  as  far  north  as  Long  Island  Sound,  and  still  more  rarely  in  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  and  on  the  southern  coast  of  Maine.  I  am  further  informed  by  ('apt.  Joseph  W. 
Collins,  a  most  reliable  observer,  that  he  has1  frequently  seen  Turtles,  which  he  believed  to  be  Green 
Turtles,  about  the  fishing  banks  of  Newfoundland.  Such  occurrences,  however,  must  be  considered 
accidental,  and  are  unimportant  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

SPECIES  OF  COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE — The  species  which  are  of  commercial  importance 
are,  1.  The  Loggerhead ;  2.  The  Hawk's-bill  Turtles  of  the  east,  and  west  coasts;  and,  3.  The  Green 
Turtles  of  the  east  and  west  coasts.  In  .addition  to  these,  a  species  known  as  the  "  Bastard," 
ThalasHOchelys  Eempii,  Carman,  has  been  recently  described.  It  occurs  commonly  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  but  is  not  at  all  sought  for.  In  contrast  to  the  other  species,  it  lays  its  eggs  in  the  winter 
months,  from  December  to  February. 

THK  LEATHER  TURTLE. — Another  species  which  may  be  mentioned  is  the  so-called  "Leather 
Turtle,"  or  "  Luth,"  or  "  Trunk  Turtle."  It  belongs  to  a  different  family  from  those  enumerated 
above,  is  larger  than  they,  and  occurs  sparingly  all  along  our  Atlantic  coast,  from  Massachusetts 
Bay  to  Florida.  It  has  no  commercial  value  with  us.  so  far  as  known,  but  in  the  West  Indies  a 
fat  is  procured  from  it  which  is  used  as  a  lubricator. 

35.  THE  LOGGERHEAD  TURTLE. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  LOGGERHEAD. — This  Turtle  is  commonly  known  in  the  United  States 
as  the  "  Loggerhead,"  Thalassochelys  caretta,  (Linne)  True,  in  allusion  to  its  large  and  thick  head. 

I  MMKIMI  and  KIIIROV  :  Krp£tologie 


148  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

It  occurs  aloug  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Virginia  to  Guiana  and  Brazil,  and  is  common  everywhere 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  among  the  West  Indies.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  where 
formerly  it  was  very  abundant,  and  specimens  have  been  taken  on  the  coasts  ot  England  and  Scot- 
land. Thus  it  appears  that  the  Loggerhead  inhabits  generally  somewhat  more  northerly  localities 
than  most  other  species  of  Marine  Turtles. 

SIZE  OF  THE  LOGGERHEAD. — In  size  the  Loggerhead  is  second  only  to  the  huge  Leather 
Turtle,  previously  mentioned.  A  specimen  of  moderate  size,  captured  in  1871,  measured  six  feet 
in  length,  and  nine  feet  across  the  back  to  the  extremities  of  the  fore-feet  or  "flippers."  The  head 
was  eleven  inches  long  and  eight  inches  broad.  Its  weight  was  about  850  pounds.  In  the  more 
southern  localities  the  species  sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  1,500  or  1,600  pounds.  The  specimens 
taken  on  our  coast  about  Beaufort  and  Morehead  City,  N.  C.,  which  enter  into  commerce,  are 
undoubtedly  young  animals.  Their  average  weight,  according  to  Mr.  Earll,  is  not  more  than  fifty 
pounds. 

FOOD. — The  Loggerhead  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Marine  Turtles.  It  swims  with 
very  considerable  speed  and  not  ungracefully.  It  is  frequently  seen  far  from  land,  floating  on  the 
waves  and  apparently  asleep  or  resting.  Unlike  most  of  the  members  of  the  group,  it  is  generally 
considered  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  crabs,  various  shells,  and  fishes.  It  is  said  to  be  particularly 
fond  of  a  large  conch  (Strombus),  which  it  breaks  with  its  powerful  jaws  and  devours  in  great  quantity.1 

BBEEDING  HABITS  OF  THE  LOGGERHEAD. — On  our  shores  this  Turtle  breeds  in  April,  May, 
and  June,  during  which  months  the  female  comes  to  land  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  sand,  usually 
selecting  a  spot  on  the  southern  side  of  a  shoal.  She  scoops  out  a  shallow  pit  with  her  hind  legs, 
and  deposits  a  number  of  eggs,  varying  from  150  to  200.  Having  laid  this  large  number,  the  Turtle 
covers  them  with  sand  and  leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  While  these  animals 
are  engaged  in  this  operation  they  seem  unconscious  of  the  presence  of  intruders,  and  from  this 
fact,  and  because  they  are  very  helpless  on  land,  they  are  frequently  captured  while  so  engaged. 
They  breed  sometimes  as  far  "north  as  Virginia,  and  commonly  in  Georgia,  Florida,  and  the  eastern 
Gulf  States.  The  young  make  their  way  to  the  water  as  soon  as  hatched. 

RATE  OF  GROWTH. — Like  all  other  species  of  Turtles,  the  Loggerhead  is  probably  very  slow 
in  coining  to  maturity,  and  many  years  must  elapse  before  it  is  fully  grown.  One  of  the  small 
Marsh  Terrapins  is  said  to  be  ten  or  eleven  years  old  before  it  breeds,2  and  it  would  seem  that  in 
marine  species,  which  are  many  times  larger,  the  period  must  be  much  longer. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — The  economic  value  of  the  Loggerhead,  aside  from  that  of  its  eggs,  is 
very  small.  The  flesh  of  the  adult  is  leathery  and  oily,  and  smells  very  strongly  of  musk;  it  is, 
therefore,  not  generally  eaten,  although  some  pretend  that  they  have  partaken  of  it  when  fresh 
•without  nausea.  Formerly  it  was  salted  in  the  West  Indies  and  given  to  the  slaves  for  food. 
Young  Loggerheads  are  considered  tolerably  esculent  and  are  eaten  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  captured  from  time  to  time  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  and  sold  in 
the  markets  of  the  interior  cities. 

A  large  amount  of  oil  can  be  obtained  from  this  Turtle,  but  its  rank  odor  unfits  it  for  use  iu 
cooking.  It  has  been  employed,  however,  to  smear  on  the  sides  of  vessels,  which  it  is  said  to  pre- 
serve from  worms;  and  to  soften  certain  kinds  of  leathers.  Its  scales,  although  larger  than  those 
of  the  Tortoise-shell  Turtle,  are  very  thin,  and  apt  to  be  wrinkled  and  filled  with  impurities,  and 
therefore  are  not  used  to  any  considerable  extent  in  the  arts. 

The  eggs  of  the  Loggerhead  are  larger  than  those  of  other  species,  and  are  not  inferior  in 
flavor.  They  are  highly  esteemed  as  food,  and  also  furnish  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil. 

'HOLBBOOK:  North  American  Herpetology,  ii,  1842,  p.  37. 

*AGASSIZ:  Contribution?  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States,  ii,  1857,  p.  496. 


TIII-:  HAWK'S  en. i.  TI  KILLS.  149 

36.  THE  HAWK'S  BILL  TURTLES. 

NORTH  AMERICAN  SPECIES.— These  two  Turtles,  the  former  inhabiting  the  Atlantic  and  the 
latter  the  Pacific  Ocean,  were  for  a  long  period  erroneously  considered  identical.  But  though 
different,  the  distinctions  which  separate  them  are  of  a  technical  nature,  and  we  can  readily  treat 
of  them  together.  They  are  commonly  known  under  the  names  "  Hawk's  -bill"  and  ••  Tortoise- 
shell"  Turtles  (BivtmOoMyt). 

KANGK  OP  THE  HAWK'S-BILL  TURTLES. — The  Atlantic  species,  E.  imbricata,  occurs  on  the 
southern  coasts  of  Florida  and  of  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  thence 
its  range  extends  southward  over  the  Gulf,  among  the  West  Indies,  northeastward  to  the  Bermudas, 
and  as  far  south  as  Guiana  and  Brazil.  Holbrook  records  as  an  unusual  occurrence  the  presence 
of  a  Turtle  of  this  sj>ecies  on  the  shores  of  Carolina,  whither,  he  says,  it  was  probably  driven  by  a 
heavy  storm.1  The  Pacific  species,  E.  squamata,  occurs  on  our  western  coast,  and  is  common  also 
in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  waters,  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean  generally. 

SIZE. — The  Hawk's-bill  is  smaller  than  either  the  Loggerhead  or  the  Green  Turtle.  It  is 
generally  considered  that  a  Turtle  must  have  a  weight  of  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds 
before  its  "shell  is  of  suitable  thickness  to  be  used  in  the  arts,  but  it  often  attains  to  at  least  twice 
that  weight,  and  sometimes  even  approaches  in  weight  the  Green  Turtle." 

FOOD  AND  HABITS. — The  habits  of  the  Hawk's-bill  Turtle  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those 
of  the  Loggerhead.  Its  diet  is  strictly  vegetable,  but  it  is  said  to  be  much  more  fierce  than  the 
carnivorous  but  harmless  Loggerhead.  It  bites  severely,  and  occasions  painful  wounds,  so  that 
the  fishermen  have  to  be  on  their  guard  against  its  attacks.  On  our  shores  its  breeding  season 
extends  from  the  latter  part  of  April  to  the  first  of  July.  It  usually  selects  a  gravelly  rather  than 
a  sandy  beach  in  which  to  deposit  its  eggs. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE:  GRADES  OF  ''-SHELL." — The  Hawk's-bill  Turtle  is  chiefly  valued  for  the 
horn-like  scales  or  plates  which  cover  its  bony  shell.  These  form  the  "tortoise-shell"  of  com- 
merce. The  back  of  the  Turtle  is  covered  with  three  rows  of  plates,  a  central  and  two  lateral 
rows.  The  central  row  contains  five  plates  and  each  of  the  lateral  rows  four  plates;  in  addition, 
the  margin  of  the  shell  is  occupied  by  twenty-five  small  plates.  The  plates  of  the  three  rows 
covering  the  back  are  known  as  "blades,"  and  collectively  as  the  "head"  of  shell.  The  small 
marginal  plates  are  denominated  "feet,"  or  "noses."  These,  together  with  the  thinner  plates  of 
the  central  row,  are  also  sometimes  known  as  "hoofs  and  claws."  The  plates  which  have  the 
highest  value  are  the  two  middle  ones  on  each  lateral  row,  since  they  have  the  greatest  thickness 
and  size.  The  colors  of  tortoise-shell  which  are  preferred  are  mingled  "golden  yellow,  reddish 
jasper,  and  white,  or  brown  approaching  black."  A  variety  of  shell  in  which  a  large  amount  of 
white  occurs  is  also  much  esteemed,  especially  by  the  Chinese.  Such  shell  is  known  as  "white" 
head  or  "blonde"  shell.  Plates  in  which  the  patches  of  color  am  nearly  of  equal  size,  and  occupy 
nearly  the  same  position  on  both  sides,  are  also  highly  valued.  The  largest  Turtle  does  not  furnish 
more  than  fifteen  or  sixteen  pounds  of  tortoise-^bell.  "The  best  tortoise-shell  comes  from  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  where  Singapore  is  the  principal  jxirt  for  its  exportation.  It  is  also  sent 
from  the  West  Indies,  from  the  Gallapagos  Islands,  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
and  from  Mauritius,  Cape  Verde,  and  Canary  Islands." 

The  plates  on  the  plastron,  or  under  part  of  the  shell,  are  golden  yellow  in  color.  Articles 
made  from  them  are  much  admired  in  some  localities.  It  is  said  that  combs  of  this  color  are 
eagerly  sought  for  by  Spanish  ladies,  who  will  leadily  pay  fifteen  or  twenty  dollars  for  them. 

1  HOLBROOK :  North  American  Herpetology,  ii,  1812,  p.  42. 


150  NATURAL  HISTOltY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

THE  HAWK'S-BILL  Ag  FOOD.— The  flesh  of  the  Hawk's  bill  Turtle  is  comparatively  value- 
less; indeed,  in  the  West  Indies  it  is  said  that  it  possesses  cathartic  qualities  iu  a  high  degree. 
The  Turtle  is  occasionally  brought  to  our  markets  from  North  Carolina.  I  have  seen  it.  in 
Washington  several  times  recently,  both  in  the  markets  and  before  certain  restaurants  of  the  city. 
The  eggs  are  not  inferior  to  those  of  other  Marine  Turtles,  and  are  valuable  both  as  food  and  as 
the  source  of  a  limpid  and  not  ill-flavored  oil,  which  is  used  in  cookery  and  in  the  arts. 

37.  THE  GREEN  TURTLES. 

NORTH  AMERICAN  SPECIES. — The  two  species  ot  Green  Turtle,  the  one,  C.  mydatt,  inhabiting 
the  Atlantic  and  the  other,  C.  virgata,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  like  the  two  Hawk's-bill  Turtles,  are  very 
similar  in  general  aspect,  and  have  been  confounded  by  many  observers.  The  Atlantic  species, 
however,  has  been  most  often  described  and  commented  upon,  and  it  is  to  that  species  that  most 
of  my  remarks  will  refer. 

NAMES. — As  far  as  known,  the  Green  Turtle  has  no  other  popular  name  in  the  United  States 
or  in  England.  In  France  it  is  called  the  "Tortue  Franche,"  in  Portugal  the  "Tartaruga,"  and 
in  Brazil  the  "  Jurucua." 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  Atlantic  species  occurs  all  along  our  coast,  from  Long  Island  Sound, 
where  it  has  been  taken  several  times,  but  is  not  common,  to  Florida  and  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf 
States.  Captain  Collins  believes  that  he  has  seen  this  species  on  the  northern  fishing-hanks. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  West  Indies,  and  is  found  as  far  south  as  Guiana  and  Brazil;  is  said  to 
occur  also  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  E.  G.  Blackford  that  the 
supply  for  New  York  market  is  brought  principally  from  Indian  Eiver,  Cedar  Keys,  and  Key 
West,  Florida.  The  Pacific  species  is  "found  along  the  whole  southern  coast  of  California,"  but 
its  northern  limit  has  not  been  ascertained.  It  is  said  to  occur  also  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

SIZE. — In  size  the  Green  Turtle  ranks  intermediate  between  the  Loggerhead  and  the  Tortoise- 
shell  Turtles.  Those  taken  on  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas  are  very  small,  but  the  species  increases 
in  size  southward.  The  specimens  taken  at  the  more  northerly  localities  seem  to  be  young  or 
dwarfed  individuals,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Loggerhead.  At  Beaufort  and  Morehead  City,  as  Mr. 
Earll  ascertained,  they  weigh  only  about  eight  pounds;  at  Charleston,  usually  from  five  to  fifteen 
pounds,  the  largest  weighing  twenty -five  pounds;  about  Saint  Augustine,  the  average  size  is 
twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds;  at  Halifax  River,  thirty-five  pounds;  at  Indian  River,  fifty  or  sixty 
pounds,  specimens  weighing  as  much  as  two  hundred  pounds  being  not  infrequently  taken;  at  Key 
West  the  weight  is  usually  from  forty  to  one  hundred  pounds;  at  Cedar  Keys  specimens  weighing 
from  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds  are  sometimes  taken,  and  rarely  some  weighing  a 
thousand  pounds.  Thus  it  appears  that  there  is  gradual  increase  in  size  as  we  pass  southward.1 

FOOD  AND  FEEDING  HABITS. — Holbrook  makes  the  following  statements  in  regard  to  the  food 
of  the  Green  Turtle:  "The  Chelonia  mydas  lives  mostly  in  deep  water,  feeding  on  marine  plants, 
especially  one  called  turtle-grass  (Zostera  marina).  This,  according  to  Audubon,  they  cut  near 
the  roots,  to  procure  the  most  tender  and  succulent  part,  which  alone  is  eaten,  while  the  rest  of 
the  plant  floats  to  the  surface,  and  is  there  collected  in  large  fields,  a  sure  indication  that  the  feeding 
ground  of  the  Green  Turtle  is  near.  In  confinement,  however,  they  eat  readily  enough  purslaiu 
(Portulaca  oleracea),  and  even  grow  fat  on  this  nourishment."2  A  specimen  taken  at  Noank, 
Connecticut,  in  August,  1874,  was  full  of  Irish  moss  (Ghondrus  crispug).  After  browsing  for  a 


'This  fact,  which  corresponds  with  what  has  been  observed  regarding  «ome  other  aniinalH,  isof  great  interest  from 
a  zoological  point  of  view. 

•HOLBROOK:  North  American  Hepetology,  ii,  1842,  p.  29. 


GREEN  TURTLES:  FOOD  AND  FEEDING.  151 

time  in  these  pasturages  of  sea  weed,  tlit-  Turtles  seek  tin-  months  of  livers,  whew  they  apparently 
take  {treat  pleasure  in  bathing  in  the  fresh  water,  which  seems  to  be  necessary  to  them  from  time, 
to  time.  They  are  very  timid  on  sueli  occasions,  and  hasten  away  into  deep  water  at  the  approach 
of  man.  In  Florida,  it  "  is  naid  by  turtle  Ushers  to  enter  the  creeks  which  abound  on  that  coast, 
and  having  eaten  its  till  of  the  sea-grass  growing  there,  to  roll  together  masses  of  it  of  the  size  of 
a  man's  head,  which  it  cements  with  clay  on  which  the  grass  grows,  and  then  when  the  turn  of 
the  tide  takes  it  out  to  sea,  follows  it,  feeding  upon  it.  When,  therefore,  the  fishermen  find  any 
of  these  balls  floating  down  from  a  creek,  they  at  once  spread  a  strong  net  across  the  mouth,  and 
almost  always  secure  a  number  of  these  Turtles."1 

BREEDING  OF  GREEN  TURTLES. — The  Green  Turtle  breeds  on  the  coasts  of  Florida  and  in 
the  Bahamas  and  West  Indies  generally.  On  our  coast  its  breeding  season  is  from  April  to  July. 
Holbrook  gives  also  an  excellent  account  of  the  breeding  habits  of  this  Turtle,  and  we  cannot  do 
better  than  quote  his  words.  "In  the  mouths  of  April  and  May,  great  numbers  seek  for  this  pur- 
pose [the  laying  of  eggs]  the  sandy  shores  of  desolate  islands,  or  the  uninhabited  banks  of  certain 
rivers,  where  they  are  least  liable  to  interruption  in  their  work  of  reproduction.  The  Tortugas 
Islands  are  a  favorite  haunt;  -these  are  four  or  five  uninhabited  sand  banks,  which  are  only  visited 
by  turtlers  and  wreckers.  Between  these  islands  are  deep  channels,  so  that  the  Turtles  come  at 
once  to  a  good  landing.  They  are  not  confined,  however,  to  these  islands,  but  are  found  abun- 
dantly on  keys  and  inlets  on  the  main.  The  female  arrives  by  night.  Slowly  and  cautiously  she 
approaches  the  shore,  and  if  undisturbed,  crawls  at  once  over  the  sand  above  high  water  mark; 
here  with  her  fins  she  digs  a  hole  one  or  two  feet  deep,  in  which  she  lays  her  eggs,  between  one 
and  two  hundred  in  number.  These  '  she  arranges  in  the  most  careful  manner,  and  then  scoops  the 
loose  sand  back  over  the  eggs,  and  so  levels  and  smooths  the  surface  that  few  persons  on  seeing 
the  spot  could  imagine  that  anything  had  been  done  to  it.'  This  accomplished,  she  retreats  s|>eedily 
to  the  water,  leaving  the  eggs  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which  is  generally  accomplished 
in  about  three  weeks.2  Two  or  three  times  in  the  season  does  the  female  return  to  nearly  the  same 
spot  and  deposit  nearly  the  same  number  of  eggs,  so  that  the  amount  annually  would  be  four  or 
five  hundred."3  The  young  make  their  way  at  once  to  the  water,  but  many  of  them  fall  a  prey  to 
the  various  carnivorous  birds  which  frequent  the  breeding  grounds. 

USES. — The  flesh  of  the  Green  Turtle  is  considered  an  excellent  article  of  diet,  and  forms  the 
basis  of  the  well-kuowu  "turtle  soup."  Two  portions  of  the  body  have  received  special  names  in 
the  language  of  cookery.  These  are  "  calipash,"  a  name  for  the  flesh  which  is  attached  to  the 
upper  shell  of  the  Turtle,  and  is  of  a  dull  greenish  color;  aud  "calipee,"  the  corresponding  name 
for  the  flesh  adhering  to  the  lower  shell,  which  is  of  a  yellowish  hue. 

The  animal  is  brought  to  the  markets  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  other  cities 
regularly  during  the  season,  and  large  numbers  are  sold.  The  Pacific  species,  Professor  .Ionian 
informs  me,  is  seen  from  time  to  time  in  the  markets  of  San  Francisco,  being  brought  in  occasionally 
by  vessels  coming  from  the  south.  The  eggs  of  the  Atlantic  Green  Turtle  are  eairerly  sought  for, 
both  on  our  coast  and  in  the  West  Indies,  and  are  valuable  both  as  food  and  on  account  of  the  oil 
they  furnish.  I  am  informed  by  a  prominent  manufacturer  of  soap  that  the  article  bearing  the 
name  of  ••  turtle-oil"  soap  is  in  reality  made  from  beef  or  other  fats,  and  contains  not  the  least 
modicum  of  turtle  oil.  The  name  is  simply  a  ••  trade  name";  no  turtle  oil  has  been  imported  into 
the  United  States  for  many  years. 

'KNIGHT:  Proem-dings  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  1870,  p.  Hi. 
*  Agassi z  says  tin-  i»-rioil  cannot  I"-  I'-*"  than  seven  weeks. 
1  HOLBROOK:  Op. ci'., i>.  '£). 


152  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

38.  THE  SOFT-SHELLED  TORTOISES. 

The  marsh  and  river  Tortoises  constitute  a  large  group,  well  represented  in  North  America. 
It  includes  all  the  Tortoises  which  live  in  the  marshes,  fresh  and  salt,  and  in  ponds  and  running 
streams.  It  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  six  sections,  comprising  (1)  the  Soft-shelled 
Tortoises;  (2)  the  Snapping  Turtles;  (3)  the  Musk  Tortoises;  (4)  the  Fresh-water  Terrapins;  (5) 
the  Salt-water  Terrapin  and  Geographic  Tortoises ;  (6)  the  Pond  Tortoises. 

RANGE  OF  THE  SOFT-SHELLED  TORTOISES. — The  species  of  Soft-shelled  Tortoises,  TrionychUlce, 
inhabiting  our  country  are  six  in  number,  and  belong  to  two  different  genera,  known  scientifically 
as  Amyda  and  Aspidonectes.  Their  combined  range  extends  from  Lake  Champlain,  the  Lower  Saint 
Lawrence,  and  the  Upper  Hudson  on  the  east,  westward  through  the  great  lakes  and  Northwestern 
States,  to  the  Yellowstone  and  Musselshell  Rivers;  thence  southward,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
to  Eastern  Texas;  thence  along  the  Gulf  States  to  Florida,  and  from  there  northward,  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  to  the  Upper  Hudson. 

"In  the  Northwestern  States,  two  species  occur  together,  belonging  to  two  different  genera, 
Amyda  mutica  and  Aspidonectes  spinifer;  in  the  middle  Western  States  one  species,  Aspidonectes 
nuchalis;  in  the  South-Eastern  and  Southern  States,  two  species,  belonging  to  two  different  genera, 
Platypeltis  [Aspidonectes]  ferox  and  Aspidonectes  asper;^  and  in  the  South-West,  in  Texas,  one  species, 
Aspidonectes  Emoryi."'1 

These  Tortoises  seem  to  be  known  everywhere  in  the  country  under  the  single  name  "Soft  shell 
Turtle."  As  the  habits  of  all  the  species  are  very  similar,  it  will  be  scarcely  necessary  to  consider 
each  separately.  They  vary  in  length  from  six  or  eight  inches  to  two  feet  or  even  more,  and  their 
weight  is  from  four  or  five  pounds  to  fifteen  or  sixteen  pounds.  Probably  the  largest  species  is  A. 
spinifer. 

FOOD. — The  food  of  the  Soft-shell  Turtles  consists  of  small  fishes,  snails,  and  other  small 
animals,  and  a-variety  of  vegetable  matter.  It  is  said  that  some  species  do  great  damage  in  potato 
fields,  situated  near  the  streams  they  inhabit,  since  they  are  very  fond  of  browsing  on  the  steins. 
It  is  improbable,  however,  that  they  go  very  far  from  the  water.  They  are  most  frequently  seen 
on  the  margin  of  sluggish,  shallow  streams,  their  bodies  buried  in  the  mud,  and  only  the  tip  of  their 
long  sin  nit  protruding,  or  crawling  over  the  muddy  bottom  of  the  stream,  or  floating  on  its  surface. 
The  fact  of  their  fierceness  has  been  regarded  with  doubt  by  some  authorities,  but  they  will 
undoubtedly  bite  severely  if  provoked.  They  breed  in  June  and  July,  seeking  a  dry  sandy  spot 
on  the  bank  of  the  streams  they  inhabit,  in  which  to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  female  leaves  the 
water  for  this  purpose,  and  returns  to  it  immediately  after  the  eggs  are  laid,  leaving  them  to  be 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  number  of  eggs  is  large,  varying  from  thirty  or  forty  to  sixty 
or  seventy. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — Soft-shell  Turtles  are  commonly  eaten  in  the  regions  where  they  occur, 
and  are  frequently  seen  in  the  markets.  Their  flesh  furnishes  a  superior  article  of  food,  surpassing, 
it  is  said,  in  delicacy  the  flesh  of  the  Green  Turtle.  The  eggs  also  are  considered  very  excellent. 
The  Turtles  are  captured  with  hook  and  line,  almost  any  bait  being  suitable,  for  they  snap  greedily 
at  any  kind  of  food.  They  are  also  shot  with  the  rifle  while  sunning  themselves  or  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  water.  Mr.  E.  C.  Pridgen,  of  Oakohay,  Mississippi,  informed  me  that  the  eggs  are 
discovered  by  following  the  tracks  of  the  animal  to  the  nest,  the  location  of  which  is  recognized  by 
the  presence  of  a  little  depression  of  the  earth. 

'Both  belong  to  the  same  genus,  according  to  Cope.  See  COPE:  Check-list,  North  American  Batrachia  and 
Eeptilia,  1875,  p.  51. 

-AIJASSI/.:  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Unitt-d  Statvs,  i,  1857,  pp.  402,  403. 


SNAPPING  TURTLES:  NUMBER  OF  SPECIES.  153 

39.  THE  SNAPPING  TURTLES. 

NOETH  AMERICAN  SPECIES.— The  Snapping  Turtles,  or  Ghelydridas,  of  the  United  State* 
are  two  ill  number,  belonging  to  two  different  genera,  Chelydra  and  Macrocliely*.  The  more 
northern  species,  Chelydra  nerpentina,  known  everywhere  throughout  the  United  States  an  the 
"Snapping  Turtle,"  is  very  widely  distributed.  It  has  been  found  as  far  north  as  Nova  Scotia, 
and  its  range  extends  from  that  point  southward  to  Florida  and  the  Gulf  States,  and  westward  to 
tin-  Slutrs  iiiiiiifdiately  mi  (In-  \vi-M  li.ink  ut'lln-  Mi^i-^ipiM  Knn.  li  h;iv  i:.,i  1.,-.  i,  recorded 
from  farther  west  than  the  limits  given,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  occurs  even  as  far  as  the  Sierra 
Nevadas.  The  southern  species,  Macrochelys  lacertina,  known  as  the  "Alligator  Turtle,"  or  "  Log- 
gerhead,"1 is  found  in  western  Georgia,  and  in  all  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf,  from  Florida 
to  Texas.  It  also  occurs  in  Missouri,  where  it  is  said  to  receive  the  name  "Caouane." 

SIZE. — The  northern  species  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  southern ;  twenty  or  thirty 
pounds  may  be  considered  the  maximum  weight  of  the  former,  but  the  latter  commonly  attains  a 
weight  of  fifty  or  sixty  pounds,  and  frequently  as  much  as  one  hundred.  In  both  the  strength  of 
the  jaws  is  very  great.  I  have  myself  seen  an  "Alligator  Snapper,"  of  perhaps*  forty  pounds 
weight,  bite  the  handle  of  a  broom  quite  in  two  when  enraged. 

Both  species  inhabit  running  streams  and  stagnant,  muddy  ponds  and  lakes,  but  they 
apparently  prefer  the  latter.4  They  are  sometimes  seen  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
water,  walking  with  a  constrained  and  limping  gait,  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Alligator.  At 
such  times  they  are  probably  in  search  of  food  or  of  a  suitable  place  for  the  deposit  of  their  eggs. 
Their  food  consists  of  various  animal  matter,  fishes,  frogs,  and  shells,  and  lastly  of  ducks  and 
other  water  fowl,  which  they  draw  under  water  to  be  devoured  at  leisure. 

BREEDING  SEASON  AND  HABITS. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Snapping  Turtle  is  in  June, 
in  the  North  from  the  10th  to  the  25th  (Chelydra  serpentina).  In  preparing  to  deposit  its  eggs,  it 
"excavates  at  first  directly  downward,  and  then  laterally,  so  that  the  widest  part  of  the  hole,  in 
which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  is  on  one  side  of  the  external  opening  of  the  nest.  Hence  a  stick 
thrust  straight  into  the  mouth  of  the  nest  would  not  touch  the  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  the  lateral 
dilation  of  the  excavation. 

"The  fact  that  these  animals  oftentimes  dig  several  holes  before  selecting  one  for  deposit,  shows 
that  they  exercise  a  discrimination  with  regard  to  the  fitness  or  uufltness  of  these  several  spots  for 
the  encouragement  and  rapid  development  of  their  young.  When  engaged  in  digging  or  laying,  not- 
withstanding their  habitual  shyness  at  other  times,  they  seem  utterly  unconscious  of  any  intruder, 
but  proceed  in  their  occupation  till  it  is  finished,  and  then  trampling  down  and  smoothing  over  the 
earth,  so  that  when  dry  the  place  of  the  nest  may  not  be  noticeable,  leave  the  spot  and  disappear 
among  their  usual  haunts."3  The  place  of  deposit  is  usually  at  a  short  distance  from  the  water 
in  a  sandy  bank.  The  number  of  eggs  varies  from  twenty  to  forty,  or  even  more. 

Regarding  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Alligator  Turtle  little  is  exactly  known,  but  they  are 
probably  similar  to  those  of  the  Snapping  Turtle. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — Both  the  Snapping  Turtle  and  the  Alligator  Turtle  are  esteemed  UK  food, 
and  are  commonly  eaten  by  the  ]>eople  in  the  localities  where  they  occur.  The  former  is  generally 
considered  inferior  to  the  Soft-shell  Turtles,  or  the  Green  Turtle,  while  it  is  claimed  by  some, 
although  it  seems  hardly  probable,  that  the  flesh  of  the  latter  is  even  more  delicate  than  that  of 
the  Green  Turtle.  In  old  animals,  at  any  rate,  the  smell  of  musk  is  very  strong  and  disagreeable. 


'This  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  marine  Loggerhead. 

•During  the  summer  of  1877  two  specimens  of  Snapping  Turtle  were  caught  in  the  Bait  waten  of  Proyincelown 
Bay,  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts. 

'AGA881Z-  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  Kniti-d  States,  ii,  1857,  pp.  500,  501. 


154  NATURAL  11ISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Snapping  Turtle  is  regularl.v  seen  in  spring  in  the  markets  of  Washington,  dressed  for 
cooking,  that  is,  having  the  under  part  of  the  shell  and  the  entrails  removed.  The  eggs  of  both 
species  are  comparatively  small,  but  delicate,  and  are  eaten  in  many  localities.  They  may  he 
found  by  probing  in  the  sand  with  a  small  rod,  in  places  indicated  by  the  tracks  of  the  animal. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  commercial  supply  of  the  Snapping  Turtle,  as  the  observations  of 
Capt.  J.  W.  Collins  show,  is  derived  from  Delaware. 

Storer  remarks  that  in  many  localities  in  the  interior  of  Massachusetts  the  oil  of  the  Snapping 
Turtle  is  carefully  preserved  on  account  of  its  supposed  curative  properties  for  bruises  and  strains, 
when  externally  applied.1  The  carapace  is  used  by  the  Indians  as  a  rattle  and  ornament. 

40.  THE  MUSK  TORTOISES. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  MUSK  TORTOISES. — It  is  perhaps  scarcely  necessary  to  mention 
the  Musk  Tortoises,  or  Cinosternidce,  in  this  connection.  They  are  of  small  size,  and  possess  a 
very  strong  and  rank  scent  of  musk,  which  makes  them  entirely  unavailable  as  a  source  of  food 
supply.  Indeed,  the  exceeding  rankness  of  the  odor  of  one  species,  Aromochelys  odorata,  has 
gained  for  it  the  very  expressive  appellation  of  "Stink-pot."  They  are  very  troublesome  to  fisher- 
men, in  placid  waters,  often  swallowing  the  bait  so  quietly  as  to  produce  no  agitation  of  the  float, 
so  that  their  presence  for  some  time  is  unperceived.  They  are  often  seen  devouring  dead  and 
decaying  animals  in  streams,  and  therefore  undoubtedly  prove  efficacious  as  scavengers.  In  fact, 
it  has  been  surmised  that  one  cause  of  the  prevalence  of  yellow  fever  in  the  Southern  States  is  to 
be  found  in  the  wholesale  destruction  of  various  Tortoises  which  feed  on  the  refuse  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  which  collects  in  the  rivers,  some  for  food  and  others  because  supposedly  obnoxious. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Of  the  six  species  of  Musk  Tortoises  inhabiting  the  United  States,  three  are 
found  only  in  Arizona  and  the  Sonoran  region  generally,  one  in  the  Southern  States,  except  lower 
Florida  and  Texas,  and  the  remaining  three  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States,  and  the  central 
States  westward  to  the  extremities  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi. 

41.  THE  FEESH- WATER  TERRAPINS. 

.  TEKRAPINS  AND  POND  TORTOISES. — In  the  group  of  Terrapins  and  Pond  Tortoises  are 
comprised  about  one-half  of  all  the  Tortoises  inhabiting  the  United  States.  The  members  of  the 
group  vary  greatly  in  habits  and  size  and  in  other  relations.  Exclusive  of  the  Marine  Turtles, 
they  furnish  the  greater  proportion  of  the  reptilian  food  of  the  country.  All  the  species  are 
available  for  food;  that  is  to  say,  none  of  them  have  disagreeable  qualities  such  as  the  Musk 
Tortoises,  for  instance,  possess,  but  some  are  too  small  and  others  of  too  rare  occurrence  to 
furnish  any  considerable  supply. 

The  Emydida:  of  the  United  States  have  been  divided  among  six  genera,2  based  011  certain 
differences  of  their  structure,  and  since  the  division  is  a  convenient  one  for  the  present  purpose, 
we  will  adopt  it  and  treat  of  the  species  of  each  geuus  together. 

TUB  FRESH-WATER  TERRAPINS. — The  habitat  of  the  members  of  this  group  is  decidedly 
southern,  for  they  are  rarely  seen  north  of  the  forty-first  parallel  of  latitude.  They  live  in  moist 
and  marshy  localities  and  in  running  water,  their  structure  being  well  adapted  for  semi-aquatic 
and  aquatic  life.  Some  .are  vegetable  feeders,  while  of  hers  are  carnivorous.  The  genus  includes 
seven  North  American  species.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  the  "Red-bellied  Terrapin,'' 
Pseudemys  rugosa.  The 'animal  is  also  known  under  the  names  "Potter,"  "Red-fender,"  and 

'STOnKR:  Report  on  tht>  Fishes,  Rrptil«s,  ami  Hir<ls  of  M:iss:u-lnis"tt»,  1839,  p.  213. 
"CoPE:  Chcck-liHt  of  North  Aiiir-rii-an  l<;itrarlnn  iiml  Krptilin,  Ih7.r>,  pp.  5'«i.  53. 


TIII:  I.T.D  I'.FI.MKD  TKKHAPIN  OR  si.mr.i:.  i;,;, 

•Slider."  Its  raii^e  M-.-IIIS  to  be  limited  i,>  tin-  Delaware  River,  tin-  Sii.s<|iicli:iniia  Itiver,  and  other 
streams  emptying  into  <  'hcsapeakc  I'.a.v.  It  is  common  in  the  vicinity  of  Washington,  and  is 
frequently  seen  in  the  markets  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is  a  large  sjiedes;  tilt'  shell  is  usually 

!<• eleven  indies  in  length.     As  has  been  already  stated,  the  Red  bellied  Terrapin  is  regularly 

in  the  market-;,  and  as   it  is  more  abundant  and    less  esteemed  than  the  "Diamond  back 
it   is  usually  much  lower  in  price.     It  is  commonly  substituted  in  certain  proportion  for 
the  "Diamond-luck"  in  mak ing  terrapin  stew. 

Aside  from  its  somewhat  slow  growth  there  is  apparently  no  reason  why  this  Terrapin  should 
not  l»e  introduced  into  waters  both  north  and  south  of  its  present  range.  It  furnishes  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  nutritious  food  at  no  expense  to  the  producer. 

THE  MOBILIANEE. — Another  important  species  is  that  known  as  the  "  Mobilianer," 
1'xi-itili-niys  mobilienaia.  This  is  perhaps  the  largest  representative  of  the  genus  or  of  the  whole 
group  in  the  United  States.  The  shell  is  often  from  14  to  16  inches  in  length.  It  is  found  more 
or  less  abundantly  in  all  the  Gulf  States,  from  extreme  Western  Florida  to  the  Rio  Grande  of 
Texas.  Its  form  would  suggest  that  it  lives  mostly  in  the  water.  Of  what  its  food  consists  is 
not  definitely  known,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  mostly  of  a  vegetable  character.  It  is  considered 
<inite  delicate,  and  is  esteemed  as  food.  It  is  frequently  sold  in  the  markets  of  Mobile,  New 
<  >i  leans,  and  other  Southern  cities.1 

THK  YELLOW-BELLIED  TEURAPIN. — Pseudemya  iicabra,  a  species  which  occurs  in  the  Carolinas, 
Georgia,  and  Northern  Florida,  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  food.  It  is  known  popularly 
as  the  "Yellow-bellied  Terrapin."  That  it  is  a  very  abundant  species,  at  least  in  Florida,  we  may 
learn  from  the  following  note,  communicated  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  in  1870,  by 
the  Hev.  0.  F.  Knight: 

"In  the  early  summer  [this  species]  congregates  in  great  numbers  in  the  shallow  parts  of 
certain  lakes,  and  the  warm  and  still  bayous  near  the  mouths  of  those  streams  which  empty  into 
the  Gulf.  On  one  occasion  the  speaker  [Mr.  Knight],  floating  quietly  down  stream,  came  upon 
one  of  these  gatherings  where  there  seemed  to  be  many  thousands  within  the  space  of  two  or 
three  acres,  covering  every  log  and  stump  and  hummock  almost  as  thickly  as  shingles  lie  upon  a 
roof." 

The  Yellow-bellied  Terrapin  is  largely  a  carnivorous  animal.  It  lives  on  small  reptiles  and 
other  such  animals  as  it  can  capture  in  the  streams  and  jmnds  which  it  inhabits.  In  confinement, 
however,  it  will  condescend  to  partake  of  vegetable  food,  particularly  of  the  common  purslain, 
Portulaca  oltracen.  of  which  it  seems  quite  fond.  It  is  frequently  brought  to  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  and  other  Southern  markets  in  considerable  numbers.  The  flesh  is  not  considered  as 
delicate  as  that  of  the  "Diamond  back  Terrapin,"  but  the  amount  furnished  is  greater. 

OTHER  SPKCIKS. — Of  the  remaining  species  it  will  be  necessary  to  speak  only  of  Pseudemys 
coiivinna.  The  other  three  species,  l'*finlemy»  hieroglyphica,  inhabiting  the  Middle,  Western,  and 
Gulf  States,  P*euilumy*  Trooxtii,  inhabiting  the  Mississippi  Valley,  as  far  north  as  Illinois,  and 
I'.-.' iidemys  ek-gann,  inhabiting  Ohio  and  Texas  and  the  States  through  which  the  western  and 
northern  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  Ifiver  flow,  seem  not  to  be  sufficiently  abundant  to  furnish 
regular  supplies  of  food.  Pseitflcmyx  conrinnd,  the  "Florida  ('outer,''  is  found  in  all  the  Southern 
States,  from  southern  North  Carolina  to  Florida,  and  from  thence  westward  to  Texas,  ami  al.so  iu 
Arkansas.  They  seem  to  prefer  brackish  waters,  but  are  found  also  in  fresh  water  streams. 
Their  diet  is  principally  ofanimal  matter;  in  Florida  they  are  said  to  teed  upon  certain  species  of 
worms  which  they  capture  by  thrusting  their  long  claws  into  the  worm-holes  in  I  he  clay.  Although 

1  HOLBIIOOK:  North  AiH.-ii.-aii  H.-rin-tology,  i,  l«4i,  )>.  71. 


156  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

not  as  abundant  as  the  Yellow-bellied  Terrapin,  they  are  sufficiently  so  to  furnish  considerable 
food,  but  whether  they  are  brought  to  market  I  am  not  aware. 

42.  THE  DIAMOND-BACK  OR  SALT-WATER  TERRAPIN. 

Three  species  of  the  genus  Malacoclemmys  inhabit  the  United  States.  By  far  the  most 
important  of  these,  and  the  most  valuable  of  all  Terrapins,  is  the  Malacodemmys  palustris,  or 
"Diamond-back  Terrapin." 

The  other  two  species,  the  Geographic  Tortoises,  M.  geographica  and  M.  Lesueuri,  are  of  .com- 
paratively rare  occurrence,  and  are  not  used  for  food  to  any  considerable  extent. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  "Diamond  back,"  or  "Salt-water  Terrapin,"  is  common  along  our  entire 
Atlantic  coast  from  Nantucket  and  New  Bedford,  in  Massachusetts,  to  Texas.  It  also  occurs  in 
South  America.  It  was  introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Prince  of  Canino,  a  number  of  years  ago,  but 
of  the  success  of  the  enterprise  I.  haVe  been  unable  ,to  learn.  Those  which  enter  into  commerce, 

*  .       *  " 

however,  are  principally  from  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas.  Some  very  fine 
ones  also  come  from  Egg  Harbor,  N.  J. 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND  HABITS. — The  Diamond-back  lives  in  salt  marshes  near  the  coast,  and 
is  seldom  found  far  from  them.  They  were  formerly  very  abundant  in  such  localities,  and  could 
be  often  seen  on  warm  days  sunning  themselves  on  the  bars  and  flats.  But  the  increasing  demand 
for  them  and  the  wholesale  capture  of  old  and  young  have  reduced  their  numbers  very  materially. 
The  species  is  a  comparatively  small  one,  and  varies  much  in  external  appearance.  The  females 
attain  a  larger  size  than  the  males,  and  are  much  more  highly  prized  in  market.  The  average 
lengi  h  of  the  under  part  of  the  shell  is  seven  inches,  and  the  weight  of  the  animal  four  or  five 
pounds.  Rarely  the  length  reaches  ten  inches,  and  the  Terrapin  weighs  about  ten  pounds.  The 
fixed  standard  of  length  for  salable  females  in  most  markets  is  six  inches,  but  in  some  it  is  as  low 
as  five  inches.  Terrapin  having  that  length  are  known  as  "  counts."  The  small  specimens  are 
separated  into  "heifers"  and  "little  bulls";  their  under  shell  rarely  exceeds  five  inches  in  length. 
As  has  been  already  said,  they  are  deemed  very  inferior  to  the  females,  and  the  price  of  them  is 
therefore  much  lower. 

In  regard  to  the  rate  of  growth,  I  have  seen  it  stated  that  the  Diamond-back  reaches 
maturity,  or  rather  lays  eggs,  when  four  years  old,  but  this  is  hardly  probable.  It  does  not  accord 
with  the  observations  of  Agassiz  and  others,  nor  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  group  generally. 
Experiments  made  by  a  dealer  in  North  Carolina  seem  to  show  that  the  species  grow  about  one 
inch  each  year,  so  that  "counts"  are  at  least  six  years  old.  Probably  ten  years  at  least  elapse 
before  they  are  fully  grown. 

FOOD. — What  the  food  of  the  Diamond -back  Terrapin  is  does  not  seem  to  be  exactly  known. 
Very  probably,  however,  it  consists  of  such  matter,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  as  the  animal  is  able 
to  find  in  the  marshes  in  which  it  lives.  When  penned,  preparatory  to  sending  them  to  market,  they 
are  fed  on  crabs,  oysters,  and  fish.  To  give  them  the  finest  flavor  they  are  said  to  be  fed  upon 
celery  for  some  days  previous  to  being  served.  In  the  winter  the  tortoise  hibernates  and  takes  no 
food,  remaining  buried  several  inches  in  the  mud.  Unfortunately  for  its  welfare,  a  little  mound  of 
mud  is  always  raised  above  the  spot  where  it  disappears,  which  at  once  catches  the  eye  of  the 
terrapin  fisherman.  A  large  proportion  of  the  Terrapins  are  taken  while  they  are  in  this  torpid 
condition. 

BREEDING  HABITS. — Like  all  other  species  of  Tortoises,  the  Diamond  back  deposits  its 
eggs  on  land.  When  the  laying  season  arrives  the  female  seeks  some  sandy  bar  or  bank  above 
water,  and  having  excavated  a  shallow  pit  with  the  hind  legs,  deposits  from  five  to  seven  eggs. 


TI1K  DIAMOND-BACK:  BREEDING  HABITS.  157 

The  breeding  season  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  June  and  early  part  of  July.  It  is  said  that  the 
young  show  no  disposition  to  seek  the  water,  but  prefer  to  remain  in  the  sand. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — The  Diamond-back  is  highly  prized  for  food.  Philadelphia  furnishes 
the  best  market  for  this  species,  but  it  is  also  sold  in  large  numbers  in  Baltimore,  Washington, 
New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Saint  Louis,  and  many  other  cities.  The 
season  lasts  from  the  beginning  of  October  to  the  first  or  middle  of  June;  the  best  months  are 
October  and  November.  The  specimens  from  North  Carolina  usually  appear  in  the  market  last. 
The  ''counts,"  or  those  over  six  inches  long,  bring  from  eighteen  to  thirty-six  dollars  per  dozen  in 
the  market;  the  smaller  ones  are  usually  sold  separately,  at  prices  of  from  fifteen  to  fifty  cents 
apiece.  These  prices,  however,  are  almost  sixty  per  cent,  higher  than  the  prices  received  by  the 
catcher,  for  the  Terrapins  pass  through  several  hands  on  their  way  to  market.  The  majority  of 
Terrapins  are  actually  caught  in  the  summer  months  and  are  penned  in  yards,  known  as  "crawls," 
until  the  marketing  season  arrives.  A  description  of  the  crawls  and  of  the  method  of  capturing 
the  Terrapin  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  THE  TERRAPIN  FISHERY. 

There  are  two  principal  modes  of  cooking  the  Diamond-back  Terrapin,  one  known  as  the 
Maryland  style,  and  the  other  as  the  Philadelphia  style.  The  Maryland  style  is  as  follows:  The 
Terrapin  is  first  thrown  alive  into  tepid  water,  the  skin  and  claws  are  removed;  a  second 
immersion  in  the  water  follows.  The  under  shell  is  then  cut  away  and  the  gall-bladder  and 
liver  removed.  After  this  operation  the  Terrapin  is  stewed  until  thoroughly  cooked.  The  stew 
is  then  garnished  with  eggs,  cream,  butter,  and  spices,  and  when  ready  for  the  table  a  little 
wine  is  added.  The  Philadelphia  style  is  different  from  the  preceding  only  in  the  addition  of 
terrapin  eggs,  which,  in  the  estimation  of  epicures,  are  necessary  to  complete  the  dish. 

43.  THE  POND  TORTOISES. 

THE  GENUS  CHRYSEMYS. — Three  species  of  genus  Ghrysemys,  the  Pond  Tortoises,  inhabit 
the  United  States:  0.  picta,  whose  range  extends  from  Nova  Scotia  and  Maine  to  Wisconsin  and  the 
States  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  southward  to  Louisiana,  Northern  Mississippi,  and 
Georgia;  0.  Belli,  whose  range  is  from  the  States  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  Texas, 
westward  to  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  excepting  the  Sonoran  region ;  and  G.  reticulata,  whose  range  is 
from  Southern  North  Carolina  to  Florida  and  west  to  Louisiana.  Of  these  the  most  important, 
perhaps,  is  the  Chrysemys  picta.  It  is  a  very  abundant  species,  is  of  considerable  size,  the  shell 
being  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  and  has  no  disagreeable  qualities.  It  lives  in  ponds,  ditches, 
and  sluggish  rivers,  where  it  is  almost  invariably  seen  lying  on  rocks  and  fallen  trees,  backing  in 
the  sun.  It  is  very  timid,  dropping  into  the  water  immediately  on  the  approach  of  man,  and  soon 
dies  in  confinement.  It  feeds  on  worms,  insects,  and  small  aquatic  reptiles. 

THE  "CHICKEN  TORTOISE." — Of  the  two  remaining  species  G.  reticulata  is  the  more  valued. 
It  is  known  under  the  name  of  "Chicken  Turtle"  in  the  region  where  it  occurs.  Its  habits  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  species,  but  it  is  a  somewhat  larger  animal.  It  is 
frequently  brought  to  the  Southern  markets,  and  is  somewhat  more  highly  esteemed  than  the 
Yellow-bellied  Terrapin  PseuAemyK  scabra. 

BELL'S  TORTOISE. — The  remaining  species,  G.  Belli,  is  a  fine  Tortoise,  but  appears  to  be  ran-. 
except  in  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  Rivers.  Little  is  known  of  its  habits,  except  that  it 
prefers  clear  waters.  So  far  as  I  am  aware  it  is  but  rarely  eaten. 

THE  GENUS  CHELOPUS:  THE  "EL-LA-CHICK." — Four  species  belonging  to  tins  g«-ims  inhabit 
the  United  States,  of  which  the  most  important,  commercially,  is  ('.  ninrniorntiiit,  occurring  on  the 
Pacific  coast  between  the  Sierras  and  the  sea.  from  Vancouver's  Island  to  Monterey,  California. 


158  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

It  lives  in  the  rivers  and  fresh- water  ponds,  preferring  those  of  which  the  water  is  somewhat  warm. 
It  grows  to  a  very  considerable  size,  the  shell  frequently  measuring  seven  or  eight  inches.  It  is 
said  to  deposit  its  eggs  in  June.  "They  are  almost  constantly  for  sale  in  the  markets  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  make  pretty  good  soups,  though  much  inferior  to  the  Sea  Turtles."  They  are  also  seen 
in  the  markets  in  other  parts  of  California.  The  species  is  called  "El-la-chick"  by  the  Nisquallies. 

THE  WOOD  TORTOISE:  OTHER  SPECIES.— Chelopus  insculptus,  or  the  "Wood  Tortoise," 
which  inhabits  the  Eastern  States  from  Maine  to  Pennsylvania  and  west  to  Ohio,  is  a  species  of 
medium  size,  but  though  available  for  food,  it  is,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  rarely  eaten.  It  lives  mostly 
in  ponds,  but  is  frequently  seen  on  land,  either  in  search  of  food,  or,  as  has  been  suggested,  to  rid 
itself  of  the  leeches  which  cling  very  persistently  to  it.  The  "Spotted  Tortoise"  or  "Speckled 
Turtle,"  Chelopus  guttatus,  and  Muhlenberg's  Tortoise,  Chelopus  Muhlenbergi,  are  comparatively 
worthless  varieties.  The  former  occurs  in  the  New  England  States  and  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Michigan,  and  probably  also  in  Ohio.  The  latter  inhabits  southern  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
and  eastern  Pennsylvania.  The  Speckled  Turtle  lives  in  ponds  and  running  waters,  but  C.  Muhlen- 
bergi is  frequently  found  on  land.  Both  subsist  principally  on  an  animal  diet.  The  Speckled 
Turtle,  when  feeding,  uses  the  fore-feet  in  retaining  the  prey,  in  a  manner  reminding  one  of  that 
of  the  domestic  cat. 

THE  GENUS  EMYS. — Only  one  species  of  this  genus  inhabits  the  United  States;  it  has,  so 
far  as  I  am  aware,  no  common  name.  This  is  the  Emys  meleagris.  It  occurs  in  the  New  England 
States  and  westward  to  Wisconsin.  It  is  a  rare  animal  and  seldom  seen,  and  hence  little  is  known 
of  its  habits. 

44.  THE  BOX  TORTOISES. 

THE  CAROLINA  Box  TURTLE. — To  the  genus  Gistudo  belong  the  Tortoises  which  have  the 
power  of  shutting  the  body  and  limbs  within  the  shell,  and  from  this  peculiarity  are  known  as 
"Box  Turtles."  The  most  common  species  is  Cistudo  Carolina,  with  its  Southern  variety,  triunyuix, 
which  singularly  has  but  three  claws  on  the  hind  foot.  It  occurs  all  over  the  eastern  United  States 
from  the  coast  to  the  States  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River.  In  the  Southern  States  it 
is  known  as  the  "Pine-barren  Terrapin,"  and  is  also  called  "Cooter"  by  the  negroes.  It  lives 
almost  entirely  on  land,  feeding  on  insects  and  other  animal  matter,  and  also  on  certain  kinds  of 
vegetables. 

It  is  said  to  do  damage  in  the  fields  to  cucumbers  and  other  growing  vegetables.  In  confine- 
ment it  can  be  readily  raised  on  apples  and  other  fruits.  It  has  been  sometimes  kept  in 
cellars  to  destroy  mice  and  rats,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  so  sluggish  a  tortoise  would  be  able  to 
capture  so  nimble  a  rodent  as  a  mouse. 

Another  species,  or  perhaps  only  a  variety  of  the  preceding,  known  as  Cistudo  ornata,  occurs 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley.1 

1  Although  not  appertaining  strictly  to  the  subject  of  this  report,  but  as  completing  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the 
Tortoises  of  the  United  States,  I  may  be  allowed  to  allude  to  the  three  Gopher  Tortoises  of  the  South  and  West.  The 
Florida  "Gopher,"  Xerobate*  poli/phemus,  (Dnudin)  Cooper,  inhabits  the  Southern  States  from  South  Carolina  to  Texas; 
Agaasiz's  Gopher,  X.  Agasrizi,  Cooper,  is  found  iu  Southern  California  and  Arizona;  and  Berlandier's  Tortoise,  X.  Ber- 
landieri,  Agnus.,  Southern  Texas  and  Northeastern  Mexico.  All  live  in  dry  and  sandy  regions,  and  feed  upon  vegetable 
matter.  The  eastern  and  western  Gophers,  and  possibly  Berlandier'g  Tortoise,  dig  deep  burrows  in  which  to  dwell. 
The  Florida  Gopher  famishes  no  inconsiderable  proportion  of  the  meat  supply  of  many  negro  families  in  the  South. 


THE  BULLFROG.  159 


G.— THE    AMPHIBIANS. 

45.  THE  BULL-FROG. 

I)iscd\  I:IM  in  mi:  BULL-FROG. — The  first  meiitiou  of  the  Bull  frog,  Rana  Catexbiana,  Shaw, 
is  found  in  the  eighteenth  volume  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  published  in  London  in  1694, 
in  which  Clayton  alludes  to  it  as  being  a  larger  Frog  than  any  found  in  England,  and  one 
which  "  makes  a  noise  something  like  the  bellowing  of  a  bull."1  Years  later  it  was  accurately 
described  by  Catesby  under  the  name  of  "Bull-frog,"  an  appellation  by  which  it  is  now  universally 
known. 

RANGE. — The  geographical  range  of  the  Bull-frog  has  never  been  accurately  defined.  It  is 
found  in  all  the  States  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  in  Canada.  In  the  collections  of  the 
National  Museum  there  are  specimens  from  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas, 
among  the  southwestern  States;  from  Ohio,  Wisconsin  (Racine),  and  Montana  (Yellowstone 
liiver);  and  from  California  (San  Diego).  If  the  specimens  have  been  correctly  identified,  the 
species  must  extend  over  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States. 

SIZE:  MODE  OP  LIFE. — In  regard  to  size,  the  Bull-frog  is  undoubtedly  the  largest  animal  of 
its  kind  inhabiting  North  America.  Holbrook*  states  that  it  reaches  a  length  of  twenty  one 
inches,  although  the  average,  of  course,  is  considerably  less.  It  lives  in  quiet  ponds  and  slug- 
gish rivers,  and  is  solitary  in  habit,  collecting  together  only  during  the  breeding  season.  Like 
other  Frogs,  it  is  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  insects,  mollusks,  and  other  small  animals  which  live 
in  or  near  todies  of  fresh  water.  It  seizes  its  prey  when  in  motion,  and  bites  greedily  at  the  hook. 

BREEDING  HABITS:  FROG  CULTURE. — The  Bull-frog  breeds  in  spring,  at  which  time  hundreds 
are  to  be  seen  together  in  small  ponds.  During  this  season  the  male  utters  the  well-known 
bellowing  cry  which  may  be  heard  at  a  long  distance. 

The  artificial  culture  of  Frogs  has  been  attempted  in  a  number  of  localities,  with  greater  or 
less  success.  Mr.  Seth  Green  gives  the  following  account  of  a  method  for  propagating  them, 
which  he  employed  with  good  results: 

"1.  How  to  get  the  spawn. — Take  a  large  dipper  and  go  to  the  pond  where  the  frog  casts 
ita  spawn.  You  will  find  them  in  a  glutinous  bunch.  When  you  dip  them  up,  be  very  careful 
not  to  break  the  glutinous  matter  which  binds  them  together.  Put  them  in  a  pail  or  can,  filled 
with  water,  and  take  them  to  your  hatching-box,  which  is  made  after  the  fashion  of  the  shad- 
hatching  box.  It  is  a  box  two  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  wide,  and  a  foot  deep,  covered  on  the 
bottom  with  gas- tarred  wire  sieving,  twelve  wires  to  the  inch.  Anchor  the  box  in  a  gentle 
current.  They  will  hatch  in  from  seven  to  fifteen  days,  according  to  the  temperature  of  the 
water. 

'•2.  How  to  take  care  of  them. — Soon  after  they  are  hatched,  they  should  be  turned  loose 
in  a  pond  prepared  with  great  care,  as  they  have  numerous  enemies,  such  as  fish,  snakes,  birds, 
lizards,  coons,  and  many  other  animals.  The  pond  should  be  made  where  the  ground  is  springy, 
and  have  plenty  of  soft  muck  in  the  bottom.  In  this  muck  the  frog  lies  during  the  winter. 
The  pond  should  have  a  tight  board  fence,  so  that  no  animals  could  get  in,  and  should  be  built 
so  close  to  the  water  that  no  bird  could  stand  on  the  ground  inside  the  fence  and  pick  up  the 

1  Philosophical  Transactions,  xviii,  1694,  p.  125. 
'HouiROOK:  North  Aim -ru-in  Herpetology,  iii,  1838,  p.  82. 


160  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

polliwogs.  If  you  do  not  heed  all  these  precautions,  and  more  too,  your  young  fry  will  all 
disappear  down  the  stomach  of  some  bird  or  animal ;  and  if  you  are  not  an  unusually  close 
observer,  you  will  be  in  great  wonder  where  they  have  gone.  You  will  have  no  trouble  in  feeding 
the  young  while  they  are  polliwogs ;  nature  has  provided  for  that  in  all  waters.  They  feed  upon 
microscopic  forms  found  in  the  sediment."  * 

MODES  OF  CAPTURE. — The  capture  of  Frogs  is  effected  in  various  ways.  In  Canada  the  fishery 
is  carried  on  largely  by  boys,  who  employ  spears,  in  the  use  of  which  they  are  said  to  become  quite 
expert.  In  some  localities  scoop  nets  are  used.  Mr.  Paul  Pieombo,  of  Oakland,  California,  informs 
me  that  he  seldom  has  need  of  any  apparatus,  as  he  finds  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  Frogs 
by  grasping  them  with  his  hands. 

In  regard  to  the  capture  of  Frogs  in  Europe,  where  the  species  Rana  esculenta  is  most 
generally  eaten,  Mr.  Buckland  furnishes  us  with  the  following  information : 

"  The  old  fishwife  of  whom  I  bought  the  frogs  informed  me  that  she  had  a  man  regularly  in 
her  employ  to  catch  them.  He  went  out  every  evening  at  dusk  to  the  ponds  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Paris,  with  a  lantern  and  a  long  stick,  to  end  of  which  was  attached  a  piece  of  red  cloth.  The 
frogs  were  attracted  by  the  light  to  the  place  where  the  fisherman  stood.  He  then  lightly  dropped 
his  cloth  on  the  surface  of  the  water;  the  frogs,  imagining  that  some  dainty  morsel  was  placed 
before  them,  eagerly  snapped  at  it,  and,  their  teeth  becoming  entangled,  they  Became  an  easy  prey, 
destined  for  to-morrow's  market  and  the  tender  mercies  of  the  fish  or  rather  frog  woman."2 

ECONOMIC  USES. — Desmarest,  in  his  article  on  Frogs  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  d'Histoire  Naturelle," 
makes  the  following  remarks  regarding  the  uses  to  which  these  animals  may  be  put : 

"The  flesh  of  Frogs  is  white  and  delicate,  and  contains  a  great  deal  of  gelatine.  It  is  eaten 
almost  everywhere  in  Europe,  but  particularly  in  France.  Frogs  taken  in  autumn  are  in  the  best 
condition  for  food,  but  they  are  also  taken  in  the  summer.  In  spring  the  flesh  is  not  at  all  delicate. 
In  England  all  parts  of  the  Frog  are  eaten  except  the  skin  and  the  viscera,  but  with  us  only  the 
hind  legs  are  employed. 

"Frog  soup  is  used  in  medicines  in  cases  of  phthisis,  hypochondria,  and  all  those  chronic  affec- 
tions which  are  accompanied  by  permanent  irritation.  This  remedy,  which  has  been  prescribed  by 
a  celebrated  Doctor  Pomme,  is  not  in  use  at  the  present  time.  In  ancient  days  many  preparations 
were  made  from  Frogs,  such  as  oil  and  salve,  and  from  the  spawn,  water  and  oil,  etc.  Dioscorides 
recommended  Frogs  cooked  with  salt  and  oil  as  a  remedy  for  the  bite  of  the  venomous  serpents, 
and  would  have  the  patient  swallow  a  heart  every  morning  as  a  pill  for  incurable  diseases.  In  the 
country  the  lack  of  ice  is  sometimes  supplied  by  the  application  of  a  frog  to  the  forehead  in  cases 
of  cerebral  congestion." 3 

The  late  Mr.  Buckland,  in  his  entertaining  work  on  "  Curiosities  in  Natural  History,"  already 
quoted,  also  alludes  to  the  gastronomic  value  of  the  Frog,  in  his  usual  inimitable  style,  as  follows: 

"  Frogs  are  not  often  used  in  Germany,  but  in  France  they  are  considered  a  luxury,  as  any  ban 
rimnt,  ordering  a  dish  of  them  at  the  'Trois  Freres'  at  Paris,  may,  by  the  long  price,  speedily 
ascertain.  Not  wishing  to  try  such  an  expensive  experiment  in  gastronomy,  I  went  to  the  large 
market  in  the  Faubourg  Saint-Germain  and  inquired  for  Frogs.  1  was  referred  to  a  stately  looking 
dame  at  a  fish  stall,  who  produced  a  box  nearly  full  of  them,  huddling  and  crawling  about,  and 
occasionally  croaking,  as  though  aware  of  the  fate  for  which  they  were  destined.  The  price  fixed 
was  two  a  penny,  and,  having  ordered  a  disli  to  be  prepared,  the  Dame  de  la  Halle  dived  her  hand  in 


'Report,  United  Sfatex  Fish  Commissioner,  part  ii,  1H74,  pp.  587,  >-. 
'BUCKLAND,  FRANCIS  T. :  Curiosities  of  Natural  History,  1840,  p.  '•'•'.'. 
3Dictiounaire  UnivcrM-1  il'Mistnm-  XntnrHli',  vi,  1H4.">,  p.  328. 


THE   IHJLLKKOC:  (1. \STHONOM  1C  QUALITIES  101 

among  them  and,  having  .secured  her  victim  by  the  hind  legs,  severed  him  in  twain  with  a  sharp 
knife;  tin-  legs  minus  skin  still  struggled  and  were  placed  on  a  dish,  and  the  head  witli  tin-,  fore 
lejjs  aflixetl  retained  life  and  motion  and  performed  such  motions  that  the  operation  became  painful 
to  look  at.  These  legs  were  afterwards  cooked  at  the  restaurateur's,  being  served  up  fried  iu  bread- 
eniinbs,  as  larks  are  in  England;  and  most  excellent  eating  they  were,  tasting  more  like  the 
delicate  flesh  of  the  rabbit  than  anything  else  I  can  think  of. 

"  I  afterwards  tried  a  dish  of  the  common  English  frog,  but  his  flesh  is  not  so  white  nor  so 
tender  as  that  of  his  French  brother. 

"  Should  any  person  wish  to  have  a  dish  of  real  French  frogs,  he  can  buy  them  at  Fortnum 
and  Mason's  for  half-a  guinea,  a  tin-easeful.  They  are  beautifully  preserved  aud  are  ready  for 
cooking.  I  have  eateu  them  at  the  house  of  a  lady  who  kindly  invited  me  to  luncheou  when  she 
tried  the  experiment.  .  .  . 

"The  edible  frog  (rana  esculenta)  is  brought  from  the  country,  in  quantities  of  from  thirty  to 
forty  thousand  at  a  time,  to  Vienna,  and  sold  to  great  dealers  who  have  conservatories  for  them. 
These  conservatories  are  large  holes,  four  or  five  feet  deep,  dug  in  the  ground,  the  month  covered 
with  a  board,  and  in  severe  weather  with  straw.  In  these  conservatories,  even  during  a  hard 
frost,  the  frogs  never  become  quite  torpid;  they  get  together  in  heaps  one  upon  another, 
instinctively,  and  thereby  prevent  the  evaporation  of  their  humidity,  for  no  water  is  ever  put  to 
them."1 

The  custom  of  eating  Frogs  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  Europe,  and  has 
spread  from  the  cities  on  the  east  coast  to  those  in  the  interior  and  on  the  west  coast.  On  account 
of  the  limited  supply  which  is  sent  to  market,  frog  meat  has  hitherto  been  considered  an  article  of 
luxury,  rather  than  one  of  general  consumption.  In  restaurants  and  hotels  it  is  seldom  found  on 
the  regular  bill  of  fare,  but  in  those  of  the  better  class,  in  the  large  cities  at  least,  it  is  not 
wanting  on  the  order-list. 

The  supply  of  Frogs  for  the  New  York  market,  according  to  the  statement  of  Mr.  E.  G.  Black- 
ford,  is  obtained  principally  from  Canada,  Northern  New  York,  and  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia. 
The  season  lasts  from  May  to  November.  The  hind  legs,  or  "hind  quarters"  as  they  are  termed, 
are  the  only  portions  usually  eaten,  there  being  but  an  insignificant  amount  of  flesh  on  other  parts 
of  the  animal.  Mr.  Blackford  states  that  he  is  accustomed  to  sell  about  12,000  pounds  of  frog 
meat  annually,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  consumption  of  New  York  City  is  not  less  than  60,000 
1 « ni nds.  The  average  retail  price  is  thirty  cents  per  pound. 

At  Boston  "Frogs  are  sold  generally  by  the  dozen,  and  bring  from  twenty  to  fifty  cents, 
according  to  quality.  As  the  demand  increases  the  business  will  fumisb  quite  a  source  of  rural 
income.  .  .  .  The  subject  of  canning  Frogs  is  being  talked  of,  and  efforts  are  being  made 
to  discover  a  good  process  for  this  purpose."1 

The  following  paragraph  from  an  American  newspaper  of  recent  date  contains  some  informa- 
tion regarding  the  extent  of  the  business  in  Minnesota :  "A  new  industry  has  recently  sprang  up 
in  parts  of  Minnesota,  that  has  already  arrived  at  the  dignity  of  statistics.  Frog  culture  is  the 
new  thing ;  it  is  a  simple  matter,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  protection  of  eggs  and  tadpoles  from 
birds  and  other  enemies,  by  means  of  wire  screens.  The  product,  thus  far  reported,  amounts  to 
3,000  dozen  of  frogs'  legs,  of  which  about  two-thirds  have  been  shipped  to  Saint  Louis.  The 
average  quotation  of  prices  is  twenty  cents  per  dozen." 

Frogs  are  quoted  regularly  as  appearing  in  the  San  Francisco  market    Mr.  Paul  Pieombo, 


.  '  l!r<  K  i  \  M >.  FHANCIS  T.  :  Curiosities  of  Natural  Hirtory,  1840,  pp.  38-40. 

'Boston  Commercial  Bulletin. 
11  F 


162  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned,  if  his  statements  are  reliable,  is  one  of  the  largest  dealers 
in  Frogs  in  California.  He  writes,  in  answer  to  a  circular :  "  Most  of  the  Frogs  caught  in  this  State 
are  caught  by  me";  and  in  response  to  the  questions  propounded,  states  that  he  sells  about  three 
hundred  dozens  of  live  Frogs  annually,  sending  two-thirds  of  them  to  San  Francisco,  and  the 
remainder  to  various  other  localities  in  California.  The  price  during  summer  ranges  from  one 
dollar  to  two  dollars  and  a  half,  and  in  winter  from  three  to  five  dollars. 


III. 


THE    FOOD    FISHES 

HE 

STATES. 


OF  THE 


BY 

G.    BROWN    GOODE. 


WITH  DISCUSSIONS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SPECIES  »Y  DAVID  8.  JORDAN  AND  TARLETON  H.  BEAN, 
NOTES  ON  THE  FISHES  OF  THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO  I5Y  SILAS  STEARNS,  AND  CONTRIBU- 
TIONS FROM  JOSEPH  W.  COLLINS,   N.  E.  ATWOOD,  MARSHALL  McDONALD, 
B.  EDWARD  EARLL,  LUDWIG  KUMLIEN,  AND  OTHER  AUTHORITIES. 


I'..'- 


ANALYSIS. 


II.— THB  FILK  FISHES,  PIPE  FISHRS,  AND  ANOLRRS 169 

46.  The  Ocean  Sun  Fishes  (Orlhagorifdda) 109 

47.  The  Porcupine  Fishes  (Diodon lidos) 170 

48.  The  Bellows-Fish  Family  (Trtrodontidcr) 170 

49.  The  Trunk  Fishes  (Ostradonlidai) 170 

50.  The  File- Fish  Family  (/ialinlida) 171 

51.  The  Sea-Horse  Family  (flippocampi<J<t) I7i 

52.  The  Pipe-Fish  Family  (Syngnalhida) 178 

53.  The  Devil  Fishes  (Antennanidas  and  Maltkfida) 173 

64.  The  Goose  Fish  (Lophiiupitcatorin») 173 

I.—  TIIK  FLAT  FISHES  AND  FLOUNDERS 17.1 

55.  The  American  Soles  (Soteida) 175 

56.  The  Plaice  (ParalicHtky*  drntatiu) 178 

57.  The  Bastard  Halibut  (Paralichtkya  macuhtut) 182 

58.  The  Flat  Fish  or  Winter  Flounder  ( P»e*dopleuroHectet  umcricantu) • .  183 

59.  The  Flat  Fishes  and  Soles  of  the  Pacific  Coast 184 

60.  The  Halibut  (H\ppoglo»»u»  vulgaris) 189 

61.  The  Sand  Dab  or  Rough  Dab  ( Hippoglos»oide»  plateswidrs) 197 

62.  The  Greenland  Tnrbot  (Platy»omatichlhy»  hippoglotsoidet) . . 197 

63.  The  Pole  Flounder  or  Craig  Flounder  (Glgplocephalui  cynoglositii) 198 

64.  The  Spotted  Sand  Flounder  (Lophopsetta  maculala) 199 

J.— THE  COD  FAMILY  AND  ITS  KINDRED 200 

65.  The  Cod  (  Codas  morr»im) 200 

66.  The  Tom  Cods  (Microyadux  tomood  and  M.  prozimne) 223 

67.  The  Haddock  (Melanogrammus  trglrfinux) 223 

68.  The  Pollock  (Pollachiiu  carbonari**) 228 

69.  TheCtisk(/{ro»miu»iro»m«) 2XJ 

70.  The  Hakes  ( Phycis  chuss,  etc.) 234 

71.  The  Burbot  (Lota  maculoia).    By  TARLBTON  H.  BKAN 23ft 

72.  The  Silver  Hake  and  the  Merluccio 240 

73.  Several  Unimportant  Families  related  to  the  Gadidie 243 

74.  The  Lant,  or  Sand  Eel  ( Ammodytes  lanceolate*) 244 

K.— WOLF-FlSHES,  SCULPINS,  AND   WRAS8R8 247 

75.  The  Lycodes  Family  (Lycodidte) 247 

76.  The  Wolf-Fishes  or  Sea  Catfishes  (AnarrhicJiadidai) 248 

77.  The  Blenny  Family  (Blenniidai) 250 

78.  The  Toad-Fish  (Batrachus  tatt) 251 

79.  The  Lump-Suckers:  Lump-fish  and  Sea-Snails  ., 253 

80.  The  Gobies  (Gobiidce) .' 256 

81.  The  Sea-Robin  or  Gurnard  Family  (Trigltda) 256 

82.  The  Sculpiu  Tribe  (Cottida) 258 

83.  The  Rose-Fish  or  Red  Perch  (Sebattai  marinux) 2CO 

84.  The  Rock  Cods  of  the  Pacific.     By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 262 

85.  The  Rock  Trouts  (CAiridoi).    By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN »!7 

86.  TheTantogor  Black  Fish  ( Tautoga  onitit) 969 

87.  TheChogset  or  Cnnner  (Ctenolabrui  atlipenui) 873 

88.  The  Parrot  Fishes  and  some  of  their  Allies *M 

89.  The  Demoiselle  and  the  Cichlid  Families 27S 

90.  The  Surf-Fish  Family  ( Embiotocidai).    By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN *W 

.91.  The  Moharra  Family  (Gerrida:) *79 

92.  The  Thread-Fish  Family  (Polynemi&e) *79 

93.  The  Surgeon-Fish  Family  ( .Icantkurida) W9 

94.  The  Angel-Fish  Family  (Ckttiodonlida) '** 

165 


166  ANALYSIS. 

Page. 

L.— THE  MACKEREL  AND  ITS  ALLIES a81 

95.  The  Mackerel  (Scomber  scombrus) 281 

96.  The  Chub  Mackerel  (Scomber  colias) 303 

97.  The  Frigate  Mackerel  (Aiucis  ihazard) 305 

98.  The  Spauish  Mackerel  aud  its  Allies : 307 

99.  The  Bonito  (Sarda nxditerranea) 316 

100.  The  Horse  Mackerel,  Tunny,  or  Albicore  ( Orcynus  thynnus) 320 

101.  The  Little  Tunny  or  Albicore  (Orcynus  alliteratus) 322 

102.  The  Silver  Moon-Fishes 322 

103.  The  Cavally,  the  Scad,  and  the  Jurels 323 

104.  The  Pompauos  (Traclii/notus  carolinus,  etc.) 326 

105.  The  Pilot  Fish  (Naucrales  ductor) 330 

106.  The  Amber  Fishes  and  the  Leather  Jackets 331 

107.  The  Dolphins  (Coryplxenidtn) 332 

108.  The  Rudder-Fish  Family  (Stromateida,) -----  332 

109.  The  Dory,  Hen-Fish,  and  Opah  Families 3ar> 

110.  The  Cutlass  Fish  (Trichinrus  Upturns) 

111.  The  Sword  Fish  Family  (Xiphitdce) 336 

M. — THE  TILE-FISH  FAMILY  AND  OTHERS 360 

112.  The  Tile-Fish  Family  (Latilida;) 360 

113.  The  Red  Mullet  Family  (MMidai) 361 

114.  The  Icosteus  Family  (Icosteidce) 361 

115.  TheBeryx  Family  (Berycidae) 361 

N.— THE  DRUM  FAMILY 362 

116.  The  Squeteague  (Cynoacion  regale) 

117.  The  Spotted  Squeteague  (Cynoscion  maeulatum) 365 

118.  The  Silver  Sqneteague  (Cynoscion  nothum) 367 

119.  The  Drum  ( Pogonias  chromis) 367 

120.  The  Fresh  Water  Drum  (llaploidonotus  grunniens).     By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 370 

121.  The  Spot,  or  Lafayette  (Liottomus  xanthurus) 370 

122.  The  Red  Fish,  or  Bass  of  the  South  (Scitena  ocellata) •- 371 

123.  The  Yellow  Tail  (Bairdiella  chrysura) 375 

124.  The  King  Fish  ( Menticirrui  nebulonus) 375 

125.  The  Whitings  (Afenticirrus  alburnus  and  M.  littoralis) 

126.  The  Croaker  (Micropogon  undulatus) 378 

127.  The  Corvinas  and  Roucadors  of  the  Pacific  coast.     By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 378 

O.— SHEEPSHEAD,  BASS,  BREAM,  PERCH,  ETC 

128.  The  Sheepshead  (Diplodus  probatocephalus) 

129.  The  Scup  or  Scuppang  (Stenotomu*  ctirysopt  and  S.  Gardeni) 

130.  The  Sailors'  Choice  (Lagodon  rhomboides) - 

131.  Certain  Minor  Sparoids 394 

132.  The  Red  and  Gray  Snappers 

133.  The  Grunts  or  Pig  Fishes 397 

134.  The  Big-Mouth  Black  Bass  (Micropterus  salmoidee),  and  the  Small-Mouth  Black  Bass  (M.  Dolomiei) . . 

135.  The  Sun-Fishes  and  their  Allies.    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN '. 404 

136.  The  Sea  Bass  (Serranvn  atrarim) 4(J7 

137.  The  Groupers 4le 

138.  The  Serranoirt  Fishes  of  the  Paciac  coast.    By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 413 

139.  The  Yellow  Perch  (Perca americana) 414 

140.  The  Log  Perch  (Percina  caproda).    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 417 

141.  The  Pike  Perches 417 

142.  The  Striped  Bass  (Itoccus  lineatus) 425 

143.  The  White  Bass  (Roccun  chrysops) 42S 

144.  The  Yellow  Bass  (Rocciis  inlerruptus) 431 

145.  The  White  Perch  (Roccus  americanus) 431 

146.  The  Blnefish  Family  (1'omatomiia;) 433 

147.  The  Cobia  or  Crab-Eater  (Elacate  Canada) 444 

148.  The  Triple  Tail  or  Black  Perch  ( Lobotes  surinamensis) 444 

149.  The  Moon  Fish  (Chatodiplerm  faber) 44r> 

150.  The  Remora  Family  (Eclieneidida) 446 

P.— BARRACOUTA,  MULLKT,  PIKE,  AND  MUMMICHOGS 

151.  The  Barracoata  Family  (Sphyranida) 44^ 

152.  The  Deal-Fish  Family  ( Trachypterida;) 449 

153.  The  Mullets  (if ugil  alb.tla  and  M.  brasilientit) 449 


ANALYSIS.  1(57 

PM«. 
P. — BARRACOUTA,  MUI.LKT,  I'IKK,  ANI>  MUMMICHOOS— Continued. 

154.  Tlif  >.IIH!  Sni.-ll*  i.i  Sihrr  Snlrs  (.Ir/irniiK/.r) 456 

15.r>.  Tin-  Stieklelmrk  Family  (Cantiroiilfitlai) 467 

156.  The  Silver  Gar-fishes  ( IMonida>) 453 

157.  The  Flying-fish  Family  (ScombrrnH>cl<l<r) 459 

\'<f>.  Tin-  I'ike  Family  (EneUiai) 461 

l.ri!».  Tin-  Mnmmirhog  Family  (I'yprinodoxliilir) 466 

y.— Tin   >\i  MI  IN  THIIIK 468 

100.  The  Salmon  (Salmo  italar) 468 

161.  The  Saliminx  of  the  1'acifio.     By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 474 

162.  The  (jiiinnat  or  California  Salmon  (OncorhyHchui  chouiiha).     By  LIVINGSTON  STONB 479 

ld:i.   The  Namiiyeiihh  or  Lake  Trout  (SalrrliNus  namaycusk) 4H5 

164.  The  Speckled  Trout  (Salrclinu*  fonlinalin) 497 

105.  The  Saibling  or  Bavarian  Char  (Salrtlimit  alpinnt) 500 

166.  The  l>i>ll\  Yunlrn  Trout  (Salrrlinus  malma).    By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 504 

li~.  The  Grayling  (TOymaNii*  tricolor) 506 

168.  The  Lake  White-fish  ( Corrgonut  clnpriformin).    By  R.  I.  GKARK 507 

169.  The  Lesser  White-fishes.     By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 541 

170.  The  Smelt  Tribe 543 

171.  Families  related  to  the  Salmonida) 547 

R. — THE  HKICKIM;  TKIBK  549 

172.  The  Herring  (Clupea  h,n;  n,/n.- , 549 

•  173.  The  Herrings  of  the  Pacific  Coant.     By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 668 

174.  The  Menhaden  (Breroortia  tyrannut) fi69 

175.  The  Gulf  Menhaden  (Brnoorlia  patron  lie) 575 

8.— THE  SHAD  AND  THE  ALEWIVES.    By  MAIWIIAI.I.  MACDONALD 579 

176.  The  River  Herrings  or  Ale  wives  (Clupea  imliralin  and  ('.  rernalii) 579 

177.  i  in  the  occarrence  of  the  Branch  Alewife  in  certain  Lakesof  New  York.    By  TAKLETON  II.  BEAN..  588 

178.  The  Inland  Alewife  or  Skipjack  (Clupta  chrysockluru) 5!»4 

179.  The  Shad  (Clupea  tapidisnma) 594 

180.  The  Hickory  Shad  or  Mattowacca  (Clupea  mediocri*) 607 

T. — FAMILIES  RELATED  TO  THE  CLUPKID.K tiio 

181.  The  Mud  Shad  (Dorotoma  cepedianum) 610 

182.  TheTarpnm  (Megalopn  thriisoidet) 610 

183.  The  Big-eyed  Herring 611 

184.  The  Anchovies  (Engroulidee) 611 

185.  The  Lady-fish  Family  (Albulida;) 612 

186.  The  Moon-eye  Family  (Hyodontid<r) 612 

U. — CARP,  SUCKERS.  CATFISH,  AND  EELS 614 

187.  The  Sucker  Family  (Cato»tomid<v).    By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 614 

188.  The*Carp  Family  (Cyprinida).     By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN 616 

189.  The  Carp  (Cyprinus  carpio).    By  RUDOLI-II  Hi— i  i 618 

189.  The  Catfish  Family  (Sil»rida').    By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN 627 

190.  The  Morays  (Mm-iruida)  629 

191.  The  Eel  ( Angnilla  rulgaru) 630 

192.  The  Conger  Eel  ( Lfptoctphalus  conger) 656 

V.  STURGEONS,  SKATES,  SHARKS,  AND  LAMPREYS    669 

193.  The  Bo\vlins(.lmiM<c) 669 

194.  The  Paddle-fishes  (Polyodontida)    660 

195.  The  Sturgeons  (Acipenteridte) 660 

19f».  The  Chimiera  Family  (Chimatridai) 663 

197.  The  Gar  Pikes  (Lepidotttidai) 063 

198.  The  Torpedoes  and  Skates  (Raice) 666 

199.  The  Saw-fish  (Priitit  pectinatu*) 668 

200.  The  Sharks  (Squali) 668 

201.  The  Sharks  of  the  Pacific  Coast.     By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN tf*8 

202.  The  Lampreys  ( retromyzontidm) 677 

203.  The  Hag  Fishes  ( tfyrimdie) 681 

204.  The  Lancelots  (  Hrancktoolomidat) ** 


/ 

TIII:  rii.r.  FISHES,  PII-K  FISIIFS,  AND  A\(,I.I:I;S.  if,o 


H.— THE  FILE    FISHES,  PIPE    FISHES,   AND    ANGLERS. 

NOTE. — In  preparing  the  following  chapters  upon  the  food-fishes  of  the  United  States,  the 
author*  have  avoided  all  technical  discussions,  all  descriptions  of  form,  all  digressions  of  the  kind 
in  which  naturalists,  even  when  writing  for  the  general  reading  public,  are  so  prone  to  indulge. 
\\  r  anticipate  the  criticism  that  the  book  is  of  no  use  in  identifying  the  different  kinds  of  ii-h.  by 
the  statement  that  we  expressly  desire  that  it  shall  not  be.  We  have  tried  to  present  in  concise 
form  the  information  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  fisherman,  the  fish  purchaser,  the  statistician,  and 
the  general  reader.  Most  of  our  important  species  can  bo  identified  by  reference  to  the  plates. 
If  greater  accuracy  of  identification  be  needed,  the  inquirer  is  advised  to  consult  Jordan's  Synopsis 
of  the  Fishes  of  North  America,  which  forms  Bulletin  No.  16  of  the  United  States  National  Museum 
series. 

46.  THE  OCEAN  SUN  FISHES— ORTHAGORISCID2B. 

The  family  Orthagoriscida:  is  represented  in  the  Western  Atlantic  by  two  species. 

The  common  Sun  Fish,  Orthagoriscus  mola,  with  its  compressed,  disk-shaped  body  and  its 
elongated  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  is  one  of  the  most  grotesque  of  sea  animals.  This  species  is  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  in  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  and  has  been  recorded  from  the  coasts  of 
Japan  and  California.  It  occurs  also  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 
On  our  own  eastern  coast  it  may  be  observed  every  summer,  from  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  to 
Florida.  It  has  not  been  seen  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  there  is  one  instance  of  its  capture  at 
the  Bermudas.  It  rarely  frequents  the  New  England  coast  except  in  summer.  In  the  winter  of 
1874-'75  two  large  specimens  were  taken  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  River,  Florida. 

Sun  Fishes  attain  a  length  of  seven  or  eight  feet  and  a  weight  of  seven  or  eight  hundred 
pounds.  They  may  be  seen  along  our  coast  on  almost  any  calm  summer's  day.  As  many  as  ten 
or  twelve  are  often  met  with  in  the  course  of  a  day's  cruise.  They  float  lazily,  with  one  of  the 
bright  sides  of  the  body  just  at  the  surface.  As  they  float,  the  waves  ripple  and  break  over  them, 
and  the  heavy  pectoral  fins  move  slowly  to  and  fro  through  the  air;  thus  lying,  they  are  very 
conspicuous  objects,  and  may  be  seen  at  long  distances.  They  spend  whole  days  in  this  position, 
and  may  very  easily  be  approached  and  harpooned.  From  this  habit  of  sunning  themselves  they 
have  gained  the  name  of  Sun  Fishes. 

Their  food  consists  of  the  jelly-fish,  or  sun-squalls,  which  are  so  abundant  along  the  New 
England  coast  in  summer.  Their  jaws,  however,  are  strong,  and  it  would  seem  probable  that  they 
sometimes  seek  more  substantial  food. 

Nothing  whatever  is  known  of  the  place  or  time  of  their  breeding :  the  young  are  occasionally 
taken  in  mid-ocean. 

Many  individuals  are  harpooned  by  our  fishermen  every  summer.  They  are  not  applied  to  any 
practical  use,  but  are  brought  to  the  cities  and  exhibited  as  curiosities.  The  fishermen  of  Cape  Cod 
sometimes  make  oil  from  the  livers.  This  oil  is  prized  highly  as  a  remedy  for  sprains  and  bruises. 

In  the  "Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,"  1740,  was  published  a  communication 
"Concerning  the  Mola  Salu,  or  Sun  Fish,  and  Glue  Made  from  It,"  contributed  by  the  Rev.  William 
Barlow,  in  which  mention  is  made  of  the  capture  of  a  specimen  near  Newfoundland.  I  am  not 
aware  that  the  suggestions  of  this  author  have  ever  been  further  carried  out. 

As  a  food  fish  the  Sun  Fish  is  probably  the  most  worthless  species  in  our  waters.  The  flesh  is 
thin  and  hard,  and,  when  cooked,  separates  into  oil  and  bunches  of  tough  fibers. 

On  the  California  coast,  according  to  Jordan,  this  species  is  very  abundant,  especially  in  the 


170  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Santa  Barbara  Channel  iii  summer,  where  it  may  be  seen  lying  near  the  surface,  or  even  some- 
times leaping  from  the  water.  It  is  known  to  the  Italians  as  the  Mola,  to  the  Americans  as  the 
Sun  Fish.  It  seldom  appears  before  June,  and  disappears  in  the  winter.  No  use  is  made  of  it,  as 
it  is  not  easily  caught,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  eaten.  A  specimen  weighing  636  pounds  was  brought 
to  San  Francisco  some  years  ago. 

There  is  a  small  species,  Ranzania  truncata,  much  more  elongated  in  form,  which  has  been 
taken  in  various  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  but  never  nearer  to  our  shores  than  the 
Bermudas,  where  an  individual  of  eight  inches  was  captured  in  1878. 

47.  THE  PORCUPINE  FISHES— DIODONTIDJE. 

SWELL  FISHES  AND  PUFFERS. — There  are  four  species  of  this  family  inhabiting  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  two  on  the  coast  of  California.  The  best  known  is  the  Swell  Fish  of  New  England, 
Ghilomyctenm  geometricus.  These  fishes  are  commonly  known  by  such  names  as  "Burr  Fish,'" 
"Ball  Fish,"  "Swell  Fish,"  and  "Toad  Fish";  while  in  Southern  Florida  the  names  "Porgy," 
"Puffer,"  and  "Puff  Fish"  are  sometimes  used. 

With  their  short,  thick,  spiny  bodies,  which  they  have  the  power  of  inflating  to  twice  their 
ordinary  size,  and  their  harlequin-like  colors,  they  are  always  conspicuous,  and  are  favorite  fish 
for  aquaria.  After  they  have  inflated  their  bellies  by  swallowing  air,  they  turn  upon  their  backs 
and  swim  at  the  surface. 

They  have  the  power,  when  handled,  of  uttering  loud  grunting  sounds. 

No  practical  use  is  made  of  them,  but  their  skins  are  often  stuffed  and  exposed  for  sale  in 
the  curiosity  shops,  particularly  those  at  places  of  p  opular  resort,  like  Nantucket,  Oak  Bluffs, 
Jacksonville,  and  Saint  Augustine.  These  fish  belong  to  a  tropical  family,  and  are  only  seen 
in  summer. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  about  their  food  or  breeding  habits. 

48.  THE  BELLOWS-FISH  FAMILY— TETRODONTIDJE. 

Of  this  family,  which  is  extremely  numerous  in  warm  seas,  over  sixty  species  being  known, 
there  are  seven  species  in  the  waters  of  the  United  States,  one  of  them  being  found  on  the  California 
coast.  They  are  summer  visitors  from  a  warmer  climate,  and,  like  the  members  of  the  preceding 
family,  are  chiefly  important  to  curiosity  hunters.  They  are  known  by  such  names  as  "Swell 
Fish,"  "Bottle  Fish,"  " Bellows  Fish,"  "Egg  Fish,"  "Babbit  Fish,"  "Globe  Fish,"  "Swell-toad," 
"Box  Fish,"  "Porcupine  Fish,"  and  "Blower." 

One  species,  the  common  Swell  Fish,  or  Egg  Fish,  Tctrodon  turgiAus,  ranges  from  Cape  Cod  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  very  abundant  about  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Island,  where  a  hundred 
or  more  are  sometimes  taken  in  one  haul  of  a  fyke-net. 

The  Babbit  Fish,  Lagocephalm  Icevigatus,  is  known  in  New  England  waters  through  the  occa- 
sional visits  of  stragglers.  It  is  quite  abundant  in  the  Gnlf  of  Mexico,  where  it  is  occasionally 
taken  with  hook  and  line  upon  the  red-snapper  banks.  According  to  Stearns,  it  breeds  about 
Pensacola  in  June  and  July. 

This  fish,  which  attains  the  length  of  three  feet  and  the  weight  of  five  or  six  pounds,  is  used 
for  food  in  Cuba,  but  it  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  with  us  to  have  any  commercial  value. 

49.  THE  TRUNK  FISHES— OSTRACIONTIDJE.1 

The  Trunk  Fishes,  Ostraciontidai,  are  occasionally  taken  on  our  coasts,  especially  to  the  south 
of  Cape  Hatteras.  We  have  five  species,  one  of  them  being  Californian.  Like  the  Porcupine  and 


'See  GOODK  :  A  study  of  the  Trunk  Fishes  (Ostraciontida),  with  notes  upon  the  American  species  of  the  family. 
<Proceedings  United  States  National  Museum,  ii,  1880,  pp.  261-283. 


Till-    TIM'NK    1  ISIIHS.  171 

Swell  Fishes,  which  have  just  beeu  described,  great  numbers  of  them  are  preserved  for  sale  iu 
curiosity  shops. 

The  Trunk  Fishes  appear  to  have  been  objects  of  curiosity  in  the  early  days  of  American 
exploration,  and  were  evidently  among  the  choicest  treasures  of  the  primitive  museums  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Their  strange  shape  naturally  attracted  the  attention  of 
travelers,  while  the  ease  with  which  their  shells  could  be  preserved  then,  as  now,  made  them 
valuable  to  the  curiosity  hunters. 

No  group  of  tropical  fishes  is  so  thoroughly  worked  out  iu  the  writings  of  the  fathers  of 
Natural  History  as  this  one.  Ov«r  two  hundred  years  ago  every  species  of  Trunk  Fish  now  taken 
from  the  Atlantic  was  known  to  and  described  by  the  naturalists  of  Northern  Europe,  and  it  is  a 
well-deserved  tribute  to  their  discrimination  as  zoSlogists  to  say  that  none  of  the  many  effort*,  which 
have  since  been  made  to  subdivide  their  species,  have  been  at  all  successful. 

Artedi,  in  his  notes  upon  the  different  forms  of  Ostracion,  mentions  the  various  collections  in 
which  he  observed  specimens.  "The  Nagg's  Head,"  "  White  Bear,"  and  the  "Green  Dragon  in 
Stepney,"  to  which  he  very  often  alludes,  seem  to  have  been  London  taverns  where  curiosities  were 
kept.  He  also  speaks  of  seeing  them  in  the  museum  of  Hans  Sloane,  which  was  the  nucleus  of 
the  British  Museum;  also  in  the  collections  of  I).  Seba,  in  Amsterdam,  of  Mr.  Lillja,  in  London, 
of  Mr.  (Don)  Saltcros,  in  Chelsey,  and  of  seeing  various  specimens  at  Stratford,  and  "in  Spring 
Garden."  No  other  kinds  of  fishes  appear  to  have  been  preserved  except  "the  monk-  or  Anyel-fah 
A  nglix,  aliax  Mermaid-fish,"  probably  a  species  of  Squatina,  which  he  saw  in  London  at  the  Nagg's 
Head  and  in  the  town  of  Chelsea.  The  art  of  taxidermy  was  evidently  not  thoroughly  established 
in  1738. 

Of  Ostracion  bicaudalis  he  remarks,  "  Vidi  Londini,  in  the  White  Bear,"  and  "  Apud  D™  Sebain 
vidi."  Ostracion  trigonu*  he  saw  "  Apud  Sir  Hans  Sloane  et  in  Nagg's  Head";  Ostracion  triqueter 
and  0.  quadricornis,  "  Londini  in  the  Nagg's  Head  et  apud  Mr.  Lillia." 

These  specimens  were  all  said  to  have  come  from  India. 

In  the  West  Indies  and  in  Florida  the  Trunk  Fishes  are  sometimes  baked  in  their  own  shells, 
and,  when  cooked  in  this  manner,  are  considered  by  many  persons  to  be  great  delicacies. 

There  are  instances  on  record  of  serious  cases  of  poisoning  which  have  resulted  from  eating 
them.  These  cases  occurred  in  tropical  countries,  where  the  flesh  of  fish  often  becomes  delete- 
rious after  a  few  hours'  keeping. 

50.  THE  FILE-FISH  FAMILY— BALI8TIDJE. 

File  Fishes,  Ralistida:,  are  found  everywhere  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  seas.  It  is  supposed 
that  they  breed  in  mid-ocean.  There  are  numerous  species  in  this  family,  of  which  nine  or  ten 
occur  along  our  Atlantic  coast.  They  belong  in  warm  seas,  and  only  four  species  are  found  as  far 
north  as  New  England.  With  their  strong  teeth  they  are  able  to  break  the  shells  of  mollusks, 
tipon  which  they  feed.  They  are  known  to  be  very  injurious  to  the  pearl  fisheries  in  regions  where 
such  fisheries  exist.  The  best  known  species  on  our  coast  is  the  Orange  File  Fish,  Alutera  Schoepfii, 
also  called  "Barnacle-eater"  and  "Fool  Fish,"  which  is  rather  common  in  Southern  New  England 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

This  species  is  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  bright  skin,  sometimes  of  an  orange  and  some- 
times of  a  tawny  hue.  It  attains  the  length  of  eighteen  to  twenty  inches,  and  feeds  upon  many 
species  of  soft  marine  animals. 

There  are  one  or  two  small  species  which  are  of  no  importance  except  to  the  possessors  of 
aquarium  tanks,  with  whom  they  are  great  favorites. 


172  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Leather-jacket  of  Pensacola,  Batistes  capriscus,  called  "Trigger  Fish"  in  the  Carolinas,  and 
at  Key  West  and  the  Bermudas  known  as  the  "Turbot,"  occasionally  finds  its  way  as  far  north  as 
Massachusetts.  It  is,  however,  of  no  importance  north  of  Florida.  In  the  Bermudas  it  is  con- 
sidered a  valuable  food -fish.  According  to  Mr.  Stearns,  "it  is  very  common  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
from  Key  West  to  the  Mississippi  River,  and  lives  in  deep  waters  near  the  coast  on  the  grounds 
where  Red  Snappers  and  Groupers  are  caught.  It  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  species.  In  regions 
where  it  is  not  eaten  it  is  regarded  as  a  pest  by  the  fishermen  from  its  habit  of  stealing  bait  from 
their  hooks.  Its  manner  of  taking  the  bait  is  rather  peculiar,  I  think,  for  instead  of  pulling  the 
line  backward  or  to  one  side  it  raises  it  upward  so  quietly  that  the  fisherman  does  not  perceive  the 
motion,  and  then,  by  careful  nibbling,  cleans  the  hook  without  injury  to  itself.  Expert  fishermen, 
however,  can  tell  by  the  "lifting  of  the  lead,"  as  it  is  called,  what  is  going  on  below,  and  know  what 
they  have  to  contend  against.  The  usual  remedy  is  to  seek  other  fishing  grounds  where  Leather- 
jackets  are  not  so  troublesome.  When  one  of  these  crafty  fish  has  been  hooked  there  is  not  much 
probability  that  it  can  be  landed,  for  its  sharp,  powerful  teeth  are  almost  sure  to  cut  some  part  of 
the  gear,  enabling  it  to  escape.  I  have  several  times  known  of  their  biting  in  two  the  large  red- 
snapper  hooks  on  which  they  were  caught.  They  remain  throughout  the  year  on  the  fishing 
grounds,  where  the  water  varies  from  ten  to  forty  fathoms.  On  these  same  grounds  it  is  probable 
that  they  spawn." 

Only  adult  specimens  have  been  seen  in  West  Florida.  More  could  probably  be  learned  of  its 
spawning  habits  in  the  vicinity  of  Key  West,  where  it  occurs  in  shallow  water  and  quite  near  to 
the  shore.  At  Key  West  it  is  known  as  the  Turbot,  and  is  a  favorite  article  of  food.  It  is  to  be 
seen  almost  daily  in  the  market. 

The  skin  of  this  species  is  used  for  scouring  and  polishing  purposes  at  Key  West  and  the 
Bahama  Islands.  In  the  Bermudas  also  the  skin  of  the  Turbot  is  used  by  carpenters  almost  to 
the  exclusion  of  sand-paper,  the  former  being  better  adapted  for  fine  work  in  polishing  wood. 

51.  THE  SEA-HORSE  FAMILY— HIPPOCAMPIDJE. 

There  are  one  or  more  species  of  the  Sea-horse  family  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  also  one 
on  that  of  California.  Their  strange  shapes  and  interesting  habits  render  them  very  popular 
inmates  of  aquaria,  and  dried  specimens  are  frequently  sold  in  the  curiosity  shops  in  seaside  towns. 

The  ordinary  species  of  the  Western  Atlantic  is  the  Hippocampus  heptagonm;  this  also  occurs 
in  Europe.  There  have  been  only  one  or  two  instances  of  the  capture  of  this  fish  north  of  Cape 
Cod ;  one  was  seined  with  a  school  of  mackerel  on  George's  Bank  in  August,  1873.  Two  or  three 
specimens  have  been  taken  at  Wood's  Holl  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  instances  of  their  capture 
in  Connecticut  and  about  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  are  not  rare. 

A  Sea-horse  was  described  many  years  ago  under  the  name  H.  hudsoniw,  but  it  seems  to  be 
identical  with  H.  heptagonus.  On  the  New  Jersey  coast  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  it  appears 
to  be  very  abundant.  An  excellent  account  of  the  habits  of  this  fish  may  be  found  in  an  article 
by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lockwood  in  the  "American  Naturalist."1  Three  other  species  occur  on  our 
southern  coast.  H.  ingens,  the  Californiau  species,  is  very  large,  often  attaining  the  length  of 
eight  to  ten  inches. 

52.  THE  PIPE-FISH  FAMILY— SYNGNATHIDJE. 

The  Pipe  Fishes,  Syngnathida,  which  are  closely  related  to  the  sea-horse,  but  have  small 
heads  and  elongated  bodies,  so  that  at  first  sight  they  closely  resemble  small  eels,  are  found 
nearly  everywhere  on  our  coasts,  living  among  the  eel-grass  and  feeding  upon  very  minute  marine 

1  LOCKWOOD,  SAMUKL.  The  Sea  Horse  and  its  young.     <Amer.  Naturaliat,  i,  1867,  pp.  225-234. 


TIII:  rii-i-:  FISH  i  AMII.Y.  173 

animate.  There  are  three  or  four  upecies  in  Eastern  North  America,  but  their  relations  have  not 
been  definitely  learned.  I  have  observed  them  in  Florida  spawning  in  April,  and  in  Southern 
New  England  in  .Inly  and  August.  They  are  of  no  importance  to  man  except  as  interesting  objects 
for  the  aquarium.  They  are  too  hard  and  fleshless  even  to  servo  as  food  for  other  fishes. 

53.  THE  DEVIL-FISHES— ANTENNARIIDJE  AND  MALTHEID2E. 

The  fishes  of  this  group  are  very  grotesque  in  form  and  very  remarkable  in  their  habits 
Some  of  them  are  pelagic  and  are  met  with  in  tropical  seas,  especially  where  there  are  masses  of 
floating  vegetation,  whilst  others  are  found  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  On  our  coast  are  several 
species,  the  names  and  distribution  of  which  arc  given  in  the  list  which  accompanies  this  report. 
Although  they  are  among  the  most  interesting  of  all  fishes,  they  have  no  commercial  value,  and 
it  is  therefore  inappropriate  that  they  should  be  discussed  in  this  report.  The  best  known  species 
:ire  the  Marbled  Angler,  Pterophrync  hiatrio,  and  the  Sea  Bat,  Malthe  vespertilio. 

54.  THE  GOOSE  FISHES— LOPHITJS  PISCATORIUS. 

The  Goose  Fish  or  Monk  Fish,  Tjophius  piscatorius,  is  common  to  the  coasts  of  the  North 
Atlantic  States  and  of  Europe.  In  the  Western  Atlantic  the  species  has  not  been  observed 
south  of  latitude  38°,  where,  according  to  Uhler  and  Lugger,  it  is  found  in  the  drains  of 
Worcester  County,  Maryland,  and  along  the  coast  of  that  region,  though  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  stragglers  occur  at  Cape  Lookout  (latitude  34°  407),  where  the  jawbones  have  been 
found,  and  the  fishermen  claim  to  know  them.  It  abounds  along  the  coast  of  New  England,  and 
has  been  found  at  depths  of  three  hundred  fathoms  or  more  off  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  and  one 
hundred  o£f  Halifax.  The  limits  of  its  northern  range  are  not  known,  Nova  Scotia  being  the 
most  northerly  point  of  record.  Richardson  suggests  that  the  Thutinameg  or  "Wind-fish"  of 
Hudson's  Bay,  which  is  said  to  come  to  the  surface  in  windy  weather  only,  belongs  to  this 
family;  and,  indeed,  this  was  thought  by  Pennant  to  be  Lophius  piscatoriu*.  This  is  at  best 
extremely  doubtful,  for  its  range,  as  now  understood,  is  limited  by  the  parallel  of  50°.  It  is  not 
known  to  occur  in  Greenland. 

Instances  are  on  record  of  its  capture  in  Iceland,1  and  it  is  said  very  rarely  to  occur  at  the 
Faroe  Islands.  It  has  been  found  at  the  North  Cape,  latitude  71°,  and  doubtless  ]>enetrates  to  the 
White  Sea.  It  is  found  along  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia,  south  to  Spain,  and  throughout  the 
Mediterranean,  where  it  is  abundant  in  the  Italian  waters.  Either  this  or  an  allied  species  occurs 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  On  the  American  coast  it  occurs  at  temperatures  of  32°  to  60°. 
There  is  some  reason  to  think  that  south  of  Cape  Cod  it  retreats  to  deep  water  in  summer. 

The  names  of  the  fish  are  many ;  that  most  commonly  in  use  among  the  Massachusetts  fisher- 
men is  "Goose  Fish."  In  Maine  it  is  often  called  "  Monk  Fish";  in  Rhode  Island,  "Bellows  Fish"; 
in  Eastern  Connecticut,  "Molligut,"  and  in  North  Carolina,  "Allmonth."  The  Connecticut  name 
reminds  us  of  the  "  Greedigut,"  a  fish,  probably  the  same,  mentioned  by  early  colonial  writers, 
particularly  in  the  poem  in  Wood's  "New  England's  Prospect." 

In  England  the  same  names  are  in  use;  also,  "Angler,"  " Fishing  Frog,"  "Frog  Fish,"  "Mer- 
maid," "Round  Robin,"  "Sea  Devil,"  "Toad  Fish  "(Germany),  "Wide  Gut,"  and  "Wide  Gap." 
"Kettlemaw"  is  like  the  American  "Allmouth."  Scotland  has  "Keethie,"  "Keghie,"  and  "Keit- 
hok."  The  continental  languages  have  at  least  fifty  distinct  names  in  addition. 

Goose  Fishes  are  sluggish,  slow-moving  animals,  and  are  occasionally  seen  swimming  near  the 
surface,  though  ordinarily  found  upon  the  bottom.  They  feeds  upon  other  fish — often  on  large 
ones,  their  swallowing  powers  being  practically  unlimited.  Mackerel,  sculpins,  sea  ravens,  and 

<  KAIIKK:  Fiaohe  Island*,  p.  68. 


174  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

dog-fish,  crabs,  squids,  and  lobsters  have  been  found  in  their  stomachs  by  observers  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission.  They  often  attempt  to  feed  upon  each  other.  The  common  name  refers 
to  the  fact  that  they  have  been  known  to  swallow  live  geeae.  A  fisherman  told  me  he  once  saw  a 
struggle  in  the  water,  and  found  that  a  Goose  Fish  had  swallowed  the  head  and  neck  of  a  large 
loon,  which  had  pulled  it  to  the  surface  and  was  trying  to  escape.  There  is  authentic  record  of 
seven  wild  ducks  having  been  taken  from  the  stomach  of  one  of  them.  Slyly  approaching  from 
below,  they  seize  birds  as  they  float  upon  the  surface.  They  annoy  the  fishermen  by  swallow- 
ing the  wooden  buoys  attached  to  the  lobster  pots.  Mr.  Minot,  of  Magnolia,  Massachusetts, 
caught  one  by  using  his  boat-anchor  for  a  hook. 

Although  they  come  thus  to  the  surface  to  feed,  the  Goose  Fish  is  emphatically  a  bottom- loving 
species.  _  "It  is  adapted,"  writes  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  "  for  concealment  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea — 
for  lying  perfectly  flat  on  the  sand  or  among  the  weeds — with  its  cavernous  jaws  ready  for  a  snap. 
For  more  perfect  concealment,  every  bit  of  the  creature  is  imitative  both  in  form  and  in  coloring. 
The  whole  upper  surface  is  mottled  and  tinted  in  such  close  resemblance  to  stones  and  gravel 
and  sea-weeds  that  it  becomes  quite  undistinguishable  among  them.  In  order  to  complete  the 
method  of  concealment,  the  whole  margins  of  the  fish,  and  the  very  edge  of  the  lips  and  jaws,  have 
loose  tags  and  fringes  which  wave  and  sway  about  amid  the  currents  of  water,  so  as  to  look  exactly 
like  the  smaller  alga?  which  move  around  them  and  along  with  them.  Even  the  very  ventral  fins 
of  this  devouring  deception,  which  are  thick,  strong,  and  fleshy,  almost  like  hands,  and  which 
evidently  help  in  a  sudden  leap,  are  made  like  two  great  clam-shells,  while  the  iris  of  the  eyes  is 
so  colored  in  lines  radiating  from  the  pupil  as  to  look  precisely  like  some  species  of  Patella  or 
limpet.  But  this  is  not  all ;  not  only  is  concealment  made  perfect  to  enable  the  Lophius  to  catch 
the  unwary,  but  there  is  a  bait  provided  to  attract  the  hungry  and  the  inexperienced.  From 
the  top  of  the  head  proceeds  a  pair,  or  two  pair,  of  slender  elastic  rods,  like  the  slender  tips  of  a 
fishing-rod^ ending  in  a  little  membrane  or  web  which  glistens  in  the  water  and  is  attractive  to  other 
fish.  When  they  come  to  bite,  or  even  to  look,  they  are  suddenly  engulfed,  for  portals  open  with  a 
rush  and  close  again — portals  over  which  the  inscription  may  well  be  written:  'Lasciate  ogni 
speranza  voi  cW  entrate.'1'" 

From  the  time  of  ^Dlian  every  popular  essay  on  the  "  Habits  of  Fish  "  or  "  Curious  Fishes"  has 
told  how  the  Angler  entices  its  prey  with  its  long  tentacles.  No  one  has  ever  seen  the  perform- 
ance, and,  although  the  theory  is  not  altogether  incredible,  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  tops 
of  these  organs  are  intended  by  their  sensitiveness  to  warn  the  fish  of  the  approach  of  its  prey 
than  to  act  as  allurements  to  attract  other  fishes. 

The  Goose  Fish  spawns  in  summer,  in  the  sounds  and  at  sea  along  the  coast.  The  eggs  are 
very  numerous,  enclosed  in  a  ribbon-shaped  gelatinous  mass  about  a  foot  in  width  and  thirty  or 
forty  feet  long,  which  floats  near  the  surface.  One  of  these  ribbons  will  weigh  perhaps  forty  pounds, 
and  is  usually  partially  folded  together,  and  visible  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches  from  the  top  of  the 
water,  its  color  being  brownish  purple.  The  number  of  eggs  in  one  of  them  I  have  estimated  at 
from  forty  to  fifty  thousand.  The  spawning  season  on  the  New  England  coast  is  in  summer.  I 
have  observed  the  floating  eggs  in  July  and  August,  and  in  the  same  months  young  fish  two  or 
three  inches  long,  and  undeveloped  eggs  in  the  parent  fish.  The  young  have  rarely  l>een  taken 
except  at  considerable  depths.  Their  growth  is  rapid.  The  adult  is  commonly  four  feet  long, 
weighing  from  thirty-five  to  forty-five  pounds. 

The  Goose  Fish  is  extensively  used  for  baiting  lobster  pots.  Although  not  commonly  eaten, 
its  flesh  is  very  palatable.  The  full-grown  fish  will  yield  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  good  meat. 
In  Italy  it  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food,  and  iu  parts  of  Great  Britain  it  is  also  eaten,  the 
steaks  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  tail  being  preferred. 


THE  FLAT  FISIIKS  AND  FLOUNDERS.  175 


1.— THE    FLAT    FISHES   AND    FLOUNDERS. 

55.  THE  AMERICAN  SOLES—  SOLEID.E. 

AMERICAN  SOLKS. — The  much-prized  Sole  of  Europe,  Solea  tulgarig,  does  not  occur  in  the 
Western  Atlantic,  although  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  it,  and  in  1877  two  individuals 
were  .-it  free  in  Massachusetts  Bay  by  the  United  States  Commission  of  Fisheries.  Its  nearest 
representative,  the  American  Sole,  is  found  along  our  coast  from  Boston  and  Nahant  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  occurs  in  all  of  the  rivers  south  of  the  Susquchanna,  and  is  taken  in 
great  numbers  in  the  shad  seines.  It  rarely  attains  a  greater  length  than  six  inches,  and,  though 
edible,  is  never  eaten,  and  it  must  be  regarded  as  of  extremely  small  importance.  There  are  also 
two  or  three  other  fishes  belonging  to  this  family  in  our  Southern  waters  which  are  insignificant 
in  size  and  of  no  importance  whatever. 

Aphoristia  atricaitda  is  a  very  small  species  of  Sole,  the  only  genuine  representative  of  the 
Euroi>eau  Sole  on  our  Pacific  coast.  It  reaches  a  length  of  six  inches,  and  is  occasionally  taken 
in  San  Diego  Bay.  It  has  no  economic  value. 

TUEBOT  AND  SOLE  IN  AMERICA — A  Philadelphia  writer  has  lately  tried  iu  the  news- 
papers to  revive  the  long-obsolete  belief  that  the  Turbot  and  Sole  of  Europe  occur  on  our  coast 
Although  he  has  never  seen  them  himself,  and  fails  to  bring  forward  evidence  that  any  one  else 
has  seen  them,  he  insists  that  they  occur  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  New  Jersey,  particularly 
in  the  vicinity  of  Atlantic  City,  "and  doubtless  all  aloug  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  to  Wilmington,  S.  C."  (sic).  He  upbraids  the  American  public  for  their  incredulity,  though 
this  does  not  surprise  him  so  much  when  he  calls  to  mind  that  "our  Government  Fish  Commissioner 
has  actually  contemplated  sending  a  steamer  to  English  waters  to  procure  turbot-seed  to  plant 
along  our  shores."  He  would  not  be  surprised  if  incredulity  were  to  continue  longer  "  under  such 
official  indorsement."  He  accounts  for  the  ignorance  regarding  them  by  the  theory  that  the 
English  trawl-net  is  unknown  in  America,  and  that  our  fishermen  would  not  know  how  to  catch 
such  fish  if  they  were  aware  of  their  presence,  and  have  not  become  aware  of  their  presence 
because  they  have  no  means  of  catching  them.  He  intimates  that  he  is  preparing  to  form  a 
company  for  the  purpose  of  developing  a  turbot  fishery  upon  our  coast ;  an  enterprise  "  in  which 
but  little  will  be  risked,  and  the  results  will  be  a  surprise  to  all."  He  closed  one  of  his  letters  to 
a  New  York  journal  with  the  following  appeal :  "  I  trust  that  you  will  not  let  this  question  subside, 
but  persevere  in  calling  attention  to  it  until  we  do  away  with  the  extraordinary  anomaly  of  this 
enlightened  nation  being  within  reach  of  treasure  that  for  more  than  a  century  they  have  been 
unaware  of,  and  have  remained  persistently  blind  to." 

All  this  is  very  entertaining,  and  furnishes  a  neat  text  for  a  few  remarks  on  the  history  of 
this  belief,  as  well  as  an  opportunity  for  demonstrating  to  the  public  a  fact  which  has  for  forty  years 
or  more  been  known  to  ichthyologists,  that  the  Turbot  and  the  Sole  never  have  been  seen  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  never  will  be,  unless  they  are  introduced  by  artificial  means. 

From  the  beginning  to  the  end  we  encounter  the  well-known  sources  of  confusion — the  giving  of 
old-world  names  to  species  which  resemble  in  a  general  way  the  old-world  species  \\liichbearthem, 
and  the  unquestioning  acceptance  of  these  names  as  authoritative,  by  persons  who  are  not  trained 
to  close  discrimination. 


176  NATURAL  HISTORY  OK  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

When  Boston  was  occupied  by  the  British  duriug  the  revolutionary  war,  the  officers  of  the 
fleet  are  said  to  have  beeu  bountifully  supplied  with  Turbot,  which  was  caught  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  an  outer  harbor.  This  fact  is  recorded  by  Dr.  J.  V.  0.  Smith,  in  his  "Natural  Ilistory  of 
the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts"  (Boston,  1833),  ou  the  authority  of  William  Ladd,  esq.,  of  Maine. 
He  also  mentions  "  a  statement  of  Mr.  Parker,  the  conductor  of  the  marine  telegraph,"  who  told 
him  that  "many  years  before,  Admiral  Sir  Isaac  Coffin  brought  out  to  this  country  a  trawl-not, 
such  as  is  used  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  for  taking  Sole  for  the  London  markets,  with  which 
he  succeeded  in  capturing  that  delightful  fish  in  Ipswich  Bay,  which  was  not  before  supposed 
to  exist  here."  The  fish  found  in  this  manner  were  no  doubt  the  common  Flat  Fishes  of 
Massachusetts  Bay.  The  common  Flounder,  Paralichthys  dentatus,  taken  in  Proviucetown  water, 
where  it  is  commonly  called  "Plaice,"  was  in  1880  sold  in  Boston  under  the  name  "Turbot." 
Captain  Mackinnou,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  who  visited  this  country  in  1850,  conceived  the  idea 
that  Turbot  ought  to  be  found  on  the  shores  of  the  United  States,  and  took  pains  to  search  for 
them  with  a  trawl-net.  The  nets  which  he  used  had  beeu  imported  ten  years  before  by  Mr. 
Nathan  Smith,  an  American  gentleman,  who  had  hoped  to  introduce  them,  but  had  never  used 
them.  Captain  Mackinnon  tried  one  net  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  and  succeeded  in  taking 
a  number  of  different  kinds  of  Flat  Fish.  He  carefully  refrains,  however,  from  pronouncing  any 
one  of  them  to  be  identical  with  the  Turbot  or  Sole,  though  from  the  vagueness  of  his  language 
it  is  evident  that  his  ichthyological  knowledge  was  very  scanty,  and  that  he  was  not  accustomed 
to  observe  the  differences  between  the  different  species  of  fishes  which  somewhat  resemble  each 
other.  His  experiences  are  described  at  length  in  his  book  of  travels,  entitled  "Atlantic  and 
Trans-Atlantic  Sketches,  Afloat  and  Ashore"  (Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York,  1852,  pp.  166-170). 
Capt  C.  C.  Churchill,  U.  S.  A.,  who  saw  the  results  of  Captain  Mackinnon's  experiment,  tells 
us  that  the  fish  taken  were  the  common  species  of  New  England  flat  fishes  and  flounders. 

We  fancy  that  the  inspiration  of  the  new  advocate  of  the  turbot-in-America  question,  as  well 
as  the  information  upon  which  he  bases  his  conclusions,  was  drawn  from  this  very  same  book  of 
Captain  Mackinnon,  for  he  uses  many  of  the  same  phrases,  and  he  repeats,  in  almost  the  same 
words,  Captain  Mackinnon's  statement :  "  The  fish  markets  in  America  are  not  at  all  in  keeping 
with  the  size  and  wealth  of  the  States,"  a  statement  which,  however  true  it  may  have  been  thirty 
years  ago,  will  be  amusing  to  any  one  who  has  recently  had  opportunity  to  compare  the  fish 
markets  of  America  and  Europe.  The  Philadelphia  gentleman  sums  up  his  evidence  as  follows : 

"The  Turbot,  Sole,  and  Plaice  are,  however,  in  abundance  in  your  deep  water  sand  banks. 
They  were  caught  there  in  1812  by  English  sailors,  and  in  1880  Turbot  have  been  obtained  off 
Atlantic  City,  if  the  '  Baltimore  American '  is  any  authority." 

The  notion  that  the  introduction  of  the  English  trawl  in  America  would  be  novel  and  would  at 
once  open  up  a  field  for  a  fishery  industry  of  boundless  extent,  deserves  a  word.  The  trawl  has 
been  assiduously  used  by  the  summer  collecting  party  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  for 
ten  years  past,  and  also  by  Professor  Agassiz  upon  various  exploring  trips.  The  steamers  of  the 
Fish  Commission  have  used  it  on  every  portion  of  the  New  England  coast,  and  as  far  north  as 
Halifax.  Professor  Agassiz  has  used  it  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  on  the  coast  of  Florida,  and 
during  the  present  summer,  while  on  the  Coast-Survey  steamer  "Bache,"  has  employed  it  in 
running  five  lines  of  research  at  right  angles  to  the  coast  from  Cape  Hatteras,  at  points  nearly 
eqnidistitut  between  Charleston  and  Cape  Cod,  one  of  them  directly  out  from  the  entrance  to 
Delaware  Bay.  These  lines  were  carried  from  near  the  shore  to  a  depth  of  twelve  hundred 
fathoms  or  more. 


mi:  AMI:I;H-\\  sou.s.  177 

.  In  is.~>l  Professor  Baird  made  a  careful  exploration  of  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  with  a  s|ieei;il 
let'nencc  to  the  lishcs.  and  since  that  time  every  stretch  of  eoast  line  from  Krownsville,  Texas,  to 
Kastpoit,  Maine,  has  been  thoroughly  in\  estimated  l>y  the  officers  of  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission. It  is  true  that  a  new  species  of  tish  is  occasionally  discovered,  but  the  new  fishes  always 
liclong  to  one  or  two  classes.  These  are  either  swift  -swimming  species,  members  of  the  West 
India  fauna,  which  come  upon  our  northern  shores  in  summer,  or  they  are  inhabitants  of  waters 
more  than  six  hundred  feet  deep,  which  have  uever  previously  beeu  explored.  The  Ttirbot  and 
the  Sole  are  shallow- water  species,  and,  had  they  occurred  in  our  waters,  would  have  been  discov- 
ered many  years  ago. 

There  are  twenty-six  species  of  flat  fishes  on  the  east  coast  of  the  United  Stales.  Four  of 
these  belong  to  the  same  family  with  the  Sole,  but  are  utterly  worthless  as  articles  of  food.  The 
nearest  relative  of  the  Sole  is  often  called  the  American  Sole,  Achirus  lineatu*,  and  is  known  on 
the  coast  of  New  Jersey  as  the  Hog-choker,  Cover-clip,  or  Cover.  Of  the  other  flat  fishes  only 
t\\o  are  positively  unfit  for  food,  and  these  two,  strangely  enough,  are  the  representatives  of  the 
subfamily  Ifliombitue,  to  which  belong  the  Turbot  and  Brill  of  Europe.  One  of  these,  Lophopxetta 
iiuti'iiliitii,  is  sometimes  called  the  Spotted  Turbot,  and  in  New  Jersey  is  called  Window-pane,  or 
Daylight,  because  it  is  so  thin  that  when  held  to  the  light  the  sun  can  be  seen  through  its 
translucent  flesh. 

The  most  important  Flat  Fish  is  the  Halibut,  which  is  identical  with  that  of  Europe.  This 
speeies,  and  the  Pole  Flounder,  which  has  recently  been  brought  to  light  in  our  waters  by 
the  Fish  Commission,  are  the  only  two  of  the  number  referred  to  that  are  found  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic.  We  have  in  our  waters  an  abundance  of  flat  fishes,  some  of  which,  for  instance,  the 
common  Flounder  of  the  New  York  market,  Paralichthys  dentatus,  are  probably  fully  equal  to 
the  Turbot  for  food  uses.  In  fact,  it  may  be  had  in  the  New  York  restaurants  and  hotels  under 
this  name.  Another  fish,  Platysomatichthy*  Mppoglositoides,  resembling  the  Turbot  in  flavor,  is 
sometimes  brought  to  New  York  in  winter.  It  is  found  at  great  depths  on  the  coast  of  Newfound- 
laud,  and  is  often  called  the  American  or  the  Newfoundland  Turbot.  The  Pole  Flounder  is 
very  similar  to  the  Sole  in  flavor  and  in  the  texture  of  its  flesh,  but  it  unfortunately  inhabits  some- 
what inaccessible  localities  at  great  depths,  and  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that,  with  the  present 
supply  of  excellent  food-fish  to  be  obtained  at  so  much  smaller  expense,  our  fishermen  will  take  the 
pains  to  go  in  search  of  it.  That  the  popular  taste  for  flat  fish  is  already  cultivated  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that,  in  1879,  1,796,000  pounds  were  sold  in  New  York  alone. 

It  is  needless  to  refer  to  the  efforts  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  to  introduce  Sole} 
they  are  familiar  to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  subject.  The  introduction  of  the  trawl-net  has 
been  for  many  years  under  consideration,  but  this  expensive  mode  of  fishing  does  not  seem  to  be 
required  at  present,  since  the  supply  of  tine-flavored  food-fishes  is  more  than  equal  to  the  demand. 
With  an  eye  to  the  interest  of  the  American  fishermen,  Professor  Baird  has  recently  detailed  an 
attache  of  the  Fish  Commission,  one  of  the  most  experienced  fishermen  of  Massachusetts,  to  study 
the  trawl  fishery  in  the  German  Ocean,  and  his  report  will  soon  l>e  published. 

Finally,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  that  Mr.  E.  G.  Blackford,  of  Fulton  Market,  New  York, 
has  for  some  time  beeu  authorized  by  the  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  to  pay  twenty-five  dollars  to 
any  one  who  should  present  a  true  Turbot  or  a  true  Sole,  caught  on  this  coast.  This  offer  is  still 
standing.  > 

1  Forest  and  Stream,  iv,  No.  6,  September  !»,  1S80,  pp.  103,  104. 
12  P 


178  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

56.  THE  PLAICE— PARALICHTHYS  DENTATUS. 

The  Plaice,  Summer  Flounder,  or  Turbot  Flounder,  Paralichthys  dentatus,  is,  next  to  the  Hali- 
but, the  most  important  flat-fish  on  the  eastern  coast.  It  is  a  member  of  a  genus  not  existing  in 
Europe,  though  represented  on  our  own  Pacific  coast,  in  China  and  Japan,  and  in  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Its  affinities  are  with  the  Halibut,  which  it  much  resembles  in  form,  and  to  which  it  is  more 
similar  in  flavor  than  to  the  Turbot  and  Brill,  so  well  known  in  transatlantic  fish  markets.  Our 
common  species  was  first  brought  to  notice  in  1766,  when  Linnaeus  received  specimens  from 
South  Carolina,  sent  him  by  Dr.  Garden.  It  seems  at  that  time  to  have  been  of  recognized  com- 
mercial importance,  since  it  was  one  of  the  few  received  by  Linnaeus  from  Garden  which  had  a 
common  name.  In  South  Carolina  at  this  time  it  was  called  Plaice,  and  this  is  a  name  which  is 
now  accepted  in  the  New  York  market  and  about  Cape  Cod,  although  it  has  never  been  recognized 
by  those  who  have  written  books  on  American  fishes.  The  fishermen  of  the  Saint  John's  River  also 
use  the  name  Plaice,  but  whether  for  this  species  has  not  been  determined.  In  Connecticut,  North 
Carolina,  and  in  Florida,  east  and  west,  as  well  as  on  other  parts  of  the  coast,  the  names  Flounder 
and  Common  Flounder  are  current.  In  New  York  and  New  England  the  name  Summer  Flounder 
is  also  frequently  heard.  In  Rhode  Island  the  names  Brail  and  Puckermouth  are  used,  the  former 
doubtless  a  modification  of  the  English  name  Brill,  while  on  the  bills  of  fare  in  Boston  and  New 
York  hotels  it  is  often  called  the  Deep-sea  Flounder,  at  least  since  the  Pole  Flounder  has  been 
brought  to  notice  by  the  Fish  Commission,  and  has  obtained  a  reputation  as  a  delicious  table  fish. 
Fishermen  sometimes  mistake  them  for  young  Halibut,  and  they  doubtless  at  times  are  sold  under 
the  name  of  "Chicken  Halibut."  Turbot  Flounder  is  another  name  which  has  been  suggested, 
but,  upon  the  whole,  Plaice  seems  most  desirable  for  general  adoption. 

This  fish  is  abundant  upon, the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Flor- 
ida, and  according  to  Mr.  Stearns'  report  is  also  found  along  the  entire  Gulf  coast.  Southward, 
its  range  extends  at  least  as  far  as  Paraguay.  To  the  northward  it  barely  rounds  Cape  Cod. 
Captain  Atwood  remembers  that  in  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  great  quantities  of  Plaice 
were  found  inside  the  Point  at  Provincetown.  They  were  so  numerous  that  in  one  afternoon  he 
caught  two  thousand  pounds.  They  are  now  only  occasionally  taken,  and  have  not  recently  been 
seen  north  of  Provincetown,  though  Storer  has  recorded  their  occurrence  at  Wellfleet.  Captain 
Atwood  attiibutes  their  disappearance,  which  was  nearly  simultaneous  with  the  advent  of  the  blue 
fish,  to  the  fact  that  blue  fish  destroyed  their  favorite  food,  the  squid,  and  rendered  it  impossible 
for  them  to  live  longer  in  these  waters.  The  Plaice  has  been  much  less  abundant  in  Cape  Cod  Bay 
within  the  last  thirty  years,  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  considerable  diminution  in  numbers  else- 
where. On  the  eastern  coast  of  Connecticut  and  Long  Island,  where  the  Plaice  fishery  is  most 
extensively  prosecuted,  it  is  the  opinion  of  experienced  fishermen  that  no  change  in  numbers  has 
been  perceptible  within  the  last  thirty  years.  The  Connecticut  fishermen  say  that  they  are 
frequently  so  abundant  that  they  have  only  to  throw  out  and  pull  in  their  lines,  catching  "all 
they  choose,"  while  the  bottom  seems  to  be  carpeted  with  them. 

Like  others  of  its  tribe,  the  Plaice  are  usually  upon  the  bottom,  where  their  peculiar  shape 
and  color  protect  them  from  observation  and  give  them  excellent  opportunity  to  capture  their  prey. 
In  the  north  they  are  usually  found  at  a  depth  of  two  to  twenty  fathoms,  and  in  winter  move  off 
into  deeper  water.  In  New  Jersey  they  occur  at  lesser  depths.  Professor  Baird  records  that  they 
are  sometimes  taken  in  large  numbers  by  means  of  nets  in  the  deep  slues  along  the  beach.  In 
•winter  they  do  not  run  out  so  far  into  deep  water,  and  "at  times,"  says  Professor  Baird,  "seem  to 
be  quite  torpid  on  the  shallow  grounds,  suffering  themselves  to  be  taken  up  with  oyster-tongs 


THE  PLAICE:  HABIIS.  179 

without  making  any  attempt  to  escape.''  Still  farther  south  they  are  found  in  the  shallowest  of 
water.  The  fishermen  of  Saint  John's  River  seine  them  in  the  grass  along  the  shores  at  a  depth 
of  three  or  four  feet.  Mr.  Stearns  writes,  speaking  of  the  eastern  pait  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico: 
"Tlii-.v  are  found  mostly  in  the  bays  and  bayous  where  the  bottom  is  muddy  or  grassy,  but  it  is 
not  unusual  to  find  them  in  sluml  water  along  the  sand  batches  of  the  coast  and  bays.  Very  shoal 
water  seems  to  be  particularly  attractive,  and  they  are  often  found  at  the  water's  edge  embedded 
in  the  sand,  with  only  their  eyes  in  view.  When  alarmed  or  in  pursuit  of  prey  their  movements 
are  very  swift,  and  the  quickness  with  which  they  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  is  quite  wonderful.'' 

Their  habit  of  ascending  Southern  rivers  is  remarkable.  They  are  said  to  occur  in  Lake 
George  and  the  other  lakes  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Saint  John's  and  the  Ocklawaha  Kivers.  At 
Jacksonville  they  are  commonly  taken  in  company  with  bream,  black  bass,  and  other  fresh-water 
fish,  in  winter  as  well  as  summer. 

Although  present  in  the  shoal  waters  of  Florida  throughout  the  year,  Mr.  Stearns  states  that 
they  are  most  abundant  in  summer.  On  the  Connecticut  coast,  however,  their  habit  of  migrating 
seaward  is  much  more  pronounced.  The  Noank  fishermen  never  find  them  until  May.  They  say 
that  they  never  catch  them  until  after  they  have  fished  awhile  for  sea  bass.  As  early  as  the  first 
of  October  they  begin  to  grow  scarce,  and  none  are  ordinarily  caught  after  the  middle  of  the 
month.  I  cannot  find  that  they  have  ever  been  seen  moving  in  schools,  though  fish  taken  in  the 
same  locality  at  the  same  time  are  usually  quite  uniform  in  size.  They  shift  their  position,  prob- 
ably in  search  of  food,  and  where  any  are  found  they  are  plenty.  This  indicates  that  they  are 
gregarious  in  habit :  the  abundance  of  food  in  special  localities  sufficiently  explains  this  fact. 

The  Plaice  feed  upon  small  fish,  shrimps,  crabs  and  hermit  crabs,  squid,  small  species  of 
shell-bearing  mollusks,  and  certain  radiates,  such  as  sand-dollars.  They  are  frequently  seen  at 
the  surface,  rapidly  swimming,  and  even  jumping  out  of  the  water,  in  pursuit  of  schools  of  Sand-eels 
and  sand  smelts.  They  also  feed  upon  dead  fish  thrown  out  from  the  fish-houses.  Little  is  known 
of  their  breeding  habits.  All  the  large  females  observed  in  July  and  August,  1874,  upon  the  Con- 
necticut coast  contained  spawn,  but  this  was,  evidently,  far  from  maturity.  The  Fish  Commission 
has  obtained  no  very  small  specimens;  in  fact,  none  less  than  eight  or  nine  inches  in  length, 
though  the  fishermen  speak  of  capturing  six-inch  individuals.  Their  average  length  is  from  sixteen 
to  thirty  inches,  and  the  weight  about  two  and  a  half  pounds,  though  it  is  not  unusual  to  take 
individuals  weighing  seven  or  eight  pounds.  At  Noank  about  eighty  fish  are  ordinarily  paekrd 
in  a  barrel,  weighing  from  100  to  175  pounds.  The  largest  ever  brought  to  Noank  weighed 
twenty-six  pounds.  Others,  of  whose  capture  I  have  informed,  weighed  twenty,  seventeen  and  a 
half,  and  fifteen  pounds.  In  Florida  and  at  Provincetown  I  have  seen  them  three  feet  in  length. 
A  one-pound  fish  measures  about  fifteen  inches;  a  one  and  a  quarter  pound  fish,  sixteen  or 
seventeen;  a  two-pound  fish,  seventeen  or  eighteen;  a  three-pound  fish,  about  twenty;  a  four- 
pound  fish,  about  twenty-two;  an  eight-pound  fish,  about  twenty-seven,  and  a  ten-pound  fish. 
about  thirty  inches.  These  proportions  are  taken  from  notes  relating  to  a  large  number  weighed 
and  measured  at  Noank,  Connecticut.  The  Winter  Flounder  or  Flat  Fish  spawns  in  late 
winter  and  early  spring  near  the  shore,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  Plaice  breeds  at  about  the 
same  period. 

The  most  extensive  fishery  for  the  Plaice  is  in  the  waters  of  Southern  New  England.  Favorite 
fishing  grounds  are  on  sandy  bottoms,  at  a  depth  of  ten  to  twenty  fathoms,  along  the  Atlantic 
side  of  Block  Island.  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  Kastern  Long  Island,  where  they  are  most  plentiful. 
They  are  obtained  in  smaller  numbers  in  the  harbors  and  bays  along  the  south  shore  of  New 
England,  on  Shagwam  and  Middle  Ground  Reefs,  in  I  i^li.-r's  Island  Sound  and  Long  Island 


180  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Sound,  aud  outside  of  Fisher's  Island.  They  are  also  taken  in  considerable  numbers  in  the 
pounds  of  this  region,  occasionally  five  or  six  hundred  at  a  time.  The  quantity  taken  in  the  weirs 
of  New  England  in  1876  was  estimated  as  follows: 

Pounds. 

Weirs  on  north  side  of  Cape  Cod 436 

Weireon  south  side  of  Cape  Cod 36,000 

Weirs  iu  Vineyard  Sound 326,620 

Weirs  in  Buzzard's  Bay 15,74'.) 

Weirson  Block  Island,  estimated 94,500 

Weirs  in  Fisher's  Island  Sound,  estimated 4,000 

Weirs  on  east  end  of  Long  Island 14,000 

Traps  in  Rhode  Island 17'2,250 

663,555 
From  .other  localities 50,000 

713,555 
Estimated  annual  catch  of  Flat  Fish 600,000 


1,313,555 
Value  of  the  above,  at  four  cents  a  pound,  $52,542. 

These  statistics  of  the  catch  in  pound-nets  include  Plaice  and  Flat  Fish,  and  in  the  statement 
of  the  total  catch  no  distinction  will  be  made  between  these  two  species. 

Immense  numbers  of  them  are  sometimes  taken  in  large  seines  hauled  up  on  the  beach.  In 
1876  E.  Cleveland  seined  128,000  pounds  at  Menemsha  Bight,  Massachusetts.  By  far  the  greater 
quantity,  however,  is  taken  by  small  fishing  smacks  belonging  to  and  hailing  from  Noank, 
Mystic,  and  New  London,  which  pursue  this  special  business  from  May  until  October.  These 
vessels  are  usually  absent  from  port  four  or  five  days,  and  spend  two  days  in  fishing.  The  fish 
are  shipped  in  ice  from  Noank  and  New  London  principally  to  New  York,  and  also  to  inland 
cities  in  the  vicinity.  A  single  smac'j,  with  a  crew  of  a  man  and  two  boys,  usually  will  obtain 
and  ship  to  New  York,  on  an  average,  about  12  barrels  a  week,  about  160  barrels  a  year,  or 
25,000  to  28,000  pounds.  Captain  Palmer,  of  Noank,  in  1873,  caught  on  one  trip  of  two  days 
about  1,000  fish,  weighing,  perhaps,  2,000  pounds.  On  this  trip  he  used  four  lines.  A  good  fisher- 
man is  able  to  manage  two  lines,  each  carrying  two  hooks.  Menhaden  bait  is  always  used  by 
professional  fishermen,  though  I  have  caught  Plaice  to  good  advantage  with  lobster  bait.  A 
vessel  usually  consumes  one  barrel  of  menhaden  on  each  trip.  The  fish  strike  the  hook  sharply 
as  soon  as  it  approaches  the  bottom,  giving  little  opportunity  to  the  skates,  which  very  seldom 
get  a  chance  at  a  Plaice's  hook.  In  this  respect  they  are  very  different  from  the  cod.  When  the 
fish  have  been  hauled  to  the  surface,  they  are  quickly  transferred,  with  as  little  injury  as  possible, 
to  the  well  of  the  smack,  which  is  amply  large  enough  to  hold  a  product  of  two  or  three  days' 
fishing.  They  are  thus  brought  alive  to  the  place  of  shipment  and  reach  the  markets  in  excellent 
condition,  a  fact  which  partially  explains  their  popularity  compared  with  that  of  other  fish  of  the 
same  family. 

In  1877  there  were  seven  smacks  engaged  in  this  fishery — one  from  Mystic,  one  from  New 
London,  and  five  from  Noank.  It  was  estimated  by  the  owner  of  one  of  these  vessels  that  each 
vessel  made  on  an  average  fifteen  trips  during  the  summer,  aud  that  each  trip  averaged  800  fish, 
weighing  Ijj  pounds  each,  making  a  total  of  1,400  pounds  to  a  trip,  or  21,000  pounds  to  the  season, 
thus  giving  an  aggregate  of  147,000  pounds  as  the  result  of  this  branch  of  the  fishery. 

Captain  Atwood  states  that  in  1846  he  began  catching  Plaice  for  the  Boston  market,  in  Prov- 
incetown  Harbor,  anchoring  where  the  keel  of  the  smack  would  just  clear  the  bottom,  and  anywhere 
near  Race  Point  he  could  catch  them  in  great  numbers,  the  largest  weighing  from  ten  to  fifteen 
pounds  each.  In  one  afternoon  he  caught  two  thousand  pounds.  These  he  carried  to  Boston  in  the 


Tin-:  I-I.AK •!-::   ri>ni:i;ii-:s.  181 

well  of  his  smack  ami  tried  In  s.-ll,  but  was  unsuccessful,  though  they  were  offered  under  the  name 
of  Turlioi.  local  prejudice  l»eing  against  ilu-m.  In  IsT'.i  there  were  seven  or  cigbt  boats  engaged  in 
I  In-  plain-  li-hery  during  ilic  month  of  June,  this  inoiitli  being  the  best  for  plaice  fishing.  In  the 
latter  part  of  .Inly,  when  1  made  my  ol»cr\  ations,  all  of  the  winter  boatH  had  i|initei|  fur  the  year. 

The  method  in  use  here  is  somewhat  peculiar,  and  merits  description.  The  fishermen  will  it 
"drailing  for  Plaice."  The  boat  used  is  an  ordinary  cat-boat,  managed  by  one  person,  and  is 
allowed  to  drift  with  Tree  sheet  before  the  wind,  while  the  fisherman  stands  in  the  stern  dragging 
the  line  over  the  bottom,  baited  with  a  bit  of  squid  or  clam.  The  boat  is  kept  as  nearly  as  possible 
over  the  places  where  the  Hats  are  deepening  most  abruptly  into  the  basin  of  the  harbor,  ojid  where 
the  \\ater  is  from  eight  to  eighteen  fathoms  deep.  Only  very  large  flsh,  weighing  ten,  fifteen,  some- 
times  even  twenty  pounds,  are  taken  in  this  manner.  The  average  catch  is  from  eight  to  twenty 
a  day.  In  one  day  one  man  reported  eight,  one  fourteen,  one  twenty-three.  Some  of  these  fish  are 
sold  in  I'rovineetown,  but  the  greater  portion  is  sent  iced  to  New  York,  where  a  price  of  twelve 
cento  a  pound,  wholesale,  is  easily  obtained.  In  Hoston  there  is  no  market  for  them. 

On  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  Professor  1  laird  states  that  in  1854  they  were  taken  in  large 
numbers,  by  means  of  nets,  in  the  deep  slues  along  the  beach.  Along  the  southern  coast  they 
are  occasionally  taken  by  the  line  fishermen,  and  a  considerable  quantity  is  seined  by  the  river 
lUlierincii.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  are  rarely  taken  by  book  and  Hue,  and  are  usually 
speared  or  jigged  at  night,  by  torchlight. 

The  Plaice  has  always  been  the  most  popular  of  our  in-shore  flat  fishes,  being  exempt  in  a 
certain  degree  from  the  prejudice  attaching  to  the  fishes  of  this  family.  It  seems  to  have  IHHMI  a 
common  food-fish  in  South  Carolina  as  early  as  1700,  and  Schoepf  mentions  it  as  one  of  the  food- 
fishes  of  New  York  in  1770.  In  1856,  according  to  Gill,  it  was  found  in  the  New  York  market  in 
autumn,  but  seems  to  have  been  less  in  favor  than  the  Flat  Fish.  At  present  the  Plaice  is  grow- 
ing in  favor  in  New  York,  and  is  upon  the  lists  of  nil  good  restaurants,  though  perhaps  not  so 
generally  consumed  as  the  Flat  Fish,  which  comes  in  the  winter,  when  the  market  is  less  lavishly 
supplied 

In  Boston,  and  indeed  throughout  the  greater  part  of  New 'England,  this,  with  all  other 
Flounders,  is  considered  unfit  to  eat,  and  it  is  by  no  means  generally  popular  along  the  Southern 
coast,  though  in  Florida  its  flesh  is  highly  prized.  The  Connecticut  fishermen  esteem  it  greatly, 
and  when  preparing  it  for  their  own  use  are  accustomed  to  hang  it  in  the  open  air  for  a  day  or 
two  "to  dry,"  as  they  say.  The  wholesale  price  in  New  York  varies  from  one  and  a  half  to  six 
cents,  but  is  usually  three  cents  a  pound. 

Another  species  of  Flounder,  closely  related  to  the  Plaice,  is  the  common  Four-spotted  Flounder, 
I'lirnlichtliys  oblongtis,  which  occasionally  finds  its  way  to  market  in  company  with  the  Plaice,  and 
is  doubtless  sold  under  the  same  name.  U  is  a  small  species,  rarely  attaining  a  greater  length  than 
twelve  inches  and  a  weight  of  one  pound.  It  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  presence  upon 
the  back  of  four  large,  dark  spots,  elliptical  in  form,  but  these  soon  fade  out  after  death. 

Its  distribution  is  much  more  restricted  than  that  of  the  Plaice;  it  is  most  abundant,  at  a 
depth  of  ten  to  forty  fathoms, off  the  southern  coast  of  New  England ;  it  rarely  occurs  north  of  Cape 
Cod,  though  one  individual  was  taken  by  the  Fish  Commission  at  the  mouth  of  Salem  Harbor,  nor 
has  it  been  recorded  south  of  New  York.  There  are  two  smaller  species  uj>on  the  Southern  coast- 
one,  Paralichtlii/x  <ii«tili-<>rrlliitiix,  broader  than  I'lirnlifhtlii/x  iMoni/us,  also  marked  with  four  dorsal 
spots,  and  known  in  the  South  as  the  Four-spotted  Flounder.  This  species  has  been  observed 
as  far  north  as  Charleston  and  Fort  Macon,  while  its  western  record  of  limit  is  Pensacola.  Stearns 
records  it  as  common  from  Cedar  Ke\s  smith  to  Key  West,  and  pronounces  it  an  excellent  food-fish. 


182  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

It  cauuot  at  present,  however,  be  considered  very  important.  The  other  species,  ParaUchthys 
stiymatias,  occurs  iu  deep  water  (seventy-five  fathoms)  ofl'the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  and  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  three  conspicuous  spots  upon  the  upper  side  of  the  body. 

57.  THE  BASTARD  HALIBUT. 

This  fish  (Paralichthys  maculosm  Girard),  writes  Jordan,  is  known  as  the  Halibut,  Bastard 
Halibut,  and  Monterey  Halibut.  South  of  San  Francisco,  where  the  true  Halibut  is  not  found, 
the  larger  individuals,  which  really  greatly  resemble  the  Halibut,  are  known  by  that  name,  the 
young  being  rarely  distinguished  from  other  "Soles."  At  San  Francisco,  where  the  true  Halibut 
is  known,  this  species  is  called  the  Bastard  Halibut,  and  sometimes  the  Monterey  Halibut,  as  I  hey 
are  mostly  brought  from  Monterey.  It  reaches  a  length  of  three  feet  and  a  weight  of  sixty  pounds ; 
the  largest  seen  by  us  weighing  fifty-five  pounds.  A  great  majority  of  those  taken  weigh  less  than 
three  pounds,  and  it  is  said  that  large  individuals  are  much  less  plenty  than  they  formerly  were. 
Its  range  is  from  Totnales  Bay  to  San  Diego,  and  south  of  Point  Concepcion.  It  is  the  commonest 
species  of  its  family.  Although  not  rare  at  San  Francisco,  it  forms  no  more  than  four  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  flounder  catch.  It  lives  in  rather  shallow  water,  the  young  abounding  close  to  shore, 
large  ones  being  taken  in  the  gill-nets.  Large  ones  are  more  abundant  at  Monterey  than  farther 
south.  It  feeds  upon  fishes  and  Crustacea,  and  iu  its  habits  seems  very  similar  to  the  Eastern  P. 
Aentatus.  It  spawns  in  early  summer,  like  other  large  fishes.  It  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the 
Hag  Fish,  Bdelloittoma  Dombeyi. 

As  a  food-fish,  it  does  not  rank  very  high,  the  large  specimens  being  tough  and  coarse 
compared  to  the  Halibut,  while  the  young  are  inferior  to  most  of  the  species  termed  "  Sole." 

58.  THE  FLAT  FISH,  OR  WINTER  FLOUNDER. 

Ne^  in  importance  to  the  Plaice  comes  the  Flat  Fish,  Pneudopleuronectes  americanvs,  or 
•Common  Flounder,  sometimes  called  the  "Winter  Flounder,"  said  to  be  known  in  Massachu- 
setts Bay  as  Mud-dab,  and  occasionally  to  be  sold  in  New  York  under  the  name  of  Sole.  This 
iish,  like  the  Plaice,  belongs  to  a  genus  unknown  to  Europe,  but  is  closely  related  to  the  common 
Flounder,  or  Fluke,  of  the  British  coast.  Its  range  is  somewhat  extensive,  and  iu  a  certain 
degree  it  replaces  the  Plaice  along  our  northern  coast.  It  has  not  been  observed  south  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  but  northward  is  common  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and,  as  far  as  observations  have  been  made,  upon  the  coast  of 
Labrador. 

Storer,  writing  in  1849,  remarks:  "It  is  probably  the  most  common  Flounder  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Labrador;  we  met  with  it  first,  though  but  sparingly,  at  the  Saint  Mary's  Island,  and 
observed  it  as  far  easterly  as  Bras  d'Or,  where  it  is  to  be  found  in  immense  numbers,  the  bottom 
being  almost  alive  with  them,  and  of  large  size." 

Flat  Fish  are  always  upon  the  bottom,  feeding  chiefly  upon  minute  shells,  such  as  Nucula  and 
Bulla,  upon  young  crabs,  or  whatever  they  can  find  among  the  stones  in  the  mud.  Their  mouths 
are  very  small,  and  since  they  would  be  unable  to  seize  and  kill  other  fish,  they  never  ionic 
to  the  surface  in  pursuit  of  prey,  as  do  the  large-mouthed  Flounders.  They  prefer  sheltered  bays 
and  harbors,  and  appear  to  be  equally  abundant  on  the  bottoms  of  the  sand,  mud,  or  rock;  when 
at  rest,  they  are  usually  partially  embedded  in  the  mud  or  sand  at  the  bottom.  1  have  observed 
that,  when  they  come  to  a  stop,  they  always  settle  themselves  by  convulsive  motions  of  the  fins 
und  body,  which  has  the  effect  of  pushing  them  down  into  the  soft  bottom.  This  species  is 
probably  a  more  permanent  resident  of  the  localities  which  it  inhabits  than  any  other  on  our  eoast, 


THE  FLAT   FISH  OR  WINTKi:   I  I.OIMH.i;:   HA  HITS.  183 

unless  it  he  i he  seulpins.  There  is  very  little  e\  idem-c  of  .1  tend.  nc\  to  move  to  itnd  fiotn  the 
shore  with  a  change  of  season.  Winter  and  summer,  they  appear  to  l>c  <>i|iiully  abundant  from 
New  York  to  the  Hay  of  Clialcur.  where,  in  the  tide-way  <•!'  Miiainichi  Hivcr,  they  are  caught  in 
winter  through  holes  in  the  ice.  In  Labrador  they  are  described  as  exceedingly  abundant  iu 
suininer.  but  nothing  is  known  of  their  winter  habits.  1'rot'csxor  li.md  ibnnd  them  scarce  iu 
Southern  New  Jersey  in  summer,  lint  learned  that  they  were  veiy  alinndan'  in  the  bays  in  winter. 
Small  quantities  arc  brought  to  Washington  iu  winter  from  the  month  of  the  Chesapeake. 

The  spawning  season  occurs  early  in  spring,  in  February  and  March  on  the  Connecticut  coast, 
and  is  thought  to  be  closed  by  the  tirst  part  of  April.  Young  fish  of  half  an  inch  iu  length  are 
found  in  July  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  bays  aud  sounds,  and  iu  August  and  September,  having 
attained  the  length  of  one  and  one-half  to  five  inches,  occur  in  great  abundance  iu  the  coves  and 
along  the  sandy  shores  of  the  Southern  New  England  coast,  in  very  shallow  water.  Their  growth 
is  probably  rapid,  though  it  would  seem  most  likely  that  the  five-inch  specimens,  just  referred  to, 
were  eighteen  months  rather  than  six  months  old.  The  largest  that  have  been  discovered  were 
fifteen  inches  long,  and  would  weigh  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  pounds. 

The  flesh  of  the  Flat  Fish  Is  solid,  white,  and  of  excellent  flavor,  and  deserves  a  more  general 
popularity  than  it  has  yet  attained.  It  is,  and  has  been  for  the  last  century,  largely  consumed  in 
New  York  in  winter.  Schoepf,  writing  in  1776,  mentions  it  as  occurring  in  the  market  iu  spring; 
later,  writing  in  1818,  he  states  that  small  numbers  were  found  iu  the  stalls  in  January  and 
February,  takeu  with  spears  while  searching  for  eels.  These  were  not  very  inviting,  owing  to 
their  mangled  appearance  aud  frozen  state,  but,  with  the  disappearance  of  ice  and  the  approach  of 
spring,  their  numbers  increased,  and  in  March  the  stalls  were  well  filled  with  them,  cheap  and  fre*k 
aud  good.  They  were  only  used  as  pan-fish;  Gill  wrote,  in  1856:  "This  is  the  most  common  species 
of  flounder  that  is  brought  to  the  city  markets  in  the  winter  and  spring  months ;  it  is  seldom  sold 
at  a  higher  price  than  eight  to  ten  cents  per  pound.  Flounders  are  chiefly  sold  by  the  weight; 
occasionally  they  are  strung  through  the  branchial  apertures  on  twigs  and  nominally  sold  by  the 
bunch." 

The  Smooth  Flounder,  or  Christmas  Flounder,  Pleuronectea  glaber,  is  very  similar  in  habits  and 
appearance  to  the  Flat  Fish,  and  is  still  closer  to  the  Flounder  of  Europe,  being  a  member  of  the 
same  genus.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  former  by  its  smooth  skin,  which  has  given  to  the 
species,  iu  some  localities,  the  name  "  Eel-back."  Its  distribution  is  extremely  limited,  it  having 
been  recorded  as  only  found  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  Portland  and  Belfast,  Maine,  or  within  the 
limits  of  two  degrees  of  latitude.  Its  range  may  in  the  future  be  extended  farther  to  the  north,  but 
it  is  certain  that  at  present  none  occur  south  of  Salem.  In  Casco  Bay  they  are  very  abundant  iu 
summer,  and  the  Fish  Commission  secured  great  quantities  of  them  in  water  three  or  four  fathoms 
deep  in  Bluelight  Cove.  They  have  never  elsewhere  been  observed,  except  in  winter,  about  Christ- 
mas time,  when  they  come  into  the  harbors  to  spawn.  At  Salem  they  are,  on  this  account,  called  the 
Christinas  Fish.  Considerable  quantities  are  caught  every  year  by  spearing  them  upon  the  sand. 
At  this  place  they  arc  also  called  "  Fool  Fish,"  because,  in  their  anxiety  for  fowl,  they  w  ill  bite  at 
any  kind  of  bait,  even  at  a  rag.  The  spawning  season  is  short,  and  they  soon  retire  into  deeper 
water.  At  Portland,  and  in  the  vicinity,  considerable  numbers  are  takeu  in  the  winter  fishery  in 
company  with  the  Flat  Fish,  and  with  them  are  sent  to  New  York  and  neighboring  markets.  In 
one  instance  a  quantity  was  ottered  for  sale  iu  the  markets  of  Washington.  The  spawning  season 
on  the  coast  of  Maine  is  slightly  earlier  than  that  of  Massachusetts,  beginning  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  December,  while  in  Penobscot  Bay  they  ate  taken  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  month,  full 
of  spawn.  In  Penobscot  Bay  they  aie  taken  in  daps,  or  "  Hieis,"  as  the  fishermen  call  them,  shaped 


1  84  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

something  like  lobster-traps  and  baited.  The  young  Smooth  Flounder  may  be  taken  in  summer  on 
the  beaches.  The  largest  females  observed  weighed  twenty-three  ounces,  the  weight  of  the  spawn 
being  seven  ounces.  Too  little  attention  has  hitherto  been  paid  to  this  fish,  but  it  seems  more 
than  probable  that  in  the  future  it  will  greatly  increase  in  favor. 

59.  THE  FLAT  FISHES  AND  SOLES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 

By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 
THE  STARRY  FLOUNDER — PLEURONECTES  STELLATUS  Pallas. 

This  species  is  known,  wherever  found,  as  the  "  Flounder,"  all  others  being  considered  as  Bas- 
tard or  False  Flounders.  At  San  Francisco  the  name  Flounder  is  rarely  used  in  a  generic  sense, 
but  only  as  a  special  appellation  of  this  species.  It  reaches  a  length  of  nearly  three  feet,  and  a 
weight  of  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds,  larger  individuals  being  found  northward  than  southward  along 
the  coast.  The  average  length  in  the  market  is  about  fifteen  inches,  and  the  weight  two  or  three 
pounds.  Its  rate  of  growth  is  probably  rapid,  but  we  have  no  certain  data  in  regard  to  it. 

It  ranges  from  San  Luis  Obispo  to  Kamtchatka,  and  from  San  Francisco  northward  it  is  by 
far  the  most  abundant  species.  It  probably  constitute/I  half,  by  weight,  of  the  total  annual  catch 
of  Flounders  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  enters  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  considerable  numbers  are 
taken  in  the  salmon-nets  on  the  Lower  Columbia.  It  is  found  in  water  of  moderate  depth,  and  is 
taken  in  seines  and  gill-nets,  and  sometimes  with  the  hook. 

Its  food  is  Crustacea,  mollusca,  and  such  fishes  as  it  can  swallow,  its  month  being  compara- 
tively small.  It  spawns  in  summer.  Nothing  special- is  known  of  its  breeding  habits.  Jt  has  no 
especial  enemy  that  we  know  of,  with  the  exception  of  a  tetradecapod,  known  as  "  fish-louse," 
which  is  very  frequently  found  attached  to  the  fins,  gill-membranes,  and  gills  of  this  and  other 
species  of  flounders. 

As  a  food-fish  this  species  is  held  in  rather  high  esteem.  The  flesh  is  firm,  and  although 
coarser  than  in  the  so-called  Soles,  is  of  fair  flavor  in  the  young.  The  very  large  individuals 
(eight  to  twenty  pounds)  are  sold  at  a  lower  price,  and  are  considered  poor  eating.  A  considerable 
portion  of  those  in  the  San  Francisco  market  come  from  Hnmboldt  Bay. 

This,  according  to  Dr.  Bean,  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  littoral  fish  known  to  exist, 
ranging  in  North  America  to  the  mouth  of  the  Colville  and  Anderson  Rivers  on  the  arctic  coast. 
It  enters  extensively  into  the  resources  of  Alaska,  being  the  largest  and  most  abundant  of  its  kind 
in  that  region. 

A  related  species,  P.glaoialis,  is  especially  abundant  in  Northern  Alaska,  occurring  plentifully 
as  far  south  as  Saint  Michael's.  Although  small,  its  great  abundance  and  fine  flavor  make  it 
important  as  an  article  of  food.  Traveling  parties  of  Eskimos  generally  have  a  supply  of  this  fish 
in  their  bidarras.  They  are  usually  eaten  raw. 

THE  ROUGH  LIMANDA — LIMANDA  ASPERA  (Pallas)  Bean. 

This  species,  according  to  Dr.  Bean,  is  smaller  than  its  Atlantic  relative,  Limanda  ferruginea, 
which  it  closely  resembles,  and  its  range  is  rather  limited.  It  is  found  about  Unalashka  and  has 
been  taken  at  Sitka,  W  ran  gel,  and  other  localities  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  Its  flavor  is  fine,  and  it 
is  used  extensively  for  food  by  Eskimos  and  Indians. 


THE  DIAMOND   I  l.(  >1  NDKI;.  185 

THE  DIAMOND  FLOUNDER.— HYPSOPSETTA  GITTTULATA  (Girard)  (Jill. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  S;m  l-Yam-isco  this  speeies  in  known  as  the  "Turbot,"  many  of  tho 
dealers  stoutly  averring  Unit  it  is  identical  with  the  English  lish  of  that  name.  South  of  Point 
Concciiciiin  the  name  Diamond  Flounder  is  in  use.  This  refers  to  the  rhombic  form  of  the  fish, 
and  the  name  seems  an  appropriate  one.  It  reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches  and  a  weight  of 
four  pounds,  but  as  usually  seen  in  the  market  its  length  is  about  one  foot. 

The  geographie  range  of  this  species  seems  to  be  from  Cape  Memlocino  to  Magdalcna  Hay. 
It  seems  in  lie  more  plentiful  in  the  bays  of  Tomales  and  San  Diego  than  elsewhere,  apparently 
preferring  shallow  water  and  sandy  bottoms.  It  is  one  of  the  more  abundant  species,  forming 
perhaps  two  per  cent,  of  the  catch  of  Flounders  in  the  neighborhood  of  San  Francisco. 

Its  food  consists  inninly  of  Crustacea  and  small  mollusks.  Nothing  special  is  known  of  its 
breeding  habits.  Its  enemies  are  those  of  all  Flounders,  and  no  diseases  have  been  noticed.  As 
a  food-fish  it  ranks  high.  It  is  one  of  the  most  firm-fleshed  of  the  Flounders. 

THE  "SOLES"  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

LEPIDOPSETTA  BILINEATA  (Ayres)  Gill. 

This  species  has  no  other  distinctive  name  than  "Sole."  It  reaches  a  length  of  twenty  inches 
and  a  weight  of  five  or  six  pounds.  Its  average  weight  in  the  market  is  about  three  pound.-.  It 
ranges  from  Monterey  to  Alaska,  and  its  relative  abundance  steadily  increases  as  we  go  north- 
ward from  Monterey  to  Vancouver's  Island.  In  Puget  Sound  it  makes  about  thirty  per  cent,  of 
the  flounder  catch;  about  San  Francisco  barely  two  ]ter  cent.  It  lives  in  rocky  places  in  deep 
water,  and  most  of  those  taken  about  San  Francisco  come  from  the  neigh  borhood  of  the  Farallones. 
It  takes  the  hook  more  readily  than  any  of  the  other  small- mouthed  Flounders,  and  considerable 
numbers  are  taken  by  the  Chinese  on  their  set-lines,  especially  at  Monterey.  They  feed  chiefly  OH 
crustaceans  and  small  fishes. 

Nothing  special  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits,  and  nothing  distinctive  of  enemies  or 
diseases.  It  is  perhaps  more  subject  to  the  parasitism  of  the  fish- louse  than  any  of  the  other 
species. 

Dr.  Beau  found  this  fish  abundant  in  Alaska,  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  flat  fishes 
in  that  territory.  It  is  there  regarded  as  an  excellent  food-fish.  The  natives  spear  it  as  it  lies 
entirely  concealed  in  the  loose  sand  along  shore,  where  it  comes  at  eventide  to  feed  on  small 
crustaceans. 

PAEOPHBYS  ISCHYEUS  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

Four  specimens  only  of  this  species  have  been  seen.  These  were  taken  with  a  seine  at  Seattle. 
It  resembles  the  preceding  in  appearance,  and  probably  in  habits.  Those  seen  were  about  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  weighed  about  three  pounds. 

"This  is  a  coarse,  rough  fish  in  its  general  appearance,  greatly  resembling  the  Flounder,  I'leu- 
ronectea  stellatus,  but  differing  from  it  in  the  ctenoid  scales,  and  in  the  presence  of  an  accessory 
lateral  line,  characters  in  which  it  agrees  with  the  next  species.  It  has  hitherto  been  found  only 
in  Puget  Sound,  and  reaches  a  length  of  about  eighteen  inches." — Locl-i>ii/t<»i. 

PAROPURYS  VETULUS  Girard. 

This  species  is  always  called  Sole  by  the  fishermen.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  species,  reaeh- 
ing  a  length  of  about  fourteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  about  two  pounds.  Those  usually  seen  in 


186  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

market  average  less  than  half  a  pound.  It  is  found  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Alaska,  and  from  Sail 
Francisco  northward  is  extremely  abundant.  In  number  of  individuals  taken,  this  rpeeies  is 
exceeded  only  by  Plcuronevtes  stelhttvs.  In  number  of  pounds  it  probably  ranks  below  Hippoylos- 
soides  Jordani.  It  forms  about  one-fifth  the  whole  flounder  catch  of  the  coast.  It  lives  near  the 
shore,  and  is  taken  in  gill-nets  and  seines.  It  feeds  on  Crustacea  and  the  like.  As  a  food-fish  it 
meets  with  a  ready  sale,  but  its  flesh  is  rather  poor  and  tasteless.  It  spawns  in  spring.  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits,  and  nothing  of  its  enemies  or  diseases.  It  is  often  found 
in  the  stomachs  of  larger  predaceous  fishes. 

Its  flesh  is  softer  than  that  of  other  Flounders,  and  it  does  not  make  an  attractive  appearance 
in  the  market.  It  always  readily  sells,  however,  and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  is  probably  better 
than  that  of  some  of  the  other  kinds. 

PABOPHRYS  ISOLEPIS  (Lockingtou)  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

This  species,  too,  is  a  Sole  to  the  fishermen.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  fifteen  inches  and  a 
weight  of  about  two  and  a  half  pounds.  Its  usual  length  is  about  ten  inches,  with  a  weight  of 
half  a  pound.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Puget  Sound,  inhabiting  rather  deep  water  and 
becoming  larger  in  size  and  more  plentiful  northward.  About  San  Francisco  it  is  mainly  taken 
by  the  paranzelle  fishermen,  who  obtain  it  in  great  numbers,  but  it  forms  less  than  one  per  cent,  of 
the  flounder  catch  of  the  coast.  Its  food  is  mainly  Crustacea  and  inollusks.  It  spawns  in  spring, 
at  which  season  the  largest  catches  of  it  are  made. 

Large  specimens  of  this  species  are  sold  with  the  best  Soles  (Psettichthys),  which  they  greatly 
resemble.  Small  ones  rank  with  Olyptocephalm  pacificus  and  the  like,  and  often  cannot  be  sold. 

CiTHABiCH'J HYS  soEDious  (Girard)  Gthr. 

This  species  is  often  known  as  the  "Plaice"  in  Puget  Sound.  About  San  Francisco  it 
becomes,  like  the  others,  a  "Sole."  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  species,  reaching  a  length  of  fifteen 
inches,  and  a  weight  of  two  pounds.  Its  average  weight  in  market  is  little  more  than  half  a 
pound.  It  ranges  from  San  Diego  to  Puget  Sound,  being  rare  south  of  Point  Conception,  and  most 
abundant  about  Monterey.  It  lives  in  comparatively  deep  water,  and  is  considered  distinctively 
a  deep-water  species  by  the  fishermen  in,  Puget  Sound.  It  takes  the  hook  very  readily,  and  great 
numbers  are  taken  on  set-lines  by  the  Chinese,  to  dry  for  market.  It  probably  makes  about  eight 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  flounder  catch  of  the  coast.  It  feeds  on  small  fishes,  the  anchovy  being 
one  of  its  special  anicles  of  food. 

PSETTICHTHYS  MELANOSTIOTUS   Girard. 

This  species  is  everywhere  a  Sole,  and  at  Sau  Francisco  it  is  considered  to  have  a  better 
claim  to  that  title  than  any  other  species.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  twenty  inches,  and  a 
weight  of  four  or  five  pounds.  Its  average  length  is  about  fifteen  inches.  It  ranges  from  .Mon- 
terey to  Wrangel,  Alaska.  It  lives  at  no  great  depths,  and  is  about  equally  abundant  the  entire 
length  of  the  coast.  Although  never  found  in  large  numbers,  it  is  always  present  in  the  markets, 
and  forms  some  five  per  cent,  of  the  entire  flounder  catch  of  the  coast.  It  feeds  upon  fishes  and 
ortutacea. 

Nothing  special  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits,  enemies,  or  diseases.  As  a  food-fish  it  is 
considered  the  best  of  the  family  by  those  who  distinguish  it  from  related  species. 


Till:  rAl.iroKNIA   "SULKS." 

Hll'l'oiil.OSSOinKS   JOUDANI    Lockillgtoll. 

Tliis  species  is  known  nniversalh  as  tln>  "Sole."  I  have  also  heard  tin-  Italian  name  "Soglia" 
applied  to  it  more  often  than  to  related  species.  It  reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches,  and  a 
weight  of  six  or  eight  pounds,  the'  average  being  about  three.  It  ranges  from  .Monterey  to  I'ugct 
Sound.  being  coni|)aratively  scarce  north  of  Cape  Mendocino,  lint  in  Monterey  Hay  the  commonest 
species,  and  Conning  probably  fifteen  ].cr  cent,  of  the  Flounders  in  the  market  of  San  Francisco. 
Great  numbers  are  taken  by  Chinamen  on  set  lines  baited  with  anchovies.  It  lives  in  water  of  no 
{Treat  depth.  It  feeds  u pou  anchovies,  shrimps,  and  all  sorts  of  small  fishes  and  Crustacea.  It 
spawns  in  early  summer.  Nothing  especial  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits.  Its  enemies  ami 
diseases  are  similar  to  those  of  other  Flounders. 

It  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  Flounders  as  a  food-fish.  Great  numbers  are  dried  yearly  by  the 
Chinese,  who  suspend  them  by  strings  on  a  frame  placed  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  as  they  are 
too  fleshy  to  dry  well  on  tables.  Here  they  rustle  in  the  wind,  and,  striking  together,  produce  a 
sound  like  the  wind  among  the  leaves. 

••It  appears  strange,"  remarks  Lockington,  "that  this  common  species  should  have  escaped 
the  notice  of  naturalists  until  last  year.  In  the  markets  of  San  Francisco  it  abounds  throughout 
every  month  of  the  year,  and  in  Monterey  Bay  it  is  the  most  abundant  of  its  tribe.  Professor 
Jordan  informs  me  that  about  five  hundred  pounds'  weight  of  this  fish  are  taken  daily  at  Monterey 
alone  by  the  Chinese,  besides  large  quantities  taken  by  the  Italians.  An  examination  of  the  stock 
in  trade  of  the  Chinese  located  near  Monterey,  proved  that  over  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  fish 
that  dry  on  hurdles  and  flap  in  the  wind  around  the  hovels  consisted  of  this  fish;  a  few  sharks, 
with  Pxettiflithi/H  melanoxtictiix  and  CitharichtJiy*  ttordidus,  constituting  the  remainder."1 

It  occasionally  reaches  sixteen  inches  or  more  in  length  and  a  weight  of  five  pounds,  and  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  of  its  tribe,  but  is  inferior  to  the  Black-dotted  Flounder,  the  Turbot,  and 
one  or  two  others.  It  becomes  rare  uorthward,  yet  occurs  in  Puget  Sound;  south  of  Monterey  it 
is  not  on  lecord. 

Hii'i'OGLOSsoiDES  i:\ii  is  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

This  species  is  one  of  the  smallest,  reaching  a  length  of  about  nine  inches,  and  a  weight  of  less 
than  a  pound.  It  inhabits  deep  waters  on  sandy  bottoms  from  San  Francisco  to  Puget  Sound. 
It  is  taken  in  the  sweep-nets  of  the  paranzelle  in  spring,  off  Point  Reyes  in  enormous  numbers, 
sometimes  nearly  a  ton  at  a  time.  In  Puget  Sound  it  is  less  common,  although  frequently  taken 
in  seines.  It  has  not  been  noticed  by  naturalists  until  the  present  year,  and  has  probably  l>een 
rarely  taken  until  the  introduction  of  the  paran/elle.  It  feeds  on  small  fishes,  crustaceans,  etc. 
It  .-pawns  in  spring,  perhaps  coming  from  still  deeper  water,  as  in  the  winter  none  were  noticed  in 
the  markets.  Its  enemies  and  diseases  are  unknown.  Most  of  those  taken  by  the  paranzelle  are 
thrown  overboard.  The  flesh  is  soft,  and  the  (isli  does  not  sell  for  enough  to  pay  for  bringing  it  in. 

This  species  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  its  much  more  slender  form,  and 
by  the  large  size  of  the  scales,  which  arc  very  delicately  ciliate  on  their  hinder  edge.  The  eyes 
are  very  large,  their  longitudinal  diameter  contained  about  three  and  one-third  times  in  the  length 
of  the  head.  The  greatest  depth  is  contained  about  three  and  a  half  times  in  the  total  length. 

In  July  it  was  tolerably  common  in  the  markets  of  San  Francisco,  and  its  previous  rarity  is 
probably  occasioned  by  the  fact  that  it  is  only  taken  in  tolerably  deep  water,  and  is  too  small  to  be 
considered  of  much  value. 


1  Rr|>ort,  ('c>miiii>-mii.T  .if  Ki-ln-i  i.-*  Stan-  of  California,  1**,  |i.  25. 


188  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  specimens  I  have  seen  were  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  length,  and  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  in  weight.  It  occurs  in  Puget  Sound,  but  is  not  very  common. 

HIPPOGLOSSOIDES  ELASSODON  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

\  « 

This  species  reaches  a  length  of  about  fifteen  inches,  and  a  weight  of  two  or  three  pounds  at 
least.  It  has  been  found  in  Puget  Sound,  in  rather  deep  water  about  the  wharves  of  Seattle, 
Washington  Territory,  and.  New  Tacoina.  It  takes  the  hook  very  readily,  and  affords  the  boys 
considerable  amusement.  Its  value  as  food  is  probably  similar  to  that  of  H.  Jordani. 

Dr.  Bean  states  that  he  has  specimens  from  Kodiak,  Unalashka,  and  the  Shumagin  Islands, 
Alaska.  It  is  a  food-fish  of  some  importance  in  these  localities. 

XYSTREURYS  LIOLEPIS  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

This  species  reaches  a  length  of  fourteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  two  pounds;  ranges  from 
Point  Coucepcion  southward.  It  lives  in  water  of  moderate  depth,  usually  about  the  kelp.  It 
takes  the  hook  readily,  spawns  in  spring,  and  feeds  on  Crustacea  and  small  fish.  It  is  too  scarce 
to  have  any  special  economic  value. 

ATHERESTHES  STOMIAS  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 

This  species,  so  far  as  known,  does  not  exceed  eighteen  inches  in  length  and  one  and  a  half 
pounds  in  weight.  It  is  perhaps  the  slenderest  Flounder  known.  It  has  only  been  seen  among 
fishes  taken  in  the  sweep-nets  of  the  parauzelle  off  Point  Reyes,  and  only  about  a  dozen  specimens 
are  known.  It  probably  inhabits  considerable  depths,  and  will  doubtless  be  found  to  belong  to  the 
Alaskan  fauna.  . 

THE  SLIPPERY  SOLE — GLYPTOCEPHALUS  PACIFICTJS  Lockington. 

Like  various  other  species,  this  fish  is  known  as  the  Sole,  wherever  found.  It  reaches  a  length 
of  fifteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  two  pounds.  As  usually  seen  in  the  market,  it  is  about  eight 
inches  in  length  and  weighs  about  half  a  pound.  It  inhabits  deep  or  cold  waters,  and  ranges  from 
Monterey  to  Vancouver's  Island.  In  California  it  is  only  taken  in  deep  water,  and  is  therefore 
rarely  brought  in  except  by  the  paranzelle,  who  obtain  it  sometimes  in  enormous  numbers.  In 
Puget  Sound  it  comes  nearer  shore,  and  is  often  taken  in  the  seines.  It  has  been  brought  into 
the  San  Francisco  market  only  since  the  establishment  of  the  paranzelle  fishing  a  few  years  ago. 
Since  then,  it  has  rapidly  increased  in  abundance  in  the  market,  and  now  makes  about  five  per 
cent,  of  the  Flounders  sold  in  San  Francisco.  Many  pounds  of  small  ones  are  daily  thrown  away 
in  the  spring  and  summer.  It  feeds  on  Crustacea  and  the  like. 

It  spawns  in  May  and  June,  and  probably  then  comes  into  shallow  water,  as  the  catch  is  then 
greater  than  in  winter.  The  large  ones  are  considered  among  the  best  of  the  Flounders.  The 
small  ones  are  little  valued.  The  whole  body  is  excessively  slimy  when  out  of  water,  more  so  than 
in  any  other  Flounder. 

THE  LONG-FINNED  SOLE— GLYPXOCEPHALUS  ZACHIRUS  Lockiugton. 

This  species  is  likewise  known  as  a  Sole,  but  occasionally  distinguished  as  long-finned.  It 
reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  about  two  pounds.  The  average  length  is  more 
than  a  foot.  It  has  been  thus  far  noticed  only  in  deep  water  about  San  Francisco  and  Monterey. 
It  is  one  of  the  least  abundant  of  the  Flounders,  rarely  more  than  a  dozen  coming  into  the  San 
Francisco  market  in  a  week,  and  often  for  long  periods  none  at  all.  Until  the  introduction  of  the 
paranzelle,  it  was  unknown  at  San  Francisco. 


TIIK  rAl.IKOUMA  "SOLES."  189 

In  respect  ID  food,  breeding  habits,  and  localities,  it  agrees  entirely  with  (I.  i>n<-(fi<-nx  so  tar  as 
\\c  know.  Its  skin  is  not  slimy,  and  its  ilesh  is  vi-ry  linn  and  white,  and  said  to  l>e  of  very  superior 
tla\or.  similar  to  that  of  the  European  Sole. 

••  I'p  to  the  present  time,"  says  Lockington,  "this  secies  is  only  known  from  the  markets  of 
San  Francisco,  to  whieh  it  is  brought  from  dee])  water  near  Point  Reyes,  some  thirty  miles  north 
ui  the  city.  It  is  comparathely  rare;  seldom  more  than  three  or  four  are  offered  for  sale  on  any 
one  day,  and  it  is  not  brought  in  at  all  in  the  winter.  It  attains  a  length  of  eighteen  inches,  and 
a  weight  •>)'  about  two  pounds,  and  is  held  in  high  esteem.  Hitherto  it  is  only  known  to  occur  in 
Monterey  I '.ay  and  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco.  As  its  mouth  is  too  small  for  the  hook,  and 
its  habitat  too  deep  for  the  gill-nets,  it  is  taken  chiefly  in  sweep-nets." 

The  three  following  species  are  very  similar  in  size,  appearance,  habits,  and  value,  and  the  same 
remarks,  except  ill  regard  to  distribution,  will  apply  to  them  all: 

PLEURONICHTHYS  VERTIOALIS  Jordan  and  Gilbert. 
PLEORONICHTHYS  QUADRITUBERCULATUS  (Pallas)  Lockington. 
PLEURONICHTHYS  C<ENOSUS  Girard. 

These  three  species  have  no  distinctive  popular  names,  the  fishermen  confounding  them  with 
various  other  species  under  the  name  of  Turbot  and  Sole. 

As  usually  seen  in  the  markets,  these  species  average  about  ten  inches  in  length,  P.  vertical?* 
being  usually  the  smallest  of  the  three,  and  P.  quadrituberculatuti  the  largest;  all,  however,  reach 
sometimes  a  length  of  fifteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  two  or  three  pounds. 

P.  qiMdrituberculatwt  and  P.  vertical**  have  been  thus  far  noticed  only  in  Monterey  Bay  and 
about  Point  Reyes  and  the  Farallones.  P.  coenosus  is  found  from  San  Diego  to  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
and  is  especially  abundant  in  rocky  coves  about  Pnget  Sound.  All  three  of  them  are  now 
migratory  and  live  in  considerable  depths  of  water,  being  rarely  taken  near  shore  except  in  the 
spawning  time. 

Compared  with  other  Flounders,  none  of  these  are  ever  abundant.  Fifteen  individuals  of  the 
three  species  together  would  be  a  large  proportion  in  one  haul  of  the  gill-net  in  Monterey  Bay, 
in  the  season  of  their  spawning.  At  other  times  ttiey  rarely  come  near  enough  to  shore  to  enter 
a  gill-net. 

I'nlike  the  other  Flounders,  these  three  species  feed  chiefly  or  entirely  on  plants;  the  stomach 
and  intestines  are  always  full  of  algse,  and,  although  they  occasionally  take  the  hook,  animal  food 
makes  a  small  portion  of  their  diet. 

These  species  spawn  in  the  spring,  chiefly  in  May  and  June.  Nothing  is  known  of  their 
breeding  habits,  further  than  that  they  are  taken  in  the  gill-nets  and  in  the  sweep-nets  of  the 
paiauzelle  in  greater  numbers  at  that  season  than  earlier  in  the  year,  and  they  probably  spawn  in 
sandy  places,  and  otherwise  live  among  the  rocks. 

No  special  enemies  are  known,  other  than  predatory  fish,  and  no  diseases  have  been  observed. 
As  food-fish,  they  are  not  distinguished  from  related  species. 

60.  THE  HALIBUT— HIPPOGLOSSUS  VULGARIS. 

The  Halibut,  Hippoglos»ns  vulgaris,  is  widely  distributed  through  the  North  Atlantic  and 
North  Pacific,  both  near  the  shores,  in  shallow  water,  and  upon  the  off-shore  banks  and  the  edges 
of  the  continental  slope  down  to  a  depth  of  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  titty  fathoms  or  more. 
In  tlif  \Ve.-tern  Atlantic  the  species  has  not  been  observed  south  of  the  fortieth  parallel,  stragglers 


190  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

having  occasionally  been  taken  off  Sandy  Hook,  Block  Island,  and  Montauk  Point,  while  it  ranges 
north  at  least  to  Cumberland  Gulf,  latitude  64°,  and  to  Holsteinborg  Bank  in  Davis  Strait,  and 
a.s  far  as  Disko  and  Omenak  Fiord,  latitude  71°,  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  five  or  six  degrees 
within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Along  the  entire  west  coast  of  Greenland  they  exist,  abundant  about. 
Iceland  and  north  to  Spitzbergen,  in  latitude  80°.  No  one  knows  to  what  extent  they  arc 
distributed  along  the  European  and  Asiatic  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  they  have  been 
observed  on  both  sides  of  the  North  Cape,  in  East  and  West  Denmark,  and  from  the  North  Cape, 
latitude  71°,  south  along  the  entire  western  line  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  in  the  Skager 
Rack  and  Cattegat,  but  not,  however,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  in  the  Baltic.  Halibut  are  occasion- 
ally seen  in  the  southern  part  of  the  North  Sea  and  in  the  English  Channel:  south  of  latitude  50° 
their  range  in  the  Eastern  Atlantic  appears  to  cease.  There  is  yet  some  question  whether  it  is 
found  iu  Southern  Ireland,  but  some  of  the  largest  individuals  recorded  from  Great  Britain  were 
taken  in  the  Irish  Sea,  off  the  Isle  of  Man. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  Halibut,  which  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Beau  to  be  identical  with  that 
of  the  Atlantic,  ranges  from  the  Farallone  Islands  northward  to  Bering  Straits,  becoming  more 
abundant  northward.  "Its  center  of  abundance,"  says  Bean,  "is  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska,  par- 
ticularly about  Kodiak,  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  and  the  Shumagins.  Large  halibut  are 
numerous  about  the  Seal  Islands,  but  the  small  ones  have  been  killed  by  the  seals.  I  have 
heard  from  good  authority  of  their  capture  as  far  north  as  Saint  Lawrence  Bay,  near  East  Cape, 
in  Siberia.  It  has  several  times  been  reported  from  off  the  heads  of  Marcus  Bay,  Siberia."  It 
is  occasionally  taken  off  San  Francisco  and  about  Humboldt  Bay.  In  the  Straits  of  Fuca  and  in 
the  deeper  channels  about  Puget  Sound  it  is  taken  in  considerable  numbers. 

A  large  halibut  bank  exists  in  the  mouth  of  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  about  nine  miles  from  Cape 
Flattery  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  and  their  capture  is  an  important  industry  to  the  Coast 
Indians. 

The  Halibut  is  emphatically  a  cold-water  species.  That  it  ranges  nine  or  ten  degrees  farther 
south  on  the  American  than  on  the  European  coast,  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  general  law  of 
the  distribution  of  fish -life  in  the  Atlantic;  indeed,  it  is  only  in  winter  that  Halibut  are  known  to 
approach  the  shore  to  the  south  of  Cape  Cod,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  which  they  are  at  present  most  frequently  taken  is  never,  or  rarely,  higher  than  45°,  and 
seldom  higher  than  35°,  and  often  in  the  neighborhood  of  32°.  Its  geographic  range  corresponds 
closely  to  that  of  the  codfish,  with  which  it  is  almost  invariably  associated,  though  the  cod  is  less 
dependent  upon  the  presence  of  very  cold  water,  and  in  the  Western  Atlantic  is  found  four  or  five 
degrees — in  the  Eastern  Atlantic  at  least  two — nearer  the  Equator,  while  the  range  of  the  two 
species  to  the  north  is  probably,  though  not  certainly,  known  to  be  limited  relatively  in  about  the 
same  degree.  In  the  same  manner  the  Halibut  appears  to  extend  its  wanderings  further  out  to 
sea,  and  iu  deeper  and  colder  water  than  the  cod.  Although  observations  on  this  point  have 
necessarily  been  imperfect,  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  that,  while  cod  are  very  rarely  found  upon  the 
edge  of  the  continental  slope  of  North  America,  beyond  the  250-fathom  line,  Halibut  are  present 
there  in  abundance. 

COMMON  NAMES. — The  name  of  this  species  is  quite  uniform  in  the  regions  where  it  is  known, 
though,  of  course,  subject  to  certain  variations  in  the  languages  of  the  different  countries,  and 
its  characteristic  features  are  so  unmistakable  that  it  is  rarely  confounded  with  other  species, 
the  only  fish  for  which  it  is  ever  mistaken  seeming  to  be  the  Turbot  of  the  European  coast,  with 
which  it  sometimes  interchanges  names.  In  Scotland  it  is  said  that  the  Halibut  is  frequently 
called  the  Turbot,  and  Yarrell  has  expressed  the  opinion  tliat  in  instances  where  it  had  been 


Till:   IIAI.IItl T:  COMMON    NAMES.  ]<H 

claimed  that  Halibut  li.nl  been  taken  in  (lit-  south  of  Ireland  the  Turlmt  was  the  species  actually 
referred  to. 

••  Halibut"  and  ••  I  lolihiit  r  are  words  wliich  arc  as  old  as  (lit-  English  language.  In  Germany 
it  is  called  "lleilbntt"  or  "Ileiligcbutf;  in  Sweden,  "  Hallcfisk"  or  '•  Halleflundra,"  while  in 
Holland  the  name  is  "Hcilbot.'' 

In  studying  tin-so  names  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  "but"  or  "bott"  is  another  word  for 
a  tloiindcr  or  il.it  tish,  and  that  the  English,  Dutch,  German,  and  Scandinavian  prefixes  to  either 
this  word  or  the  equivalent  word  Flounder  are  presumably  of  the  same  meaning.  A  false 
derivation  has  been  imagined  for  the  name,  which  is  exemplified  in  the  German  word  "Ileilige- 
butt"  just  mentioned,  ami  also  in  the  English  orthography,  which  is  sometimes  encountered 
•  Holylmt."  This  is  without  foundation,  for  the  Halibut  has  never  been  mentioned  more  than  any 
other  specii-s  of  tllat  tish,  and  the  derivation  is  as  fanciful  as  the  New  England  one  of  "  Haul  n- 
boat,"  which  our  fishermen  have  frequently  assured  me  was  the  proper  name,  referring  to  the  size 
and  strength  of  the  fish.  The  true  derivation  of  the  word  is  best  understood  by  a  study  of  its 
Scandinavian  names,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  prefix  has  reference  simply  to  the  holes  or 
deep  places  at  sea  in  which  the  fish  is  found,  and  that  the  name  simply  means  "a  deep-sea  fish," 
or  "  a  deep  sea  flounder."  The  name  "  Fle"tan  "  which  a  species  bears  in  Fnnice  is  not  distinctive, 
the  tish  being  almost  unknown  in  that  country. 

DISI  iMiiinoN  IN  HIE  NORTHWKSTEKN  ATLANTIC.— The  general  distribution  of  the  Halibut 
having  been  sketched  in  outline,  it  seems  appropriate  to  discuss  more  fully  the  range  and  abun- 
dance of  the  fish  upon  the  coast  of  North  America,  where  they  are  sought  by  American  fishing 
vessels,  and  in  this  discussion  some  of  the  facts  already  briefly  stated  will  necessarily  be  repeated 
in  part  or  at  length.  Halibut  are  token  abundantly  on  Holsteinborg  Bank,  at  the  southern  entrance 
to  Davis  Strait,  latitude  67°  north  and  longitude  54°  to  56°  west,  where  several  Gloucester 
schooners  have  in  past  years  obtained  large  cargoes  of  salted  fish.  In  Etzel's  "Gronland."  the 
materials  for  which  were  largely  derived  from  Kink's  "Gronlaud  geographisk  og  stalistisk 
I '.c ->k  re  vet,"  published  in  1857,  the  distribution  of  the  species  in  this  region  is  quite  fully  discussed. 
It  is  there  stated  that  Halibut  are  taken  chiefly  in  the  southern  part  of  North  Greenland,  and 
especially  on  the  shoals  among  the  islands  in  the  district  of  Egedesminde,  especially  about  Agto, 
l.'iskol,  and  Ikerasak,  in  latitude  68°,  and  somewhat  less  near  Disko,  in  latitude  70°.  They  are 
captured  most  abundantly  in  the  spring  and  fall,  when  the  Greenlanders  take  many  in  these 
localities.  They  are  even  taken,  at  greater  depths,  as  far  north  as  Omenak,  in  latitude  71°.  In  a 
later  work,  however,  Rink  asserts  that  "  the  Netarnak  or  larger  Halibut  is  found  on  the  banks,  as 
well  as  in  different  places  outside  the  islands,  up  to  70°  north  latitude,  in  depths  of  from  thirty  to 
fifty  fathoms."1 

In  the  same  later  work  Rink  remarks  that  Halibut  are  plentiful  in  the  fall  about  Egedesmiude, 
especially  about  Agto,  the  southernmost  outpost  of  North  Greenland.2 

Regarding  the  occurrence  of  Halibut  in  South  Greenland,  Etzel  goes  on  to  state  that  in  July 
and  August  they  are  takeu'on  the  outer  coast  and  among  the  islands  at  depths  of  thirty  to  fifty 
fathoms,  while  in  winter  they  frequent  deeper  regions  and  are  but  seldom  seen,  chiefly  on  the  cod- 


1  BROWN.  KIIIIKKT:  Danish  Greenland  |  i!»  IVopli-  mid  its  Products  |  By  |  Henry  Kink  |  Knight  of  the  Order  of 
Dannebrofj  |  Director  of  the  Royal  Greenland  Hoard  of  Trade  |  Formerly  Inspector  of  South  Greenland  |  Anther  of  Tnl.-t* 
and  Traditions  of  the  Eskimoes,  etc  |  (Cut  of  modal.)  |  Edited  by  |  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  F.  L.  S.     F.  R.  G.  8.  |  Author  of 
The  Ha.-.-,  ..(  Mankind.  .-!.•  |  With  Illustrations  by  the  Eskimo,  and  a  Map  |  Henry  8.  King  &.  Co.,  London  |  1877. 
8vo,  pp.  xvii.  ti!-1,  li!  plates,  and  a  map  on  p.  1  (p.  134). 

•RINK:  Op.  cil.,  pp.:<4U,341. 


192  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

banks  oft'  Holsteinborg  and  in  the  sounds  farther  south.1  Rink  narrates  that"  in  the  year  of  tin- 
war,"  when  the  Europeans  were  obliged  to  supply  themselves  with  provisions  from  Greenland, 
there  were  taken  among  the  islands  off  Godthaab  (64°  8'  north  latitude)  two  thousand  Halibut,  and 
that  in  a  single  half  day  two  boats  took  over  one  hundred.  This  was  in  1809.  They  are  rarely 
taken  in  the  district  of  Julianshaab,  in  latitude  CO0  43'  north. 

Peter  C.  Sutherland,  writing  of  Riskol  Bank,  in  1850,  stated  that  Halibut  were  then  very 
abundant  in  that  locality,  and  that  the  cod-fishing  vessels  M'hich  visited  Davis  Strait  every  season 
use  them  to  bait  their  hooks,  though  the  supply  far  exceeded  the  demand  for  this  purpose.2 

On  the  return  of  the  Penny  Expedition,  in  1851,  Sutherland  narrates  that  when  crossing  the 
Arctic  Circle,  in  longitude  53°,  the  sailors  put  over  lines  baited  with  pork  and  hooked  a  cod  and  a 
Halibut  at  the  depth  of  forty  fathoms.3 

The  most  northern  occurrence  of  the  Halibut  on  the  western  side  of  Davis  Strait  is  that 
recorded  by  Mr.  Ludwig  Kumlien,  naturalist  of  the  Howgate  expedition,  who  saw  a  large  indi- 
vidual taken  by  the  Eskimos  off  the  mouth  of  Davis  Strait,  near  latitude  64°  north. 

Richardson,  in  the  "  Fauna  Boreali- Americana,"  speaks  of  the  occurrence  of  the  species  on  the 
Greenland  coast,  but  seems  to  have  no  authentic  information  of  its  having  been  observed  even  as 
far  north  as  Labrador  on  the  opposite  side. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  Halibut  are  found  along  the  entire  eastern  coast  of 
Labrador,  though  there  is  no  other  published  record  of  their  occurrence  nortli  of  Red  Bay,  in  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  near  latitude  51°  40'  north,  where  they  were  observed  by  Mr.  Horatio  R. 
Storer,  several  having  been  taken  during  his  stay  at  that  place  in  the  summer  of  1849.4 

They  are  abundant  in  certain  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  especially  the  island  of 
Auticosti,  and  are  also  found  along  the  entire  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  the  eastern  shores  of 
Nova  Scotia. 

In  June,  1878,  the  schooner  "G.  P.  Whitman,"  of  Gloucester,  caught  a  fare  of  Halibut  in  two 
to  twelve  fathoms  of  water  near  Green  Point,  Newfoundland.  The  crew  said  that  they  could  see 
the  fish  lying  on  the  bottom  in  shallow  water. 

Capt.  George  Olsen,  schooner  "Proctor  Brothers,"  arrived  at  Gloucester  August  2,  1880,  with 
22,000  pounds'  weight  of  fresh  Halibut,  from  Anticosti.  He  reported  Halibut  plenty  then  at  the 
western  end  of  the  island  close  inshore — within  half  a  mile;  he  saw  the  Halibut  sporting  near 
and  on  the  surface ;  he  found  they  would  not  bite,  as  on  the  banks,  at  Halibut  bait,  and  since  fresh 
herring  or  capelin  could  not  be  obtained,  could  get  only  a  partial  trip  of  Halibut.  They  were  good 
fish,  weighing  sixty  to  eighty  pounds.5 

According  to  M.  H.  Perley  they  are  found  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  up  to  its  very  head,  where 
they  are  taken  in  summer  in  Cumberland  Bay,  near  the  light-house  off  Apple  River,  and  also  in 
West  Bay.  He  states  that  they  are  also  found  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and 
abundantly  from  Cape  Split  to  Brier  Island,  as  well  as  in  the  Annapolis  B.asin.6 

'ETZEL,  ANTON  VON:  Grunland  gcographisch  und  statistisch  beschrieben.  Aus  diinischeu  Quollscbriften  von 
Anton  vou  Etzel.  Stuttgart,  J.  G.  Cotta'soher  Verlag,  1860.  8vo,  pp.  xiv,  6;i5  (p.  254). 

"SUTHEKI.AND,  PETER  C. :  Journal  of  a  Voyage  in  Baffin's  Bay  and  Barrow  Straits  in  the  years  1850-1851,  per- 
I'ni  in.  •<!  liy  H.  M.  Ships  "Lady  Franklin"  and  "Sophia"  .    .    .     inscarchof  the  missing  crews  of  H.M.  Ships  "Erebus" 
and  "Terror."    .     .     .     By  Peter  C.  Sutherland,  M.  D.,  11.  R.  C.  S.E.,  Surgeon  to  the  Expedition.     In  two  volumes. 
.     .     .     London:     .     .     .     1852.     (Vol.  i,p.2i>.) 
;SrTHEitr.ANi>:  Op.  tit.,  ii,p.  341. 

4  STOKER,  HORATIO  ROBINSON  :  Observations  on  the  Fisheries  of  the  Coasts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Labrador,  with 
Descriptions  of  New  Species.  <Pro*c.  Bout.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  vi,  1857,  pp.  247-270,  pin.  vii-viii  (p.  267). 

'Statement  of  A.  Howard  Clark. 

11  Reports  on  the  Sea  and  River  Fisheries  of  New  Brunswick,  1852,  pp.  159-163. 


TIIK  iiAuuiT:  DISTRIBUTION.  1«.»:; 

Perley's  report  was  prepared  in  1852,  and  there  is  uo  evideuce  of  a  diminution  in  that  region 
since  the  time  he  wrote. 

Mr.  J.  Matthew  Jones  tells  me  that  Halibut  are  occasionally  taken  at  Five  Inlands  in  the 
Basin  of  M  inas.  but  that  t  his  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

I  am  indebted  to  Captain  Ash  by  for  the  following  facts  about  the  southern  limits  of  the 
distribution  of  the  Ilulibnt : 

He  has  never  known  them  to  be  found  south  of  Sandy  Hook,  where  large  ones  are  occasion- 
ally taken  in  winter.  In  May,  1876,  the  schooner  "  Cartwright,"  fishing  ten  miles  southeast  of 
Montauk  Point,  caught  many  Halibut.  In  February,  1876,  some  Noank  smacks  caught  a  few  Hal- 
ibut about  eight  miles  from  laud,  off  the  southeast  point  of  Block  Island.  Within  the  last  forty 
years  one  or  two  Halibut  have  been  taken  off  the  outer  shore  of  Fisher's  Island.  He  has  never 
known  any  to  be  taken  in  Long  Island  Sound.  Halibut  are  sometimes  taken  in  three  fathoms  of 
water  among  the  breakers  of  Nantucket,  in  "  blowy  weather."  Forty  years  ago  they  were  abundant 
about  Gay  Head  and  Neman's  Laud.  There  has  been  no  systematic  fishing  there  lately,  but 
some  Halibut  have  probably  beeu  taken. 

The  local  papers  chronicled  the  capture,  on  May  1,  1876,  off  Watch  Hill,  Rhode  Island,  of  an 
eighty-pound  Halibut,  the  first  taken  in  that  vicinity  for  many  years. 

They  are  occasionally  taken  along  the  shores  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts,  but  so  seldom  that 
a  capture  of  this  kind  by  one  of  the  inshore  fishermen  is  always  mentioned  in  the  local  papers. 

ABUNDANCE. — Half  a  century  ago  Halibut  were  extremely  abundant  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 
Elsewhere  in  this  essay  are  given  several  instances  of  their  great  plenty  and  voracity,  as  narrated 
by  some  of  the  early  fishermen  of  Cape  Ann.  Of  late  years,  however,  few  are  found  except  in 
deep  water  on  the  off-shore  banks. 

The  presence  of  so  important  a  food-fish  as  the  Halibut  in  America  did  not  long  escape  the 
observations  of  the  early  English  explorers.  Capt.  John  Smith,  in  his  "  History  of  Virginia,"  wrote: 
"There  is  a  large  sized  fish  called  Hallibut,  or  Turbut:  some  are  taken  so  bigg  that  two  men  have 
inucli  a  doe  to  hall  them  into  the  boate;  but  there  is  such  plenty,  that  the  fisher  men  onely  eate 
i lie  heads  &  finnes,  and  throw  away  the  bodies:  such  in  Paris  would  yeeld  o.  or  6.  crownes  a 
peece:  and  this  is  no  discommodity." 

SIZE. — The  Halibut  is  surpassed  in  size  by  only  three  of  our  eastern  species — the  sword  fish, 
the  tunny,  and  the  tarpum.  There  is  said,  by  experienced  fishermen,  to  be  a  great  difference  in  the 
size  of  the  two  sexes,  the  females  being  mnch  the  larger;  the  male  is  said  rarely  to  exceed  fifty 
pounds  in  weight,  and  to  be,  ordinarily,  in  poor  condition  and  less  desirable  for  food.  The  average 
size  of  a  full-grown  female  is  somewhere  between  one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds, 
though  they  are  sometimes  much  heavier.  Captain  Collins,  wbo  has  had  many  years'  experience 
in  the  Gloucester  halibut  fishery,  assures  me  that  he  has  never  seen  one  which  would  weigh  over 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  that  one  weighing  over  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  is 
considered  large.  There  are,  however,  well-authenticated  instances  of  their  attaining  greater 
dimensions.  Captain  Atwood,  in  communication  with  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  in 
1864,  stated  that  the  largest  he  had  ever  taken  weighed,  when  dressed,  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  pounds,  and  would  probably  have  weighed  three  hundred  pounds  as  taken  from  the  w»i«;i-. 
In  July,  1879,  however,  the  same  reliable  observer  saw  at  Provincetown  two  individual*  taken 
near  Race  Point,  one  of  which  weighed  three  hundred  and  fifty-nine  pounds  (three  hn;if!red  and 
two  pounds  when  dressed),  the  other,  four  hundred  and  one  pounds  (three  hundred  iii.ti  twenty- 
two  pounds  when  dressed). 
13  F 


194  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

There  is  a  tradition  in  Boston  that  Mr.  Anthony  Holbrook,  one  of  the  early  fish-dealers 
of  that  city,  had  in  his  possession  a  Halibut,  taken  at  New  Ledge,  sixty  miles  southeast  of  Port 
land,  which  weighed  over  six  hundred  pounds.  This  story,  which  is  recorded  by  Storer  iu  liis 
"Fisheries  of  Massachusetts,"  Captain  At  wood  believes  to  be  untrue.  Halibut,  weighing  from 
three  to  four  hundred  pounds,  though  unusual  in  comparison  with  the  ordinary  size,  are  by  no 
means  rare.  I  have  before  me  a  record  often  or  twelve  such,  captured  on  the  New  England  const 
during  the  past  ten  years.  Nilsson,  a  Swedish  ichthyologist,  has  mentioned  the  capture  of  a  Hali- 
but on  that  coast  which  weighed  seven  hundred  and  twenty  pounds.  There  are  stories  of  Halibut 
ten  feet  in  length;  a  fish  weighing  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  is  between  seven  and  eight  feet 
long  and  nearly  four  feet  in  width.  The  largest  individuals  are  not  considered  nearly  so  good  for 
table  use  as  those  of  less  than  one  hundred  pounds'  weight.  A  fat  female  of  eighty  pounds  is, 
by  good  judges,  considered  to  be  in  the  highest  state  of  perfection.  Males  are  not,  however,  so 
highly  esteemed.  Small  Halibut,  known  as  "Chicken  Halibut,"  ranging  from  ten  to  twenty 
pounds,  are  much  sought  after  by  epicures,  and  bring  a  high  price  in  the  New  York  and  Boston 
markets.  They  are  comparatively  rare,  however,  and  a  Halibut  weighing  ten  pounds  or  less  is 
rarely  seen;  the  smallest  recorded  on  our  coast  was  about  five  inches  in  length  and  was  taken  by 
Professor  Verrill  in  a  dredge-net  in  the  Strait  of  Canso. 

The  Halibut  of  the  Pacific  are  apparently  similar  in  dimensions  to  those  of  New  England. 
Mr.  Anderson,  inspector  of  fisheries  for  British  Columbia,  states  that  they  there  attain  a  weight  of 
200  pounds. 

The  wholesale  dealers  of  Gloucester,  in  buying  fresh  Halibut  from  the  fishermen,  recognize 
two  grades ;  one,  which  they  call  "  Grey  Halibut,"  they  consider  to  be  of  inferior  value,  and  pay 
a  lower  price  for.  The  Grey  Halibut  are  distinguished  by  dark  cloudings  or  blotches  upon  the 
under  side,  which  in  the  most  remarkable  fishes  are  pure  white.  Almost  all  the  largest  Halibut 
are  classed  among  the  Greys.  Fishermen  claim  that  there  is  no  actual  difference  between  the  gray 
and  the  white  fish,  and  it  is  a  fair  question  whether  they  are  not  right. 

MIGRATIONS. — It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  describe  here  the  migrations  of  the  Halibut  from 
place  to  place;  although  much  information  has  been  received  upon  this  subject,  the  problem  re- 
quires long  and  careful  study. 

The  history  of  the  halibut  fishery  has  been  a  peculiar  one.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  these  fish  were  exceedingly  abundant  in  Massachusetts  Bay.  From  1830  to  1850,  and 
even  later,  they  were  extremely  abundant  on  George's  Banks;  since  1850  they  have  partially 
disappeared  from  this  region,  and  the  fishermen  have  since  been  following  them  to  other  banks, 
and  since  1874  out  into  deeper  and  deeper  water,  and  the  fisheries  are  now  carried  on  almost 
exclusively  in  the  gullies  between  the  off-shore  banks  and  on  the  outer  edges  of  the  banks  in  water 
one  hundred  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms  in  depth. 

Captain  Benjamin  Ashby,  of  Noank,  Connecticut,  who  is  familiar  with  the  fisheries  south  of 
Cape  Cod,  informs  me  that  they  frequent  the  deepest  water  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  that  they 
come  up  in  the  shoal  water,  in  sixty  or  seventy  fathoms,  in  May  and  June,  while  in  July  they  begin 
to  go  out  again  into  deep  water,  and  by  the  latter  part  of  the  month  are  on  the  way  into  the  gully 
on  northeast  part  of  George's  Bank. 

Captain  Collins  briefly  expresses  his  views  as  follows:  "  Halibut  are  found  in  the  deep  water — 
say  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms  in  depth — on  the  edge  of  all  the  banks  from 
George's  to  the  Grand  Bank  the  year  round.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are  found  more  numerous  in 
comparatively  shallow  water  in  the  winter  and  early  spring.  This  was  the  case  in  the  winters  and 
springs  of  1875-'76  and  1876-'77,  as  well  as  in  the  year  preceding.  But  in  1878  there  was  no  great 


mi'.  MAI. HUT.-   MK;I;ATK>NS. 

eateh  dl'  Halibut  in  l«-ss  tli:in  one  hundred  fathoms  on  any  of  the  banks.  The  great  school*  dial 
won  found  in  the  western  part  of  die  Crand  Hank  in  February  and  March,  187(iand  1877,  appear  to 
l>c  migrating.  The  fish  dial  were  found  to  the  south  of  latitude  44°  north  were  mostly  small-sized 
white  Halibut.  They  went  off  die  bank  into  deep  water,  and  nobody  knew  what  became  of  them. 
Those  that  were  eanght  to  the  north  of  this  parallel  were  mostly  large  gray  fish,  and  were  traced  a* 
far  as  Saint  Peter's  P.ank.  These  are  possibly  the  same  fish — they  are  certainly  the  same  kind  of 
tish — that  struck  in  on  the  western  coast  of  Newfoundland  in  the  summer  months  in  pursuit  of 
eapeUo." 

Gapt.  George  A.  Johnson  states  that  the  large  Halibut  frequent  the  outer  and  deeper  part 
of  die  banks,  while  the  little  "bull  fish"  lie  inside,  on  shallower  ground,  and  are  caughton  the  inner 
end  of  the  trawl  lines,  but  that  sometimes  the  large  Halibut  come  up  on  the  shallow  grounds. 

On  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  Anticosti,  and  Labrador,  Halibut  frequently  run  inshore  in 
summer  after  capelin.  When  in  shallow  water  near  the  shore  they  are  usually  wild  and  very  active. 
The  fishermen  within  eight  years  have  extended  their  fishing  much  farther  out  to  sea;  previous  to 
that  time  the  greater  part  of  the  Halibut  were  taken  on  the  top  of  the  Grand  Bank  in  thirty  to 
fifty  fathoms  of  water,  but  after  the  beginning  of  April  the  fish  went  elsewhere,  and  the  fishermen 
lost  sight  of  them.  They  soon  learned,  however,  to  follow  them  down  the  slopes  of  the  banks,  but 
before  1870  had  rarely  fished  in  water  deeper  than  seventy  to  ninety  fathoms.  Since  that  time,  as 
has  already  been  stated,  fishing  has  been  carried  into  twice  or  three  times  that  depth.  All  that  can 
at  present  be  said  in  explanation  of  their  movements  is  that  they  occur  in  great  schools,  and,  soon 
consuming  the  available  food  in  any  one  locality,  are  obliged  to  shift  their  position  to  some  other 
place  where  they  can  find  fresh  pastures.  It  does  not  seem  possible  that  their  migrations  can  be 
caused  by  conditions  of  temperature  or  are  in  connection  with  their  breeding  habits.  During  the 
breeding  season  the  schools  sometimes  remain  for  months  in  one  locality,  and  these  places  are 
generally  of  limited  extent.  While  spawning  but  little  if  any  food  is  found  in  their  stomachs. 

FOOD. — They  are  large-mouthed,  sharp-toothed,  voracious,  although  adapted  for  life  upon  the 
bottom,  and  doubtless  feed  largely  upon  crabs  and  mollusks;  they  are  particularly  fond  offish  of 
all  kinds ;  these  they  waylay,  lying  upon  the  bottom,  invisible  by  reason  of  their  flat  bodies,  colored 
to  correspond  with  the  general  color  of  the  sand  or  mud  upon  which  they  rest.  When  in  pursuit 
of  their  prey  they  are  active,  and  often  come  quite  to  the  surface,  especially  when  in  the  summer 
they  follow  the  capeliu  to  the  shoal  water  near  the  land.  They  feed  upon  skates,  cod,  haddock, 
menhaden,  mackerel,  herring,  lobsters,  flounders,  sculpins,  grenadiers,  turbot,  Norway  haddock, 
bank  clams,  and  anything  else  that  is  eatable  and  can  be  found  in  the  same  waters.  Captain  Ashby 
tells  me  that  common  flounders  and  flat  fish  are  among  their  most  favorite  food;  they  follow  them 
up  on  the  shoals  of  George's  and  Xantucket ;  they  lie  in  wait  for  them  on  the  sand-rips  and  catch 
them  as  they  swim  over.  He  has  seen  a  half  bushel  of  flat  fish  in  the  stomach  of  one;  they  stow 
them  away  very  tightly.  He  has  often  seen  Halibut  chasing  flat  fish  over  the  surface  of  the  water. 
About  Cape  Sable  their  favorite  food  seems  to  be  haddock  and  cusk.  He  has  seen  eight  or  ten  pounds 
of  haddock  and  cod  taken  out  of  one  of  them.  When  they  are  on  the  shoals  they  are  sometimes 
tilled  with  flat-fish,  haddock,  cusk,  sculpin,  and  herring,  but  when  in  deep  water  he  has  found  very 
little  food  in  them.  They  eat  crabs  and  other  crustaceans,  but  shells  are  rarely  found  in  their 
stomachs,  except  those  of  clams  and  mussels. 

Captain  Hurlbert  tells  me  that  when  the  vessels  are  dressing  codfish  on  the  Grand  P.anks,  and 
the  back-bones  and  head  are  thrown  overl>oard,  these  are  frequently  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
Halibut  taken  in  the  same  locality. 


196  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Mr.  William  H.  Wcmson,  of  Gloucester,  has  seen  live  lobsters  six  inches  long  taken  from  the 
stomach  of  a  Halibut.  Captain  Marsh  states  that  they  feed  on  whiting,  mackerel,  and  herring. 
He  remarks :  "  Halibut  will  drive  off  any  kind  of  fish  and  take  charge  of  the  ground." 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  in  1852,  Dr.  W.  O.  Ayres  stated  that 
he  had  seeu  a  block  of  wood,  a  cubic  foot  in  dimensions,  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  Halibut,  where 
it  had  apparently  lain  fora  long  time.  Capt.  George  A.  Johnson  found  an  accordion  key  in  one  of 
them.  Olafson,  in  1831,  studying  them  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  found  not  only  pieces  of  iron  and 
wood  in  them,  but  in  the  stomach  of  one  individual  a  large  piece  of  floe  ice.  Captain  Collins 
has  observed  that  they  often  kill  their  prey  by  blows  of  the  tail,  a  fact  which  is  quite  novel  and 
interesting.  He  described  to  me  an  instance  which  occurred  on  a  voyage  home  from  Sable  Island 
in  1877:  "The  man  at  the  wheel  sang  out  that  he  saw  a  Halibut  flapping  its  tail  about  a  quarter 
of  a  uiile  off  our  starboard  quarter.  I  looked  through  the  spy-glass,  and  his  statement  was  soon 
verified  by  the  second  appearance  of  the  tail.  We  hove  out  a  dory,  and  two  men  went  in  her, 
taking  with  them  a  pair  of  gaff-hooks.  They  soon  returned  bringing  not  only  the  Halibut,  which 
was  a  fine  one,  of  about  seventy  pounds'  weight,  but  a  small  codfish  which  it  had  been  trying  to 
kill  by  striking  it  with  its  tail.  The  codfish  was  quite  exhausted  by  the  repeated  blows,  and  did 
not  attempt  to  escape  after  his  enemy  had  been  captured.  The  Halibut  was  so  completely  engaged 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  codfish  that  it  paid  no  attention  to  the  dory,  and  was  easily  captured." 

The  Halibut,  in  its  turn,  is  the  prey  of  seals,  of  the  white  whale,  and  of  the  various  large 
sharks,  especially  the  ground  shark,  or  sleeping  shark,  in  the  stomachs  of  which  they  have  some- 
times been  found;  their  sides,  1  am  told  by  Captain  Collins,  are  often  deeply  scarred,  probably  by 
the  teeth  of  the  sharks,  or  in  their  early  lires  by  mouths  of  larger  individuals  of  their  own  kind. 

SPAWNING. — There  is  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  their  spawning.  Some  fishermen  say  that 
they  spawn  at  Christmas  time,  in  the  month  of  January,  when  they  are  on  the  shoals.  Others 
declare  that  it  is  in  summer,  at  the  end  of  June.  Capt.  George  A.  Johnson,  of  the  schooner 
"Augusta  H.  Johnson,"  of  Gloucester,  assures  me  that  Halibut  "spawn,  just  like  the  human  race, 
at  any  time  of  the  year."  In  April,  1878,  he  was  fishing  on  Quereau  Bank,  and  found  large  and 
small  Halibut,  the  large  ones  full  of  spawn.  In  May  he  was  on  the  Le  Have  Bank,  where  he  found 
only  small  male  fish  full  of  milt;  in  June  he  was  on  Le  Have  again,  fishing  in  shallow  water, 
where  he  found  plenty  of  "small  bull  fish,  with  their  pockets  full  of  milt";  in  July  he  was  again 
on  Quereau  Bank,  where  he  found  a  school  of  small  and  big  male  and  female  fish,  all,  apparently, 
spawning,  or  ready  to  spawn,  "with  milt  and  pees  soil";  in  August  he  was  on  the  outer  part  of 
Sable  Island,  where  he  found  females  full  of  spawn. 

Captain  Ashby,  speaking  of  the  Halibut  on  George's  Banks,  states  that  roe  is  always  found  in 
them  in  May  and  June.  The  roes  of  a  large  Halibut  caught  by  him  in  1848  on  the  southwest  part 
of  George's,  and  which  weighed  356  pounds,  after  it  had  been  dressed  and  its  head  removed, 
weighed  44  pounds.  He  states  that  the  Halibut  in  this  region  have  spawn  in  them  as  long  as 
Connecticut  vessels  continue  to  catch  them,  or  unlil  September.  He  has  seen  eggs  i:i  Halibut 
of  twenly  pounds'  weight,  and  thinks  that  they  begin  to  breed  at  that  size.  The  spawn  of  the 
Halibut  is  a  favorite  food  of  the  fishermen  of  Southern  New  England,  though  never  eaten  by  those 
of  Cape  Ann. 

Captain  Hurlbert,  of  Gloucester,  tells  me  that  on  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland  the 
halibut  school  used  to  come  up  in  shoal  water,  in  forty  or  fifty  fathoms,  in  summer,  and  that  the 
spawn  was  ripest  about  a  fortnight  later.  In  August,  1878,  he  found  many  with  the  spawn  already 
run  out  At  that  time  several  Gloucester  fishermen  reported  that  the  Halibut  on  Le  Have  and 
Qnerean  Banks  were  full  of  spawn.  Captain  Collins  told  me  that  in  July  and  August,  and  up 


i  in,  ii  \ur.i  T:  si-.vu  MM;  n. VISITS.  1<>7 

to  I  lie  lirst  of  September,  they  are  fen  i  ml  here  u  i  lli  the  o\.u  ics  \  ri  \  lar>;e,  ami  arc  often  seen  with 
tin-  ova  and  milt  exuding.  Tin-  ovaries  .,1'a  Iarj;e  lisli  art-  toohcavx  loin-  lifted  by  a  man,  without 
considerable  exertion,  being  often  two  feet  or  more  in  length.  At  this  time  very  little  food  is 
found  in  their  stomachs.  In  September,  1878,  the  Fish  Commission  obtained  from  Captain  Collins 
the  roes  of  a  tisli  weighing  from  100  to  200  pounds,  taken  by  the  schooner  "Marion"  on  the  13th, 
of  i  he  month  on  (jnereau  Hank.  This  fish  was  taken  at  the  depth  of -'00  fathoms,  and  the  temper- 
ature of  the  water  was  roughly  recorded  at  36°  F.  These  ovaries  were  put  into  a  basket  with 
ice  and  brought  to  the  laboratory  of  the  Fish  Commission,  where  they  were  found  to  weigh  seven- 
teen pounds,  two  ounces.  Part  of  the  eggs  were  nearly  ripe,  and  separated  readily,  while  others 
were  immature  and  closely  adherent  to  each  other.  A  portion  of  the  roe,  representing  a  fair  aver- 
age of  the  size  of  the  eggs,  was  weighed,  and  was  found  to  contain  2,185  eggs;  the  weight  of  this 
portion  was  two  drams.  The  total  number  of  eggs  was  from  this  estimated  to  be  2,182,773.  It 
is  not  yet  known  whether  the  eggs  float  or  rest  upon  the  bottom,  nor  is  it  known  how  long  is  the 
period  of  incubation,  nor  what  is  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  fish.  As  has  already  been  mentioned, 
young  fish  are  very  unusual ;  the  smallest  ever  seen  by  Captain  Ashby  in  Southern  New  England 
was  taken  on  Nantucket  Shoals,  and  weigh  jd  two  and  a  half  pounds  after  it  had  been  eviscerated. 

ABNORMAL  INDIVIDUALS. — Left-handed  Halibut  are  sometimes  taken.  Perhaps  one  out  of 
five  thousand  is  thus  abnormal  in  its  form,  having  the  eyes  upon  the  left  rather  than  upon  tho 
right  hand  side  of  the  head. 

Halibut  with  dark  spots  or  patches  on  the  under  side  of  the  same  dark  color  as  the  back  are 
occasionally  taken.  These  are  called  by  the  fishermen  "Circus  Halibut."  They  are  generally  of 
medium  si/e,  and  thick,  well-fed  fish. 

61.  THE  SAND  DAB,  OR  ROUGH  DAB. 

The  Sand  Dab,  or  Rough  Dab,  Hippogloitsoitle*  platfssoidex,  also  sometimes  known  as  the  Rusty 
Flounder,  is  taken  in  winter  by  the  line  fishermen  of  New  England,  and  small  quantities  are  doubt- 
less brought  to  market  and  sold  with  other  flat  fishes  without  discrimination  as  to  species.  It 
often  attains  the  length  of  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches,  and  the  weight  of  two  to  five  pounds, 
and  is,  in  all  respects,  a  desirable  food-fish,  being  highly  esteemed  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
In  summer,  individuals  of  this  species  are  to  be  found  only  in  very  deep  water,  thirty  fathoms  or 
more,  on  the  New  England  coast,  and,  though  never  very  abundant  in  any  one  locality,  might  be 
taken  in  considerable  quantities,  in  company  with  tho  Pole  Flounder,  by  I  lie  use  of  a  trawl-net,  or 
even  by  specially  devised  trawl  lines. 

The  Rough  Dab  has  not  been  observed  south  of  Wood's  Hull,  Massachusetts,  but  ranges  north 
to  Greenland,  is  abundant  on  the  English  coast,  and  is  a  well-known  food-fish  of  Scandinavia.  Its 
breeding  habits  in  our  waters  have  not  been  observed,  but  in  Southern  Sweden  the  spawning  time 
is  in  April  and  May.  It  is  a  large-mouthed  species,  feeding  upon  fish  as  well  as  upon  large  inverte- 
brates, such  as  crustaceans  and  annelids,  and  mention  has  been  made  of  it  more  on  account  of  its 
possible  value  in  the  future  than  for  its  present  importance. 

62.  THE  GREENLAND  TURBOT. 

The  Greenland  Turbot,  Platytomativhtliy*  hippoyloMoides,  though  never  occurring  in  our  inshore 
waters,  is  found  on  the  off-shore  banks,  as  far  south  as  George's  Hank,  and  a  certain  quantity  of 
them  is  usually  brought  to  New  York  every  winter.  It  is  emphatically  :iu  arctic  species,  being 
abundant  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  often  found  at  Holsteinborg  and  beyond,  and  along  this 
entire  coast  very  eagerly  sought  by  the  natives.  The  Eskimo  name  is  "  Kalh-raglik,"  and  tho 
fish  is  also  known  as  "Little  Halibut/'  In  Giinther's  great  work  on  "The  Fishes  of  the  Hriti.sh 


198  NATURAL  HISTJRY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Museum,"  be  has  confused  this  species  with  the  true  Halibut,  making  it  appear  that  only  the  former 
is  to  be  found  on  the  coast  of  North  America.  In  Northern  Greenland  the  Turbot  is  found  only  at 
very  great  depths,  and  is  fished  for,  in  water  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  and  eighty 
fathoms,  through  holes  in  the  ice,  over  certain  banks  in  Oinenak  Fiord  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Jacob's-Haveu  ice-fiord,  which  is  also  packed  with  great  ice-floes.  It  is  said  to  be  found  only  in 
the  ice-fiords  and  between  the  great  ice-fields,  and  there  only  in  the  coldest  months  of  the  year. 

In  South  Greenland  they  are  taken  on  the  oceanic  banks  at  a  depth  of  sixty  to  one  hundred 
and  eighty  fathoms,  though  there  considered  to  be  not  so  abundant  as  in  North  Greenland.  In 
Fortune  Bay,  Newfoundland,  according  to  Captains  G.  Johnson  and  A.  Leighton,  of  Gloucester, 
they  are  very  abundant  in  sixty  to  three  hundred  fathoms,  and  are  caught  chiefly  in  winter. 
They  are  also  obtained  by  the  Gloucester  halibut  fleet  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  oceanic  banks,  in 
two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  fathoms  of  water. 

Their  habits  are  not  at  all  well  understood,  but  it  would  appear  from  the  statements  of  several 
experienced  fishermen,  whom  I  have  questioned,  that  they  occur  on  the  very  edge  of  the  conti- 
nental slope  in  deeper  water  than  the  true  Halibut,  in  fact  in  places  where  the  slope  is  so  nearly 
perpendicular  that  the  Halibut  can  hardly  hold  their  places  on  the  bottom.  This  species  is 
more  symmetrical  than  any  other  of  the  family  on  our  coast,  and,  moreover,  is  colored  upon  both 
sides  of  the  body — a  fact  which  indicates  that  its  movements  are  more  like  those  of  the  ordinary 
symmetrical  fishes  and  that  it  can  rest  with  the  body  in  a  vertical  attitude. 

It  would  seem  probable  that  its  chosen  haunts  are  along  the  declivities  of  the  outer  slope  of 
the  continental  plateau,  where  abundance  of  food  is  known  to  occur,  and  where  other  fishes  are 
not  so  well  adapted  to  live.  Many  hundreds  of  pounds  are  caught,  every  year,  on  the  halibut  trawls, 
and  the  fish  are  frequently  iced  and  brought  to  market  with  the  Halibut,  and  frequently  eaten  by 
the  fishermen  themselves.  The  greater  portion  of  those  brought  to  New  York  in  winter  are,  how- 
ever, taken  on  trawl  lines  at  the  mouth  of  Fortune  Bay,  and  brought  down  by  the  vessels  which  go 
there  to  procure  cargoes  of  frozen  herring.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  statistics  of  the  quantities 
thus  brought  in,  because  the  market  returns  do  not  discriminate  between  the  different  species  of 
flounders  and  flat  fishes. 

The  Greenland  Turbot  is  an  exceedingly  palatable  fish,  its  flesh  being  firm,  white,  and  less  dry 
and  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  that  of  the  Halibut.  The  average  weight  is  from  ten  to  twenty- 
five  pounds.  In  Greenland  they  are  perhaps  more  highly  esteemed  than  any  other  fish.  The 
Greenlanders  begin  fishing  as  soon  as  the  fiords  are  frozen  over  and  the  white  whales,  which  prey 
greedily  upon  this  fish,  have  left  the  entrances  open.  They  fish  through  holes  in  the  ice,  and  attach 
little  threads  at  intervals  to  their  lines,  so  that  they  may  better  see  the  motion  which  the  nibbling 
fish  makes.  Under  favorable  circumstances  a  man  may  take  ten  to  eighteen  of  these  fishes  daily. 
The  fishery  continues  from  January  to  the  middle  of  March,  sometimes,  however,  only  a  week  or 
two,  and  usually  only  about  a  month.  The  fish  are  cut  into  strips  and  dried  for  the  consumption 
of  the  Danish  colonists.  It  is  said  that  a  very  fine  oil  can  be  made  out  of  their  fat,  so  that  in 
hard  times  the  fish  serves  to  warm  and  light  their  houses  as  well  as  feed  their  occupants.  In  South 
Greenland  they  are  not  so  numerous,  but  are  constantly  sought  for,  being  taken  in  company  with 
the  sea  perch,  or  red  fish.1 

63.  THE  POLE  FLOUNDER,  OR  CRAIG  FLOUNDER. 

This  fish,  Glyptocephalux  cynoglossus,  often  known  as  the  Deep-sea  Flounder,  was  first 
observed  on  this  coast  in  1877,  when  numerous  specimens  were  obtained  by  the  United  States 

'  These  facts  are  taken  from  Rink's  "  Greenland." 


Till:    I'(H,K  01!  ritAir,    Fl.niNDFH. 

Fish  Commission,  in  tin-  deepest  pan  of  MassachiiM-iis  l',a\.  Specimens  have  since  been  obtained 
south  of  Capo  Cod,  at  a  depth  ofone  hundred  fathoms  or  more,  by  the  Fish  Commission,  and  l>\ 
Professor  Agassi/,  oil' the  entrance  to  Delaware  Hay,  at  a  depth  of  three  hundred  and  ninety-live 
fathoms.  Tin-  Pule  Flounder  appears  to  be  a  permanent  resident,  throughout  the  whole  year,  in 
the  deep  basins  of  Massachusetts  May  and  on  the  edge  of  the  continental  slope,  and  is  fouud 
abundant  in  lied  ford  Basin,  the  inner  expansion  of  Halifax  Harbor,  at  a  depth  of  thirty-seven 
fathoms.  It  ranges  nearly  to  Greenland,  and  is  also  found  on  the  coast  of  Northern  Europe, 
where  it  is  found  in  the  Trondhjem  Fjord,  in  latitude  65°,  and  south  to  the  coast  of  Ireland.  It« 
thermal  range  appears  to  be  confined  by  the  limits  34°  and  45°. 

It  breeds  abundantly  in  our  waters  in  summer  time,  numerous  individuals,  full  of  spawn,  and 
young  from  half  an  inch  upward,  having  been  taken,  from  July  to  October,  in  various  localities. 

The  Pole  Flounder  has  been  pronounced,  by  all  who  have  tasted  it,  a  most  delicious  food-fish, 
resembling  more  closely  than  any  other  species  on  pur  coast  the  English  Hole,  having  a  great 
quantity  of  peculiarly  flavored  mucilaginous  tissue  about  the  base  of  the  tins;  it  has  never  been 
taken  by  our  fishermen,  because,  on  account  of  its  exceedingly  small  and  weak  month,  it  could 
not  hold  fast  to  an  ordinary  hook  and  line;  and,  should  it  ever  come  into  demand,  it  will  !><• 
necessary  for  onr  fishermen  to  introduce  the  English  trawl-net. 

84.  THE  SPOTTED  SAND  FLOUNDER. 

The  Turbot,  or  Steiubutt,  Rhombu*  maximns,  and  the  Brill,  or  Glattbutt,  do  not  occur  in  our 
waters,  although  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  prove  that  they  do.  The  nearest  repre- 
sentative of  the  Turbot  is  the  Spotted  Sand  Flounder,  Lophopaetta  maculata,  a  species  found  from 
Bucksport,  Maine,1  to  Fort  Macon,  North  Carolina,  variously  known  along  the  coast  as  Water 
Flounder,  Window-pane,  and  Daylight;  the  latter  name  refers  to  the  remarkable  thinness  of  the 
fish,  its  flesh  being  so  transparent  that,  when  held  to  the  light,  the  shadow  of  an  object  on  the 
other  side  can  be  seen.  Its  flavor  is  good,  but  the  amount  of  flesh  is  so  small  that  it  is  of  no 
consequence  as  a  food-fish.  There  are  other  smaller  representatives  of  the  family  on  the  southern 
coast,  and  in  deep  water  from  Cape  Cod  southward,  belonging  to  the  genus  Citharichthys,  which, 
although  edible,  are  never  eaten. 

'According  to  Mr.  O.  A.  Boardman,  of  Calais,  Maine,  an  individnal  was  taken  in  PasHamaqnoddy  Bay  in  Septemlier, 

too. 


200  NATURAL  FlISTOllY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


J.— THE  COD   FAMILY  AND   ITS   KINDRED. 

The  Codfish  and  its  allies  constitute,  from  an  economical  point  of  view,  the  most  important  of 
all  the  families  of  fishes,  containing,  as  it  does,  a  large  number  of  species,  most  of  them  of  consider- 
able size,  distributed  throughout  all  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  usually  found  together  in 
great  numbers,  readily  captured,  and  easily  preserved  for  future  use. 

An  elaborate  discussion  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  cod  family,  and  its  relations  to 
fisheries  and  commerce,  by  Karl  Dambeck,  was  published  in  "  Gaea,"  in  1877.  A  translation  of  this 
paper  may  be  found  in  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  Part  V, 
1877,  pp.  531-557.  This  paper  is  not  without  value,  although  it  contains  many  false  statements, 
the  writer  appearing  to  have  been  but  slightly  acquainted  with  the  more  recent  ichthyological  dis- 
coveries. In  the  translation  referred  to,  the  paper  has  been  revised  and  annotated  by  Dr.  Bean,  and 
is  sufficiently  accurate  so  far  as  the  American  species  are  concerned. 

65.  THE  COD— GADUS  MORRHUA. 

NAMES  OP  THE  CODFISH. — Mr.  J.  Carson  Brevoort,  of  New  York,  contributes  the  following 
interesting  sketch  of  the  names  applied  to  the  cod  family  by  the  different  nations  of  Europe : 

"The  appellations  under  which  the  weather-dried  Codfish,  split  and  stretched  on  a  short  stick, 
is  known  throughout  the  civilized  world  can  all  be  traced  to  one  common  root,  based  upon  the 
mode  of  preparation  for  the  market. 

"Among  the  Greeks  the  large  Codfish  were  called  Bacchi,  from  Bacchus,  a  rod.  By  the  Latins 
the  fish  was  named  Oadus,  from  a  Sanscrit  root  cad  or  gad,  a  rod.  We  find  this  root  in  English  in 
'goad, 'and,  perhaps,  in  'cat-o'-uine  tails';  in  Gaelic  gad  and  godan,  signifying  a  small  rod.  By  the 
Iberians  the  dried  Cod  were  called  Bacalaos,  from  Bacnleum,  a  small  stick.1  This  points  also  to 
the  root  of  the  French  Baguette,  a  rod,  Bilboquet,  the  toy  known  as  cup  and  ball,  really  a  stick  and 
ball,  and  other  words.  By  the  Anglo-Saxons  it  was  called  the  Cod,  from  the  word  gad  or  goad,  a 
rod.  By  the  Germans  it  was  known  as  the  Stockjisch,  from  Stock,  a  stick. 

"The  Hollanders  varied  a  little  from  this,  and  as  far  back  as  the  year  1400  called  it  the 
Kabeljaauw,  which  seems  to  be  from  the  Dutch  gabel,  a  fork.  They  also  called  it  the  Bakkeljauue. 

"The  French  Morue  is  not  from  the  above  root.  'It  may  be  from  the  Celtic  Mor,  the  sea.  The 
French,  however,  never  prepared  the  Cod  by  drying  it  on  a  stick,  but  salted  it  as  the  Morue  verte, 
or  green  Cod.  The  French  Molue  is  merely  a  change  in  the  liquid  consonants. 

"When  the  Cod  is  dried  on  the  downs  it  is  called  Dunfish,  from  the  Gaelic  root  Dvin,  a  hill. 
If  dried  on  the  rocks  it  becomes  the  Rock  Cod,  or  the  Klippfisk  of  the  Norwegians.  Among  these 
last  the  Cod  is  called  the  Dorset,  or  Torsk,  in  English  Tusk,  from  the  Gothic  Diirren,  to  dry. 

"The  English  'Aberdeen  fish,'  or  French  Labcrdan,  is  from  the  Gaelic  Abar,  the  mouth;  Dan, 
a  river,  or  fish  caught  near  the  river's  mouth." 

These  remarks  are  suggestive  in  the  extreme,  since  they  explain  the  origin  of  almost  all  of 
the  names  now  applied  to  this  species  both  in  its  fresh  and  cured  condition.2 


1  The  rod  held  by  Mercury  was  called  a  Baculeum. 

*8keat  in  his  Etymological  Dictionary,  recently  published,  does  not  confirm  the  views  advanced  by  Mr.  Brevoort, 
remarking,  "I  suppose  that  this  word  cod  must  be  the  same  as  the  Middle  English  codde  or  cod,  a  busk,  bag,  bolster; 
though  the  resemblance  of  the  fish  to  a  bolster  is  but  fanciful.  It  is  obvious  that  Shakespeare  knew  nothing  of  the 
Linntean  name  gadus  (Greek  yaSot),  nor  is  the  derivation  of  cod  from  gadus  at  all  satisfactory." 


TIIK  COD:    COMMON  NAMKS.  201 

The  name  by  which  this  species  was  known  among  the  Narragausett  Indian*  is  indicated  by 
the  following  sentence  from  Roger  Williams'  "Key  into  the  Languages  of  America": 

"  Panganaut,  tamwock.    Cod,  Which  is  the  first  that  comes  a  little  before  the  Spring." 

In  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Ann  the  young  Cod,  too  small  to  swallow  a  bait,  are  sometimes  known 
to  the  fishermen  as  "  Pickers,"  and  throughout  all  Eastern  Massachusetts  the  name  "Scrod,"or 
"Scrode,"  is  in  common  use.  In  its  primary  meaning  it  seems  to  refer  to  these  small  fish  slightly 
corned,  in  which  condition  they  are  a  favorite  article  of  food,  but  the  name  is  also  transferred  to 
the  young  fish  themselves.  The  fishermen  recognize  several  varieties  of  Cod  for  which  they  have 
different  names.  Rock  Cod  are  those  which  are  found  in  shoal  water  among  the  reefs  and  ledges, 
and  which  usually  are  of  a  dark  color:  these  fish  are  often  brilliant  red  in  color,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  t  lie  small  animals  upon  which  they  live  feed  upon  the  red  algae,  abundant  in  those 
localities,  and  from  them  have  absorbed  the  red  coloring  matter  into  their  tissues.  "Rockling" 
are  probably  young  Rock  Cod.  In  the  vicinity  of  Scituate,  Massachusetts,  Bock  Cod  are  also  called 
"Native  Cod." 

Another  class  of  names  api>ears  to  apply  to  those  fish  which  live  near  the  shores,  but  which 
are  less  closely  limited  to  the  reefs.  These  are  called  "Shoal- water  Cod,"  "  Shore  Cod,"  "Inshore 
Cod,"  "Worm  Cod,"  "Clam  Cod,"  ."Black  Snappers,"  "Black  Biters,"  " Brown  Cod,"  "Ground 
Keepers,"  and  "Ground  Tenders"  or  "Groupers." 

Still  another  class  of  fish  is  known  by  such  names  as  "Deep-water  Cod,"  "Bank  Coil,"  and 
"School  Cod." 

There  are  also  certain  local  schools  of  fish  which  have  names  of  their  own ;  for  instance,  the 
"Herring  Fish"  or  "Herring  Cod"  of  Southeastern  Maine,  and  the  "Squid  School"  of  Nantucket 
and  other  parts  of  the  coast,  the  "  Pasture  School  "  of  Cape  Ann,  and  the  so-called  "  Shad  School" 
which  frequented  Massachusetts  Bay  between  1815  and  1830. 

In  Southeastern  Maine  the  name  "Pine-tree  Cod"  is  also  in  use.  It  is  difficult  at  present  to 
determine  exactly  to  what  extent  these  names  are  used  and  what  their  precise  meaning  may  be, 
but  it  is  almost  certain  that  each  community  of  fishermen  has  its  own  peculiar  names  by  which  to 
designate  local  peculiarities  of  habit  and  movement. 

In  the  markets  the  Cod  from  George's  Bank  are  usually  classed  as  "George's  fish,"  and  are 
considered  to  be  of  superior  value.  George's  fish  are  very  fat  fish  with  white  "  napes."  This  name 
is  becoming  a  commercial  term  to  describe  Codfish  of  the  finest  quality.  No  one  of  these  names, 
excepting  Rock  Cod,  or  Red  Cod,  appears  to  be  in  use  in  Great  Britain,  although  there,  as  here, 
there  are  various  names  of  local  significance,  which  are  of  little  interest,  however,  to  Americans. 

"Bank  Cod"  and  "Shore  Cod"  are  commercial  names,  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  name 
"George's  Cod." 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CODFISH  IN  AMERICA. — As  early  as  1 415  A.  D.,  English  vessels  frequented  the 
fishing  grounds  near  Iceland,  and  it  is  claimed  by  some  authorities  that  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland 
were  known  to  the  Basques  centuries  before  the  discovery  of  the  American  continent.  The  Banks 
of  Newfoundland  were  among  the  principal  inducements  which  led  the  English  to  establish  colonies 
in  this  country,  and  in  the  records  of  early  voyages  are  many  allusions  to  the  abundance  of  Cod 
along  our  shores. 

In  the  Appendix  may  be  found  an  essay,  by  Mr.  Robert  8.  Rantoul,  on  "The  Cod  in  Massachu- 
setts' History,"  a  paper  read  at  a  field  meeting  of  the  Essex  Institute  at  Gloucester,  September  14, 
I860.  It  is  really  an  epitome  of  the  early  history  of  the  cod  fisheries  of  the  United  States,  con- 
taining much  interesting  information  upon  the  use  of  the  Codfish  upon  the  seal  of  Massachusetts 
and  upon  the  colonial  coinage. 


202  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

A  Nova  Scotia  coin  or  bank-token  has  upon  it  the  figure  of  a  Codfish.  Upon  the  obverse  is  a 
plow  with  the  legend  "Speed  the  Plough,"  upon  the  reverse  a  salted  Codfish  with  the  words, 
"Success  to  the  Fisheries." 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  COD. — Tue  Codfish  is  found  in  the  North  Atlantic,  in  the  North 
Pacific,  and  in  the  Polar  Ocean,  its  range  extending  far  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  seems 
unnecessary  to  enumerate  all  the  localities  in  which  it  has  been  observed,  for  its  geographical 
range  may  be  defined  with  sufficient  accuracy  and  by  a  much  more  comprehensive  statement:  In  the 
Western  Atlantic  the  species  occurs  in  the  winter  in  considerable  abundance  as  far  south  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  latitude  37°,  and  stragglers  have  been  observed  about  Ocracoke 
Inlet.1  The  southern  limit  of  this  species  may  safely  be  considered  to  be  Cape  Hatteras,  in  latitude 
35°  10'.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Middle  States,  New  England,  and  British  North  America,  and 
upon  all  the  off-shore  banks  of  this  region,  Cod  are  found  usually  in  great  abundance,  daring 
part  of  the  year  at  least.  They  have  been  observed  also  in  the  Gulf  of  Boothia,  latitude  70°  io 
75°,  and  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Baffin's  Land  to  the  northward  of  Cumberland  Sound,  and  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  they  occur  in  the  waters  of  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  north  of  the  American 
continent,  or  away  round  to  Bering  Straits.2 

The  Cod  has  been  observed  on  the  western  coast  of  Greenland.  In  the  North  Atlantic  the 
range  of  the  species  extends  to  Iceland  and  Spitzbergen,  latitude  80°;  along  the  arctic  coast  of 
Europe,  as  far  as  Eastern  Finmark,  and  probably  round  to  Siberia;  while  southward  it  ranges  at 
least  to  Brittany.  Its  southern  limit  is  probably  near  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  latitude  40°,  although 
Yarrell  states  that  it  is  found  south  to  Gibraltar.  It  does  not  enter  the  Mediterranean,  but  pene- 
trates into  the  Baltic  to  the  coast  of  Western  Russia.  Its  distribution  in  the  North  Pacific  is  not 
so  well  understood,  though  it  appears  to  occur  in  the  same  abundance  on  all  the  off-shore  banks  of 
this  region,  and  also  close  to  the  coasts  to  the  north  of  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  According  to  Jordan, 
there  is  said  to  be  a  cod  bank  outside  of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  but  the  species  at  present  is 
of  no  economic  importance  south  of  Alaska.  A  full  discussion  of  the  Alaskan  Codfish  is  given 
below  by  Dr.  Bean  in  the  chapter  on  THE  ALASKA  COD-FISHERY. 

The  Cod  enters  fresh  water  upon  occasion.3  It  is  found,  according  to  Canadian  authors,  well 
up  the  estuary  of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  though  how  far  up  is  not  definitely  stated,  probably  not 
beyond  the  limits  of  brackish  water.  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott  records  that  on  the  23d  or  24th  of  January, 
1876,  a  healthy,  strong,  active  Codfish,  weighing  nearly  four  pounds,  was  taken  in  a  draw-net  in 
the  Delaware  River  near  Trenton,  New  Jersey;  the  stomach  of  the  fish  showed  that  it  had  been  in 
river-water  several  days.  Many  of  them  had  been  taken  about  Philadelphia  between  1856  and 
1869.4 

Mr.  George  R.  Smith,  of  Millbridge,  Maine,  states  that  Cod  are  found  all  along  the  coast,  even 
entering  brackish  water  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

Mr.  Wilson  M.  Albee,  of  Mohegan,  Maine,  affirms  that  Cod  occur  in  all  places  along  the  coast 
of  that  region,  even  in  brackish  water. 

Mr.  A.  T.  Gamage,  of  Damariscotta,  Maine,  says :  "  There  is  not  a  place  of  any  extent  on  the 
coast  of  Maine  and  seaward  where  Cod  are  not  found.  They  occur  from  the  edge  of  the  breakers 


1  The  mackerel  schooner  "  Relenter,"  of  Gloucester,  April  5, 1880,  caught,  on  one  hand-line,  some  600  pounds  of 
large  Cod,  with  mackerel  bait,  in  twenty  fathoms  of  water,  when  about  eight  miles  off  Cape  Charles. — A.  H.  CLARK. 

3  RICHARDSON  :  Fauna  Boreali  Americana,  p.  243. 

'"Forest  and  Stream,"  December  25,  1873,  contains  the  following  astounding  statement,  which,  of  course,  is 
entirely  unworthy  of  credence:  "Three  Codfish,  weighing  six  pounds  each,  were  caught  in  the  Saint  John's  River, 
Florida,  near  Palatka,  last  week;  the  first  of  the  kind  ever  caught  in  Southern  waters.  Tho  '  Herald,'  says  Captain 
Vogel,  of  the  steamer  'Dictator,'  pronounced  them  genuine  Codfish." 

4  American  Naturalist,  iv.p.  116. 


•mi:  coi>:  C,F.OC,I;AIMIICAI.  IHSTIMIT  rmv  203 

nut  to  seventy-live  fathoms  ami  up  to  fifty  miles  anil  further,  wherever  ,iu\  hank  lias  In-en  discov- 
ered,    finite  frequently  they  enter  brackish  water  in  pursuit  of  their  natural  food." 

Thomas  Day,  of  Parker's  Island,  Maine,  says  that  small  Cod  have  been  caught  in  the 
Kenneltee  Itiver. 

Mr.  M.  A.  Ilanna,  of  Howery  Meaeh.  says  that  they  are  sometimes  caught  in  rlvors  at  some 
distance  from  the  sea,  where  the  water  at  the  surface  is  quite  fresh. 

These  statements  are  confirmed  by  several  other  i>ersons.  The  New  York  "Evening  Post"  of 
February  <>.  1*77,  says  that  a  six  pound  Codfish  was  taken  ou  February  1  in  the  Hudson  River 
above  I'eekskill,  New  York. 

'I'm:  SCHOOLING  OF  THK  CoDi-'tsH. — Before  taking  into  consideration  the  periodical  move- 
ments of  the  Codfish,  it  seems  necessary  to  study  the  manner  in  which  they  assemble  together  in 
schools.  Mr.  Karll,  who  has  studied  witli  great  thoroughness  the  habits  of  the  Codfish  about 
Cape  Ann,  writes  as  follows  upon  this  topic: 

•'In  examining  the  Codlish  landed  from  time  to  time,  one  cannot  but  notice  the  great  indi- 
vidual variation  in  the  species.  But  in  addition  to  this  seemingly  accident.il  variation,  that  gives 
e\ery  gradation  to  either  extreme,  there  is  a  more  constant  difference  in  both  form  and  color,  due 
perhaps  to  the  peculiar  habits  and  surroundings  of  the  individual.  This  difference  is  so  noticeable 
that  the  fishermen  can  easily  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  and  they  have  come  to  call  the 
one  a  school  tish  in  distinction  from  the  other,  which  they  call  a  shore  fish  or  ;  ground-tender.' 

"The  school  fish  are  supposed  to  be  constantly  on  the  move,  remaining  usually  in  the  deep 
water,  where  they  are  very  active  in  the  pursuit  of  their  prey,  consuming  such  quantities  as  to 
keep  them  in  excellent  flesh.  Such  fish  are  usually  very  shapely,  with  small  and  very  distinct  dark 
spots  on  a  light  background,  and  seem  to  have  the  head  quite  small  in  proportion  to  the  body.  On 
the  whole,  they  are  just  such  fish  as  would  be  expected  from  continued  activity  and  good  living. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  shore  fish,  or  'ground-tenders,'  live  constantly  among  the  rocks  and  sea- 
weeds along  the  shore,  where  the  water  is  less  pure  and  the  food  less  abundant.  They  seem  to 
lead  solitary  lives  during  a  greater  part  of  the  year,  being  scattered  along  different  portions  of  the 
coast,  living  upon  the  little  rocky  spots,  where  they  feed  upon  such  animals  as  they  chance  to  find; 
or  at  times  entering  the  shoaler  water  among  the  sea-weeds,  where  they  feed  upon  the  mollusks 
and  articulates  that  are  often  so  abundant  in  such  localities.  They  are  generally  in  poorer  flesh 
than  the  school  lish,  having  a  relatively  larger  head  in  proportion  to  their  bulk,  with  larger  and 
less  distinct  spots  ou  a  darker  background.  In  addition  to  these  large  fish,  that  for  some  reason 
seem  to  prefer  the  shore  as  a  feeding  ground,  there  are  many  young  and  immature  that  have  not 
yet  joined  the  school  fish  in  their  migrations.  These  fish  are  the  sole  dependence  of  the  l>oat  fish- 
ermen in  summer,  or  from  June  to  November,  and  one  must  know  the  grounds  pretty  thoroughly, 
and  row  about  from  one  feeding  spot  to  another,  in  order  to  secure  any  considerable  number  of 
them.  During  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August  the  fishing  is  quite  limited,  being  confined 
to  a  few  boat  fishermen  who  row,  or  sail,  out  daily  with  hand-lines,  returning  in  the  afternoon  with 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pound-,  which  they  usually  sell  at  fair  prices  tx> 
supply  the  fresh -fish  trade. 

"Early  in  the  fall  the  spawning  instincts  of  the  fish  cause  them  to  gradually  gather  from  the 
different  parts  of  the  shore  to  special  rocky  grounds,  where  they  remain  until  they  have  deposited 
their  eggs.  At  such  times,  being  more  numerous  in  these  localities,  the  fishing  becomes  more 
profitable,  so  that  many  small  vessels  and  a  larger  number  of  boats  frequent  these,  grounds,  and 
by  the  middle  of  October  the  daily  catch  reaches  about  four  hundred  pounds  per  man. 

"Thus  far  the  catch  has  l>een  comj^sed  almost  wholly  of  the  young  and  shore  fish ;  but  about 


204  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  1st  of  November  the  fall  school  of  spawning  fish,  known  as  the  '  pasture  school,'  makes  its 
appearance.  All  the  smaller  vessels  and  boats  are  now  pressed  into  service,  and  the  winter 
fisheries  are  soon  at  their  height.  The  vessels  are  usually  provided  with  dories,  taking  from  three 
to  twelve  each,  according  to  the  size  of  their  crews.  Such  fishermen  as  are  unable  to  ship  on  the 
vessels  now  row  or  sail  out  in  boats.  These  often  endure  great  hardships,  as  the  wind  may  rise 
suddenly  and  drive  them  out  to  sea,  giving  them  a  hard  pull  of  hours  before  they  can  regain  the 
shore,  while  an  occasional  unfortunate  fails  to  return. 

"The  pasture  school  is  composed  of  fish  averaging  probably  between  twelve  and  fourteen 
pounds,  some  being  much  larger,  while  others  are  quite  small.  In  the  falls  of  1877  and  1878  the 
fishing  was  unusually  good  until  the  first  of  January,  the  average  daily  catch  per  man  often 
reaching  eight  to  nine  hundred  pounds,  while  an  active  fisherman  at  times  caught  nearly  twice 
that  quantity. 

"At  the  present  time  there  are  but  few  towns  on  the  north  side  of  the  cape  extensively 
engaged  in  the  shore  fisheries,  and  for  this  reason  little  is  definitely  known  about  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  Ipswich  Bay  school  of  Codfish  in  that  locality.  We  cannot  even  feel  certain  of  the 
month  when  they  reach  the  grounds,  as  the  fishermen  have  many  and  conflicting  opinions  on  the 
subject.  From  the  best  obtainable  information  it  seems  probable  that  Cod  have  visited  these  waters 
regularly  for  many  years,  and  that  they  were  formerly  taken  in  considerable  numbers  by  the  boat 
fishermen  of  the  section  who  rowed  out  from  the  shore  in  pleasant  weather  during  the  winter 
months.  But  for  a  number  of  years  these  grounds  were  nearly  deserted,  and  it  was  not  until 
1877-'78  that  the  shore  fishermen  of  Gloucester  and  Swampscott  learned  their  value. 

"In  January,  1879,  after  the  fish  had  left '  the  pasture,'  several  vessels  sailed  for  Ipswich  Bay, 
where  they  found  the  Cod  remarkably  plenty,  returning  in  a  short  time  with  unusually  large  fares. 
The  news  spread  rapidly,  and  soon  all  the  shore  fleet  were  in  the  bay,  while  vessels  of  sixty  to 
seventy  tons  abandoned  the  other  fisheries  and  fitted  oat  for  this  locality.  Vessels  from  other  towns 
along  the  shore  soon  joined  the  fleet,  and  by  the  middle  of  February  104  sail,  with  upwards  of  COO 
men,  were  fishing  within  a  radius  of  five  or  six  miles,  and  twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand  pounds 
of  round  fish  were  sometimes  taken  in  a  day  by  the  crew  of  a  single  schooner. 

"The  above  number  of  vessels  was  reached  only  during  the  height  of  the  season,  and  several 
causes  operated  to  reduce  the  fleet  so  that  at  times  it  was  quite  small.  But  allowing  an  average  of 
45  sail  during  the  entire  four  months,  each  vessel  carrying  six  dories,  the  trawls  averaging  800 
hooks  each,  and  we  have  the  enormous  number  of  216,000  baited  hooks  spread  out  upon  the  sandy 
bottom  to  tempt  the  spawning  fish.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  catch  reached  fully 
11,250,000  pounds  on  this  little  patch  of  ground  between  the  first  of  February  and  the  last  of  May. 

"Fishermen  are  agreed  that  the  individuals  composing  this  school  averaged  larger  than  those 
of  any  school  that  had  previously  visited  the  shore.  There  were  almost  no  small  ones  among  them, 
the  great  bulk  being  of  uniformly  large  size  with  a  few  very  large.  Of  over  five  thousand,  selected 
without  regard  to  size  at  different  times  during  the  season,  the  average  weight  was  20J  pounds. 

"Fishing  continued  good  in  Ipswich  Bay  until  the  first  of  June,  when  the  school  left  the  shore, 
being  perhaps  hurried  in  their  movements  by  a  large  school  of  dogfish  (tiqualus  americanux) 
that  made  their  appearance  in  the  bay  about  this  time. 

"After  the  school-fish  leave  the  shore  in  summer  the  fishermen  frequently  resort  to  the  outer 
grounds,  such  as  Jeflry's  and  Stellwagen  Banks,  when  they  often  secure  good  fares  from  what  they 
suppose  to  be  a  new  school  that  visits  these  grounds  for  the  purpose  of  feeding.  We  have  had  little 
opportunity  for  examining  these  fish,  but  there  seems  a  strong  probability  that  they  belong  to  the 


TJIE  SCIHMH.IM;  OK  THK  CODFISH.  205 

school  that  has  just  left  the  shore,  and  that  they  remain  on  these  grounds  for  a  few  days  or 
weeks  on  their  way  to  deeper  water." 

I  have  before  me  the  statements  of  ninety -four  fishermen,  most  of  whom  are  of  the  opinion 
t hut  the  Cod  associate  together  in  schools  throughout  the  entire  year;  many  of  them,  however, 
speak  of  particular  schools  of  very  large  size  which  they  noticed  at  particular  seasons.  Captain 
Atwood,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  the  assertion  that  the  Cod  never  school,  but  that  they  wander 
independently  over  the  bottom  in  search  of  food. 

It  seems  most  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Codfish,  like  most  other  species  which  habitually 
feed  on  the  bottom,  are  less  disposed  to  wander  together  in  great  bodies  from  place  to  place  than 
the  surface-swimming  fishes  which  usually  feed  upon  substances  or  animals  which  are  found  col- 
lected together  in  one  place  in  great  quantity.  The  Codfish,  being  habitually  bottom -feeders,  find 
their  food,  it  is  probable,  with  more  or  less  uniformity,  over  the  areas  which  they  frequent,  and  are 
ordinarily  met  with  moving  about  independently.  They  are  most  likely  to  occur  in  great  numbers 
in  places  where  food  is  particularly  abundant.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  they  are  brought 
together  by  a  common  desire  for  wandering  together  from  place  to  place  in  immense  bodies,  some- 
times their  object  being  a  united  attack  upon  some  special  kind  of  fowl  only  to  be  found  at  that 
season,  and  in  particular  places.  The  capelin  and  lant  schools,  known  to  the  fishermen  of 
Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and  the  Grand  Banks,  are  examples  of  such  association,  as  also  is  the 
herring  school  observed  in  the  spring  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  the  great  schools  known  on 
the  coast  of  Norway  under  the  name  of  Lodde-fisk. 

Capt  Epea  W.  Merchant,  of  Gloucester,  tells  me  about  a  remarkable  school  of  Codfish 
which  frequented  Massachusetts  Bay  between  the  years  1815  and  1830.  This  was  called  the 
"shad  school."  They  continued  in  the  bay  from  early  April  until  the  middle  of  May.  They  were 
caught  with  alewives  and  shad  for  bait.  The  fishermen  were  accustomed  to  get  these  fish  for 
bait  as  soon  as  they  began  to  run.  The  Cod  seemed  to  be  waiting  for  them.  The  "shad  school" 
was  composed  of  young,  sharp-nosed,  bright-eyed  school  fish  of  regular  size,  very  different  from 
the  ground-tenders  or  grubbers. 

Professor  Baird  has  made  some  interesting  generalizations  concerning  the  effect  upon  the 
abundance  of  Cod  of  the  decrease  in  the  shad  and  alewives  off  the  mouths  of  our  rivers 
caused  by  over-fishing  in  inland  waters.1 

Another  cause  of  the  assembling  of  the  Codfish  together  is  the  reproductive  instinct,  in  obe- 
dience to  which  the  fish  gather  together  in  localities  where  the  temperature  aud  depth  of  water  are 
suitable  for  the  deposition  of  eggs.  A  school  of  this  kind  is  the  so-called  "  pasture  school,"  already 
referred  to  in  the  quotation  from  Mr.  Earll,  and  the  great  schools — the  so-called  "fish-mountains"— 
which  make  their  appearance  on  the  coast  of  Norway  in  January,  February,  and  March,  and  which 
have  been  so  well  described  by  Professor  Sars.* 

The  fisheries  carried  on  at  this  time  are  called  "spawn  fisheries"  to  distinguish  them  from 
those  which  are  carried  on  later  in  the  spring  on  the  coast  of  Finmark,  the  object  of  which  is  the 
capture  of  Codfish  following  schools  of  bait. 

"Codfish,"  continues  Mr.  Earll,  "are  gregarious  in  their  habits,  going  in  schools  of  greater  or 
loss  size,  and  are  governed  in  their  movements  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  food,  the  spawning 
instinct,  and  the  temperature  of  the  water.  When  migrating,  the  schools  arc  quite  dense,  though 
by  uo  means  like  schools  of  menhaden  or  mackerel.  But  when  they  reach  the  feeding  ground  they 

1  Report  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  pt.  ii,  1874,  pp.  xi-xiv. 

9 Report  of  the  "Practical  and  Scientific  Investigations  of  the  Cod  Fisheries  near  the  Lofoden  Island*,"  made 
during  the  years  18tM-'69  by  8.  O.  Sara ;  translated  by  H.  Jacobson.  Report  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries,  pt.  v,  1879,  pp.  565-661. 


206  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

seem  to  distribute  themselves  over  a  large  area,  though  more  or  less  grouped  together  iu  little 
bunches.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  on  the  shore,  when  the  fish  are  moving  about  in  search 
of  food,  and  the  fisherman  soon  catches  up  all  that  chance  to  be  on  one  patch  of  rocks,  and  must 
then  row  to  another  in  order  to  find  a  new  supply.  The  same  thing  is  seen  on  western  banks,  where 
a  vessel  usually  carries  dories  to  distribute  her  crew  over  different  parts  of  the  ground,  and  often, 
by  setting  her  trawls  iu  one  locality  for  a  day  or  two,  seems  to  catch  up  all  of  the  fish,  and  must 
then  'shift  her  berth.'  Fishermen  also  cite  many  instances  where  the  fishing  is  excellent  on  a 
few  particular,  well-defined  spots  on  different  parts  of  the  ground,  while  almost  no  fish  can  be 
taken  iu  other  places. 

"During  the  spawning  season  this  tendency  to  become  scattered  is  less  noticeable,  for  the 
instincts  of  the  fish  seem  to  bring  them  nearer  together,  and  great  numbers  are  often  taken  in  one 
particular  locality.  Even  here,  however,  the  tendency  to  separate  into  groups  occurs,  for  some 
boats  find  good  fishing,  while  others,  but  a  few  rods  away,  catch  almost  nothing;  and  in  trawling, 
some  parts  of  the  line  have  a  fish  on  nearly  every  hook,  while  other  parts  take  only  a  scattering 
one. 

"In  schooling,  both  sexes  are  always  found  together,  whether  it  be  on  the  spawning  or  feeding 
ground  or  on  the  journey ;  but  the  relative  numbers  of  each  seem  to  vary  greatly,  and  we  have  been 
able  to  discover  no  invariable  rule  whereby  one  can  predict  with  certainty  the  sex  that  will  first 
appear,  or  that  which  will  be  most  abundant  at  any  given  time  during  the  season.  The  fishermen 
have  a  commonly  accepted  tradition  that  in  the  spawning  schools  the  females  always  come  first  and 
the  males  later,  but  this  theory  is  not  supported  by  facts.  Observations  were  frequently  made  on 
the  relative  numbers  of  the  two  sexes  landed  by  the  shore-fishermen  between  September,  1878,  and 
July,  1879.  The  results  showed  that  during  the  early  fall,  or  before  the  school  fish  had  made  their 
appearance,  the  fish  were  nearly  equally  divided  between  males  and  females — first  the  one  and  then 
the  other  being  more  abundant.  When  the  school  fish  first  reached  the  shore  early  in  November 
the  males  were  a  trifle  more  plenty  than  the  females  for  about  a  week,  but  from  that  date  until  they 
left  the  grounds  the  females  were  taken  in  greater  numbers,  sometimes  in  the  proportion  of  two  to 
one,  and  at  others  in  nearly  equal  quantities.  In  the  Ipswich  Bay  school  during  the  first  two  or 
three  days  in  February  there  were  ten  males  to  one  female;  by  the  middle  of  the  month  the  females 
composed  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  catch,  and  from  this  date  until  the  1st  of  June  the  males 
numbered  two  to  one.  From  reliable  fishermen  we  learned  that  the  same  was  true  of  the  fish  on 
the  off-shore  banks,  and  that,  though  varying  greatly  iu  their  relative  numbers,  both  males  and 
females  were  always  present. 

"There  is  usually  a  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the  individuals  taken  by  the  fishermen  on 
the  shore  feeding  grounds  in  a  single  day,  for  the  young  and  'ground-tenders'  remain  on  these 
rocky  ledges  during  the  entire  year,  and  late  in  the  season  the  school  fish  come  in  upon  the  same 
grounds  and  are  naturally  taken  with  them. 

"But  when  the  school  fish  visit  a  locality  not  frequented  by  the  young,  as  they  do  in  Ipswich 
Bay,  there  is  a  noticeable  absence  of  immature  fish,  and  the  catch  is  composed  almost  wholly  of 
individuals  of  large  size.  Thus,  in  the  winter  of  1878-'7'J  many  trips  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty 
thousand  pounds  were  landed  with  scarcely  a  small  fish  among  them,  while  vessels  fishing  only  a 
few  miles  distant  found  young  fish  plenty,  and  there  were  occasional  instances  where  such  vessels 
caught  only  small  ones.  Again,  though  the  school  fish  may  differ  considerably  in  size,  we  have 
not  found  one,  thought  to  belong  to  their  number,  that  had  not  reached  maturity.  Indications 
strongly  favor  the  idea  that  the  young  remain  separate  from  the  school  fish  during  the  first  few 
years  of  their  lives,  and  we  are  led  to  believe  that,  though  they  are  often  taken  together,  the 


TIIK  SCHOOLING  or  TIH;  CODFISH.  207 

occurrence  is  accidental  and  the  young  will  not  follow  the  old  in  their  migrations  until  they  reach 
maim-in .  though  alter  this  point  is  reached  they  seem  to  mingle  freely  without  regard  to  age. 

"Codfish  are  probably  governed  in  their  movements  by  the  abundance  and  migrations  of 
loot  I,  i h<-  spawning  instinct,  and  the  temperature  of  the  water,  though  the  last  named  seems  to 
r\ert  but  little  intiueiice.  It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  fishermen  that  during  the  feeding 
season  lish  are  plenty  only  where  food  exists  in  considerable  quantity,  and  that  aft«-r  'cleaning  up" 
one  part  of  the  bank  they  go  to  another.  They  also  follow  schools  of  bait  for  long  distances,  living 
upon  them  until  they  are  broken  up  or  entirely  destroyed.  Thus  they  often  follow  the  capelin 
(  MtiUntnx  rilloxu*)  into  the  shoal  water,  and  even  drive  immense  numbers  of  them  upon  the  shore. 

"The  spawning  instinct  seems  to  exert  a  decided  influence  upon  the  movements  of  the  fish, 
for  we  find  them  visiting  the  same  locality  year  after  year  during  the  spawning  season,  often 
remaining  for  several  months  at  a  time.  The  fish  that  visit  the  waters  of  Cape  Ann  during  the 
winter,  doubtless  come  in  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  rather  than  for  food.  This  seems  clear  from 
the  fact  that  they  do  not  arrive  when  bait  is  most  plenty,  nor  do  they  follow  any  species  to  the 
shore.  On  the  contrary,  the  pasture-school  usually  arrives  about  three  weeks  after  the  large 
herring  have  left  the  coast,  and  remains  on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Ann,  while  sperling  are  abundant 
in  Ipswich  Bay.  The  Ipswich  school  is  also  the  largest  after  the  sperliug  have  been  driven  away 
by  the  cold  weather,  and  remains  on  the  sand  flats,  which  supply  almost  no  food.  From  these 
facts  we  are  led  to  believe  that  food  has  little  influence  upon  the  movements  of  the  fish  during  the 
spawning  season. 

••The  instinct  that  leads  the  spawning  fish  to  seek  the  shoal  water  in  such  great  numbers  is 
certainly  a  wise  one,  for  they  generally  select  spawuiiig-grounds  where  the  tide  runs  strong  and 
the  water  is  rough,  and  the  large  number  of  individuals  is  absolutely  necessary,  that  the  water 
may  be  tilled  with  germs  for  their  successful  impregnation.  If,  instead  of  schooling  in  such 
numbers  during  this  period,  they  remained  scattered  over  a  large  area,  almost  no  eggs  would  be 
fertilized. 

"Again,  while  food  is  not  essential  to  the  spawning  fish,  it  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  young, 
and  it  seems  a  wise  provision  that  these  should  be  brought  into  being  where  food  is  abundant, 
rather  than  that  they  should  be  hatched  in  mid-ocean,  where  almost  no  suitable  fowl  exists." 

MIGRATIONS  AND  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  SCHOOLS. — The  causes  which  influence  Codfish  to 
assemble  together  in  schools  also  influence  their  movements  from  place  to  place.  It  seems  most 
probable  that  while  great  numbers  of  these  fish  may  remain  together  in  the  same  locality,  feeding 
upon  the  same  kind  of  food  without  it  being  said  that  they  are  schooling,  a  movement  from  place 
to  place  is,  however,  usual,  in  obedience  to  some  tangible  law,  and  is  made  simultaneously  by 
numerous  individuals. 

The  migrations  of  the  Codfish  are  usually  of  the  class  which  I  have  described  under  the  name 
"bathic."1 

The  Cod,  like  most  of  the  other  species  which  migrate  to  and  from  the  shore  instead  of 
northward  and  southward,  is,  doubtless,  more  or  less  dependent  upon  temperature  conditions  than 
fishes  like  the  menhaden  and  the  blue-fish,  and,  as  Mr.  Earll  has  suggested,'  the  abundance  of  food 
doubtless  has  much  more  influence  upon  its  movement*.  We  cannot  doubt,  however,  that  the  Cod 
moves  periodically  to  and  from  the  shore  as  a  direct  result  of  the  seasonal  changes  of  temperature. 
The  Cod  prefers  a  temperature  of  from  35°  to  42°  F.,  approximately,  and  this  it  secures  in  a 
temperate  climate,  such  as  that  of  Southern  New  England,  by  remaining  on  the  off-shore  banks  in 

1  Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  pt.  v,  187'.'.  ]..  .M. 
»  Op,  ait.,  p.  707. 


208 


NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


fifteen  to  thirty  fathoms  of  water,  coming  into  the  shallows  in  winter.  On  the  coasts  of  Labrador, 
Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Eastern  Maine,  moving  to  and  from  the  shore  from  deeper  to 
shallower  water  and  vice  versa  to  secure  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  a  temperature  environment 
best  suited  to  their  needs,  they  are  near  the  shore  in  summer  and  in  deep  water  in  winter. 

In  Norway  they  are  caught,  to  some  extent,  in  the  fiords  in  the  summer  season,  though  more 
are  caught  in  winter,  while  in  summer  great  numbers  of  them  still  remain  on  the  off-shore  banks. 
Professor  Hind  gives  this  exposition  of  the  movements  of  the  Cod  on  the  Labrador  coast.1 
"The  following  tables  show  the  periods  of  the  first  arrival  and  last  catch  of  Cod  on  the 
Newfoundland  and  Labrador  coasts.  In  framing  these  tables  I  have  been  careful  to  eliminate 
extreme  seasons,  for  the  Cod  have  been  known  to  approach  the  shore  during  an  exceptionally 
early  season,  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  sooner  than  during  the  average  of  years.  Early  and  late 
springs  occur  in  the  movements  offish  just  as  irregularly  as  in  the  movements  of  migratory  birds 
or  in  the  leafing  and  flowering  of  plants.  The  salmon  and  the  Cod  generally  come  within  a  week 
of  one  another,  and  the  Eskimo  of  Ukkasiksalik  have  a  tradition  that  the  salmon  may  always  be 
looked  for  on  the  day  of  the  first  spring  tide  after  the  16th  July.  In  1875,  a  very  late  season, 
Codfish  were  not  taken  before  the  7th  August;  this  year  they  came  in  on  the  20th  July,  and  this 
accords  with  the  experience  on  other  parts  of  the  coast. 

"  Table  showing  the  approximate  mean  date  of  arrival  of  Cod,  mean  date  of  departure,  and  mean  length 
of  the  fishing  season  for  Cod,  in  Northeastern  Newfoundland,  Southern  and  Northern  Labrador. 


Lat. 

Locality. 

Mean 
date  of 
arrival. 

Mean 
date  of 
oloso  of 
fisheries. 

Mean 
length  of 
flahing 
season. 

o    // 
47  30 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

Nov.  20 

48  20 

Nov    10 

48  30 

Nov.  10 

60  00 

Cape  Saint  John  to  Par.  Point     

June  20 

NOT.    1 

143  days. 

49  30 

Nov.    1 

51  00 

June  10 

Nov.    1 

61  30 

Oet     20 

62  00 

(Over  four  degrees  of  latitude.) 

SOUTHERN   I.AIIKAPOK. 

Chateau  Bay  

June  20 

Oct.      1 

53  24 

Batteaux       

July  12 

Oet.    10 

July  15 

Oct       1 

87  days. 

54  56 

July  18 

Oct.      1 

55  14 

(Over  three  degrees  of  latitude.) 

NORTHERN   LABRADOR. 

Aillik               

July  20 

Oct.      1 

54  67 

July  20 

Oct.      1 

55  27 

Hopedale        

July  20 

Oct. 

53  3Q 

July  22 

Oct. 

55  62 

Ukkagiksalik                      

July  28 

Oct. 

61  days. 

56  33 

Nain           ..              

July  28 

Oct. 

57  30 

Okak          

July  28 

Oct. 

58  30 

Aug.  15 

Sept.  25 

58  46 

Aug.  15 

Sept.  15 

(Over  three  and  a  half  degrees  of  latitude.) 

"From  this  table,  imperfect  as  it  is,  we  may  deduce  the  following  law:  'Over  an  area 
extending  northerly  from  Conception  Bay  for  seven  hundred  miles,  the  Cod  approach  the  shore 
about  one  week  later  for  every  degree  of  latitude  we  advance  to  the  north.' 

'HIND,  H.  Y. :  The  Effect  of  the  Fishery  Clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington  upon  the  Fishermen  of  British 
North  America.  Halifax,  1877. 


HIND  ON  MIGUATIONS  OF  TUE  (JOD.  209 

"The  table  shows  also  that  for  a  period  of  about  forty  days  the  cod  fishery  goes  on 
.simultaneously  during  August  and  September,  throughout  the  length  of  a  coast  line  extending 
from  latitude  47°  to  latitude  50°  SO7,  or  more  than  seven  hundred  statute  miles  in  0110  continuous 
line.  Hence  it  appears  that  the  migrations  of  the  schools  of  this  fish  are  merely  from  deep-water 
winter  feeding  grounds  to  the  nearest  coast  spawning  grounds,  and  from  the  coast  to  the  nearest 
deep-water  feeding  grounds  again.  The  coast  migrations  during  the  summer  mouths  appear  to 
be  of  equally  limited  extent,  and  schools  of  Cod  frequenting  any  particular  coast  may  be  said  to 
be  indigenous  to  it. 

"On  the  Labrador,  especially  in  well-known  deep  bays,  such  as  Hamilton  Inlet,  the  coast 
movements  of  the  fish  appear  to  be  very  regular,  and  determined  to  a  large  degree  by  the  tidal 
can-cuts.  The  caplin  generally  precede  the  Cod  by  a  few  days,  and  these  fish  are  known  to 
approach  the  coast  and  enter  sandy  coves  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  The  same  meteorological 
influence  which  guides  the  movements  of  the  Cod  affects  also  the  periods  of  spawning  of  the 
capliu.  I  saw  numerous  schools  of  this  fish  spawning  in  Trinity  Bay  on  the  27th  June;  a  month 
later  they  spawn  in  Kypokok  Bay,  and  still  later  further  to  the  north."1 

I  have  before  me  the  statements  of  nearly  a  hundred  observers  which  I  hope  to  discuss  more 
fully  at  some  future  time.  These  opinions  confirm,  in  a  very  striking  manner,  the  generalization 
just  stated.  They  show  that  while  on  the  coast  of  Maine  the  Cod  leave  the  immediate  shores  in 
the  autumn,  not  reappearing  in  any  considerable  numbers  until  late  in  the  following  spring,  south  of 
Cape  Cod  they  approach  the  shore  only  in  the  winter  season,  while  during  the  summer  they 
keep  out  in  the  cold  Labrador  current,  which  extends  south  to  the  inside  of  the  current  of  the 
Gulf  Stream.  In  Vineyard  Sound,  Buzzard's  Bay,  and  off  the  shores  of  Connecticut,  New  York, 
Delaware,  New  Jersey,  and  even  in  Eastern  Virginia,  there  is  excellent  cod  fishing  during  the 
winter  season.  "A  wise  provision  of  nature,"  remarks  Professor  Baird,  "in  the  absence  of  so 
many  species  that  supply  food  during  the  summer." 

It  will  probably  be  found  that  fishing  in  deeper  water  in  these  same  regions  in  summer  will 
bring  to  light  an  abundance  of  Cod. 

"In  European  seas,"  writes  Professor  Hind,  "the  depth  at  which  the  fishermen  look  for  Cod 
varies  with  the  season  of  the  year,  and  is  a  point  toward  which  much  attention  is  paid  in  Norway 
and  England.  On  the  Dogger  Bank,  the  smacks  fish  at  the  following  depths  during  the  mouths 
named: 

Fathom*. 

December „ 12  to  15 

January •. 14  to  18 

February 18  to  22 

March 10  to  12" 

From  Professor  Hind's  pen  the  following  paragraphs  are  also  taken : 

"  When  the  coasts  of  Finmark  are  thronged  with  fishermen  catching  their  fares  of  the  'Lodde,'  or 
Summer  Cod,  the  shores  of  Northeast  Newfoundland  and  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence 
are  alive  with  fishermen  successfully  capturing  the  same  variety  of  fish  in  British  American  waters ; 
and  when  the  liussian  on  the  Murmanian  coast  is  laying  in  his  winter  stock  of  Cod,  and  accumu- 
lating a  large  overplus  for  a  foreign  market,  the  Newfoundlander  and  the  Labradorian  are  securing 
their  fares  as  far  as  the  Moravian  Missionary  Stations,  Okak  and  N  a  in.  So,  also,  in  the  North  Sea 
and  on  the  coast  of  the  British  Isles,  around  the  Faroe  Islands,  all  along  the  Icelandic  shores,  on  the 
south  coast  of  Greenland,  off  Arksut  Fiord,  away  up  north  to  Torske  Banks,  and  down  the  Atlant  i«- 

'HiND:  op.  cit.,  pt.  ii,  p.  70. 
14  V 


210  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

coast  of  America  to  over  the  Grand  Banks,  and  as  far  as,  and  even  beyond,  Saint  George's  Shoal, 
the  Cod  is  taken  simultaneously  and  in  great  abundance. 

"  Local  variations  of  days,  and  even  weeks,  occur  in  a  coast  line  or  stretch  of  shallow  sea  of 
uot  more  than  one  hundred  miles  in  length ;  but  these  arise  from  the  one  great  leading  cause  which 
guides  the  Cod  in  its  approach  to  known  feeding  grounds  on  the  coast  or  known  banks  at  sea. 
This  leading  cause  is  temperature,  which  determines  the  movement  toward  the  coast  of  the  various 
forms  of  marine  life  on  which  the  Cod,  inhabiting  different  waters,  is  accustomed  to  feed.    .   ...    . 

The  Cod,  caught  on  each  stretch  of  coast  line  within  variable  but  tolerably  well-defined  limits,  are 
indigenous  to  the  sea  area  adjacent  to  the  sea-coast  which  they  frequent. 

"Thus  the  winter  haunts  of  the  Codfish  on  the  Northern  Labrador  coast  are  the  slopes  of  the 
great  range  of  outside  banks  on  that  coast.  The  summer  haunts  of  the  'Winter  Cod'  caught  on 
the  coast  of  Norway  during  the  winter  season,  are  on  the  slope  of  the  'Storegg'  and  its  continua- 
tions which  lie  seawards  from  the  Norwegian  coast,  following  the  edge  of  the  barrier  separating 
the  '  polar  deeps'  from  the  shallower  coastal  seas.  The  seasonal  movements  of  the  Cod  are  reversed 
iu  this  case,  purposely  introduced,  but  have  afforded  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the  principles 
adopted  and  confirmed  by  Professor  Baird  and  of  the  influence  of  marine  climate  on  fish-life."1 

The  depth  at  which  Codfish  are  found  varies  greatly  with  the  season  and  locality.  It  is  stated 
by  Mr.  Earll  that  they  seem  to  prefer  water  less  than  seventy  fathoms  deep,  and  that  by  far  the 
greater  numbers  are  caught  in  from  eighteen  to  forty  fathoms.  This  generalization  will  doubtless 
hold  true  for  the  whole  coast  of  North  America.  Many  of  our  correspondents  state  that  they  are 
occasionally  seen  in  water  two  or  three  feet  in  depth.  In  the  course  of  the  recent  explorations  by 
Professor  Agassiz,  Cod  were  found  three  hundred  fathoms  below  the  surface. 

"  In  February,  1879,  there  was  good  fishing  in  three  fathoms  of  water,  within  a  few  rods  of 
shore  in  Ipswich  Bay,  while  in  May  of  the  same  year  large  numbers  were  taken  in  one  hundred 
and  ten  fathoms  from  the  channel  near  Clarke's  Bank." 

It  would  be  extremely  interesting  to  know  the  extent  of  the  migrations  of  Codfish,  from  deep 
to  shallow  water  and  back  again,  on  different  parts  of  the  coast.  This,  however,  varies  with  local 
conditions.  There  have  already  been  many  observations  made,  the  study  of  which  will  doubtless 
aid  in  the  solution  of  this  problem,  but  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  there  should  be  systematic 
exploration  at  a  distance  from  the  shore  both  in  winter  and  summer.  This  is  one  of  the  tasks 
proposed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  for  the  new  sea-going  steamer  now  being  constructed. 
Mr.  Marcus  A.  Hanna,  of  Bowery  Beach,  Maine,  states  that  he  knows  certain  places  on  the  coast 
of  Maine  where  Cod  are  found  in  mid-winter  not  more  than  two  miles  from  land,  iu  water  from 
forty  to  fifty  fathoms  deep,  and  upon  soft  bottom.  A  portion  of  the  Gloucester  George's  Bank 
fleet  continues  fishing  through  the  winter  mouths,  though  at  this  season  the  vessels  do  not,  as  in 
spring  and  summer,  fish  upon  the  shallow  parts  of  the  bank,  but  rather  seek  the  deep  waters 
around  its  edge.  The  fish  make  their  appearance,  however,  on  the  bank  early  in  February. 

An  experimental  cruise  made  in  winter  by  Captain  Mar  throws  some  light  on  the  movements 
of  the  Cod  iu  this  region :  "  One  winter  I  started  on  a  cruise  before  the  time  for  the  Cod  to  come, 
which  was  usually  from  February  7th  to  the  10th.  I  sounded  all  over  the  usual  ground.  None  there. 
Cruised  seventy-five  miles  to  the  south'ard,  sounding  iu  thirty  to  one  hundred  fathoms  of  water. 
Found  none — only  one  Codfish.  Got  back  to  the  banks  and  found  the  Codfish  there."  At  another 
time  he  was  going  over  the  shoal  ground  of  the  banks  iu  February,  with  a  load  of  fish ;  in  sounding, 
passing  over  the  shoals  in  sixteen  fathoms  of  water,  he  caught  six  pairs  of  large  fish.  He  thinks 
that  they  were  "solid,"  passing  over  the  shoal.  It  should  be  bome  in  mind  that  these  fish  were 

'Hind,  op.  cit.,  pt.  i,  pp.  15, 16. 


CAPTAIN    MAII'S   i:\rKKIMKNTAI,  CIMISL.  211 

caught  on  books  fastened  to  the  sounding-lead,  which  was  thrown  over  while  the  vessel  was  in 
motion. 

The  remarks  made  in  the  previous  section  regarding  the  times  at  which  Cod  were  present  and 
rtl>seiit  on  different  parts  of  the  coast  should  Iw  understood  as  expressing  the  facts  only  in  n  general 
way.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  Cod  may  be  found  in  greater  or  less  numbers  within  reach  of 
the  land  from  Block  Island  to  Newfoundland,  and  perhaps  to  Labrador,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
South  of  Block  Island,  Codfish  are  very  rarely  noticed  in  summer,  even  in  the  deepest  water 
frequented  by  the  fishermen,  though  a  few  remain  on  the  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  islands 
during  the  whole  summer. 

In  the  waters  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Ann,  and  perhaps  a  little  farther  to  the  north,  we  find 
the  district  in  which  thebathic  migrations  of  the  Codfish  are  least  apparent,  the  periodical  changes 
in  depth  being  but  slight  from  winter  to  summer — the  fish  being  within  easy  reach  of  the  fishermen 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Even  here,  however,  there  is  a  great  increment  in  their  numbers  in 
winter. 

The  statements  which  have  been  made  regarding  the  periodical  movements  of  the  Cod  I  do 
not  by  any  means  consider  satisfactory  or  final.  These  movements  are  the  results  of  many 
influences,  and  no  one  yet  understands  how  much  weight  to  attach  to  the  relative  importance 
of  these  three  influences,  ».  e.,  (1)  the  direct  effect  of  temperature  upon  the  fish  themselves ;  (2) 
the  abundance  of  food,  as  affected  by  temperature  and  other  causes ;  and  (3)  the  direct  relations 
In -i  \\  een  temperature  and  the  reproductive  habits  of  the  fish.  There  is  no  more  difficult  problem 
in  ichthyological  science. 

"The  Codfish  sometimes  make  long  journeys  from  one  bank  to  another,  and,  indeed,  from  one 
region  to  a  very  distant  one.  It  is,  of  course,  nearly  impossible  to  trace  their  movements  at  such 
times,  and  one  can  usually  only  guess  at  the  place  from  whence  they  come  or  the  distance  traveled. 

"  During  the  winter  of  1877-'78  an  unusually  large  school  visited  the  coast  of  the  United 
States.  At  this  time  Cod  were  more  plenty  along  the  shores  of  New  England  than  for  many  years. 
Among  the  fish  captured  at  Cape  Ann  and  other  points  were  quite  a  number  with  peculiar  hooks 
in  their  mouths.  These  hooks  gave  a  clew  to  the  movements  of  the  fish,  for  they  differed  from  any 
in  use  by  the  American  fishermen,  and  proved  identical  with  those  used  by  French  trawl-fishermen 
on  the  Grand  Banks,  and  indicated  that  the  fish  must  at  some  time  have  been  in  that  locality,  as 
the  hooks  probably  came  from  no  other  place.  If  the  above  be  granted  as  proven,  the  fish  must 
have  traveled  a  distance  of  five  to  eight  hundred  miles  at  least,  and,  as  a  portion  of  the  school 
continued  well  to  the  southward,  some  individuals  must  have  journeyed  much  farther.  .  .  ' 

"In  moving  from  one  bank  to  another,  where  the  intervening  depth  is  much  greater,  it  seems 
probable  that,  instead  of  following  the  bottom,  they  swim  in  a  horizontal  plane,  following  a  stratum 
of  nearly  uniform  density  and  temperature.  The  fishermen  of  Cape  Ann  have  often  caught  them 
with  seventy  to  eighty  fathoms  of  line,  between  Brown's  and  George's  Banks,  where  the  sounding- 
line  indicated  a  much  greater  depth.  The  finding  of  pebbles  and  small  stones  in  their  stomachs  is 
not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  The  fishermen  regard  these  as  an  unfailing  sign  that  the  fish  have 
either  just  arrived  or  are  about  to  leave  the  bank.  These  stones  may  play  no  small  part  in  adjust- 
ing the  specific  gravity  of  the  fish  to  that  of  the  stratum  of  water  in  which  they  are  to  move. 

"  There  seems  to  be  a  tendency  for  the  large  fish  to  remain  in  deeper  water  or  nearer  the 
bottom  than  the  small ;  and  usually,  beyond  a  certain  depth,  the  deeper  one  fishes  the  larger  the  fish. 
Formerly,  in  hand-lining  from  deck  on  the  banks,  the  vessels  often  anchored  in  eighty«or  even 
ninety  fathoms,  and  the  catch  fiveraged  over  two-thirds  large;  but  in  hand  lining  from  dories 
they  seldom  fish  in  over  fifty  and  usually  less  than  thirty-five  fathoms,  as  they  find  it  difficult  to 


212  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

handle  so  much  line,  and  the  catch  runs  about  two-thirds  small.  The  same  is  true  in  fishing  at 
different  depths  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  place.  Thus,  of  two  men  fishing  side  by  side 
from  the  deck  of  a  vessel,  the  one  with  his  hook  on  the  bottom  will  catch  much  larger  fish  than 
the  other  who  lets  his  line  but  part  way  down.  Larger  fish  are  also  taken  on  the  trawl  than  on  the 
hand-line,  for  the  former  lies  constantly  on  the  bottom,  while  the  latter  may  be  raised  to  any 
distance  above  it." ' 

FOOD. — Codfish  feed  upon  all  marine  animals  smaller  than  themselves  which  are  found  in  the 
same  waters  with  them  and  are  digestible.  It  would  seem  useless  to  give  a  catalogue  of  the  species 
•which  have  been  discovered  in  their  stomachs.  For  a  long  period  of  years,  before  our  naturalists 
learned  to  use  the  hand-dredge,  a  favorite  place  in  which  to  search  for  the  rare  invertebrates  of  the 
deep  water  was  the  fish-dealer's  store,  and  from  the  stomachs  of  Codfish  scores  of  shells  new  to 
science  have  been  taken.  Since  the  introduction  of  improved  methods  of  deep-sea  research  this 
mode  of  collecting  has  been  somewhat  less  prosperous,  but  even  at  the  present  time  many  impor- 
tant additions  to  zoology  are  yearly  made  by  the  aid  of  this  omnivorous  animal.  In  the  Keport  of 
the  United  States  Commission,  Part  I,  pp.  516,  517,  may  be  found  a  list  of  the  species  of  mollusks 
obtained  by  Mr.  J.  Hammond  Trumbull  from  Cod  caught  near  Stonington,  Connecticut,  and  this 
includes  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  number  that  has  thus  been  observed. 

Codfish  swallow  bivalve  shells  of  the  largest  size,  like  the  great  sea  clams,  which  are  a  favorite 
article  of  food  on  certain  portions  of  the  coast ;  for  instance,  in  Ipswich  Bay  great  beds  of  empty 
shells  of  the  sea-clam,  Maetra  ovalis,  may  be  found  upon  the  bottom.  These  shells  are  "  nested," 
the  smaller  inside  of  the  larger,  sometimes  six  or  seven  in  a  set,  having  been  packed  together  in 
this  compact  manner  in  the  stomachs  of  the  Codfish  after  the  soft  parts  have  been  digested  out.  Some 
of  them  had  shreds  of  the  mussels  remaining  in  them  and  were  quite  fresh,  having  evidently  been 
but  recently  ejected  by  the  fish.  In  Dana's  "Geology"  are  mentioned  great  banks  of  dead  shells 
off  the  island  of  Grand  Mauan,  which  doubtless  originated  in  the  same  manner.  Mr.  W.  H.  Ball 
found  some  similar  beds  on  the  coast  of  Alaska  which  he  attributed  to  the  walrus,  but  which  are  more 
probably  the  remains  of  mollusks  eaten  by  the  Codfish.  They  feed  also  upon  crabs  of  all  kinds, 
lobsters  and  star  fish,  and  have  been  seen  at  the  surface  catching  the  potato  beetles  and  "  June- 
bugs"  which  have  drifted  out  from  the  shore.  It  is  said  that  they  succeed  occasionally  in  capturing 
a  duck,2  and  that  they  vary  their  diet  by  browsing  upon  carrageen,  or  Irish  moss,  which  grows  on 
the  ledges  near  the  shore.  In  searching  at  the  bottom  for  shells  and  worms,  Codfish  often  pick 
up  objects  which  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  nutritious.  A  very  amusing  catalogue  of  such  objects 
might  be  included  in  this  chapter,  in  which  would  be  enumerated  articles  such  as  scissors,  brass 
oil-cans,  potato  parings,  corn  cobs,  and  head  of  a  rubber  doll.  The  finding  of  finger-rings  and 
fragments  of  oil-clothing,  and  the  heel  of  a  boot,  inside  of  a  large  Codfish  has  suggested  the  idea 
that  sometimes  they  swallow  the  fishermen. 

"A  wedding  ring  which  belonged  to  Pauline  Burnam,  an  English  lady  who  was  lost  in  the 
steamship  Anglo  Saxon,  wrecked  off  Chance  Cove,  N.  F.,  in  1861,  was  lately  restored  to  her  rela- 
tions by  a  St.  Johns  (N.  F.)  fisherman,  who  found  the  ring  in  the  entrails  of  a  Codfish.  The 
lucky  fisherman  received  a  present  of  £50  for  restoring  the  highly  prized  memento  to  the  lady's  son."1 

Stones  of  considerable  size  are  often  found  in  their  stomachs,  and  fishermen  have  a  theory 
that  this  is  a  sign  of  an  approaching  storm  and  that  the  fish  thus  take  in  ballast  to  enable  them 

'EARl.l.:  loc.  i' it. 

*Th6  Vineyard  Gazette  says  that  Mr.  James  Osborne  took  a  Codfish  on  Wednesday,  at  the  "  South  Side,"  which 
weighed  over  sixty  pounds.  On  dressing  it,  two  fall-grown  ducks  (old  squaws)  were  found  in  its  entrails.  They  were 
quite  fresh,  having  most  of  their  feathers  on. — Gloucester  Telegraph,  May  6,  1857. 

•Boston  Journal,  July  6,  1871. 


ro<n>  or  TIII-:  COD.  213 

to  i. main  at  tlio  bottom  when  tin-  waters  are  troubled.  It  is  more  likely  tbat  these  stones  are 
swallowed  on  account  of  sea-anemones  or  otber  edible  substances  which  may  be  attached  to  them, 
in  just  the  same  manner  that  the  shells  of  mollusks  arc  taken  in  for  the  sake  of  the  nutritions 
parts  which  they  contain. 

It  is  believed  that  certain  schools  of  Codfish  feed  almost  entirely  at  the  bottom,  while  others 
prey  upon  fish.  The  fishermen  claim  to  be  able  to  distinguish  these  two  classes  by  their  general 
appearance,  the  first  being  heavier,  with  shorter  heads,  blunter  noses,  and  smaller  fins,  and  fre- 
quently known  as ''grubbers"  or  "ground-keepers,"  while  fish  belonging  to  whatare  known  as  the 
squid  school,  the  herring  school,  and  the  lant  school,  which  are  probably  the  same  fish  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year,  are  brighter-eyed,  slenderer  in  form,  with  sharper  head,  and  in  every  way 
better  adapted  for  swift  locomotion.  On  the  coast  of  Labrador,  as  well  as  in  Scandinavia,  Codfish 
follow  the  schools  of  spawning  capelin  in  to  the  shore  and  prey  greedily  upon  them,  and  elsewhere, 
at  other  seasons,  they  feed  with  no  less  voracity  upon  other  species  of  fish  which  may  be  schooling, 
and  of  which  they  destroy  vast  numbers,  such  as  mackerel,  menhaden,  herring,  alewife,  salmon, 
sculpin,  flounders,  cunners,  and  haddock. 

In  November,  1877,  Mr.  Viual  N.  Edwards  found  in  the  stomachs  of  Cod  taken  at  Noman's 
Land  many  species  of  fish,  some  of  which,  like  Eumexogrammus  subbifurcatus,  are  fonnd  only  at 
great  depths,  and  others,  like  the  two-spined  stickle-back,  Gasterosevs  biaculeatus,  and  the  little 
file-fish,  Monocanthus  setifer,  must  have  been  taken  at  the  surface  or  near  the  shore. 

On  the  Grand  Banks,  especially  in  shallow  water  about  the  Virgin  Rocks,  I  have  been  told 
that  they  follow  the  lant  to  the  surface,  pursuing  them  with  great  fierceness.  Along  our  northern 
coasts  they  replace,  to  some  extent,  the  voracious  blueflsh  and  bonito  of  the  South.  Captain 
Atwood  remarks  that  the  amount  of  food  which  they  consume  is  enormous,  when  the  size  of  the 
fish  is  taken  into  account.  He  has  seen  them  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  where  the  capelin  were  in 
great  numbers,  with  their  stomachs  filled  to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  and  capelin  in  their 
months  which  they  were  unable  to  swallow  for  want  of  room,  and  in  this  condition  they  were  still 
biting  at  the  hook.  They  even  feed  upon  the  young  of  their  own  kind.  They  are  said  to  feed 
largely  upon  herring  spawn,  though  they  are  not  seen  in  great  numbers,  about  the  spawning 
grounds  until  the  schools  of  parent  fish  have  departed.  The  herring,  also,  is  a  favorite  article  of 
food,  and  when  these  fish  approach  the  shores  or  are  seen  on  the  banks  it  is  a  very  good  sign  that 
Cod  will  soon  be  abundant.  Mr.  Earll  remarks : 

"I  am  told  that  in  the  spring  of  1879  an  immense  school  of  herring  moved  closely  across 
George's  Bank,  and  that  with  them  came  the  largest  school  of  Cod  that  has  been  seen  in  that 
locality  for  a  long  time.  The  Cod  remained  constantly  among  the  herring,  so  that  when  the  latter 
had  passed  the  fishing  fleet,  the  vessels  were  obliged  to  weigh  anchor  and  follow  them  in  order  to 
secure  the  Cod. 

"About  Provincetown  the  common  squid  sometimes  appear  in  great  numbers,  and  they  are 
most  vigorously  preyed  upon  by  the  Cod." 

The  same  accurate  observer  gives  the  following  notes  concerning  their  food  while  breeding: 

"During  the  spawning  season  the  Codfish  cease  to  search  for  food,  and  give  less  attention  to 
feeding  than  at  other  times,  though  they  will  usually  take  the  bait  when  placed  before  them.  That 
they  do  not  search  for  food  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  pasture  school  remained  within  a  few 
miles  of  a  large  school  of  sperling  without  being  drawn  after  them;  and  that  the  Ipswich  Bay 
school  was  largest  after  the  sperling  had  left  the  coast,  and  remained  for  a  number  of  months  on 
sandy  wastes  which  supported  only  three  species  of  invertebrates,  Buccinvm  undatvm,  Fu»us  sp., 
and  Astoria*  vulgari*,  in  any  considerable  abundance.  The  examination  of  the  stomachs  of  several 


214  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

hundred  individuals  showed  four-fifths  of  all  to  be  entirely  empty,  while  a  greater  part  of  the 
remainder  contained  only  bait  picked  from  the  trawls  of  the  fishermen.  A  small  number  contained 
fish  of  one  or  more  species  that  had  probably  been  captured  in  the  locality,  while  a  few  scattering 
invertebrates  were  found.  Of  the  species  mentioned  as  abundant  on  the  grounds,  not  a  star-fish 
and  but  two  shells  of  one  species  and  one  of  the  other  were  found.  But  it  was  clearly  shown  that 
the  fish  would  not  refuse  food,  for  often  the  stomachs  were  well  filled  with  bait  picked  from  the 
trawl  before  the  fish  were  hooked.  From  ten  to  fifteen  pieces  were  frequently  found,  and  in  one 
case  eighteen  were  counted. 

"The  females  when  fully  ripe  seemed  less  willing  to  feed  than  at  other  times,  and  few  were 
caught  with  the  moving  hand-lines ;  but  when  the  trawl  was  used,  thus  leaving  the  bait  motionless 
on  the  bottom  for  hours  at  a  time,  they  were  induced  to  bite,  and  many  were  taken  with  the  eggs 
running  from  them.  Ripe  males  seemed  to  bite  readily  at  any  time. 

"The  young  fish,  as  has  been  remarked,  seems  to  spend  the  first  three  or  four  years  of  its  life 
in  shoal  water,  among  the  rocks  and  alga3.  Here  its  food  consists  at  first  of  the  minutest  forms, 
and  later  principally  of  small  Crustacea,  though  it  often  picks  up  mollusks  and  worms,  and  even 
enters  the  harbors  in  summer,  where  it  remains  about  the  wharves,  picking  up  bits  of  refuse  thrown 
from  the  fish-houses." 

Capt.  R.  H.  Hurlbert  tells  me  that  sometimes  a  school  of  Codfish  will  bite  at  night  j  these  the 
fishermen  call  "Night  Cod." 

In  1860  the  schooner  "C.  C.  Davis"  caught  one  entire  trip  of  fish  on  George's  Bank  all  in 
the  night,  and  there  are  other  instances  on  record,  though,  as  a  rule,  these  fish  feed  only  in  the 
daytime. 

REPRODUCTION. — Two  important  papers  on  the  breeding  of  the  Codfish  have  recently  been 
printed  in  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  The  first  of  these  is  a  translation 
of  a  report  by  Prof.  G.  O.  Sars  upon  the  practical  and  scientific  investigations  concerning  the  Cod- 
fish of  the  Loffodeu  Islands,  Norway,  made  during  the  years  1864-'69,  in  behalf  of  the  Norwegian 
Government.1  His  observations  are  full  of  interest.  He  tells  us  how,  from  year  to  year,  ho 
observed  the  movements  of  the  Codfish  and  studied  out  their  spawning  habits. 

In  1864  he  visited  the  Loffoden  Islands,  in  January,  February,  and  March.  He  observed  the 
coming  in  of  the  fish,  as  they  approached  the  coast,  swimming  up  the  fiords  in  large  schools,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  February,  and  from  that  time  until  the  end  of  March,  found  the  eggs  in 
immense  numbers  floating  at  the  surface. 

In  1865  he  reached  the  islands  in  the  beginning  of  March  and  remained  until  the  middle  of 
May.  He  gathered  the  eggs  as  they  floated  at  the  surface,  and  hatched  them  out  in  glass  jars. 
He  also  artificially  impregnated  the  eggs  and  found  that  the  period  of  incubation  lasted  eighteen 
days.  He  also  observed  a  few  very  small  young  fish  at  the  surface. 

In  1866  he  was  on  the  ground  on  the  7th  of  May,  and  remained  until  July.  This  year  he 
found  great  quantities  of  young  Codfish — the  largest  being  about  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
length — swimming  under  the  jelly  fish  (which  are  so  numerous  in  those  northern  waters),  and 
also  under  other  objects  floating  in  the  sea. 

In  1867  he  reached  the  islands  late  in  July,  and  remained  until  the  beginning  of  October,  and 
succeeded  in  finding  the  young  fish,  two  inches  or  slightly  more  in  length,  swimming  near  the 
surface  in  the  "slicks,"  and  also  in  the  shallow  inlets  near  the  shores,  in  company  with  the  young 
pollock,  while  the  stomachs  of  all  the  larger  Codfish  and  pollock  taken  in  the  neighborhood  were 
full  of  them.  He  also  found  in  the  beginning  of  October  many  larger  young  Codfish,  upwards 


1  United  States  Fish  Commission,  pt.  v,  pp.  565-661. 


SAKS  ON    KKI'KOIHVTION  Ml-    TIIH  COD.  215 

of  four  indies  in  length  and  about  seven  mouths  old,  as  estimated,  at  the  bottom,  at  a  depth  <>f 
several  fathoms. 

In  ISiis  he  began  his  observations  in  November,  and  in  Novemlierand  Deeember  fonml  young 
lish  six  or  seven  inehes  in  length  at  a  deptli  of  eight  to  twelve  fathoms,  usually  iu  the  vicinity  of 
steep  ledges  and  rocks.  This  year  he  remained  until  March,  and  in  February  found  great  num- 
bers of  young  ( 'odlish,  the  average  length  of  which  was  about  one  foot,  at  an  average  of  twenty 
to  thirty  fathoms,  on  sandy  bottom.  "  Iu  the,  beginning,''  he  remarks,  "I  thought  that  these  must 
be  two-\  ear-old  fish,  but  when  I  afterwards  sot  my  line  in  shallower  places  I  also  collected  smaller 
lish,  so  that  I  soon  had  all  the  different  grades  of  size." 

This  last  visit  extended  over  into  the  year  1869,  and  at  the  time  of  his  departure  the  schools 
of  spawning  fish  were  again  on  the  ground.  He  had  thus  traced  the  development  of  the  dullish 
throughout  a  period  of  twelve  months,  and  had  secured  a  very  complete  chain  of  evidence  with 
\vhieh  to  bind  together  the  isolated  facts  regarding  the  growth  and  habits  of  the  young  fish  which 
had  hitherto  been  or  should  hereafter  be  observed. 

From  1870  to  1873  he  continued  his  observations  upon  the  young  and  adult  fish,  and  in 
midsummer  found  Cod  at  a  distance  of  twenty  to  thirty  Norwegian  miles  from  the  shore,  and 
at  a  depth  of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms.  These  observations,  as 
has  already  been  remarked,  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  the  reports  of  Professor  Sara  are 
full  of  observations  of  the  most  suggestive  kind  concerning  the  {owl,  the  movements,  and  the 
general  habits  of  the  fish. 

The  other  paper  referred  to,  which  is  of  equal  value,  is  the  report  of  Mr.  R.  E.  Earll  upon  the 
natural  history  and  artificial  propagation  of  the  Cod,  as  observed  at  the  station  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts.1  His  remarks  upon  the  reproduction  of  the 
Codfish  are  here  quoted  in  full,  with  the  single  observation  that  no  one  has  so  carefully  observed 
the  spawning  habits  of  any  other  species  offish. 

"The  Cod  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  the  ocean  fishes,  and  we  find  not  only  thousands  but 
millions  of  eggs  in  a  single  female.  All  members  of  this  family  contain  large  numbers  of  eggs, 
but  the  Codfish  is  the  most  prolific  of  all. 

"The  exact  number  of  eggs  in  a  female  varies  greatly  with  the  individual,  being  dependent 
largely  upon  its  size  and  age.  To  ascertain  the  number  for  the  different  sizes,  a  series  of  six  fish, 
representing  various  stages  of  growth  from  twenty-one  to  seventy-five  pounds,  was  taken,  and 
the  eggs  were  estimated.  Care  was  exercised  that  the  series  should  contain  only  immature 
female.-.  M.  lli. il  tin  i- ££  .-hniild  ha\e  been  lost,  ami  that  nil  might  be  i.f  nearh  eijual  si/e. 
The  ovaries  were  taken  from  the  fish  and  their  weight  accurately  ascertained;  after  which  small 
quantities  were  taken  from  different  parts  of  each  and  weighed  on  delicately  adjusted  scales, 
the  eggs  in  these  portions  being  carefully  counted.  The  number  contained  in  a  given  weight 
being  known,  it  was  easy  to  ascertain  approximately  the  entire  number  for  each  fish. 

"The  results  obtained  are  given  in  a  table,  quoted  below,  showing  a  twenty -one-pound  fish  to 
have  2,700,000,  and  a  seveuty-five-pound  one,  9,100,000.  The  largest  number  of  eggs  found  in  the 
pollock  was  4,029,200,  and  in  the  haddock  1,840,000. 

"When  the  eggs  are  first  seen  iu  the  fish  they  are  so  small  as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable, 
but  they  continue  to  increase  in  size  until  maturity,  and,  after  impregnation,  have  a  diameter, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  parent,  varying  from  one-nineteenth  to  one-seventeenth  of  an  inch. 
A  live  to  eight  pound  fish  has  eggs  of  the  smaller  si/.e,  while  a  twenty-five-pound  one  has  them 
between  an  eighteenth  and  a  seventeenth. 


1  Report  of  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  pt.  6,  IHTrt,  pp.  685-740. 


216  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"From  weighing  and  measuring  known  quantities  it  is  found  that  one  pound  avoirdupois  will 
contain  190,000  of  the  smaller  size,  or  that  1,000,000  eggs  well  drained  will  weigh  about  five 
pounds.  Again,  by  assuming  one-nineteenth  of  an  inch  as  the  standard,  or  by  precipitating  a 
known  quantity  in  chromic  acid  and  measuring,  we  find  one  quart,  or  fifty-seven  and  three-quarters 
cubic  inches,  to  contain  a  little  less  than  400,000,  or  that  1,000,000  will  measure  between  two  and 
a  half  and  three  quarts. 

"  With  these  facts  in  mind,  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  eggs  taken 
for  hatching  purposes  during  any  given  season. 

"When  the  little  fish  first  breaks  through  the  shell  of  the  egg  that  confines  it.  the  fetal  curve 
or  crook  is  still  quite  noticeable,  but  it  soon  straightens,  and  is  then  about  five-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  in  length.  At  this  time  the  yelk-sack,  situated  well  forward,  is  quite  large,  but  so  transparent 
as  to  escape  the  notice  of  the  ordinary  observer.  This  is  gradually  absorbed,  disappearing  wholly 
in  about  ten  to  fifteen  days,  and  the  little  fish  begins  to  move  about  with  a  peculiar  serpentine 
motion,  at  times  darting  quite  rapidly,  and  then  remaining  motionless,  as  if  resting  from  its 
exertions.  It  now  begins  its  independent  existence,  and  moves  about  more  frequently,  apparently 
in  search  of  food.  From  this  date  it  is  impossible  to  follow  the  Cod,  for  none  have  been  confined, 
and  it  is  only  by  catching  large  numbers  at  different  seasons  and  carefully  recording  their  weights 
and  measurements  that  one  is  enabled  to  judge  of  their  growth.  The  habits  of  the  species,  that 
cause  them  to  live  near  the  shore  for  the  first  few  years,  furnish  excellent  opportunities  for  such 
observations,  and  many  were  examined  during  our  stay  at  Cape  Ann. 

"At  the  outset  the  problem  becomes  difficult,  in  that  the  spawning  period,  instead  of  being 
limited  to  a  few  weeks,  as  is  the  case  with  most  species,  extends  over  fully  three-fourths  of  the  year, 
and  the  difficulty  is  greatly  increased  by  other  causes  that  affect  the  rate  of  growth  of  individuals 
hatched  at  the  same  time. 

"The  results  were  what  might  be  expected;  for  a  table  of  measurements,  made  late  in  June, 
gave  an  almost  continuous  series,  with  only  one  or  two  breaks,  that  could  with  certainty  be  taken 
to  represent  the  non-spawning  period  of  the  fish.  But  though  the  gaps  were  so  completely  closed 
by  the  extremes  in  variation,  which  seemed  to  cause  even  an  overlapping,  showing  the  last  hatched 
of  one  season  to  be  smaller  than  the  first  hatched  of  the  next  succeeding,  yet  there  was  a  tendency  for 
the  greater  number  of  individuals  to  be  thrown  into  groups  at  intervals  in  the  series,  these  seeming 
to  represent  the  height  of  the  spawning  season  for  the  different  years.  The  break  was  distinct 
between  the  smallest  and  those  of  a  year  earlier,  so  that,  taking  the  height  of  the  spawning  season 
on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Ann  to  be  December,  the  large  number  of  young  fry  ranging  from  one 
and  a  half  to  three  inches  must  have  been  hatched  the  previous  winter,  and  were  consequently 
about  six  months  old.  The  large  number  of  individuals  having  a  length  of  nine  to  thirteen  inches 
indicated  the  normal  growth  of  those  hatched  a  year  earlier,  or  fish  of  eighteen  months,  to  be  ten 
to  eleven  inches,  and  their  weight  seven  to  eight  ounces.  The  next  group,  or  the  fish  thought  to 
be  thirty  months  old,  measured  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches,  with  an  average  weight  of  two 
to  two  and  a  quarter  pounds.  The  fish  now  begin  to  increase  more  in  weight  than  in  length,  soon 
appearing  in  the  markets  as  '  Scrod,'  and  by  the  following  summer  measure  about  twenty-two 
inches  and  weigh  from  four  to  five  pounds. 

"Beyond  this  period  nothing  can  be  determined,  for  the  variation,  constantly  growing  greater, 
now  gives  every  size  and  weight,  with  no  indication  of  breaks  in  the  series. 

"But  enough  has  been  learned,  if  the  above  be  correct,  to  show  that  the  male  reaches  maturity 
at  three  and  the  female  at  four  years;  for  the  smallest  ripe  male  noticed  during  the  season  of 
1878-'79  weighed  three  and  a  half  and  the  smallest  ripe  female  five  pounds. 


SPAWNING  HABITS  OP  THE  COD.  217 

"  Evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  a  Cod  spawns  every  year,  aud  that  it  deposits  the 
entire  number  of  eggs  in  the  ovaries  each  season.  We  have  examined  hundreds  of  specimens  and 
have  failed  to  find  a  single  instance  where  the  condition  of  the  ovaries  did  not  clearly  indicate 
that  such  was  the  case.  During  the  first  of  the  season  no  mature  fish  were  found  in  which 
eggs  were  not  present,  though  they  often  varied  greatly  in  development  from  very  small  to 
nearly  ripe.  Again,  later  in  the  season,  no  spent  fish  were  seen  with  any  eggs  remaining 
in  the  ovaries;  and  no  fish  were  found  during  the  spawning  period  in  which  the  condition  of  the 
ovaries  did  not  indicate  that  the  eggs  were  gradually  maturing,  and  would  be  deposited  before  the 
close  of  the  season. 

"The  eggs  contained  in  the  ovaries  are  separated  into  little  irregular  conical  clusters,  each 
being  connected  with  the  general  mass  by  a  slender  thread  that  expands  into  a  delicate  membrane 
containing  minute  and  diffusely  branched  blood-vessels.  This  membrane  envelops  each  of  the  eggs, 
and  the  blood-vessels  supply  the  nutrition  •  so  necessary  to  their  future  growth  and  development. 
As  the  eggs  mature  they  gradually  increase  in  size,  until,  when  ripe,  they  become  detached  from 
the  membrane,  and  pass  down  through  secondary  channels  into  the  main  channel  leading  to  the 
genital  opening  of  the  female. 

"The  first  ripe  female  seen  during  the  season  of  1878-'79  was  found  in  a  lot  of  shore- 
fish  or  ground-tenders  landed  September  2.  The  eggs  were  noticed  to  be  running  from  this  fish  as 
it  lay  upon  the  floor  of  the  fish-house.  On  opening  it,  we  found  that  it  had  just  begun  spawning, 
for  a  few  eggs  only,  perhaps  five  per  cent,  of  the  entire  number,  were  transparent,  and  a  small 
number  of  these  had  separated  from  the  membrane  and  fallen  into  the  channels  leading  to  the 
genital  opening,  while  the  great  bulk  were  far  less  mature  and  represented  almost  every  stage  of 
development  from  green  to  ripe. 

"From  this  date  ripe  fish,  both  males  and  females,  were  occasionally  taken,  though  they  did 
not  become  abundant  until  the  middle  of  October.  Early  in  November,  when  the  school-fish  made 
their  appearance  on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Ann,  the  individuals  varied  greatly  in  their  spawning 
condition;  some  were  quite  ripe  and  had  already  thrown  a  portion  of  their  eggs,  while  others  were 
so  green  as  to  indicate  that  they  would  not  spawn  for  several  months  at  least,  though,  in  nearly 
all,  the  eggs  had  begun  to  enlarge.  By  the  first  of  December  fully  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  catch  had 
commenced  spawning,  but  when  driven  away,  probably  by  the  unusually  heavy  storms,  in  January, 
a  few  were  not  quite  ripe,  and  the  majority  had  not  thrown  all  their  eggs. 

"About  the  first  of  February  the  fish  in  Ipswich  Bay  were  found  to  average  fully  ninety  per 
cent,  males,  with  the  spermaries  mostly  well  developed.  At  this  time  there  was  a  great  variation 
in  the  ovaries  of  the  females;  of  these  not  more  than  one  in  ten  had  spawned,  while  fully  sixty 
per  cent,  were  still  green.  By  the  middle  of  the  month  the  females  numbered  about  forty  per  cent., 
though  over  half  had  not  commenced  spawning.  On  March  13,  three  hundred  fish  from  this  school 
were  opened,  with  the  following  results:  Fourteen  per  cent,  were  spent  males;  fifty -three  per  cent, 
were  ripe  males;  six  per  cent,  were  spent  females;  fourteen  percent,  were  females  in  various  stages 
of  spawning;  aud  eleven  per  cent,  were  green  females.  May  10,  fully  half  of  the  females  had  not 
finished  spawning,  and  an  occasional  green  one  was  noticed.  Even  in  June,  when  the  fish  left  the 
coast,  a  very  few,  though  ripe,  had  not  finished  throwing  their  eggs. 

"The  results  of  the  above  observation  prove  not  only  interesting,  but  surprising,  for  we  find 
the  Codfish  spawning  through  nine  consecutive  months  in  the  same  locality,  a  period  far  exceeding 
that  required  by  any  other  species  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge. 

"This  fact  can  be  more  easily  understood  when  we  remember  that  the  individuals  do  not 
deposit  all  their  eggs  in  a  single  day  or  week,  but  probably  continue  the  operation  of  spawning 


218  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

over  a  period  of  fully  two  months.  That  this  is  true  there  can  be  little  doubt,  for  when  the 
females  first  begin  to  throw  their  eggs  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  whole  number  are  ripe, 
while  the  balance  show  every  gradation  to  the  perfectly  green  and  immature.  By  frequent  exam- 
ination of  individuals  in  more  advanced  stages,  it  was  found  that  the  eggs  gradually  continue  to 
increase  in  size  as  they  mature,  and  that  as  fast  as  they  become  detached  from  the  membrane  they 
pass  down  through  the  channels  to  the  opening,  and  are  excluded  from  the  body,  either  at  the 
will  of  the  parent  or  by  internal  pressure  caused  by  the  increasing  size  of  the  eggs,  to  make  room 
for  others.  It  would  be  impossible  for  a  fish  to  retain  all,  or  even  a  small  part,  of  its  eggs  iti  the 
roe-bags  until  the  last  had  matured,  for  the  increase  during  the  development  is  very  great,  and 
they  would  come  to  have  a  bulk  greater  than  the  entire  stomach  cavity  of  the  fish.  The  pro- 
ducts of  the  ovaries  of  a  seventy-five  pound  fit-h,  after  impregnation,  would  weigh  about  forty-five 
pounds  and  measure  nearly  seven  gallons,  equal  to  over  half  of  either  the  weight  or  bulk  of  the  fish. 

"Another  proof  that  the  Codfish  deposits  its  eggs  gradually  during  a  long  period  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  few  can  be  taken  from  the  fish  at  a  time.  In  'stripping  the  fish,'  at  the  hatchery  in 
Gloucester,  it  was  found  that  only  one  quart,  or  less  than  400,000  eggs,  could  be  taken  from  a 
twenty-one  pound  fish  at  a  single  stripping.  Allowing  the  ovaries  of  this  fish  to  contain  2,700,000 
eggs,  and  the  time  of  spawning  to  be  two  months,  the  fish  must  deposit  in  the  natural  way  337,500, 
or  nearly  a  quart,  each  week. 

"But  by  the  artificial  method,  where  strong  external  pressure  is  applied,  many  more  eggs  are 
probably  secured  at  once  than  would  be  naturally  thrown  by  the  fish.  Thus  the  fish  must  either 
gradually  deposit  more  or  less  eggs  each  day,  during  the  entire  spawning  season,  or  it  must  deposit 
at  intervals  separated  by  only  a  day  or  two  at  most. 

"The  schools  of  Cod  move  about  but  little  during  the  spawning  season,  except  when  driven 
away  by  enemies  or  by  violent  storms.  After  they  reach  the  waters  of  Cape  Ann,  fishing  continues 
best  in  the  same  localities,  and  even  upon  the  same  spots,  until  they  leave.  The  individuals,  too, 
seem  to  move  about  but  little  among  themselves.  When  the  female  becomes  ripe  she  remains 
quietly  near  the  bottom,  while  the  male,  a  little  more  active,  often  swims  higher  up.  This  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  greater  numbers  of  spawning  females  are  taken  with  the  trawl,  which 
lies  directly  on  the  bottom,  than  with  the  hand-line  a  little  way  above  it,  while  the  males  are  taken 
on  one  as  readily  as  on  the  other. 

"  It  may  not  be  impossible  that  the  eggs  are  fertilized  while  floating  about  in  the  water  some 
minutes  after  exclusion,  and  that  the  strong  tides  usually  found  on  the  spawning  grounds  play  an 
important  part  in  distributing  the  germs,  thus  making  the  chances  of  impregnation  more  favorable. 
Indeed  it  may  be  possible,  and,  if  the  spawning  goes  on  gradually  for  several  months,  seems  not 
improbable,  that  the  immediate  presence  of  the  opposite  sexes  during  the  act  of  spawning  is  not 
necessary,  but  rather  that  the  eggs  are  fertilized  mainly  by  accidental  contact.  Observations 
would  seem  to  strengthen  the  probabilities  of  this  theory;  for,  if  the  fish  went  in  pairs,  they  would 
often  be  taken  on  adjoining  hooks  of  the  trawl,  or  one  on  either  hook  of  the  hand-line.  Such  is 
not  usually  the  case,  however,  but,  on  the  contrary,  several  of  the  same  sex  are  more  frequently 
taken  together. 

"The  eggs  have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.020  to  1.025,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  they  float  in 
salt  water  and  sink  rapidly  in  fresh.  They  may  be  found  at  the  surface  in  common  with  eggs  of 
the  Pollock,  Haddock,  and  probably  other  species  of  the  cod  family,  when  the  sea  is  smooth;  but 
when  the  water  becomes  rough  they  are  carried  to  a  depth  of  several  fathoms  by  the  current, 
though  the  tendency  is  to  remain  near  the  surface.  The  oldest  fishermen  had  not  the  slightest 
knowledge  of  this  fact,  but  held  to  the  theory  that  the  females  deposited  their  eggs  ou  the  rocks, 


TIIK  HATCHING  OF  THE  COD  EGGS. 


219 


when-  tlir\  \\ITC  visited  and  impregnated  h.v  the  males,  and  left  to  become  the  food  of  the  various 
animals  so  abundant  in  such  localities.  They  hail  at  times  noticed  the  little  transparent  globular 
iMtdies  in  the  water,  Imt  it  had  never  occurred  to  them  that  they  were  the  eggs  of  any  fish. 

"There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  eggs  may  be  destroyed.  The  principal  loss  is  probably 
the  result,  of  non-impregnation,  for  unless  they  come  in  contact  with  the.  milt  of  the  male  very  soon 
after  being  thrown  from  1  In-  parent  they  lose  their  vitality.  Again,  beingdrifted  about  by  the  winds 
and  tides,  they  are  often  carried  long  distances  from  the  spawning  grounds  into  the  little  bays  and 
coves,  and  are  driven  in  immense  numbers  upon  the  shores,  or  are  left  dry  by  the  tides,  where  they 
soon  die  from  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  or,  during  the  cold  winter  weather,  are  instantly  destroyed 
by  freezing.  Ipswich  Bay,  the  most  extensive  spawning  ground  in  the  locality,  is  especially 
unfortunate  in  this  particular,  for  the  heavy  storms  from  the  north  and  east  sweep  with  unbroken 
force  across  its  surface,  and  each  breaker  as  it  rolls  in  upon  the  beach  must  carry  with  it  many 
millions  of  eggs. 

"But  such  impregnated  eggs  as  escape  destruction  upon  the  shores  are  subjected  to  the  ravages 
of  the  myriads  of  hungry  animals  living  about  the  rocks  and  coves.  One  day  in  January  we  placed 
a  jelly-fish  or  medusid,  having  a  diameter  of  but  one  and  a  half  inches,  into  a  tray  of  eggs  in 
the  hatching-rpom,  and  in  less  than  five  minutes  it  had  fastened  seventy  eggs  to  his  tentacles, 
loading  some  of  them  so  heavily  that  they  were  severed  from  the  body  by  the  weight  or  resistance 
of  the  eggs  as  they  were  dragged  through  the  water. 

"By  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  numbers  of  vorticelli  were  frequently  found  upon  the  eggs,  in  one 
case  forty-six  being  counted  on  a  single  egg.  In  addition  a  peculiar  growth,  thought  to  be  minute 
algae,  was  often  noticed  upon  them.  Just  what  influence  these  would  exert,  or  whether  they  would 
occur  in  the  clear  water  outside  the  harbor,  is  not  known.  Thus,  owing  to  the  many  different 
circumstances  that  tend  to  destroy  the  eggs,  probably  but  a  very  small  number  out  of  a  million 
are  successfully  hatched,  and  of  the  young  fish  but  few  reach  maturity." 

In  the  winters  of  1878-'79  and  1880-'81  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  successfully  carried 
on  the  work  of  artificial  propagation  of  Codfish.  The  results  of  the  first  winter's  work  at  Gloucester 
will  be  found  detailed  in  Mr.  Earll's  paper,  from  which  quotations  have  already  been  so  extensively 
taken. 

In  addition  to  his  other  observations,  Mr.  Earll  computed  the  number  of  eggs  in  Codfish  of 
different  sizes.  The  results  of  his  observations  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  showing  the  number  of  eggs  in  Codfish  of  different  »isen. 


Number. 

Length  of  flah. 

Weight  of  Bah. 

t 
jl 

it 

1 

* 

h 

M 

Number  of  troy 

graina  weighed 
out. 

Number  of  eggs 
in  (lir  portion 
weighed  out. 

Number  of  egga 
to  the  grain. 

Total  number  «f 
«gg»  in  flah. 

1  

ft  in. 

Lbt. 
70-75 

Lbt.nz. 

a 

Oz. 

| 

Lbt.ot. 

1 

7 

1,108 

, 

!(•)'  

70-75 

g 

I 

3 

1,132 

S    160 

9,100,000 

• 

21 

51 

2 

5 

IS 

1,131 

> 

188.  5 

8,988,004 

g 

30 

8} 

21 

t 

1,341 

223.8 

3,715,887 

5 

27 

•i 

24 

7 

1,880 

240 

4,005,000 

41 

•.. 

2 

1 

: 

228 

3,229,388 

| 

21 

]'•! 

1| 

14 

' 
1,249 

208.17 

2,7*2,  1ST 

1  No.  1  (a)  represents  a  second  quantity  taken  from  the  name  ovary  the  following  day,  and  the  greater  number 
may  ue  partially  accounted  for  by  the  evaporation  of  moutnre  during  the  night. 
1  No.  2  contained  a  few  ripe  eggs. 


220  NATURAL   HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  with  the  observations  made  during  the  last  century,  refer- 
ences to  which  may  be  found  in  all  the  standard  works  on  natural  history.  Leuwenhoek  is  said  to 
have  found  in  a  Cod  of  middling  size  384,000  eggs.  Harmer  found,  in  one  weighing  eighteen  or 
twenty  pounds,  between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000  eggs.  It  was  examined  December  23,  and  was 
estimated  to  have  294  eggs  to  the  grain,  the  ovaries  weighing  12,540  grains;  the  total  number, 
according  to  this  calculation,  is  3,68G,16Q.1 

THE  SIZE  OP  CODFISH. — The  result  of  Mr.  Earll's  observations  indicates  lhat  in  June  the 
fish  hatched  the  previous  winter,  or  about  six  months  old,  range  from  one  and  a  half  to  three 
inches  in  length;  while  those  from  nine  to  thirteen  inches  long,  and  weighing  seven  or  eight 
ounces,  were  eighteen  months  old ;  those  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches  long,  and  weighing  two  to 
two  and  a  quarter  pounds,  were  supposed  to  be  two  years  and  a  half  old;  those  of  about  twenty- 
two  inches,  which  weighed  four  to  five  pounds,  were  three  years  and  a  half  old.  He  also  concludes 
that  the  male  reaches  maturity  at  the  age  of  three,  and  the  female  at  the  age  of  four  years,  for  the 
smallest  ripe  male  noticed  during  the  season  of  1878-'79  weighed  three  and  one-half  pounds,  and 
the  smallest  ripe  female  five  pounds. 

On  pages  733-734  of  Mr.  Earll's  report  may  be  found  the  measurements  of  a  large  number 
of  Codfish  of  different  weights,  and  with  the  ovaries  and  spermaries  in  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment. These  measurements  are  interesting,  since  they  show  the  relation  between  the  length 
and  weight  of  individual  fish. 

I  have  before  me  memoranda  relating  to  a  large  number  of  enormous  Codfish,  taken  along 
the  New  England  coast  at  various  times  from  1830  to  1879.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  refer  to  them, 
excepting  the  cases  of  a  few  which  exceed  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight. 

Capt.  King  Harding,  of  Swampscott,  tells  me  that  he  once  caught,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Cape 
Cod,  a  fish  weighing  101  pounds  as  it  came  from  the  water. 

On  the  22d  of  July,  1873,  Miss  Fannie  Belis,  of  Saint  Louis,  while  on  a  fishing  excursion  off 
Eastern  Point,  on  board  the  yacht  "  United  States,"  caught  a  Cod  which  weighed  130  pounds. 

Capt.  G.  H.  Martin  caught,  off  Chatham,  a  Codfish  which  weighed,  dressed,  111  pounds. 

Capt.  Stephen  Mar,  of  Gloucester,  saw  a  Codfish  taken  on  George's  Banks  in  1838  which,  after 
having  been  eviscerated,  weighed  136  pounds. 

Captain  Atwood  says,  on  the  coast  of  Cape  Cod  he  has  never  seen  a  male  Codfish,  with  one 
exception,  which  weighed  more  than  60  pounds;  he- once  saw  one,  however,  which  weighed  160 
pounds.  This  fish  was  not  much  larger  than  an  ordinary  fish  weighing  76  pounds,  but  was  very 
thick. 

Captain  Atwood  remarks:  "In  regard  to  size,  the  Cod  differs  very  widely  in  different  localities. 
When  taken  on  the  Grand  Bank  it  usually  requires  from  thirty  to  forty  to  make  a  quintal  when 
dried.  Those  caught  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  with  hand-lines  are  smaller,  requiring 
seventy  to  eighty  per  quintal ;  in  the  same  locality,  however,  Cod  caught  on  trawl-lines  require 
only  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  quintal,  while  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  they  are  all  small,  and  it 
requires  about  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  ten  to  make  a  quintal." 

Writing  in  the  summer  of  1877,  Captain  Atwood  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  average 
weight  of  the  fish  taken  about  Cape  Cod  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  ten  pounds;  but  he  informed 
me  that  in  the  winter  .of  1877,  in  two  days,  thirty  thousand  pounds  of  Codfish  were  landed  from 
the  boats,  and  that  there  was  not  a  fish  among  them  small  enough  to  be  classed  as  a  market  Cod, 
a  market  Cod  weighing  from  six  to  ten  or  twelve  pounds. 

'Philosophical  Transactions,  Ivii,  1778,  p.  287. 


SIZE  OF  TI1E  COD.  221 

I  have  before  me  much  information  concerning  the  average  size  of  the  fish  caught  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year  by  the  fishermen  at  different  localities  along  the  coast,  but  it  seems  at  present 
hardly  necessary  to  discuss  this  subject  at  greater  length. 

CONCLUSIONS  AS  TO  DECREASE  OP  COD  FISHERIES  ON  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COAST.— In 
conclusion,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  quote-  the  remarks  of  Professor  Baird  concerning  the  decrease 
of  Codfish  along  our  coast,  and  the  probable  causes  for  such  decrease: 

"Of  all  the  various  fisheries  formerly  prosecuted  directly  off  the  coast  of  New  England,  north  of 
Cape  Cod,  the  depreciation  in  that  of  the  Cod  appears  to  be  of  the  greatest  economical  importance. 
Formerly  the  waters  abounded  in  this  fish  to  such  an  extent  that  a  large  supply  could  be  taken 
throughout  almost  the  entire  year  along  the  banks,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouths  of  the 
larger  rivers.  At  that  time  the  tidal  streams  were  almost  choked  up  with  the  alewives,  shad,  and 
salmon  that  were  struggling  for  entrance  in  the  spring,  and  which  filled  the  adjacent  waters' 
throughout  a  great  part  of  the  year. 

••As  is  well  known,  the  erection  of  impassable  dams  across  the  streams,  by  preventing  the 
ascent  of  the  species  just  mentioned  to  their  spawning  grounds,  produced  a  very  great  diminution, 
and  almost  the  extermination,  of  their  numbers;  so  that  whereas  in  former  years  a  large  trade 
could  be  carried  on  during  the  proper  season,  now  nothing  would  be  gained  by  the  effort. 

"Of  late  the  attention  of  the  legislatures  of  the  New  England  States  has  been  called  to  this 
fact,  and  to  the  importance  of  restoring  their  fisheries,  and  a  great  deal  has  been  already  accom- 
plished toward  that  end.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  lumbering  interest  in  Maine,  and  the 
manufacturing  in  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts,  are  so  powerful  as  to  render  it  extremely 
difficult  to  carry  out  any  measures  which  in  any  way  interfere  with  their  convenience  or  profits; 
and  notwithstanding  the  passage  of  laws  requiring  the  construction  of  fishways  through  the 
dams,  these  have  either  been  neglected  altogether,  or  arc  of  such  a  character  as  not  to  answer 
their  purpose.  The  reform,  therefore,  however  imperatively  required,  has  been  very  slow  in  its 
progress,  and  many  years  will  probably  elapse  before  efficient  measures  will  be  taken  to  remedy 
the  evils  referred  to. 

"It  would,  therefore,  appear  that  while  the  river  fisheries  have  been  depreciated  or  destroyed 
by  means  of  dams  or  by  exhaustive  fishing,  the  Codfish  have  disappeared  in  equal  ratio.  This 
is  not,  however,  for  the  same  reason,  as  they  are  taken  only  with  the  line,  at  a  rate  more  than 
compensated  by  the  natural  fecnndity  of  the  fish.  I  am  well  satisfied,  however,  that  there  is  a 
relation  of  cause  and  effect  between  the  present  and  past  condition  of  the  two  series  of  fish ;  and 
in  this  I  am  supported  by  the  opinion  of  Capt.  U.  S.  Treat,  of  Eastport,  by  whom,  indeed,  the 
idea  was  first  suggested  to  me.  Captain  Treat  is  a  successful  fisherman  and  dealer  in  fish  on  a 
very  large  scale,  and  at  the  same  time  a  gentleman  of  very  great  intelligence  and  knowledge  of 
the  many  details  connected  with  the  natural  history  of  our  coast  fishes,  in  this  respect  worthily 
representing  Captain  Atwood,  of  Provincetown.  It  is  to  Captain  Treat  that  we  owe  many  experi- 
ments on  the  reproduction  of  alewives  in  ponds,  and  the  possibility  of  keeping  salmon  in  fresh 
waters  for  a  period  of  years.  The  general  conclusions  which  have  been  reached,  as  the  result  of 
repeated  conversations  with  Captain  Treat  and  other  fishermen  on  the  coast,  incline  me  to  believe 
that  the  reduction  in  the  cod  and  other  fisheries,  so  as  to  become  practically  a  failure,  is  due  to 
the  decrease  off  our  coast  in  the  quantity,  primarily,  of  alewives;  and,  secondarily,  of  shad  and 
salmon,  more  than  to  any  other  cause. 

"It  is  well  known  to  the  old  residents  of  Eastport  that  from  thirty  to  fifty  years  ago  Cod  could 
be  taken  in  abundance  in  Passamaquoddy  Bay  and  off  Eastport,  where  only  stragglers  are  now 
to  be  caught.  The  same  is  the  case  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot  River  and  at  other  points  along 


222  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  coast,  where  once  the  fish  came  close  in  to  the  shore,  and  were  readily  captured  with  the  hook 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  That  period  was  before  the  multiplication  of  mill-dams, 
cutting  off  the  ascent  of  the  alewives,  shad,  and  salmon,  especially  the  former.  The  Saint  Croix 
River  was  choked  in  the  spring  with  the  numbers  of  these  fish,  endeavoring  to  ascend;  aud  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Little  River,  the  outlet  of  Boyntou's  Lake,  about  seven  miles  above  East- 
port.  The  lake  in  question  is  one  of  considerable  size,  and  was  visited  by  immense  numbers  of 
alewives,  which  could  be  dipped  out,  to  any  extent,  on  their  passage  upward,  while  the  waters  of 
the  adjacent  bay  were  alive  with  the  young  fish  on  their  return. 

"The  fish  themselves  enter  the  waters  of  the  streams  in  May  or  June,  and  return  almost 
immediately  after  spawning  to  the  sea.  But  they  may  be  taken  by  the  drift-nets  along  the 
shores  as  early  as  March  and  April;  and,  indeed,  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  whole  period  of 
their  abode  in  the  salt  water  is  spent  adjacent  to  the  rivers  in  which  they  were  born.  The  young 
come  down  from  the  ponds  in  which  they  are  hatched,  from  August  to  October,  keeping  up  a 
constant  stream  of  the  young  fish.  In  this  way  a  supply  of  alewives  was  to  be  met  with 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  nearer  the  coast  they  furnished  every  inducement 
for  the  Cod  aud  other  ground  fish  to  come  inshore  in  their  pursuit. 

"It  is  true  that  the  sea-herring  is  also  an  attraction  to  these  fish,  aud  probably  but  for  their 
presence  our  pollock,  haddock,  and  hake  fisheries  would  be  greatly  diminished.  Nevertheless, 
the  alewife  appears  to  be  more  attractive  as  a  bait,  and  furthermore  the  sea-herring  are  less 
constantly  on  the  coast,  especially  inshore,  occurring  as  they  do  at  stated  intervals,  when  they 
come  in  from  the  deep  sea  to  spawn.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  they  are  less  easily  captured  by  the 
Cod,  since  they  swim  nearer  the  surface  than  the  alewives.  Corroboration  of  this  idea  is  furnished 
in  the  testimony  of  Mr.  W.  B.  McLaughliu,  of  Southern  Head,  Grand  Manan.  This  gentleman 
informs  me  that  the  only  stream  in  the  island  which  ever  furnished  alewives  to  any  extent  was 
Seal  Cove  Creek,  which  discharges  to  the  east  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Grand  Manan,  and 
into  which  these  fish  entered  in  immense  numbers  in  the  spring.  At  that  time  Cod,  Haddock, 
and  Pollock,  as  well  as  halibut,  were  taken  in  great  abundance  in  Seal  Cove  Sound,  between 
Harwood  Cove,  on  Wood  Island,  and  Indian  or  Parker's  Point,  on  the  main  island.  They  were 
to  be  met  with  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  especially  from  May  to  January;  and  the 
fishery  in  the  channel-way  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  shore  was  really  more  productive 
than  on  the  banks  much  farther  out  to  sea. 

"Although  still  a  young  man,  Mr.  McLaughlin  recollects  the  capture  of  these  fish;  and, 
indeed,  as  a  mere  boy,  enjoyed  the  sport  within  a  very  short  distance  of  his  father's  house.  Soon 
after  that  time  a  dam  was  built  across  this  stream  about  two  hundred  yards  above  its  mouth, 
cutting  off  entirely  the  upward  passage  of  the  alewives,  and  by  a  remarkable  coincidence,  if  it 
be  nothing  more,  the  cod  fishery  in  question  diminished  very  soon  after,  and  in  a  very  few  years 
ceased  almost  entirely,  so  that  up  to  the  present  time  there  are  not  enough  Cod  in  those  waters 
to  repay  the  experiment  of  attempting  to  catch  them.  A  few  alewives  still  find  their  way  up  to 
the  foot  of  the  dam,  but  in  such  small  numbers  as  to  make  it  often  doubtful  whether  there  are  any 
there  or  not. 

"The  other  fishing  grounds  about  Grand  Manan  are  farther  out  to  sea,  at  the  northern  end 
of  the  island,  where  there  are  no  alewives,  and  where  herring  appear  to  be  the  principal  food, 
although  the  variation  in  the  abundance  of  these  in  different  seasons  appears  to  have  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  number  of  Hake  and  Cod. 

"If  these  conclusions  be  correct — and  I  am  quite  satisfied  of  their  general  validity — we 
have,  for  the  efforts  made  to  establish  fish  ways  in  the  rivers  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and 


DECREASK   IN    A  HINhA  NCK  <)K  COD. 

Massachusetts,  a  much  more  weighty  reason  than  that  of  merely  enabling  a  few  salmon  to  enter 
thf  streams  in  order  to  permit  their  rapture  while  on  their  way. 

"Whatever  may  be  the  importance  of  increasing  the  supply  of  salmon,  it  is  trifling  compared 
with  the  restoration  of  our  exhausted  cod  fisheries;  and  should  these  be  brought  back  to  their 
original  condition,  we  shall  find,  within  a  short  time,  an  increase  of  wealth  on  our  shores,  the 
amount  of  \\hich  it  would  be  difficult  to  calculate.  Not  only  would  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
adjacent  Slates  In-  enhanced,  but  in  the  increased  number  of  vessels  built,  in  the  larger  number 
of  men  induced  to  devote  themselves  to  maritime  pursuits,  and  in  the  general  stimulus  to  every- 
thing connected  with  the  business  of  the  seafaring  profession,  we  should  be  recovering,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  that  loss  which  has  been  the  source  of  so  much  lamentation  to  political  economists 
and  well-wishers  of  the  country." 

66.  THE  TOM  CODS.     MICEOGADUS  TOMCOD  AND  M.  PROXIMUS. 

THE  ATLANTIC  TOM  COD. — The  Atlantic  Tom  Cod,  Microgadua  tomcod,  is  found  only  in  the 
Western  Atlantic,  ranging  from  New  York  at  the  south  to  Cape  Sable  at  the  north.  It  is 
ordinarily  known  as  the  Tom  Cod,  but  in  the  Bay  of  Fumly,  and  in  various  places  south  of 
Cape  Cod,  it  is  known  as  the  Frost  Fish,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  becomes  most  abundant  in 
the  early  part  of  the  winter,  when  it  approaches  the,  shore  and  even  ascends  the  rivers  and  creeks 
for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  Dr.  DeKay  states,  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Yates,  that  Tom  Cods 
sometimes  appear  at  Albany  in  abundance,  while  I  am  informed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  F.  Gardiner 
that  they  are  taken  in  winter  in  the  Kennebec,  sixty  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  far  above  the  reach 
of  the  tide.  They  ascend  the  Charles  River  to  Watertown,  where  they  are  taken  in  dip-nets  and 
l>y  i  he  hook  from  the  wharves  and  bridges.  Although  most  abundant  near  the  shores  and  in  the 
streams  in  early  winter,  they  are  found  along  the  coast  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  In  form  the 
Tom  Co<l  is  the  miniature  of  the  Codfish,  rarely  exceeding  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  length,  and 
there  is  much  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  young  of  the  two  species.  The  Tom  Cod,  however, 
varies  even  more  in  its  color  than  the  Cod,  and  several  varieties  have  been  described  under 
different  names.  When  these  fish  approach  the  shores  in  winter  they  are  taken  in  great  quantities 
with  nets,  and  are  esteemed  in  many  localities  as  a  great  delicacy. 

The  Tom  Cod  feeds  upon  numerous  species  of  crustaceans  and  mollusks,  and  also  ujton  the 
young  of  many  other  kinds  of  fishes. 

THE  PACIFIC  TOM  COD. — Professor  Jordan  gives  the  following  notes  upon  the  closely  related 
species,  Microgadus proximus,  found  in  California,  and  there  known  as  the  Tom  Cod: 

"The  English  at  Victoria  know  this  species  by  the  name  'Whiting.'  Elsewhere  on  the  coast 
the  name  of  'Tom  Cod'  is  universally  applied  to  it.  In  the  restaurants  at  San  Francisco,  it  is 
usually  served  under  the  name  of  Smelt.  It  reaches  the  length  of  a  foot  and  a  weight  of  about 
half  a  pound.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Puget  Sound  and  northward,  being  everywhere  very 
abundant,  and  taken  in  great  numbers  in  seines  and  sweep-nets,  both  outside  and  in  the  bays.  Its 
food  is  small  fishes.  Nothing  special  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits;  it  is  apparently  abundant 
at  all  seasons.  It  is  one  of  the  important  food  fishes  of  the  coast,  always  abundant  and  always 
meeting  a  ready  sale.  Its  flesh  is,  however,  watery  and  tasteless,  and  cannot  be  rated  high." 

67.  THE  HADDOCK.     MELANOGRAMMUS  ^GLEFINUS. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  Haddock.  .!/»-/*/ HOI/I-HUIIIIII.*  it-ijlilinnx,  is  found  only  in  the  Atlantic.  Its 
wanderings  are  more  limited  than  those  of  the  foil.  It  is  not  found  nearly  as  far  to  the  north; 
while  its  southern  range  is  no  wider.  Haddock  are  probably  found  in  company  with  Codfish  on  all 


224  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  northern  fishing  grounds,  as  far  south,  at  least,  as  the  Capes  of  Delaware,  though  concerning 
their  occurrence  in  southern  waters  there  is  dearth  of  information.  In  winter  and  spring  they  are 
taken  in  Fisher's  Island  Sound  and  outside  of  Fisher's  Island,  on  the  coast  of  Eastern  Connecticut ; 
and  also  in  great  quantities  on  Nantucket  Shoals  by  the  smacks,  and  are  carried  thence  with 
Cod  into  New  York  market.  In  1871  it  was  estimated  that  the  catch  of  Haddock  here  was 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  Cod,  although  the  latter  usually  predominate.  They  abound  north  of  Capo 
Cod,  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine,  and  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  in  the  Basin  of  Minas,  on  the  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and  in  the  Bay  of  Chaleur.  In  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence, 
according  to  Captain  Atwood,  they  are  not  very  abundant,  but  the  individuals  taken  are  very  large. 
They  are  taken  on  the  western  coast  of  Newfoundland  in  winter;  their  northern  limit  appears  to 
be  marked  by  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  latitude  52°  N.  The  researches  of  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard  on 
the  coast  of  Labrador  failed  to  bring  this  species  to  light,  and  fishermen  of  that  region  told  him 
that  in  the  course  of  forty  years'  experience  thay  had  never  seen  a  Haddock.  In  1863  and  1864 
they  were  found  in  abundance  on  the  southern  border  of  the  Grand  Bank.  Capt.  E.  H.  Hurlbert 
states  that  he  has  seen  them  in  great  abundance  in  May  at  Louisburg,  Cape  Breton,  playing  at 
the  surface  among  the  reefs,  but  that  they  are  not  so  frequent  on  the  Grand  Bank  as  on  the 
Western  Bank,  and,  in  turn,  less  common  there  than  on  George's  Bank. 

In  the  Eastern  Atlantic  the  range  of  the  Haddock  is  somewhat  wider,  for  they  are  found  in  the 
seas  of  Iceland,  the  whole  length  of  the  Scandinavian  coast  to  East  Finmark  and  Varanger  Fjord, 
and  on  all  the  shores  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  the  North  Sea,  where  they  are  particularly  abundant, 
though  rarely  or  never  entering  the  Baltic.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they  are  found  to  the  south  of 
the  English  Channel.  De  La  Blauchere  states  that  they  are  caught  in  considerable  numbers  on  the 
coast  of  Manche.  In  the  Eastern  Atlantic,  then,  they  are  found  between  the  parallels  48°  and  66° ; 
in  the  Western  Atlantic  between  the  parallels  38°  and  53°. 

NAMES. — The  Haddock  is  often  called  "  Dickie"  by  Connecticut  fishermen.  Hadot  and  Hadou 
are  old  French  names  for  the  same  fish,  though  the  species  is  now  usually  known  by  the  name  Egrefin. 
In  Scotland  the  name  is  said  to  be  pronounced  almost  in  the  same  way  as  in  France,  and  is  often 
varied  to  Haddie.  It  is  the  Schellfisch  of  Germany.  Concerning  this  fish  many  of  our  fishermen 
entertain  the  same  idea,  which  with  them  can  hardly  be  called  a  superstition,  that  the  black  spots 
upon  their  side  are  due  to  the  impression  of  the  thumb  and  finger  of  Saint  Peter  when  the  apostle 
took  the  tribute  money  out  of  the  month  of  a  fish  supposed  to  be  of  this  species,  the  fisherman's 
mark  having  been  continued  among  its  descendants  ever  since.  This  notion  is  prevalent  also  in 
England,  and  in  Southern  Europe  is  attached  to  other  fishes,  particularly  to  the  John  Dory,  Zeus 
faber.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  no  member  of  this  family  occurs  in  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

MOVEMENTS.— Haddock  are  not  so  active  and  powerful  as  the  Cod.  Dr.  Gilpin  has  expressed 
the  opinion  that  on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  they  do  not  retreat  so  far  from  the  shore  in  winter  as 
the  Cod,  but  this  does  not  appear  to  be  true  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 

Storer,  in  1839,  made  the  assertion,  which  was  repeated  in  1867,  in  another  edition  of  the 
"  History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  that  in  Massachusetts  Bay  in  the  warm  season  about 
twelve  hundredweight  of  Haddock  are  taken  to  each  hundredweight  of  Codfish,  and  in  the  winter 
about  twelve  hundredweight  of  Cod  to  each  hundredweight  of  Haddock ;  but  since  the  haddock 
fishery  is  of  longer  duration,  the  proportion  throughout  the  year  averages  about  three  Haddock  to 
one  Cod.  They  abound  in  Massachusetts  Bay  throughout  the  summer,  and  it  is  at  this  season  also 
that  they  are  taken  in  the  greatest  abundance  on  the  off-shore  banks  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 

There  is  a  strange  absence  of  information  concerning  their  movements  on  the  European  coast. 
On  the  coast  of  East  Friesland  the  haddock  fishery  is  permitted  by  law  from  March  to  the  begin- 


MOVKMF.NTS  '.IF  TIIK   HADDOCK. 

ning  of  Jtiuc,  and  from  October  to  the  middle  or  end  of  January ,  a  winter  recess  being  allowed  for 
the  purpose  of  spawning.  It  is  stated  by  Dr.  Wittinack  that  during  the  heat  of  summer  they 
retreat  from  these  coasts,  with  the  Cod  and  the  flounder,  into  the  deepest  waters,  appearing  again 
towards  tin-  end  of  September.  On  the  coiwst  of  Scotland  they  are  said  to  be  most  abundant  in 
winter.  In  Massachusetts  Hay,  as  it  has  been  said,  they  are  most  abundant  in  summer,  coming 
in  alter  the  cod  pass  out,  though  they  are  also  taken  in  deeper  parts  of  the  bay  the  whole  winter 
long,  and  are  sought  at  this  season  on  George's  and  other  off-shore  banks  as  well  as  localities 
farther  to  the  north. 

A  study  of  such  data,  as  these  is  unsatisfactory  iu  the  extreme,  since  it  is  impossible  to  draw 
from  them  any  conclusions  concerning  the  relation  of  the  movements  of  the  Haddock  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  in  which  it  is  found.  The  only  movements  which  are  now  intelligible  are 
those  which  take  place  at  the  period  of  spawning. 

ABUNDANCE. — Remarkable  variations  in  the  abundance  of  this  tish  are  upon  record ;  at  certain 
times  they  have  been  exceedingly  rare,  at  others  abundant  in  the  extreme.  They  appear  to  be 
much  more  gregarious  than  the  Codfish,  and  to  swim  together  in  large  schools  from  place  to  place. 
Storer,  writing  in  1839,  said  that  they  were  common  about  Cape  Cod,  but  that  ten  years  before  they 
had  l>een  rare.  An  item  in  the  "Gloucester  Telegraph,"  June  3,  1837,  stated  that  Haddock  were 
at  that  time  brought  in  abundantly  and  sold  from  the  Swampscott  boats  at  a  cent  apiece. 

According  to  Capt.  B.  W.  Merchant,  in  the  years  from  1814  to  1820  there  was  a  great  catch  in 
the  vicinity  of  Nahant,  about  five  miles  at  sea,  east-southeast.  So  plenty  were  they  that  two  men 
and  one  boy  could  catch  with  hand-lines  from  one  boat  600  to  1,000  in  number  in  one  day.  This 
school  of  fish  came  in  about  the  20th  of  March  and  continued  until  the  first  of  May,  then  grad- 
ually decreased  and  spread  over  the  fishing  banks  in  Massachusetts  Bay.  At  this  time  the 
majority  of  the  boats  belonged  to  Sandy  Bay,  now  Rockport,  and  to  Gloucester. 

Capt.  King  Harding,  of  Swampscott,  tells  me  that  in  1843  Haddock  were  so  scarce  that  they 
were  sold  singly.  The  fishermen  received  twenty-five  cents  each  for  all  they  could  get.  A  vessel 
could  not  get  more  than  one  hundred  in  the  course  of  a  day's  fishing. 

At  this  time  Isaac  Rich  &  Co.  chartered  the  schooner  "  Harriet,"  of  Duxbury,  to  go  out  on  a 
special  cruise  for  Haddock,  paying  $200  toward  the  venture.  She  started  out  with  a  crew  of  five 
meu  about  the  20th  of  February,  and  fished  on  soft  bottom  in  the  deepest  water.  Her  fare  was 
two  hundred  and  twenty  Haddock,  and  the  trip  was  considered  a  remarkable  success. 

In  May  of  the  next  year  great  schools  of  little  Haddock  came  in.  They  were  six  or  eight 
inches  long  and  a  great  bother  to  the  fishermen.  The  following  year  they  were  about  half  grown, 
or  a  foot  or  so  in  length  and  very  thick.  They  came  in  May. 

In  1846  they  came  in  earlier,  many  in  March,  but  mostly  in  May.  They  were  quite  large  and 
very  abundant. 

Haddock  were  also  very  abundant  in  1857.  On  the  13th  of  March  one  hundred  Swampscott 
fishermen,  in  twelve  vessels,  caught  in  a  period  of  about  six  hours  160,000  pounds  of  fish,  chiefly 
Haddock.1 

In  1877  and  187°  no  Haddock  were  very  large  and  quite  scarce.  In  the  winter  of  1877  and 
1878  they  were  larger  than  for  many  years.  Some  were  caught  near  Swampscott  which  weighed 
fifteen  and  sixteen  pounds.  The  average  size  is  from  four  to  six  pounds. 

Captain  Atwood  states  that  in  1834  Haddock  were  very  scarce  on  the  Grand  Bank,  and  few  were 
caught  anywhere  on  the  coast,  but  in  1840  they  became  so  numerous  about  Cape  Cod  as  to  interfere 
seriously  with  the  cod  fishery,  devouring  the  bait  before  the  Cod  could  reach  it,  and  about  1850 

1  LEWIS:  History  of  Lynn,  p.  450. 
15  F 


22(3  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

they  had  increased  so  rapidly  that  the  markets  -were  glutted.  In  1864  they  were  caught  in  great 
numbers  and  were  still  on  the  increase.  In  1870  the  same  observer  related  to  the  Massachusetts 
senate  the  story  of  another  period  of  scarcity  and  abundance.  His  statements  may  be  found  in 
the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  part  1,  1873,  p.  119.  He 
elsewhere  says : 

"  If  over -fishing  were  possible,  it  seems  to  me  that.we  should  see  some  of  its  results  where  great 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  modes  of  our  fisheries  of  Cod  and  Haddock  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 
What  is  called  'trawl  fishing'  was  first  introduced  about  1850,  and  it  resulted  in  the  taking  of  a 
vast  number  of  fish  of  these  varieties.  In  consequence  of  the  competition  in  the  business,  the 
Swampscott  people  petitioned  the  legislature  .for  a  law  prohibiting  trawl-fishing,  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  exterminate  the  Haddock.  At  that  time  I  proved  before  the  legislature  that  Had- 
dock was  much  more  abundant  than  it  had  been  at  any  previous  time,  and  that  I  was  selling 
them  at  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents  per  hundred  pounds.  That  fishery  has  been  going  on  ever 
since,  and  the  amount  taken  was  greater  this  last  winter  than  for  many  years  past.  A  fisher- 
man in  a  dory  fifteen  feet  long  has  often  brought  in  as  much  as  1,800  pounds  in  a  single  day. 
There  are  eighty  boats  fishing  out  of  the  harbor,  and  83,000  pounds  have  been  caught  in  one  day. 
This  increase  has  taken  place  in  spite  of  the  constant  practice  of  the  new  mode  of  fishing,  by 
which  twice  as  many  are  taken  in  the  same  time  as  formerly." ' 

Captain  Atwood  explains  the  great  increase  at  this  time  by  the  introduction  of  fishing  with 
long  trawl  lines,  which  destroyed  many  species  of  fish  preying  -upon  haddock  spawn.  At  the 
present  time  Haddock  are  very  abundant;  they  are  caught  'throughout  the  summer  HI  great 
numbers  by  the  Irish  market-boats  of  Boston,  and  in  winter  a  large  fleet  of  Gloucester  and  Port- 
land vessels  are  engaged  in  catching  them  upon  George's  and  other  off-shore  banks.  These 
vessels  fish  with  trawl  lines,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  a  single  crew  has  been  known  to 
take  nearly  60,000  pounds  in  a  day.2 

FOOD. — The  food  of  Vhe  Haddock  resembles  that  of  the  Cod,  except  that  they  are,  if  possible, 
more  omnivorous;  their  diet  consists,  however,  largely  of  invertebrates.  They  are  rarely  seen 
feeding  at  the  surface,  though  they  devour  the  spawn  of  other  fishes,  particularly  that  of  the 
herring,  with  great  eagerness.  They  devour  great  quantities  of  shells,  many  of  them  of  the  bur- 
rowing species.  Professor  Verrill  has  well  said  that  a  complete  list  of  the  animals  devoured  by 
the  Haddock  would  doubtless  include  all  the  inollusks  belonging  to  the  fauna  of  New  England. 

The  Haddock  are  said  to  be  particularly  abundant  on  clam-banks.  From  this  habit  of  feeding 
on  shells  has  originated  the  German  name  for  the  fish.  The  difference  between  the  habits  of  the 
Haddock  and  the  Cod  is  illustrated  by  the  remark  of  Captain  Atwood  that  Haddock  will  take  a 
baited  hook  as  it  rests  upon  the  ground,  while  the  Cod  will  only  notice  it  when  it  is  raised  a  short 
distance  from  the  bottom.  Salted  menhaden  is  a  favorite  bait  for  Haddock,  but  not  desirable  for 
Cod,  while  both  Cod  and  Haddock  will  readily  take  stale  clams,  which  are  much  better  for  bait 
than  fresh  ones. 

REPRODUCTION. — The  spawning  habits  of  the  Haddock  in  our  waters  have  been  carefully  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Earll,  whose  statements  are  quoted  below:  On  the  German  coast  the  Haddock  spawn 
on  rocky  bottoms  in  February  and  early  March  at  a  depth  of  twenty-two  to  twenty -five  fathoms;3 

1  Extracts  from  Captain  At  wood's  manuscript  biography. 

"BlG  HADDOCK  TRIP.— Schooner  "E.  L.  Howe,"  of  this  port,  Capt.  Sewell  W.  Smith,  arrived  from  George's  on 
Monday  at  Boston,  with  70,:!HO  pounds  of  Haddock,  the  largest  trip  rvn-  hmdrd.  Time  absent,  five  days.  The  largest 
trip  previous  to  this  was  landed  by  thr  HUMH'.  skipper  in  schooner  "  Cora  E.  Smith,"  5'2,(i?y  pounds,  1'ebrnary  13,  1877. 
lu  February  of  the  same  year,  schooner  "Paul  Revere,"  Capt.  John  ISciitlcy,  landed  51,700  pounds  of  Haddock  and 
2,500  pounds  of  Codfish  as  the  result  of  one  day's  fishing. — Cape  Ann  Advertiser,  February  21,  1878. 

"WlTTMACK,  L. :  Beitriigo  znr  Fischerei-Statistik  des  Deutschen  Eeichs,  1875,  p.  25. 


SPAWNING  OF  TI1K 


227 


ami  according  to  Yarrow  the  spawning  period  is  the  same  on  the  British  coast,  the  young  growing 
tn  a  length  of  six  or  seven  inches  before  the  beginning  of  September.  At  the  Lofloden  Isles,  accord- 
ing lo  Sars,  the  spawning  season  of  the  Haddock  takes  place  a  little  later,  beginning  toward  tho 
end  of  Fein-nary  and  being  at  its  height  late  in  March.1 

Mr.  Karll's  observations  are  as  follows: 

"The  flsh  usually  remain  on  the  off-shore  banks  till  the  winter  is  over,  and  they  do  not  reach 
Cape  Ann  until  just  before  the  spawning  season,  which  for  this  species  begins  about  the  middle 
of  April  and  continues  during  nearly  three  months,  the  height  of  the  season  being  in  May. 

"  lu  the  spring  of  1879  it  is  thought  that  two  schools  visited  this  coast,  the  first,  composed  of 
iMi  of  large  size,  arriving  early  in  April  and  leaving  by  the  middle  of  May;  and  the  other,  com- 
posed  of  smaller  individuals,  reaching  the  grounds  about  the  20th  of  May  and  leaving  gradually 
after  the  1st  of  July,  a  few  remaining  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer.  When  the  fishing  first 
began  the  fish  were  several  miles  from  the  shore,  but  they  continued  to  'work  in,'  until  there  was 
good  fishing  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  for  several  days,  after  which  they  seemed  to  move  back 
again,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  season  remained  on  muddy  bottom,  when  trawls  were  extensively 
used  in  their  capture. 

"Early  in  May  Haddock  were  so  plenty  that  one  man  caught  1,881  pounds  in  one  day  with 
hand-lines,  and  about  the  same  time  many  different  fishermen  secured  over  1,000  pounds  daily. 
The  males  were  usually  a  trifle  more  abundant,  though  at  times  the  females  composed  fully  half  of 
the  catch.  The  latter  average  larger  than  the  former,  and  some  days  there  would  be  a  difference 
of  two  pounds  in  favor  of  the  female. 

"The  first  ripe  females  were  noticed  on  the  23d  of  April,  and  in  the  middle  of  July  an  occa- 
sional one  had  not  finished  spawning.  The  first  eggs  were  secured  May  5,  and  others  were  taken 
at  intervals  to  June  2,  the  total  quantity  being  about  250,000.  The  method  of  impregnation  was 
similar  to  that  used  for  eggs  of  the  Cod,  and  the  size  of  the  eggs  was  one-nineteenth  of  an  inch. 
Though  the  number  contained  in  the  larger  individuals  of  the  species  reaches  over  1,800,000  (see 
table),  the  quantity  obtained  for  hatching  purposes  at  any  one  time  was  quite  small  as  compared 
with  the  number  taken  from  the  Cod  or  the  Pollock,  and  the  quantity  of  milt  in  the  male  fish  was 
very  much  less  than  in  either  of  the  other  species." 

Mr.  Earll's  observations  confirmed  those  of  Professor  Sars,  that  the  spawn  of  the  Haddock 
floats  at  the  surface  like  that  of  the  Cod,  and  that  the  spawning  process  is  in  every  way  similar. 
The  following  table  gives  the  result  of  his  enumerations  of  the  number  of  eggs  in  Haddock  of 
different  sizes : 

Table  showing  the  number  of  eggs  in  Haddock  of  different  nixes. 


Number. 

Length  of  flab. 

Weight  of  flab. 

! 

Estimated  weight 
of  ovary  walla. 

* 

4B 
M 

7 

*a 
*? 

H 

Number  of  graina 
(troy)  weighed 
oat. 

H 

li 

£ 

1 

Total  number  of 
egga  In  flab. 

1  

In. 

281 

Ztw. 
OA 

Oz. 

*i 

OK 

0;. 
g| 

4 

1,»90 

487.5 

l,  toe.  Mi 

26* 

<U| 

6} 

n 

4 

1,47» 

MB.  75 

nw.ais 

28 

•A 

«f 

6 

1,447 

364.23 

B56.148 

24 

4U 

81 

6± 

1,180 

(34.180 

23 

4 

:,j 

4} 

no 

1M 

40B.U2 

201 

*A 

ty 

4) 

MO 

IK 

»«,w» 

7  

l*i 

2ft 

-1 

2 

DM 

in.  i 

1W.MO 

Beport  of  the  United  States  Commission  of  Finn  and  Fisheries,  part  5,  1879,  p.  686. 


228  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  average  size  of  the  Haddock  is  probably  not  far  from  three  or  four  pounds;  maiiy  twelve- 
pound  fish  are  brought  to  market,  and  individuals  weighing  seventeen  pounds  are  on  record. 

In  1879  Haddock  were  successfully  hatched,  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  Earll,  at  the  Glou- 
cester station  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 

USES. — The  Haddock  is  now  very  highly  esteemed  as  a  food  fish,  having  grown  in  favor  during 
the  last  twenty  years.  It  is  especially  desirable  for  boiling  or  for  making  chowders,  and  is  a  great 
favorite  in  Boston,  while  iu  Philadelphia  enormous  quantities  are  yearly  consumed.  Being  well 
adapted  for  preservation  in  ice,  great  numbers  of  them  are  distributed  through  the  interior  of  the 
country,  together  with  the  Codfish.  The  success  with  which  the  Scotch  method  of  smoking  Had- 
dock has  been  introduced  into  this  country  has  also  greatly  increased  the  demand  for  them,  and 
Finland  Haddies  are  manufactured  in  enormous  quantities  iu  Portland  and  Boston.  At  Province- 
town  a  Haddock  salted  and  dried  after  being  split  is  called  by  the  name  "Skulljoe,"  or  "Scoodled 
Skulljoe." 

68.  THE  POLLOCK.     POLLACHIUS  CARBONARIUS. 

The  Pollock,  Pollachitts  carbonarius,  which  is  the  Coalfish  of  England,  the  Kohler  of  Germany, 
and  the  Sei  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  is  closely  related  to  the  Pollack  of  Great  BritJiiu,  Pollachius 
virens,  from  which,  however,  it  is  specifically  different.  It  is  one  of  the  best-known  fishes  of  North- 
ern Europe,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  abuudance  of  its  common  names.  The  following  names 
are  in  use  in  different  parts  of  England :  Baddoch,  Billet,  Billard,  Black-Pollock,  Black-Jack, 
Black-Coalsey,  Blockan,  Blockin,  Coal,  Coal-fish,  Coalsay,  Coalsey,  Coal-Whiting,  Colemie,  Col- 
mey, Cooth,  Cudden,  Cuddy,  Dargie,  Gilpin,  Glassock,  Glashan,  Glossan,  Glossin,  Green  Cod; 
Green  Pollock,  Grey-lord,  Gull-fish,  Harbin,  Kuth,  Lob,  Lob-Keling,  Maulrush,  Parr,  Piltock, 
Podley,  Poddlie,  Podling,  Pollack,  Prinkle,  Rauniug  Pollack,  Rawliu  Pollack,  Rock  Salmon, 
Raw  Pollock,  Saithe,  Sethe,  Sey,  Sey  Pollack,  Sillock,  Skrae-fish,  Stenlock,  Tibrie. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Its  geographical  distribution  is  quite  different  from  that  of  either  the  Cod  or 
Haddock,  its  northern  range,  at  least  in  the  Eastern  Atlantic,  being  fully  as  wide  as  that  of  the 
Cod,  the  species  having  been  found  in  the  northern  part  of  Spitzbergen,  beyond  the  parallel  of  80°, 
and  on  the  arctic  coast  of  Europe.  It  rarely  enters  the  Baltic.  Bloch  records  a  specimen  from 
Lubeck,  and  it  is  said  to  occur  on  the  coast  of  Pomerania. 

Concerning  the  limits  of  its  southern  range  authorities  differ.  Giinther  places  this  at  latitude 
46°  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  while  others  claim  that  it  enters  the  Mediterranean.  Canestrini  states 
that  it  has  been  observed  at  Taranto.1  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  species  is  abundant 
south  of  the  English  Channel.  It  occurs  about  Iceland  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Davis  Straits, 
where  specimens  were  obtained  by  Sir  Edward  Parry  on  his  first  voyage.  North  of  Newfound- 
land it  does  not  seem  to  be  very  abundant,  while  to  the  south  the  limit  appears  to  be  in  the 
vicinity  of  Nantucket  Shoals,  where  specimens  are  occasionally  taken  by  the  cod  smacks. 

In  Perley's  "Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  of  Nova  Scotia,"  he  states  that  he  had  never  seen  the 
fish  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  nor  heard  of  it  except  near  the  Straits  of  Canso,  although  it 
was  found  very  abundant  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  everywhere  except  in  the  muddy  waters, 
such  as  those  of  Cumberland  Bay  and  the  Basin  of  Minas. 

I  have  seen  large  individuals  taken  in  midsummer  in  the  pounds  iu  Vineyard  Sound,  and 
the  capture  of  small  individuals  in  these  waters  is  not  unusual.  They  are  often  taken,  according 
to  De  Kay,  off  New  York,  in  company  with  the  Cod.  In  June,  1 881,  the  schooner  " Edward  E. 
Webster,"  of  Gloucester,  Solomon  Jacobs,  captain,  returning  from  a  southern  mackerel  trip,  fell  in 


1  CANESTRINI  :  Fauna  d'  Italia.   Pescbi,  1872,  p.  155. 


DISTIMI'-TTION    01     Till:    i'OLLOCK.  229 

with  a  school  of  Pollock  and  captured  sixty  tlioiisaml  iioiinds  of  them  in  her  puree  seine.  Its 
range,  as  now  understood,  is  in  the  Eastern  Atlantic  between  the  parallels  40°  and  80°,  in  the 
Western  Atlantic  between  40°  and  70°.  That  its  southeastern  limit  is  as  near  the  equator  as  the 
parallel  of  3fi°  seems  quite  improbable. 

HABITS  AND  FOOD. — Unlike  the  Cod  and  the  Haddock,  the  Pollock  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a 
surface-swimming  species.  The  fishes  of  this  species  congregate  together  in  large  schools,  roaming 
from  place  to  place  in  search  of  food.  To  a  certain  extent  they  feed  at  the  bottom,  like  Cod,  but 
are  more  often  seen  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  they  prey  upon  young  fish  of  all  kinds. 

Professor  Sars  gives  the  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  prey  upon  little 
Codfish: 

"I  was  much  interested  to  see  how  the  Pollock  caught  the  young  Codfish.  It  looked  like  a 
systematic  chase,  and  it  certainly  looked  as  if  the  Pollock  were  acting  with  a  common  and  well- 
deli  ned  purpose.  As  far  as  I  could  observe,  the  schools  of  Pollock  surrounded  the  little  Codfish 
on  all  sides,  milking  the  circle  constantly  narrower  until  all  the  Codfish  were  gathered  in  one  lump, 
which  they  then,  by  a  quick  movement,  chased  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  poor  little  fish 
now  found  themselves  attacked  on  all  sides:  below,  the  voracious  Pollock,  which  in  their  eagerness 
often  leaped  above  the  water;  and  above,  hundreds  of  screeching  sea-gulls,  which,  with  wonderful 
voracity  and  precision,  pounced  down  upon  the  places  where  the  Pollock  showed  themselves,  to 
share  the  spoils  with  them.  The  whole  chase  is  carried  on  so  rapidly,  and  the  young  fish  stay  only 
so  short  a  time  at  the  surface  of  the  water  before  they  are  scattered  in  all  directions  with  lightning- 
like  rapidity,  that  it  was  not  even  possible  for  me  to  see  any,  much  less  to  catch  any  with  my 
insufficient  implements."* 

On  the  coast  of  New  England  they  are  much  disliked  by  the  fishermen,  who  claim  that  they 
consume  great  quantities  of  other  fish  much  more  valuable  than  themselves ;  in  consequence  of 
this  the  fishermen  have  a  great  prejudice  against  them  and  refuse  to  eat  them. 

Captain  At  wood  states  that  about  Cape  Cod  they  do  not  take  to  the  hook  freely;  that  in  other 
localities  they  are  exceedingly  voracious,  and  great  numbers  of  them  may  be  caught  in  Massachu- 
setts Bay  with  a  surface  bait. 

When  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  steamer  has  been  stationed  north  of  Cape  Coil,  a 
favorite  amusement  of  the  officers  has  been  to  catch  young  Pollock  with  a  fly.  The  older  fish  are 
less  active  and  remain  more  at  the  bottom. 

MOVEMENTS. — Concerning  this  species,  Captain  Atwood  states  that  they  appear  about  Cape 
Cod  in  schools  in  early  May,  frequently  passing  round  Race  Point  so  closely  to  the  shore  as  to  be 
caught  with  the  seine  among  the  "tide-rips." 

Capt.  E.  W.  Merchant,  of  Gloucester,  tells  me  that  the  Pollock  were  very  abundant  in  Massa- 
chusetts  Bay  early  in  this  century — before  the  war  of  1812.  They  were  especially  abundant  on 
Middle  Bank.  They  were  at  that  time  chiefly  caught  with  bait  of  herring,  taken  in  seines  from 
the  beaches.  The  fishing  boats  were  of  about  thirty  tons,  and  carried  three  men  and  a  boy.  Fishing 
was  carried  on  chiefly  at  night,  when  the  vessels  would  all  "fleet  up,"  and  the  bait  on  their  hooks 
would  toll  the  schools  of  fish  together.  The  vessels  would  take  about  fifty  quintals  in  a  night. 
There  were  about  thirty  fish  to  the  quintal.  This  abundance  of  Pollock  lasted  until  about  1820. 
These  Pollock  were  salted,  and  consumed  at  home  or  carried  to  Maine.  They  sold  for  about  two 
dollars  a  quintal.  The  oil  of  their  livers  was  tried  out  in  kettles  on  the  shore.  Their  roe  was 
exported  largely  in  those  days.  It  was  sold  by  the  bushel,  at  the  rate  of  about  sixty  cents. 

'Report  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  5,  1879,  p.  593.  Another  vivid  description  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  Pollock  feed  upon  the  sand-eels,  or  lant,  may  be  found  on  pp.  619  and  (520. 


230  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Mr.  Kuril  writes: 

"Large  Pollock  are  absent  from  the  waters  of  Cape  Ann  from  the  middle  of  January  till  early 
in  May,  the  small  ones  leaving  earlier,  in  the  fall,  and  returning  in  April.1  The  young  may  be  taken 
almost  anywhere  along  the  shore,  but  the  large  fish  seem  to  confine  themselves  to  definite  locali- 
ties; and  though  not  particularly  abundant  during  the  summer  at  Cape  Ann,  it  is  a  favorite 
spawning  ground  for  the  species,  and  during  this  period  large  schools  visit  this  shore. 

"They  begin  to  grow  plenty  about  the  first  of  October,  and  by  the  last  of  the  month  are  so 
numerous  as  to  greatly  annoy  the  cod-fishermen  by  taking  the  hook  before  it  can  get  to  the  bottom. 

"During  this  season  some  of  the  smaller  vessels  fish  exclusively  for  Pollock,  'seizing  up'  their 
lines  a  number  of  fathoms  from  the  bottom,  and  at  times  the  fish  bite  as  fast  as  the  fishermen  can 
haul  them.  Early  in  November,  a  crew  of  four  men  landed  10,420  pounds,  or  about  1,100  fish,  the 
result  of  less  than  two  days'  fishing.  Owing  to  a  foolish  prejudice,  the  price  is  always  low,  at  times 
being  less  than  thirty  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  the  fish  is  about 
nine  or  ten  pounds,  and  during  the  spawning  season  the  sexes  are  taken  in  about  equal  numbers." 

Early  in  May,  1881,  two  vessels  at  Chatham  caught  in  one  day  35,000  pounds  each.  The  fish 
were  caught  with  seines  as  they  schooled  at  the  surface  like  mackerel. 

Perley,  writing  in  1851,  mentioned  that  he  observed  that  a  large  number  of  small  fishing 
schooners  was  engaged  in  the  capture  of  Pollock  in  the  rips,  or  riplings,  off  Grand  Manau.  "  These 
rips  are  formed  by  strong  currents  and  the  conflict  of  tides,  in  which  the  lively  Pollock  delight  to 
play.  Here  there  is  found  an  abundance  of  small  herring  for  food.  For  this  description  of  fishing 
the  vessels  are  kept  in  easy  sail,  the  lines  attached  to  poles  of  seven  feet  in  length,  which  project 
from  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  A  round,  bright  lead  is  used,  about  seven  inches  in  length,  weighing 
from  one-half  pound  to  one  and  one-half  pounds ;  the  bait  is  a  piece  cut  from  the  under,  or  bright, 
side  of  the  Pollock;  it  is  called  the  'last';  this,  being  kept  in  brisk  motion  by  the  sailing  of  the 
vessel,  closely  resembles  the  living  fish  darting  through  the  water,  and  is  eagerly  chased  by  the 
Pollock.  The  fishers  often  take  twenty  Pollock  with  a  single  'last,'  it  being  a  very  tough  bait." 

In  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  along  the  coast  of  Maine  the  capture  of  young  Pollock  from  the 
rocks  is  a  favorite  amusement.  At  Eastport  these  fish  are  often  called  "Quoddy  Salmon."  Hind 
states  that  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  they  are  known  as  "Sea  Salmon";  this  name  may  refer 
both  to  their  active  and  voracious  habits,  and  to  the  excellence  of  their  flesh  in  those  localities. 

The  capture  of  young  Pollock,  or  mort,  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  is  described  by  Sars  in  the 
paper  already  referred  to.z 

REPRODUCTION. — The  spawning  of  the  Pollock  occurs  in  the  German  Ocean,  according  to 
Wittmack,  from  December  to  February;  in  Scotland,  according  to  Paruell,  in  February,  after  which 
it  remains  out  of  condition  until  May. 

About  the  Lofodens,  as  indicated  by  the  observations  of  Sars,  the  breeding  time  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  Codfish,  the  young  Pollock  being  found  in  early  summer  in  company  with  the 
young  Cod,  swimming  under  the  protection  of  the  jelly-fishes. 

Mr.  Earll  found  Pollock  spawning  at  Cape  Ann  in  November  and  December,  but  he  does  not 
state  whether  the  breeding  season  continued  through  the  winter  and  early  spring.  Concerning  the 
observations  made  at  the  Gloucester  station,  he  writes: 

"They  seem  to  spawn  while  swimming  about  in  the  water,  and  their  eggs,  being  buoyant,  are 
found  at  the  surface  with  those  of  the  Cod;  but  they  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  latter 
by  their  smaller  size.  The  first  ripe  female  was  seen  at  the  fish  wharves  October  23.  November 


1  In  1861  the  first  Pollock  caine  into  Gloucester  Harbor  May  2. 

8  See  Report  of  the  United  States  Commission  Fish  and  Fisheries,  part  5,  p.  720. 


OF    THK    POLLOCK. 


231 


11,  a  fe\v  M-.Kxl  e^s  were  taken,  and,  after  impregiiati t'oiinil  to  have  a  diameter  of  one  twenty- 

fifth  of  an  ineli.  They  were  placed  in  an  aquarium  at  the  hatchery,  and  within  forty  eight  hours 
the  fish  could  lie  distinctly  seen,  though  no  pigment  cells  were  visible.  This  proved  that  the 
development  of  the  eggs  after  leaving  the  parent  was  quite  rapid,  and  indicated  that  they  would 
hatch  in  the  or  six  days  at  most,  with  water  of  the  ordinary  temperature. 

"At  the  time  of  taking  these  eggs  no  suitable  apparatus  had  been  arranged,  and  we  did  not 
succeed  in  hatching  them;  and  as  no  others  were  obtained  during  the  season  positive  statements 
cannot  be  made;  but  the  eggs  were  well  advanced  before  they  died,  and  careful  observations  up 
to  this  point  fully  convinced  us  that  these  eggs  are  as  hardy  as  those  of  the  Cod,  and  that  they 
may  be  successfully  hatched  by  a  similar  method. 

"The  table  gives  the  result  of  our  computation  of  the  number  of  eggs  in  individuals  of  differ- 
ent size,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  a  twenty-three  and  one  half  pound  fish  has  over  4,000,000 
of  eggs,  while  a  thirteen  pound  one  has  2,500,000." 

Table  showing  the  number  of  eggs  in  Pollock  of  different  sizes. 


Number. 

Length  of  fleli. 

Weight  of  nab. 

Weight  of  orarin. 

Estimated  weight 
of  ovary  walla. 

Net  wcightof  eggs. 

Xnmber  of  grains 
(trny)  in  part 
weighed  out. 

XunilxTofegRniii 
part  weighed  out. 

Number  of  egjpte 
the  grain. 

Total  number  of 
eggs  in  Bsh. 

1  

R.  In. 

3    31 

/.'«. 
23k 

Lbi.0i. 
2    2 

Oz. 
2 

Z.6».  Oz. 
2    0 

0 

1  727 

287  8 

1  

2    8) 

13 

1    21 

1} 

1    11 

o 

o  043 

340  5 

-,.-'• 

Captain  Atwood  states  that  in  Cape  Cod  Bay  they  are  caught  in  large  numbers  about  the 
10th  or  15th  of  November,  when  going  to  spawn.  They  spawn  upon  the  same  rocky  ground  as  the 
Cod,  and  it  is  only  at  this  time  that  they  dare  to  take  the  hook  freely.  In  the  vicinity  of  Prov- 
incetown  the  deposition  of  eggs  takes  place  in  November. 

The  growth  of  the  Pollock  is  probably  somewhat  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  Cod,  since 
the  young  fish  are  so  much  more  voracious,  but  we  have  no  means  of  determining  the  length  of 
time  required  for  them  to  attain  maturity.  The  average  size  is  probably  not  far  from  ten 
or  twelve  pounds,  but  individuals  of  twenty,  and  even  of  thirty  pounds,  are  by  no  means 
uncommon. 

USES. — The  Pollock  is  one  of  those  species  whose  value  as  an  article  of  food  is  very  much 
underestimated.  Many  persons,  who  have  investigated  the  subject  accurately,  prefer  salted 
Pollock  to  salted  Codfish,  although  the  flesh  is  not  so  white.  Its  value  for  use  in  the  fresh  state, 
we  think,  deserves  the  highest  commendation.  I  quote  from  "Land  and  Water,"  December,  1866, 
the  following  remarks  upon  the  Pollock  fisheries  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  showing  how  highly  they 
are  esteemed  in  that  region.  The  writer  signs  himself  "A.  R.  D.": 

"Having  observed  in  'Land  and  Water,'  of  the  20th  October,  an  article  by  Mr.  1 '.nek land. 
on  the  Merlangus  carbonarius,  or  Saith,  it  has  occurred  to  me  that  some  additional  information  as 
to  the  habits  and  uses,  and  more  especially  with  respect  to  the  commercial  value  of  that  fish, 
might  be  interesting. 

"The  Saith  occurs  in  great  abundance  among  the  Orkney  Islands.  The  fry,  called  Sillocks,  are 
first  observed  in  May  or  June,  and  are  very  small.  In  July  and  August  they  are  about  four  or  five 
inches  long,  and  are  caught  in  great  numbers  with  flies  (made  with  a  bit  of  white  feather  tied  to 
the  hook),  by  means  of  boats,  and  often  from  the  rocks  on  the  shore.  They  are  much  esteemed 
as  food,  and  more  especially  for  the  oil  prepared  from  the  livers.  Towards  winter  they  generally 


232  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

set  in  to  the  Sbetlaud  bays  iii  immense  aud  closely  congregated  shoals,  from  which  they  are  swept 
ashore  by  nets  in  enormous  quantities,  and  are  often  bought  by  the  farmer  for  the  dunghill.  At 
this  season  they  fall  off  in  quality  as  an  article  of  food,  but  are  still  eagerly  purchased  by  the  coun- 
try people  on  account  of  the  oil,  which  suits  better  for  their  cottage  lamps  than  any  other  kind. 
Next  year,  when  nine  or  ten  inches  long,  they  are  called  Cooths,  or  Cuths,  and  are  caught  with  the 
fly  in  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August.  In  June  and  July  they  are  in  perfection  for 
eating,  and  are  cooked  without  taking  out  the  entrails,  after  being  rolled  iu  salt  and  flour,  or  oat- 
meal, and  done  on  the  gridiron;  but  unless  used  within  an  hour  or  two  after  being  caught,  the  fine 
flavor  and  curdy  quality  of  the  fish  quickly  disappear.  If  used  next  .day  they  are  somewhat  coarse 
eating.  It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that  they  will  not  take  the  fly  except  an  hour  before  or  an 
hour  after  sunset  and  sunrise.  In  the  third  summer  they  become  larger,  and  are  called  Cuttims,  or 
Cuddons,  iu  which  state  they  betake  themselves  to  deeper  water,  and  are  comparatively  seldom 
caught.  After  this,  when  full  grown,  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  Saith,  and  become  an 
important  object  of  fishery.  The  fishing  commences  in  May,  and  continues  till  September.  In 
July  and  August  they  are  in  their  best  state,  and  are  sought  after  with  great  assiduity.  They 
chiefly  occur  in  very  rapid  tideways,  where  there  is  much  broken  water,  and  the  fishing  is  not 
unattended  with  danger,  several  fatal  accidents  having  occurred  within  my  recollection  by  the 
boats  having  been  swept  by  the  current  into  the  breakers.  The  fish  average  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds,  but  many  specimens  are  met  with  weighing  much  more.  When  cleaned  and 
thoroughly  dried  on  the  rocks,  about  seventeen  will  weigh  one  hundredweight,  and  yield  three 
gallons  of  oil,  which  is  equivalent  to  340  fish  and  sixty  gallons  of  oil  to  the  ton.  The  dried  article 
sells  at  market  for  about  £12  per  ton,  when  Codfish  fetch  £20  per  ton,  but  the  extra  quantity  of  oil 
in  the  former  far  more  than  compensates  for  the  difference  in  price,  and  consequently  when  a 
shoal  of  Saith  sets  in,  the  fishermen  invariably  desert  the  cod-fishing  in  favor  of  the  other.  Dried 
Saith  are  perfectly  well  known  in  the  market,  and  are  tolerably  good  eating,  though  inferior  to 
Cod.  The  oil  is  chiefly  used  by  tanners,  and  is  in  good  demand.  In  the  fresh  state  they  are 
extremely  good  eating,  firm  and  curdy,  if  cooked  within  an  hour  or  two  after  being  caught,  but  if 
kept  some  time  they  lose  their  flavor  and  become  coarse.  The  inhabitants  of  Fairisle,  which  lies  halt' 
way  between  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  groups  of  islands,  pay  their  rent  exclusively  by  saith-fishiug." 

Pollock  are  more  highly  prized  in  New  Brunswick  than  anywhere  else  on  the  Western  Atlantic 
coast,  and  the  pollock  fishery  was  in  1850  pronounced  by  Perley  the  most  valuable  and  extensive 
of  the  deep-sea  fisheries  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.1  It  is  stated  by  this  authority  that  directly  after 
the  spawning  season  the  fish  is  lank  and  almost  worthless,  but  that  it  becomes  in  good  condition 
again  in  August  and  improves  as  the  season  advances. 

The  liver  of  the  Pollock  yields  a  great  quantity  of  oil,  proportionally  much  more  than  that  of 
the  Cod.  It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  cod-liver  oil  in  the  market  is  more  or  less  adulterated 
with  pollock-liver  oil.  No  one  has  yet  demonstrated  that  its  medicinal  properties  are  inferior. 
The  eggs  of  the  Pollock  are  very  large,  and  great  quantities  of  them  have  been  in  past  years 
salted  and  exported  to  France. 

THE  ALASKA  POLLACK,  PollacMus  chalcogrammus  (Pallas)  J.  &  G.2— The  Alaska  Pollock  is 
thus  described  by  Professor  Jordan :  "  This  species  is  known  as  Pollack  to  those  who  have  seen 

'1877.  NEW  METHOD  OF  CAPTURING  POLLOCK. — For  sunn'  dayH  past  the  schooner  "Matchless,"  of  Harrington, 
has  been  fishing  for  Pollock  with  a  purse-seine  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Sable,  and  doing  very  well  at  the  business, 
which  is  a  kind  of  experiment,  as  the  purse-seine,  we  believe,  has  been  used  hitherto  in  taking  only  mackerel,  herring, 
and  such  small  fish.  On  Monday  of  last  week  the  crew  of  the  "  Matchless"  caught  at  one  haul  about  130  quintals 
of  Pollock,  an  immense  catch,  which  took  the  men  over  twenty-fours  hours  to  dress  and  salt. — Cape  Ann  Adcertaer. 
August  17,  1877. 

9  Gadus  chalcogrammus  Pallas.     Zoogr.  Ross.  Asiat.,  iii,  198.     Gadus  periscopni,  Cope.     Proc.  Am.  Philog.  Soc.,  1870. 


THE  ALASKA   POLLOCK. 

the  Atlantic  species.  It  is  possibly  identical  with  tin-  •  lU-slmw'  of  the  Makah  Indians,  the  'Coal- 
fish'  of  the  English  settlers  northward,  a  deep-water  fish  noted  for  its  rich,  fat  flesh.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  about  two  feet.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Behring's  Straits.  It  is  taken  with  hook 
ami  lino  in  deep  water,  and  is  never  plentiful  south  of  Cape  Flattery.  It  feeds  upon  anchovies 
and  the  like.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits,  enemies,  or  diseases,  and,  unless  it  be  the 
'Beshow'  above  noticed,  it  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  to  attract  any  notice  as  an  article  of  food." 

69.  THE  CUSK-  BROSMIUS  BROSME. 

The  Cusk,  Srosmiug  brosme,  is  a  deep-water  species,  inhabiting  rocky  ledges  in  the  North 
Atlantic.  It  has  not  been  observed  south  of  Cape  Cod,  but  ranges  northward  to  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland  and  of  Greenland.  It  occurs  in  let-land  and  Spitzbergen  and  along  the  entire  length 
of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  bat  is  not  known  on  the  coast  of  Germany,  while  Faber  states 
that  it  just  touches  the  most  northern  part  of  Denmark  at  the  Scaw  in  Jutland,  and  that  it  is  occa- 
sionally taken  in  the  Frith  of  Forth  and  brought  to  the  Edinburgh  market.  It  is  also  plentiful 
alioiit  the  Faroe  Islands.  Its  range  in  the  Western  Atlantic  is  from  latitude  42°  to  latitude  65°, 
or  beyond  ;  in  the  Northeastern  Atlantic  to  latitude  80°,  and  south  to  latitude  55°. 

The  Massachusetts  fishermen  tell  me  that  these  fish  are  usually  found  in  considerable  abun- 
dance on  newly-discovered  ledges,  and  that  great  numbers  may  be  taken  for  a  year  or  two,  but 
that  they  are  soon  all  caught.  Sometimes,  after  a  lapse  of  years,  they  may  be  found  again  abun- 
dant on  a  recently-deserted  ground.  From  these  facts  it  has  been  reasoned  that  the  Cusk  is  very 
local  in  its  habits  and  rarely  changes  from  one  locality  to  another. 

On  the  "  Broken-ground  Ledge  "  Cusk  are  said  to  be  abundant  at  any  season,  and  also  on 
"  New  Ledge,"  and  Captain  Atwood  says  that  they  inhabit  deep  water  in  rocky  localities,  not  hard, 
smooth,  rocky  bottoms,  but  large,  angular  rocks.  About  Cape  Cod  they  are  quite  rare;  ho  has 
seen  a  few  to  the  eastward  of  and  near  Cape  Cod,  but  they  are  more  commonly  found  farther 
north  ;  at  a  rocky  spot  near  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Middle  Bank,  between  Cape  Cod  and  Cape 
Ann,  large  numbers  had  been  taken  prior  to  1866,  and  in  that  year  400  quintals,  or  probably  00,000 
pounds  of  Cusk,  had  that  year  been  taken  by  one  Provincetowu  firm.  Off  Wells  Bay,  in  Maine, 
about  Cape  Porpoise,  and  on  Cashe's  Ledge,  he  had  also  observed  them  in  large  quantities. 

The  food  of  the  Cusk  doubtless  consist  chiefly  of  mollusks  and  small  crustaceans. 

Concerning  its  spawning  habits  nothing  is  known,  except  that,  according  to  Faber,  it  spawns 
in  April  and  May  on  the  coast  of  West  and  South  Ireland. 

The  Cusk  is  considered  a  very  excellent  fish,  especially  for  boiling,  but  there  is  a  very  limited 
demand  for  it,  and  most  of  those  which  are  taken  are  salted.  On  account  of  their  low  prices, 
fishermen  shun  them,  and  they  are  hardly  in  better  favor  than  dogfish.  In  the  spring  of  1878 
they  were  worth  in  Gloucester  from  twenty  to  fifty  cents  j>er  hundred,  and  in  August  of  the  same 
year  about  one  dollar  per  hundred.  One  of  their  peculiar  habits,  eel  like,  renders  their  capture 
difficult,  and  frequently  canses  the  destruction  of  the  fishing-tackle;  it  is  said  that  after  they  have 
taken  the  hook  they  curl  their  tails  round  the  angles  of  the  rock  and  cling  to  them  with  such 
strength  that  it  is  impossible  to  dislodge  them.  Fishermen  say  that  when  they  are  brought  to 
the  surface  the  skin  rises  from  the  body  in  great  blisters.  This  they  regard  as  a  favorable  sign,  as 
showing  that  the  fish  are  "thrifty,"  or  healthy.  The  name  "Tusk,"  used  for  this  fish  in  New- 
foundland, is  now  never  used  in  the  United  States,  although  it  seems  to  have  been  in  use  a  century 
ago,  a  well-known  fishing  ground  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine  being  known  as  the  "Tusk  Rock." 


234  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

70.  THE  HAKES— PHYCIS  CHUSS,  ETC. 

DISTRIBUTION. — We  have  five  species  of  the  genus  Phycis.  One,  P.  Chesteri,  recently  discov- 
ered by  the  Fish  Commission,  occurs  off  the  coast  from  Cape  Ann  to  Cape  Hatteras,  at  a  depth  of 
from  seventy-five  to  three  hundred  fathoms.  It  lias  been  collected  in  great  numbers  with  the  deep- 
sea  trawl-nets  used  by  the  Fish  Commission  and  the  Coast  Survey,  and  appears  to  be  extremely 
abundant.  It  is,  at  present,  of  no  economic  importance.  It  may  be  distinguished  by  its  exceed- 
ingly long  fin-filaments. 

Another  species,  the  King  Hake,  P.  regius,  occurs  in  deep  water  with  the  preceding,  and 
has  also  been  found  near  the  shore  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Hatteras,  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  at  the 
eastern  end  of  Long  Island.  A  specimen  was  obtained  many  years  ago  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 
In  the  Chesapeake,  according  to  Major  Ferguson,  it  is  very  abundant. 

This  fish  attains  the  length  of  twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  Concerning  its  habits  little  is  known, 
except  that  it  has  the  power  of  communicating  strong  electric  shocks.  It  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  low  first  dorsal  fin,  unprovided  with  a  filament  and  black  at  its  tip,  and  by  the  peculiar  row 
of  white  spots  along  the  lateral  line.  P.  Earllii  occurs  only  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina. 

The  two  species  which  have  a  commercial  value  are  P.  chuss  and  P.  tennis.  These  species 
are  very  similar  in  appearance,  and  it  is  with  difficulty  that  they  can  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  trained  eye  of  the  zoologist.  The  most  tangible  distinction  may  be  found  in  the 
number  of  scales,  which  are  much  smaller  in  P.  tennis,  there  being  from  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  to  one  hundred  and  forty  oblique  rows  between  the  bronchial  opening  and  the  root  of  the 
caudal  fin,  while  there  are  about  twelve  rows  between  the  lateral  line  and  the  region  of  the  first 
dorsal.  In  P.  cliu*s  there  are  only  one  hundred  rows  in  the  lateral  line  and  nine  rows  above  the 
lateral  line;  in  the  former  the  ventral  does  not  ordinarily  reach  quite  to  the  vent,  in  the  latter  it 
extends  beyond  the  vent.  This  character,  however,  could  not  always  be  relied  upon. 

Our  Hakes  are  all  quite  different  from  the  Forked  Beard,  P.  blennioides,  of  Great  Britain,  some- 
times called  the  Hake's  Dame,  which  is  a  member  of  the  same  genu^.1  Owing  to  their  great  simi- 
larity, Phycis  chuss  and  P.  tennis  are  usually  known  indifferently  by  the  name  "  Hake" ;  the  former, 
however,  is  sometimes  called  the  Old  English  Hake,  and  the  other,  Phycis  tennis,  the  Squirrel 
Hake  or  White  Hake.  In  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  and  also  south  of 
Cape  Cod,  they  are  invariably  called  Ling.  There  has  been  much  confusion  both  in  the  names 
and  descriptions  applied  to  them  by  fishermen  and  ichthyologists.  Their  geographical  range 
appears  to  be  essentially  the  same.  The  young  of  one  or  both  species  are  frequently  taken  swim- 
ming at  the  surface,  on  the  southern  coast  of  New  England,  in  midsummer,  and  numerous 
individuals  have  been  found  off  Block  Island  and  Watch  Hill,  seeking  shelter  between  the  valves 
of  a  large  species  of  scallop,  Pecten  tenuicostatus  ;  the  majority  appear  to  belong  to  the  species  of 
P.  chuss.  About  sixty  were  obtained  from  a  single  trawl-full  of  Pectens  taken  off  Watch  Hill, 
September,  1874,  where  they  were  found  in  one  out  of  every  three  or  four  shells  taken.  Their 
companions  in  the  interior  of  the  shells  were  a  species  of  Pinnotheres,  related  to  the  oyster  crab, 
and  a  species  of  lump-sucker,  Liparis  lineatus. 

One  or  both  species  are  frequently  taken  by  the  cod-fishermen,  on  the  shoals  south  of  Cape 
Cod,  but  they  are  there  considered  to  be  of  but  little  value.  They  are  more  or  less  abundant  in 
Massachusetts  Bay,  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  Large  specimens  of 
one  or  both  species  have  been  taken  at  a  depth  of  three  hundred  fathoms  as  far  south  as  Virginia. 


The  Hake  of  Europe  is  a  different  fish,  more  closely  related  to  the  Silver  Hake  or  Whiting  of  the  New  England 
coast,  Aferluciut  Irilinearis. 


HABITS  OF  THE   HAKES.  i>;}.-, 

• 

HABITS. — Captain  Atwood  gives  this  account  ot  the  Hake  in  Capo  Cod  Bay:  "It  is  a  ground 
fish,  found  close  to  the  bottom,  and  rarely  comes  to  the  surface.  They  are  much  more  inclined  to 
t:ikc  the  hook  by  night  than  by  day :  are  found  on  muddy  bottoms,  during  the  whole  summer  and 
autumn,  along  the  coast  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts.  They  yield  a  large  quantity  of  oil,  which 
is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  that  of  the  Pollock  and  Cod.  The  autumn  finds  them  in  the  best 
condition,  and,  if  prepared  with  care,  they  are  a  tolerably  good  table  fish."  Captain  Atwood  has 
known  them  to  grow  to  the  size  of  forty  pounds,  but  the  average  in  summer  is  only  five  to  ten 
pounds. 

Perley  remarks  that  they  are  taken  largely  on  muddy  bottoms,  both  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 
in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  chiefly  during  the  night,  at  which  time  they  feed  on  the  smaller 
Crustacea;  their  stomachs  are  then  generally  found  to  be  filled.  Hake  are  frequently  taken,  in 
the  (Julf  especially,  measuring  three  feet  in  length. 

The  Hakes  appear  to  be  bottom-loving  fishes,  and  rarely  change  locality.  They  feed  on 
crustaceans,  and  occasionally  indulge  in  a  fish  diet.  One  taken  at  Gloucester,  in  July,  1878,  had  a 
menhaden  in  its  stomach. 

It  is  believed  that  they  spawn  throughout  the  summer,  for  the  young  fish  are  found  during 
all  the  summer  months,  while  specimens  taken  at  the  depth  of  thirty-seven  fathoms,  August  18, 
1878,  off  Ipswich,  at  a  temperature  of  41°  F.,  contained  well-developed  ova,  and  were  apparently 
ready  to  spawn. 

USES. — An  extensive  fishery  is  carried  on  from  Cape  Ann  for  these  fish  in  winter,  and  there  are 
sometimes  as  many  as  fifty  vessels  engaged.  It  was  estimated  in  1878  that  the  total  quantity 
landed  at  Gloucester  was  not  far  from  5,000,000  pounds.  The  fishing  is  carried  on  almost  entirely 
at  night  with  the  use  of  trawls,  which  are  about  the  size  of  those  used  in  the  capture  of  Haddock. 

Hake  are  salted  and  dried  in  the  same  manner  as  Codfish,  and  are  often  sold  under  the  name 
of  Codfish.  Before  the  introduction  of  boneless  fish  it  was  sometimes  difficult  to  sell  them  on 
account  of  the  difference  in  appearance,  but  at  the  present  time  great  quantities  of  Hake  are  put 
up  in  boxes  under  the  trade  name  of  "boneless  fish,"  the  qualifying  word  "Cod"  being  usually 
omitted  from  the  brands  and  labels.  Hake  are  rarely  eaten  fresh. 

The  air-bladder,  or  sound,  of  the  Hake  is  of  great  commercial  value,  being  used  extensively  in 
the  manufacture  of  isinglass ;  great  quantities  of  sounds  are  sent  from  the  British  Provinces  to 
the  United  States  annually,  sounds  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  being  considered  much  better 
than  those  from  farther  south.  In  1880  New  England  produced  253,698  pounds  of  dried  sounds, 
worth  $178,808.  Massachusetts  had  eight  isinglass  and  glue  factories,  employing  one  hundred 
and  eighty-two  men  and  a  capital  of  $315,000,  and  producing  $450,000  worth  of  ribbon  isinglass 
and  glue  in  1879.  These  sounds  were  for  the  most  part  derived  from  the  Hake. 

Capt.  Epes  W.  Merchant  gave  me  the  following  account  of  hake-fishing  at  Gloucester  in  1818: 
"Hake  used  to  come  in  September,  October,  and  the  first  half  of  November,  and  then  we  would 
get  ready  to  go  haking.  Father  would  say,  'Go  down,  get  your  pork,  and  put  on  your  squid-jig.' 
We  were  always  sure  of  bait;  the  boy  would  catch  enough  bait  for  three  men;  the  squid  were  in 
great  schools.  We  used  to  lay  out  two  nights  and  get  fifteen  or  twenty  quintals  of  Hake.  These 
were  worth  fifteen  shillings  per  quintal,  and  we  sold  them  in  Boston  for  the  West  Indies  trade." 

71.  THE  BURBOT— LOTA  MACULOSA. 

BY  TAELETON  H.  BKA.V 

NAME.— The  first  name  applied  to  the  American  Burbot  was  Gadu*  lota.  This  was  used  by 
Pennant.  Walbaum  established  the  name  Oadm  lacwitrig  for  the  Matitemeg,  or  Land  Cod  of  Pen- 


236  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

n, HI i .  This  fish  has,  however,  proved  to  be  a  cattish,  and  the  name  lacustris  is  untenable  for  the 
Burbot.  In  1817,  Le  Suenr  described  a  Burbot  from  Lake  Erie  under  the  name  of  Oadus  maculosus, 
and  another  species  from  Northampton,  Connecticut,  as  Oadus  compressus.  The  name  maculosus  is 
the  oldest  available  specific  name  for  the  American  species.  In  1818  Mitchill  described  a  Oadus 
lacustris  in  the  "American  Monthly  Magazine,"  evidently  not  knowing  that  the  same  name  had 
been  previously  applied  by  Walbaum.  In  1819  Le  Sueur  redescribed  Oadus  compressus  under  the 
name  Molva  Huntia.  In  1842  De  Kay  described  Lota  inornata  from  the  State  cabinet  at  Albany, 
lu  1844  D.  H.  Storer  set  up  the  Wiuuipiseogee  Lake  Burbot  as  Lota  brosmiana.  From  this  it  will 
appear  that  six  specific  names  have  been  applied  to  the  American  Burbot,  and  that  the  form  from 
Hudson's  Bay  was  considered  identical  with  the  European  species.  All  of  these  names  following 
Oadus  maculosus  are  considered  synonyms  of  maculosus.  The  name  compresm  was  retained 
longer  than  any  of  the  others,  but  it  is  now  known  that  the  compressed  form  is  simply  an  indi- 
vidual variation. 

Giinther,  in  his  "  Catalogue  of  Fishes  in  the  British  Museum,"  volume  iv,  1862,  places  all  the 
names  applied  to  the  American  Burbot  in  the  synonymy  of  Lota  vulgaris,  believing  that  we  have 
only  one  species,  and  that  identical  with  the  European.  Even  if  his  view  be  correct,  he  should  use 
the  name  Lota  maculosa,  which,  dating  from  1817,  has  priority  over  vuJgaris.  The  combination 
Lota  vulgaris  was  not  employed,  as  far  as  I  know,  by  any  author  until  Jenyns  used  it  in  a  Manual 
of  British  Vertebrate  Animals  in  1835.  It  is  not,  however,  established  that  the  European  and 
American  Burbot  represent  the  same  species.  The  number  of  vertebra?  seems  to  be  smaller  in  the 
European.  Giinther  gives  it  as  twenty-one  abdominal  and  thirty-eight  caudal  vertebra?.  In  two 
skeletons  examined  by  myself  the  abdominal  vertebrae  were  twenty- two  to  twenty- three,  and  the 
caudal  thirty -eight  to  thirty-nine.  There  seems  to  be  no  other  important  difference.  For  the 
present  it  may  be  best  to  consider  the  European  Burbot  as  varietally  distinct  from  the  American, 
and  we  should  call  it  Lota  maculosa,  variety  vulgaris. 

POPULAR  NAMES. — In  the  Hudson's  Bay  region,  according  to  Pennant,  the  Burbot  is  known  as 
"  Marthy  ";  according  to  Richardson,  as  "  Methy."  In  Alaska,  according  to  Ball  and  Turner,  it  is 
known  as  "Losh";  in  Canada,  as  "laLoche."  In  Vermont  it  is  called  the  "Eel-pout"  (Thompson); 
by  which  name  also  it  is  known  in  Mohawk  River,  New  York,  according  to  Loomis ;  in  Massa- 
chusetts (Storer);  in  Connecticut  (Wood),  and  in  Bighorn  River,  Montana  (Brackett).  It  is 
known  as  the  "  Dogfish"  in  Lake  Erie,  according  to  Le  Suenr.  Commander  L.  A.  Beardslee  says 
it  is  called  "Chub-eel,"  also,  in  Mohawk  River,  New  York.  It  is  known  as  the  "Ling"  in  Lake 
Ontario  (Professor  Baird),  lakes  of  Western  New  York  (Baird  and  Blackford),  and  New  York 
market  (Blackford).  It  is  the  "Lawyer"  of  Lake  Michigan,  according  to  Earll;  "Lake-cusk"  in 
Lake  Winnipiseogee  (Davis) ;  "Fresh-water  Cod"  (Baird).  It  is  called  "Burbot"  in  New  York 
(De  Kay),  and  in  the  Bighorn  River,  Montana  (Brackett).  Professor  Jordan  gives  the  names 
"Aleby-trout"  and  "Mother  of  Eels"  as  in  use  in  the  Upper  Great  Lake  region. 

The  above  list  is  incomplete,  both  as  to  names  and  geographical  range.  The  name  "Bur- 
bot" is  the  one  which  should  come  into  general  use.  The  first  four  will  hardly  be  adopted  by 
English-speaking  people.  "Chub-eel"  is  a  mere  off-hand  name  given  to  the  species  by  a  fisher- 
man who  supposed  it  to  be  a  hybrid  between  an  eel  and  a  catfish;  this  name  is  known  to  very 
few  persons.  The  remaining  names,  except  "Burbot,"  are  preoccupied  and  well  established  for 
marine  species,  as  follows:  "Eel -pout,"  Zoarces  anguillaris;  "Ling,"  Molva  vulgaris;  "Lawyer," 
Lutjanus caxix;  "disk,"  BrosMius  brosme;  "Cod,"  Gadw  morrhua;  "Dogfish,"  Mustelus  canis.  The 
European  variety,  Lota  maculosa,  variety  vulgaris,  is  called  "Burbot,"  a  name  which  has  never 
been  applied  to  any  other  species  than  the  one  under  consideration,  so  far  as  I  can  learn.  This 


POPULAK    NAM11S  01'  TIIK   BURBOT.  237 

name,  t lion-fore,  should  be  retained.  In  Norfolk,  England,  "Cony-fish"  is  a  name  given  to  the 
Kuropean  Burbot,  from  its  habit  of  skulking  in  rat-holes  and  corners  under  the  banks. 

SIZE. — We  are  told  by  J.  B.  Forster,  in  Philosophical  Transactions,  Ixiii,  1773,  p.  149,  that 
the  weight  of  the  Burbot  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  region  is  from  one  to  eight  pounds.  According  to 
Pennant,  who  derives  his  information  from  Forster,  the  Burbot  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  region  reaches 
a  weight  of  eight,  pounds.  In  Alaska,  Mr.  Ball  says  that  they  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  reaching 
a  length  of  five  feet,  and  weighing  as  innch  as  sixty  pounds.  In  the  Bighorn  and  Little  Bighorn 
Kivers.  Montana,  the  species  reaches  an  average  weight  of  less  than  a  pound,  and  does  not  exceed 
eighteen  inches  in  length.  Mr.  W.  Ainsworth,  of  Cape  Vincent,  New  York,  says  that  the  Burbot 
in  the  waters  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Saint  Lawrence  River  average  two  and  a  half  pounds  in 
weight,  occasionally  reaching  four  pounds.  The  United  States  National  Museum  has  received 
from  Mr.  E.  G.  Blackford,  of  New  York,  numerous  individuals  from  the  Great  Lake  region,  aver- 
aging certainly  not  less  than  five  pounds  in  weight.  In  the  United  States  National  Museum 
collection  the  Burbot  from  the  lakes  are,  as  a  rule,  larger  and  plumper  than  those  from  rivers. 
The  exceptions  are  one  from  Fort  Pierre,  Nebraska,  and  two  from  the  Yukon  River.  These  are 
longer  but  more  slender  than  the  lake  Burbot.  It  seems  highly  probable  that  river  Burbot  may 
generally  be  recognized  by  their  slender  bodies  and  small  size,  which  characters  we  may  attribute 
to  the  small  amount  of  food  obtainable  in  the  rivers,  as  compared  with  the  supplies  found  in  lakes. 
The  Burbot  of  the  Connecticut  River,  which  furnished  the  type  of  Lota  compres»a,  is  short,but  really 
less  compressed  than  some  from  England,  Southern  Europe,  .and  from  our  own  lakes.  Le  Sueur's 
type  of  compressed  Burbot  may  have  been  the  starved  or  emaciated  form  known  to  fishermen  as 
"Racer,"  and  it  may  have  been  the  ordinary  little  Burbot  of  the  Connecticut  already  referred  to. 

RELATION  TO  THE  EUROPEAN  BURBOT. — The  American  Burbot  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
its  European  ally  by  external  characters;  in  both,  the  color,  the  position  of  the  fins,  the  number  of 
the  tin-rays,  the  structure  and  arrangement  oi  the  teeth,  the  situation  and  size  of  the  eyes,  and  the 
relative  proportions  being  substantially  alike.  There  is  less  difference  between  the  average  Ameri- 
can and  European  types  of  Burbot  than  there  is  between  extremes  of  the  former.  At  one  time 
I  thought  that  the  number  of  pyloric  cosca,  or  the  length  of  the  intestines,  might  be  available  in 
classification,  but  the  amount  of  individual  variation  is  so  great  in  this  respect  that  no  division 
can  be  based  thereon.  The  pyloric  cosca  in  the  Europeau  specimens  which  I  have  studied  ranged  in 
number  from  20  to  77;  in  America  from  36  to  138.  There  is  only  one  example  having  the  latter 
number,  and  that  came  from  the  Yukon  River.  Another  individual  from  the  same  stream  had  102 
co2ca,  and  in  all  probability  a  large  series  would  still  further  reduce  the  gap.  This  variation  in  the 
number  of  cceca  is  paralleled  in  other  species,  notably  in  the  Cod  and  the  Salmon,  Salmo  salar. 
In  the  former  1  have  counted  140,  160,  256,  271,  289,  and  340  in  six  individuals.  In  the  Salmon 
Mr.  J.  K.,Tuacher  records  a  variation  between  44  and  70.' 

Even  in  the  Craig  flounder,  Glyptocephalm  cynoglotwu8,  which  has  few  coaca,  I  have  counted 
9  in  one  adult  and  11  in  another.  The  basis  of  distinction  between  the  European  and  American 
forms  of  Burbot  is  solely  the  smaller  number  of  vertebrae  in  the  former.  It  may  be  that  an  exam- 
ination of  a  large  series  of  skeletons  will  show  that  the  difference  is  constant,  and  it  is  also  pos- 
sible that  other  good  characters  will  be  found  which  will  entitle  the  Europeau  form  to  separate 
specific  rank,  or  such  examination  may  show  a  European  Burbot  with  as  many  vertebrae  as  one 
of  onr  American  series;  in  which  event  it  would  seem  proper  to  unite  the  two  under  the  name  of 
Lota  maculosa. 

1  Report  of  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  2,  1874,  p.  371. 


238  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  United  States  National  Museum  has  specimens  of  the  Burbot  from  a 
tributary  of  Hudson's  Bay,  Mackenzie's  River,  Yukon  River  and  Kodiak  (Alaska),  Winnipiseogee 
Lake,  the  Connecticut  River  and  Scantic  River,  Connecticut;  Seneca  Falls  and  Madrid,  New  York ; 
the  Great  Lakes,  Winnebago  Lake  and  Oshkosh,  Wisconsin;  Kansas  City,  Missouri;  Fort  Pierre, 
Nebraska;  the  Bighorn  and  Little  Bighorn  Rivers  in  Montana,  and  Great  Slave  Lake.  The 
species  occurs  in  the  Yellowstone  River,  the  Missouri  River,  in  tributaries  of  the  Ohio,  in  the 
Mohawk  River,  and  has  once  been  obtained  in  the  Susquehanna  River,  according  to  Professor 
Cope  in  the  report  of  the  Pennsylvania  Fish  Commission,  1881. 

ABUNDANCE. — The  Burbot  is  most  abundant  in  lakes,  to  wit:  The  Great  Lakes,  lakes  of  New 
York,  Winnipiseogee  Lake,  and  lakes  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick.  In  general  terms,  including 
under  the  name ''Burbot"  both  the  American  and  European  forms,  the  species  maybe  said  to 
inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of  the  northern  regions  both  of  Europe  and  America,  being  particularly 
abundant  in  the  Great  Lakes  and  in  all  ponds,  lakes,  and  large  streams,  thence  northward  to  the 
Arctic  Circle.  According  to  Ball  it  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Alaska. 
The  Burbot  is  not  known  to  enter  brackish  water  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  According  to  Mr.  W. 
Ainsworth,  Burbot  are  found  principally  in  deep  water  and  on  mud,  except  during  the  spawning 
season,  which  occurs  in  March,  when  they  run  on  rock  or  hard  bottom.  This  refers  to  the  Lake 
Ontario  region.  Col.  A.  G.  Brackett,  U.  S.  A.,  states  that  the  fish  seem  to  be  quite  common  in  the 
Bighorn  River,  Montana.  In  the  northern  rivers,  as  a  rule,  the  species  is  very  abundant,  though 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  species  is  less  common  in  rivers. 
Mr.  Charles  Lauinan  writes  that  it  is  abundant  in  Lake  Timisconti,  and  also  in  the  Eagle  and  Saint 
Francis  Lakes. 

REPRODUCTION. — The  spawning  season  of  the  Burbot  is  late  winter  or  early  spring.  It  is 
probable  that  the  eggs,  which  are  small  and  numerous,  are  deposited  in  deep  water.  Mr.  Ball  says 
that  the  eggs  of  the  Burbot  are  of  a  creamy-yellow  color  in  Alaskan  specimens.  The  same  writer 
states  that  the  fish  are  full  of  spawn  from  November  to  January.  He  also  says  that  a  siugle 
Burbot  (Losh)  contains  millions  of  eggs. 

According  to  Pennant,  the  Burbot  spawns  early  in  February,  and  "is  unhappily  most  prolific. 
Mr.  Hutchins  counted  in  a  single  fish  671,248  ovaria."  In  the  Great  Lake  region  it  is  considered 
probable  that  the  Burbot  spawns  in  deep  water.  Specimens  forwarded  from  that  region  by  Mr.  E. 
G.  Blackford,  in  the  month  of  November,  1877,  were  distended  with  ripe  eggs. 

According  to  Mr.  Ball,  the  males  are  usually  much  smaller  than  the  females,  averaging  only 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  length,  while  the  female  attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  fret.  He 
states  also  that  the  male  has  a  smaller  liver  and  one  pyriform  gall-bladder  on  the  left  side.  Some 
specimens,  however,  present  the  physiological  curiosity  of  having  two,  or  even  three,  distinct  gall- 
bladders opening  into  the  same  duct,  and  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  Mr.  Ball  has,  however,  never 
seen  a  double  gall  bladder  in  a  female  Burbot.  The  only  marked  feature  in  reference  to  these  fish 
at  the  spawning  season  is  the  greatly  increased  abundance.  The  young  of  this  species  are  not 
described  in  any  American  work,  so  far  as  I  know.  Richardson  found  small  Burbots  in  the 
stomach  of  the  Lake  Trout,  Salvelinus  namaycush.  He  states  in  "Fauna  Boreali  Americana," 
p.  180,  that  "in  the  mouth  of  March,  in  latitude  64°,  we  saw  that  capacious  receptacle  [stomach 
of  Salvelinus  namaycush}  crammed  with  the  young  of  the  Lota  maculosa." 

The  development  of  the  European  variety  is  partially  illustrated  by  text  and  figures  in  a  paper 
by  Carl  J.  Sundevall  on  "The  Development  of  Fishes,"  published  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the 
Swedish  Academy,"  1862.  The  text  is  here  in  part  translated: 

"  The  spawning  season  of  the  Burbot  commences  in  January  or  February.    The  eggs  are  laid 


REPROnrniON  OK  TI1F.   HI  KHOT. 


239 

\^r 


separate  ami  loose  upon  tin-  river  or  lake  bottom.  They  are  vri  v  small  anil  numerous.  According 
to  tin-  calculation  of  lian.n  ('.  (1.  <  Yderstrom,  a  medium-sized  female  contained  160,000  (by  esti- 
male.  l.V.i,77»i)  e^s.  This  result  nearly  coincides  with  that  of  a  more  recent  estimate,  viz,  that 
tin-  average  female  Contains  1  78,000  eggs.  (Skaml.  Fiskar.  vid.,  p.  41.)  Some  eggs  are  clear,  some 
\ello\v,  all  nearly  colorless,  and  both  kinds  are  capable  of  development.  In  some  cases  the  eggs 
commence  tn  hatch  in  tlncr  \\.-eks;  generally,  however,  an.  additional  week  is  required.  At  the 
.•ml  of  tin-  first  day  after  tin-  1  •'»••;  s  have  been  deposited  cleavage  of  the  yolk  commences.  The  eyes 
appear  in  fifteen  or  sixteen  days,  and  in  about  two  days  more  small  star-like  spots  may  be  observed 
on  tht>  surface  of  the  embryo.  At  that  period,  also,  the  beating  of  the  heart  can  be  plainly  dis- 
cerned. and  I  have  alternately  counted  fifteen,  thirty,  and  fifty  pulsations  in  successive  minutes. 
The  evolutions  of  the  etnliryo  are  now  more  distinctly  seen,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  anterior 
end  of  the  embryo  is  the  heavier.  In  many  cases  the  eggs  appear  to  have  been  prematurely 
hatched,  and  assume  the  shape  of  a  ring.  These  move  but  seldom,  and  always  in  a  circle.  A  great 
many  die  early  ;  others  are  developed.  The  fish  with  straight  tails  are  very  lively,  moving  with 
a  tremor  of  the  body,  usually  toward  the  surface  of  the  water,  whence  they  passively  fall  to  the 
bottom.  When  fully  developed,  the  operation  of  swimming  is  accomplished  by  a  quick  movement 
of  the  pectorals." 

MODE  OF  CAPTURE.  —  The  Burbot  is  taken  on  hooks,  chiefly  at  night.  It  is  also  captured 
largely  in  pounds  and  gill-nets.  In  Lake  Winnipiseogee  it  is  caught  with  the  hook  through 
holes  in  the  ice.  At  Fort  Ouster,  Montana,  it  takes  the  hook  freely.  In  the  Yukon  Kiver  it  is 
captured  in  h'sh-traps. 

FOOD  AND  FEEDING  HABITS.  —  The  Burbot  is  carnivorous  and  voracious,  having  a  craving  and 
wonderfully  distensible  stomach,  which  makes  the  fish  an  efficient  dredge  in  securing  bottom  fishes. 
Through  its  medium  was  obtained  the  rare  sculpiu-like  fish  Trit/lopsia  Thomsoni.  The  Burbot  feeds 
upon  various  small  fishes  and  Crustacea,  frequenting  the  bottom,  and  devouring  more  particularly 
fishes  with  habits  like  its  own. 

Forster  gives  the  following  notes  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  '  which  were  furnished 
him  by  Mr.  Andrew  Graham  :  "  [The  Marthy  is]  extremely  voracious,  eating  fish,  the  pike,  and  the 
tickomeg  (Salmo),  and  other  fish,  carrion,  putrefying  deer,  and  even  stones.  Mr.  Graham  took  a 
stone  weighing  a  pound  from  the  stomach  of  one.  .  .  .  It  does  not  masticate  its  food." 

Pennant  says  that  the  Marthy  "is  so  voracious  as  to  feed  even  on  the  tyrant  pike;  will  devour 
dead  deer  or  any  carrion,  and  even  swallow  stones  to  fill  its  stomach." 

The  Burbot  seems  to  feed  principally  at  night.  Pennant  states  that  it  is  caught  with  hooks 
after  nine  o'clock  at  night.  Charles  Lanman  states  that  "in  the  Saint  John  River,  Jfew  Bruns- 
wick, some  hundreds  are  taken  annually  by  night-lines,  dropped  through  the  ice  at  the  beginning 
of  winter.  Many  are  thus  taken  near  Fredericton,  but  the  best  fishing  ground  is  on  the  sand- 
bars, a  little  above  the  mouth  of  the  Oromocto  Kiver,  where  this  fish  resorts  previous  to  spawn- 
ing, which  operation  takes  place  in  February  or  March.  This  fish  is  not  unlike  the  eel  in  many  of 
its  habits,  concealing  its  food  under  stones,  waiting  and  watching  for  its  prey.  It  feeds  principally 
at  night,  and  is,  therefore,  generally  taken  by  night-lines." 

The  specimens  obtained  by  the  National  Museum  from  the  Great  Lakes  always  contained  in 
abundance  the  common  species  associated  with  itself  in  that  region,  such  as  Perca  americana,& 
species  of  Lcpomif;,  &c. 

According  to  Mr.  Dall,  the  Burbot  in  the  rivers  of  Alaska  feed  upon  whitefish,  lampreys,  and 
other  species. 

'Vol.  Ixiii. 


240  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  edible  qualities  of  the  Bur- 
bot. In  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  it  is  usually  pronounced  worthless,  but  some  few  consider 
the  liver  a  delicacy ;  it  is  held  in  low  esteem  as  a  food-fish,  and  rarely  appears  in  the  markets.  It 
was  formerly  thrown  away,  according  to  Mr.  Milner,  although  it  is  a  very  good  edible  fish,  and 
some  who  know  its  qualities  cook  the  livers  of  the  larger  specimens,  considering  them  very  choice. 
Mr.  Ainsworth,  of  Cape  Vincent,  New  York,  regards  the  Burbot  as  a  great  annoyance  to  gill  net 
fishermen.  He  states  that  they  are  a  soft  fish  and  unmarketable.  I  have  been  told  that  the  Bur 
bot  caught  through  holes  in  the  ice  in  Winnipiseogee  Lake  are  highly  esteemed.  In  the  fur  coun- 
tries, according  to  old  writers,  the  roe  is  an  article  of  food.  The  liver  is  eaten  in  the  Yukon  River 
region,  and  the  flesh  is  by  some  regarded  as  equal  to  that  of  whitefish.  At  Fort  Custer,  Mon- 
tana, Col.  A.  G.  Brackett  says,  "The  soldiers  eat  all  they  can  get  of  them."  Indians  generally 
are  fond  of  them.  No  doubt  the  quality  of  the  flesh  depends  largely  upon  the  habitat,  those  found 
in  cold,  clear,  rapid  streams  being  probably  the  best. 

According  to  Professor  Jordan,  there  is  a  popular  prejudice  against  the  looks  of  this  fish,  and 
its  flesh  is  less  rich  than  that  of  most  of  the  lake  fish.  From  the  manuscript  of  Charles  Laninan, 
referring  to  the  species  in  New  Brunswick,  I  quote  the  following:  "The  flesh  of  the  fresh-water 
Cusk  is  white,  firm,  and  of  good  flavor.  The  liver  and  roe  are  considered  delicacies;  when  well 
bruised  and  mixed  with  a  little  flour,  the  roe  can  be  baked  into  very  good  biscuits,  which  are  used 
in  the  fur  countries  as  tea-bread." 

Forster  states  that  the  roe  and  liver,  when  fresh,  are  considered  delicacies,  but  that  they  turn 
rancid  in  a  few  days.  On  the  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay  the  fish  is  considered  dry  and  insipid. 

The  Burbot,  therefore,  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very  important  fish,  commercially  speaking, 
although  when  taken  in  cold  streams,  where  it  occurs  in  abundance,  it  is  freely  eaten.  In  Siberia, 
according  to  Mr.  Dall,  the  skins  of  the  European  variety  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  glass  in 
windows. 

INFORMATION  DESIRED  CONCERNING  THE  BURBOT. — Information  is  greatly  desired  on  all  of 
the  points  already  mentioned  concerning  the  Burbot,  and  especially  on  the  following  particulars: 

1.  Its  occurrence  in  rivers  and  lakes  anywliere.    Kansas  City,  Missouri,  is  the  most  southern 
locality  represented  in  the  collections  of  the  United  States  National  Museum. 

2.  The  temperature  and  depth  of  the  water  in  which  it  is  captured. 

3.  Its  capture  in  salt  water. 

4.  Its  time  and  mode  of  spawning  in  different  waters. 
6.  The  appearance  of  the  young. 

6.  Its  food.    Bottom  fishes  are  frequently  found  in  the  stomach. 

7.  Whether  it  is  eaten. 

8.  How  caught. 

The  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  is  desirous  of  obtaining  specimens  in  alcohol  or  in  the  fresh 
state  from  any  river  or  lake,  except  the  Great  Lakes  and  lakes  of  Western  New  York. 

72.  THE  SILVER  HAKE  AND  THE  MERLUCCIO. 
THE  SILVER  HAKE,  OR  NEW  ENGLAND  WHITING.    MERLUCIUS  BILINEARIS. 

DISTRIBUTION. — It  is  the  opinion  of  certain  writers,  among  whom  Dr.  Gunther  is  leader, 
that  the  Hake  of  Europe,  Merlucius  merlus  (or  M.  vulgaris  of  recent  authors),  is  identical  with 
the  species  of  Merlucius  occurring  in  the  Western  Atlantic.  This  is,  however,  a  mistake;  the 
American  species  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  that  of  Europe  by  the  greater  number  of  rays 


THE  KriiopKAN  AM>  AMKKICAN  MI.IM.I  rn  s  241 

in  the  first  dorsal  (10  to  11  in  .V.  merlun,  12  to  13  in  M.  biline<tri»),  and  by  the  larger  size  of  the 
scales  (tin-  number  in  the  lateral  line  being  about  150  in  M.  merlug,  100  to  110  in  M.  bilinearis). 

'I  lie  ueneral  appearance  of  the  two  species  is  very  similar,  and  it  requires  careful  study  to 
separate  them.  It  is  probable  that  at  no  very  remote  period  they  diverged  from  acoramon  stock. 
The  distribution  of  the  two  species  ui>on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Atlantic  coincides  very  closely 
with  that  of  other  Gadoid  tislies,  which  are  specifically  identical  in  Europe  and  America.  The  Hake 
of  Kurope  is  found  along  the  coast  from  Trondhjem  Fjord,  latitude  65°,  south  to  36°,  being  very 
abundant  in  the  Mediterranean ;  also  found  on  the  coast  of  Portugafand  in  Western  France.  In 
the  English  Channel,  however,  and  in  the  waters  of  Holland  and  Germany,  it  is  considered  very 
unusual.  On  our  coast  it  ranges  from  New  York  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  where  it  is 
eoniinon — especially  in  the  Bay  of  Cbaleur — but  it  has  rarely  been  observed  as  far  north  as  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  Dr.  Packard  was  told  by  fishermen  that  during  a  period  of  forty  summers 
.spent  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  they  had  taken  but  one  specimen  of  this  fish.  This  fish  has  been 
found  at  great  depths  as  far  south  as  latitude  36°  and  37°. 

The  name  Silver  Hake,  by  which  this  fish  is  known  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  is  much  more 
appropriate  than  that  of  Whiting,  though  the  latter  is  more  frequently  heard  in  New  England;  its 
similarity  to  the  European  Hake  is  very  great;  while  the  name  Whiting,  which  is  in  Europe 
applied  to  a  species  (Merlangus  vulgarin),  somewhat  resembling  the  Pollock,  has  been  appropriated 
in  this  country  for  a  fish  on  the  southern  coast  and  belonging  to  the  drum  family. 

MIGRATIONS  AND  MOVEMENTS. — The  Silver  Hake  commonly  inhabits  the  middle  depths  of 
oeean,  or  the  outer  edge  of  the  continental  slope,  and  comes  to  the  surface  to  feed.  Like  the 
.  Pollock,  it  is  a  fish  of  prey;  its  teeth  are  sharp,  its  mouth  large  and  j>owerful,  and  its  form 
lithe,  muscular,  and  adapted  to  rapid  locomotion.  It  comes  to  the  surface  to  prey  upon  the 
schools  of  herring  and  other  small  fish,  and  is  frequently  caught  in  the  mackerel  and  blnefisb  nets. 
Its  api>earance  in  onr  waters  is  irregular,  and  when  seen  it  is  usually  in  considerable  numbers. 
Storer,  writing  in  or  before  1867,  remarked:  "When  my  report  was  published  in  1839  I  stated 
that  the  Whiting  was  taken — not,  however,  in  large  quantities — in  our  bay  in  the  summer  upon 
the  cod-fishery  grounds;  since  that  period  this  species  has  increased  very  perceptibly  in  our  waters; 
it  is  frequently  caught  in  considerable  numbers  with  the  hook  upon  Crab  Ledge,  a  few  miles  from 
ISoston  light-house,  and  has  become  at  Provincetown  a  serious  inconvenience  to  the  fishermen. 
<  aptaiu  Atwood  informs  me  that  when  the  fishermen  at  the  latter  place  commence  the  mackerel 
fishery  with  nets,  which  usually  takes  place  about  the  20th  of  May,  the  Whiting  are  scarce  and 
few  are  caught.  By  the  1st  of  June  they  become  more  plenty,  and  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the 
last  of  the  fishery,  which  closes  about  the  20th  of  July,  they  are  exceedingly  numerous  in  parts  of 
the  bay  in  all  depths  of  water.  In  such  quantities  are  they  taken  in  nets  that  frequently  eight  or  ten 
hours  are  required  for  a  man  to  clear  the  nets  of  them.  At  this  season  of  the  year  so  many  of 
them  are  thrown  from  the  boats  upon  the  shore  that  the  board  of  health  is  sometimes  called  upon 
to  interfere  and  to  compel  the  fishermen  to  bury  them  from  the  fear  of  sickness  being  produced 
by  their  decomposition.  By  visiting  this  point,  the  easterly  extremity  of  Cape  Cod,  in  June,  1847, 
I  saw  quite  a  number  of  this  species  strewed  along  the  shore,  where  they  had  been  left  by  the  tide 
while  in  pursuit  of  sand-eels  and  other  small  fishes.  Since  that  period,  the  bluefish  having  been 
more  common,  this  species  does  not  exist  in  as  great  abundance." 

It  is  difficult  in  this  case,  as  in  many  other  similar  ones,  to  decide  exactly  what  dates  to 

assign  to  the  observations  of  Dr.  Storer — his  "  History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  in  its 

last  edition,  having  been  published  at  various  times  from  1803  to  1867 — as  in  some  instances  he 

contented  himself  with  quoting  the  exact  words  of  his  report  printed  in  1839.     It  would  seem. 

16  F 


242  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

however,  that  the  statements  attributed  to  Captain  Atwood  should  be  dated  prior  to  1850.  The 
Cape  Cod  naturalist,  in  his  address  before  the  senate  committee  of  the  Rhode  Island  legislature 
in  1872,  stated  that  in  Provincetown  Harbor,  from  a  very  early  period  until  the  "horse-mackerel" 
(blueflsh)  made  its  appearance,  the  fish  called  Whiting  was  immensely  abundant;  but  since  the 
horse-mackerel  had  appeared  this  fish  was  driven  out,  and  at  the  time  of  speaking  a  specimen 
was  hardly  ever  seen.  Perley,  writing  in  1850  and  1852,  stated  that  at  Grand  Manau  these  fish 
were  often  taken  in  herring  nets,  in  which  they  become  entangled  while  pursuing  their  prey,  and 
that  he  observed  the  fishermen  throwing  away  these  fish  by  thousands  while  clearing  their  nets. 

HABITS. — They  average  one  foot  in  length.  They  are  of  roving  habits,  following  the  shoals  of 
herring,  which  they  devour  in  great  quantities.  Until  1880  little  was  known  concerning  the 
breeding  habits  of  the  Silver  Hake,  but,  in  exploring  the  bottom,  at  a  depth  of  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  three  hundred  fathoms,  off  Newport  and  in  the  edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  immense 
numbers  of  young  fish,  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  length,  were  found  at  the  bottom,  and 
with  them  were  many  adults,  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  apparently  in  the  act  of  spawn- 
ing; some  of  them  with  the  ova  ripe,  or  nearly  ripe,  but  not  yet  shed;  others  evidently  spent  fish. 
This  discovery  was  exceedingly  interesting,  since  it  may  serve  as  a  clew  to  the  spawning  habits  of 
other  species,  like  the  bluefish  and  menhaden,  which  have  been  supposed  to  spawn  at  a  distance 
from  the  shore,  but  have  never  been  detected  in  the  act.  The  spawning  period  doubtless  extends 
over  a  considerable  space  of  time;  some  of  the  eggs  from  which  the  largest  of  the  young  were 
hatched  off  Newport  must  have  been  laid  as  early  as  July.  In  September  an  adult,  obtained  at  Hal- 
ifax, Nova  Scotia,  had  the  ova  well  developed  and  nearly  ready  for  deposition.  It  is  not  known 
whether  the  eggs  of  the  Silver  Hake  float  or  sink.  Couch  states  that  the  spawning  season  of  the 
European  Hake  is  from  January  to  April,  at  which  time  the  fish  are  caught  near  the  bottom,  and 
lose  the  great  voracity  by  which  they  are  characterized  at  other  times,  so  that  multitudes  are 
caught  in  trawls,  and  a  few  with  lines.  When  pilchards  approach  the  shore  the  Hake  follows 
them,  continuing  in  incalculable  numbers  throughout  the  winter.  Mr.  Couch  continues: 

"  It  rarely  happens  that  pilchards  are  taken  in  the  seine  without  many  Hakes  being  inclosed 
with  them,  and  thus,  when  the  net  remains  in  the  water  for  several  days,  they  have  an  opportunity 
of  glutting  themselves  to  their  hearts'  desire,  which  is  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  themselves 
helpless,  and  I  have  seen  seventeen  pilchards  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  Hake  of  ordinary  size. 
Their  digestion  is  quick,  so  that  they  speedily  get  rid  of  their  load,  and  fishermen  observe  that 
when  hooked  the  fish  evacuates  the  contents  of  its  stomach  to  facilitate  its  escape,  so  that  when 
hundreds  are  taken  with  a  line  in  the  midst  of  prey,  not  one  will  have  anything  in  its  stomach. 
When  near  the  surface,  however,  this  ejection  does  not  take  place  Bntil  they  are  dragged  on 
board." 

In  Holland  this  fish  is  known  as  the  Stokvisch,  and  in  Germany  as  the  Meerhecht  or  Little 
Stockfisch;  the  first  name  signifies  sea-pike,  this  name  being  the  equivalent  of  the  Latin  generic 
name. 

USES. — The  Hake  of  Europe  is  always  considered  a  coarse  fish,  and  though  great  quantities 
are  annually  salted  and  dried  it  is  not  held  in  very  higli  esteem.  Many  of  the  salted  fish  are  sent 
to  Spain.  They  are  said  to  be  quite  common  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  where 
considerable  traffic  is  carried  on  with  them  ;  they  are  packed  with  aromatic  plants  and  sent  to  the 
towns  remote  from  the  coast. 

Storer  remarks  :  "Occasionally  this  species  is  brought  to  market,  and  when  perfectly  fresh  is 
a  very  sweet  fish,  boiled,  broiled,  or  fried.  It  soon  becomes  soft  and  is  preserved  with  difficulty. 
As  it  does  not  appear  to  be  known  abroad,  and  the  fishermen  consequently  have  no  call  for  it,  it  is 


USES  OF  TFIK  SILYKK   IIAKK.  243 

not  cured.  but  is  considered  worthless.     In  the  months  of  September  and  October  the  Whiting  is 
ii-i'd  somewhat  tor  bait  for  the  dogfish  and  answers  a  good  purpose." 

It  is.  ns  a  rule,  hardly  worth  while  to  criticise  statements  in  a  work  so  generally  unreliable  as 
J.  V.  C.  Smit  li's  ••  1 1  istory  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  published  in  1843,  but  since  he  has  been 
quoted  by  Do  Kay1  in  a  misleading  manner,  it  should  here  be  stated  that  in  discussing  this  fish  this 
author  had  also  in  mind  other  fishes  belonging  to  the  genus  Phyci*,  which  are  known  by  the  name 
of  Iluke  all  along  the  coast. 

THE  MERLUCCIO  OR  CALIFOKNIA  HAKE.    MKRLUCIUS  PBODUCTUS. 

The  California  Hake,  writes  Professor  Jordan,  is  most  commonly  known  along  the  coast  by  its 
Italian  name,  "  Merluecio",  pronounced  merlo6ch.  At  Sequel  and  elsewhere  it  goes  by  the  name 
of  Horse-mackerel,  a  name  used  on  our  coasts  with  the  greatest  carelessness,  being  applied  to  Elops 
.«iurus,  Anoplopoma  Jimbria,  and  Merlucius  productus,  as  well  as  to  various  scouibroids  and  carau- 
noid  fishes.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  thirty  inches  and  a  weight  of  ten  pounds,  its  average 
weight  being  five  or  six.  It  is  found  from  the  Island  of  Santa  Cruz  to  Alaska,  being  very 
irregular  in  its  appearance,  some  years  very  abundant  and  at  other  times  wanting  altogether. 
It  is  exceedingly  voracious,  feeding  on  all  sorts  of  small  fishes  and  squids.  The  stomach  is  always 
tilled  almost  to  bursting. 

It  spawns  in  the  spring,  and  its  arrival  near  the  coast  always  precedes  the  deposition  of  the 
spawn.  It  probably  then  retires  to  deeper  water. 

Its  value  as  a  food-fish  is  very  little.  It  is  scarcely  salable  in  the  market  of  San  Francisco. 
Its  flesh  is  very  soft,  and  it  is  always  ragged-looking  when  shipped.  Nothing  was  learned  as  to  the 
quality  of  its  flesh,  but  it  probably  differs  little  from  M.  bUmearis. 

73.  SEVERAL  UNIMPORTANT  FAMILIES  RELATED  TO  THE  GADIDJE. 

THE  CONGROGADUS  FAMILY  (Congrogadidee). — This  family,  which  in  some  respects  resembles 
the  eels  and  in  others  the  Codfishes,  contains,  in  all,  three  species:  one  from  Australia,  one  from 
the  Red  Sea,  and  the  third,  a  small  eel-like  fish,  of  great  activity,  Seytalvicus  cerdalis,  which  lives 
among  the  rocks  on  the  coast  of  Washington  Territory. 

THE  FIERASFER  FAMILY  (Fierosferidce). — These  are  never  of  very  large  size,  and  are  eel- 
like  in  shape.  As  far  as  is  known,  they  live  parasitically  in  the  cavities  of  other  marine  animals, 
i-sjiecially  in  the  respiratory  cavities  of  star-fish  and  sea-slugs.  Not  nnfrequently  they  attempt  to 
live  in  animals  less  suited  to  their  habits,  as,  for  instance,  bivalves,  and  cases  have  been  known 
where  they  have  been  imprisoned  below  the  month  of  the  mollusk  or  covered  over  with  a  layer  of 
the  pearly  substance  secreted  by  it.  They  are  perfectly  harmless  to  their  host,  and  merely  seek 
for  themselves  a  safe  habitation,  feeding  on  the  animalcules  which  enter  with  the  water  the  cavi- 
ties inhabited  by  them.2  Three  or  four  species  of  this  family  are  known  to  occur  on  our  Florida 
and  Gulf  coasts. 

THE  SAND  CUSK  FAMILY.— The  family  Ophidiidce  is  represented  on  the  Atlantic  coast  by  a  fish 
so  rare  as  to  have  no  common  name,  the  Ophidium  marginatum,  which  is  found  burrowing  in  the  sand 
banks  near  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  occasionally  at  other  places,  and  on  the  coasts  of  our  South- 
ern and  Middle  States,3  and  by  several  rare  deep-sea  forms.  On  the  California  coast  is  a  similar 

'New  York  Fish  Fauna,  p.  82. 

"GONTHBK:  Study  of  Fishes,  p.  549. 

"We  dug  two  spocimens  ont  of  the  sand  near  low-water  mark  (Great  Egg  Harbor,  April,  1871),  where  they 
burrowed  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more.  When  placed  upon  moist  sand,  they  burrowed  into  it,  tail  foremost,  with 
surprising  rapidity,  disappearing  in  an  instant.  The  species  appears  to  be  rare. — VERRELI.  :  American  Naturalist, 
v.  399. 


244  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

species,  OpJiidlum  Taylori,  about  a  foot  in  length.  This  species  occurs  from  San  Francisco  to  the 
Santa  Barbara  Islands.  It  is  rare,  and  only  brought  into  the  market  by  accident. 

THE  BED  CUSK  FAMILY  (Brotulidce). — This  family,  which  is  composed  of  fishes  belonging  in 
the  deeper  regions  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans,  is  not  represented  on  our  Atlantic  coast, 
save  by  certain  obscure  deep-sea  forms.  A  single  species  is  known  in  California,  the  so-called 
Red  Cusk,  Brosmophycin  marginatus,  known  to  the  Italians  of  that  region  by  the  names  Mustct  or 
Mnsteta.  This  fish  reaches  the  length  of  eighteen  inches.  It  has  been  noticed  only  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  San  Francisco,  where  it  occurs  in  waters  of  considerable  depth.  On  account  of  its 
bright  colors,  it  meets  with  a  ready  sale  in  the  San  Francisco  market,  but  is  too  rare  to  be  consid- 
ered as  of  any  great  economic  importance. 

THE  GRENADIER  FAMILY  (Macruridw). — The  Grenadiers,  or,  as  the  fishermen  frequently  call 
them,  on  account  of  the  size  and  shape  of  their  eyes,  "Onion-fishes,"  inhabit  the  deep  parts  of  the 
ocean.  They  are  particularly  abundant  in  the  Western  Atlantic.  They  are  occasionally  eaten, 
but  are  chiefly  important  to  the  fishermen  on  account  of  their  habit  of  stealing  the  bait  and  taking 
possession  of  the  hooks,  which  would  otherwise  be  free  for  the  capture  of  more  useful  fishes.  The 
largest  species,  .and  the  one  best  known  to  the  fishermen,  is  Maerurus  rvpestrit,  called  ''Rat-tail 
Fish"  as  well  as  "Onion-fish".  It  is  exceedingly  abundant  on  all  of  our  off-shore  banks,  attaining 
a  length  of  three  feet  and  a  weight  of  four  or  five  pounds. 

A  smaller  species,  Macrurus  Bairdii,  is  found  everywhere  along  the  coast  where  the  depth  is 
greater  than  eighty  or  ninety  fathoms.  It  is  probably  an  important  article  of  food  for  the  larger 
fishes  of  these  regions,  such  as  the  halibut.  At  least  four  species  of  this  family  occur  on  our  coast, 
all  of  which  have  been  brought  to  light  by  the  explorations  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission 
within  the  past  four  years. 

74.  THE  IANT,  OR  SAND-EEL— AMMODYTES  AMERICANUS. 

HABITS. — Of  all  the  small  species  of  fishes  occurring  in  the  North  Atlantic  there  is  probably 
none  more  important  to  man  than  the  Lant — Launce,  as  it  is  called  in  Europe,  frequently  also  the 
Sand-eel  both  in  Europe  and  America,  Tobias-fish  in  Germany,  and  Smelt  in  Holland.  The 
American  and  European  species,  though  similar,  are  quite  distinct  forms. 

Although  it  is  never  used  for  food  in  this  country,  it  is  of  great  economic  importance,  since  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food  for  the  codfish,  the  halibut,  and  other  flesh-feeding 
species,  such  as  the  bonito,  bluefish,  squeteagne,  flounder,  and  mackerel,  and  in  Europe  the  turboh 

The  Lant  is  a  slender  species,  with  a  rounjled  body,  the  height  of  which  is  contained  from 
eleven  to  twelve  times  in  its  total  length  ;  the  largest  individuals  grow  to  be  about  sixteen  inches 
long,  but  they  are  usually  much  smaller.  They  swim  in  immense  schools  at  the  surface,  and  fre- 
quently imbed  themselves  in  the  sand,  where  they  often  remain  above  the  low-water  mark  while 
the  tide  is  out.  Why  they  do  this  is  not  well  understood,  for  in  their  habits  they  are  wanderers, 
sometimes  appearing  in  immense  numbers  at  certain  points  upon  the  coast  and  disappearing  as 
rapidly  as  they  came.  With  their  sharp  noses  and  slender  muscular  bodies  they  have  little  diffi- 
culty in  imbedding  themselves  in  the  soft  sand  several  inches  deep.  I  shall  never  forget  my  sur- 
prise when,  many  years  ago,  unfamiliar  with  the  habits  of  this  fish,  which,  indeed,  was  at  that  time 
entirely  unknown  to  me,  I  was  digging  up  shells  in  one  of  the  sandy- beaches  in  Provincetown 
JEIarbor,  when  suddenly,  as  I  struck  my  hoe  into  the  earth,  a  great  section  of  the  beach  became 
jilive  with  glancing  forms  of  dozens  of  these  agile  little  fishes. 

"On  the  sands  of  Portobello,  near  Edinburgh,  and  at  other  places,  people  take  advantage  of 

L 


HABITS  OF  THE  LANT.  245 

this  well-known  habit,  and  when  it  is  discovered  that  a  shoal  of  Sand-eels  have  hidden  themselves 
in  the  Hand  they  sally  out,  armed  with  spades,  rakes,  shovels,  and  forks,  and  dig  them  out.  When 
.•\trirateil  from  the  sand-beds  the  fish  leap  about  with  singular  agility,  and  afford  much  sport  in 
. -apim-iMg  them.  Perhaps  the  fun  in  catching  them  has  originated  the  saying,  'As  jolly  as  a  sand- 
boy."" 

They  are  captured  in  a  similar  manner  on  the  coast  of  Holland.  It  is  Buckland's  idea  that 
they  go  into  the  sand  to  take  refuge  from  fish  which  are  pursuing  them. 

Captain  Atwood,  writing  to  Dr.  Storer  during  1847,  said:  "On  last  Friday  night  they  ran 
ashore  in  such  quantities  in  Provincetown  Harbor  that  they  covered  the  ground  from  one  to  two 
inches  deep,  and  when  the  water  covered  the  flats  the  whole  bottom  looked  like  an  immense  sea  of 
silver."  "When  thus  situated,"  continues  Storer,  "  they  are  readily  devoured  by  their  enemies, 
among  whom  are  the  cuttle-fish,"  or  squids. 

Various  authors  have  stated  that  they  feed  upon  the  very  young  fry  of  other  fish  and  upon 
small  worms. 

Speaking  of  a  closely  related  species,  Ammodyten  tobianvn,  which  has  not  yet  been  found  in  the 
\\  t-stern  Atlantic,  but  which  may  yet  very  probably  be  discovered  here,  and  whose  habits  are  doubt- 
less very  similar,  Oliver  writes  that  they  follow  the  young  fry  of  the  coalfish,  or  pollock,  into  the 
harbor,  and  are  frequently  caught  with  the  same  bait.  They  swim  rapidly  and  dash  at  a  shoal  of 
fry  with  the  voracity  and  swiftness  of  a  pike,  and  they  even  feed  upon  the  young  of  their  own  kind. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  they  constitute  a  favorite  bait  for  many  other  species  of  fish.  They 
an*  very  conspicuous  by  reason  of  their  bright  silver  color,  and  their  swift  motion  is  easily  imitated 
by  trawling  them  behind  the  boat  in  rapid  motion.  Their  form  has  been  imitated  in  India  rubber 
and  metal  for  use  in  angling.  In  England  they  are  a  favorite  bait  for  the  bass.  Couch  states  that 
i  hey  are  frequently  followed  by  mackerel,  and  that  their  presence  is  a  sure  sign  of  good  fishing. 
•'  On  a  calm  evening  it  is  an  interesting  sight  to  see  the  surface  of  the  water  broken  by  the  repeated 
plunges  of  the  voracious  fishes  as  they  break  upon  the  little  school  of  Launces  from  beneath. 
Thrii  only  certain  place  of  refuge  from  these  pursuers  is  the  sand." 

Owing  to  the  confusion  between  the  two  species  of  Ammodytes,  European  naturalists  have  not 
\  1 1  come  to  a  definite  decision  as  to  their  time  of  spawning,  but  the  observations  of  Benecke  indi- 
cate that  this  takes  place,  in  the  Baltic  at  least,  in  May,  the  fish  being  most  abundant  in  those 
waters  from  July  to  September.  No  one  has  observed  these  habits  on  our  own  coast. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  distribution  of  the  Lant  in  the  Western  Atlantic  appears  to  be  limited 
at  the  south  in  the  vicinity  of  Long  Island  Sound,  although  it  is  stated  by  Uhler  and  Lugger  to 
occur  on  the  coast  of  Maryland.  Northward  it  is  found  at  least  as  far  as  Sloop  Harbor,  Labrador. 
On  the  Scandinavian  coast  it  has  not  been  found  north  of  Trondhjem  Fjord,  latitude  65°,  though 
the  other  species  is  found  up  as  far  as  North  Cape.  It  enters  the  Baltic,  occurs  everywhere 
throughout  the  British  Isles,  is  abundant  in  Holland  and  along  the.northern  coast  of  France.  In 
summer  they  are  frequently  seen  in  immense  schools  on  the  southern  coast  of  Massachusetts. 
Captain  Atwood  gives  the  following  account  of  their  movements  in  Cape  Cod  Bay: 

*;Lauts  are  common,  and  sometimes  they  are  plentiful.  Some  winters  there  comes  on  a  cold 
spell,  and  if  the  wind  is  just  right  they  drive  ashore,  and  you  may  pick  up  bucketfuls,  while 
sometimes  winters  have  passed  away  when  I  have  not  noticed  but  a  few.  One  year,  before  1847  I 
should  think,  the  Lant  came  in  in  immense  quantities.  The  whiting  drove  the  Lant  in,  and  they 
began  to  run  ashore  at  high  water,  and  ran  ashore  till  low  water,  and  they  covered  the  whole 
ground  so  I  should  thiuk  they  would  be  one  and  a  half  or  two  inches  deep.  There  was  not  a  place 


'BucKLAND:  Familiar  History  of  British  Fishes,  p.  198. 


246  NATURAL  DISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

on  the  whole  inside  of  the  point  the  next  day  but  was  sheeted  over  with  these  Laiit.  On  the  day 
after  the  wind  came  on  and  blew  heavy  from  the  westward,  and  it  swept  the  beach  off  as  clean  as 
you  could  sweep  a  floor.  They  come  in  winter  and  in  summer,  and  are  quite  common  on  the  coast, 
and  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  there  are  immense  numbers  of  them.  I  have  frequently  seen 
them  in  the  stomachs  of  codfish." 

The  Lant  is  found  in  spring  or  early  summer  in  the  open  sea,  in  the  neighborhood  of  banks 
and  shoals  remote  from  land,  as  is  also  the  sprat  in  Europe  and  the  "brit,"  "eyebait,"  or  small 
herring  in  America.  Professor  Sars  has  given  a  detailed  description  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
vast  schools  of  young  herring  to  the  Norwegian  shore  in  summer  not  only  attract  the  large  cod 
and  many  other  fish  from  the  deep  sea  towards  the  shore,  but  also  draw  the  yearling  and  two-year- 
old  cod  from  the  shore  to  meet  the  incoming  schools. 

USES. — As  has  already  been  stated,  this  fish  is  not  used  for  food  in  the  United  States.  Its 
importance  is  well  understood  by  our  fishermen  who  go  after  cod  to  Labrador  and  Newfoundland. 
They  are  said  to  be  common  in  the  Edinburgh  market  in  summer,  while  in  Southern  England  they 
are  salted  and  dried  for  winter  use.  In  Edinburgh,  too,  the  other  species,  called  the  Horness,  or 
Horned  Eel,  is  brought  to  the  market  in  August  and  sold  by  the  thousand.  Parnell  states  that 
this  species  spawns  in  September,  and  that  their  flesh  is  wholesome  and  palatable. 

Captain  Atwood  has  also  recorded  some  curious  observations  concerning  the  manner  in  which 
these  fish,  with  their  sharp  snouts,  penetrate  through  the  stomach  of  the  codfish  which  has  eaten 
them,  into  the  walls  of  the  body,  and  there  become  encysted  in  the  flesh,  forming  hard,  black  masses 
•which  are  very  inconvenient  to  the  fishermen,  because  they  dull  their  knives  which  they  use  in 
dressing  the  fish  before  drying  them. 


WOLF  FISI IKS.  SCULPINS,  AND  WKASSES.  247 


K._ WOLF-FISHES,   SCULPINS,  AND  WRASSES. 

75.  THE  LYCODES  FAMILY— LYCODIDJE. 

This  family  is  represented  on  onr  Atlantic  roast  by  eight  or  teu  species,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast 
by  three  others.  They  are  large-headed,  elongate  fishes,  with  eel-like  bodies,  covered  with  a  lax, 
thick,  slimy  skin,  and  for  the  most  part  inhabit  very  deep  water,  and  are  seldom  seen  except  by 
the  naturalist,  and  by  the  fisherman,  who  counts  them  among  the  refuse  products  of  his  lines. 

Mt'TTON-FlSH. — The  Mutton-fish,  Zoarcex  anyuillariii,  called  Congo  Eel  and  Ling,  and  also 
Lamper  Eel,  especially  by  the  Maine  fishermen,  is  often  seen  near  the  shore  north  of  Cape  Cod, 
ami  in  winter  especially  is  frequently  taken  with  hook  and  line  from  the  wharves.  This  species 
occasionally  attains  the  length  of  three  feet  and  the  weight  of  six  or  seven  pounds. 

The  Mutton-fish  feeds  upon  crustaceans  and  mollusks,  and  spawns  in  July  and  August  in  the 
dec] i  waters  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  its  eggs  being  as  large  as  buckshot  and  not  very  numerous. 
The  young  fish  are  frequently  taken  in  the  Fish  Commission  trawl-nets.  This  species  has  been 
recorded  as  far  south  as  Fort  Macon,  in  North  Carolina,  where  Dr.  Yarrow  claims  to  have  taken 
two  specimens,  fishing  from  one  of  the  wharves;  and  II.  It.  Storer  found  it  in  Southern  Labrador, 
at  Bras  d'Or,  where  he  obs-  rved  that  it  was  frequently  taken  in  the  herring  seines.  In  Northern 
K  u  rope  is  an  allied  species,  Z.  viviparus,  which  brings  forth  its  young  alive,  the  embryos  attaining 
a  length  of  four  or  five  centimeters  before  leaving  the  mother,  and  in  the  Baltic  making  their 
appearance  in  August  or  later.  Malm  records  the  capture  in  Southern  Sweden,  November  17, 
1S73.  of  a  female  with  three  hundred  fully  developed  young,  about  forty  millimeters  long.  It  is 
not  yet  definitely  determined  whether  or  not  our  species  is  viviparous,  but  it  seems  somewhat 
improbable,  although  one  taken  iu  Gloucester  llarbor,  at  a  depth  of  eight  fathoms,  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  41°  F.,  July  30,  1878,  contained  eggs  which  seemed  almost  mature  enough  to  be  deposited. 
This  is  known  in  Germany  as  the  Aalmutter,  or  Mother  of  Eels;  in  Holland.  Puit  Aal;  in  Scot- 
land a-s  the  Bard  or  Maroona  Eel;  in  England  as  the  Gnffer.  Eel-pout,  or  Green-bone;  and  in 
Southern  Sweden  as  the  Aolkussa;  the  distribution  of  which  is  limited  on  the  south  by  the 
English  Channel,  on  the  north  by  the  North  Cape  and  Varanger  Fjord,  latitude  71°.  It  enters 
the  Baltic,  where  it  is  frequently  taken  on  the  Prussian  coast,  especially  about  Memel. 

The  Mutton-fish,  like  the  Wolf-fish,  or  Sea  Catfish,  is  one  of  those  species  which,  while  possess- 
ing excellent  qualities  as  a  food-fish,  is  not  generally  eaten.  Mitchill  speaks  of  having  seen  them 
in  considerable  numbers  in  the  New  York  markets  in  March,  1813,  and  De  Kay  in  1842  wrote:  "  I 
have  noticed  this  fish  is  most  abundant  in  the  New  York  markets  in  February  and  March.  It  is 
caught  on  the  coast  in  company  with  the  common  cod.  It  feeds  on  various  marine  shells  and 
affords  a  very  savory  food." 

In  Gill's  paper  on  the  "  Fishes  of  New  York  Markets,"  written  in  1856,  this  fish  is  not  men- 
tioned a»  one  of  the  kinds  at  that  time  sent  to  New  York. 

btorer  writes:  "It  feeds  upon  the  mollusca  and  testacea,  and  the  flesh  of  the  young  fish  is 
sweet  and  very  palatable.  It  is  seldom  met  with  in  Boston  market ;  occasionally,  however,  it  is 
brought  in  by  the  cod-fishermen  of  Massachusetts  Bay." 

It  is  occasionally  eaten  by  the  Cape  Ann   fishermen,  by  whom  it  is  known  as  the  Mutton-fish, 


248  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  name  referring  to  a  supposed  resemblance  of  its  flesh  to  mutton ;  and  I  can  myself  testify  to 
the  delicacy  of  its  flavor.  The  European  species  is  also  on  the  border-line  between  food  and  refuse 
fishes.  Parnell  writes :  "  In  the  Firth  of  Forth  it  exists  in  great  plenty,  hiding  under  sea- weed 
in  rocky  situations.  They  are  even  taken  with  lines  in  the  winter  mouths  and  brought  to  market, 
where  they  fetch  a  ready  sale  at  the  rate  of  three  a  penny.  Some  people  consider  the  flesh  as  very 
fine  and  wholesome,  while  others,  again,  announce  it  as  dry  and  of  a  disagreeable  flavor.  The 
bones  of  this  fish  when  boiled  assume  a  green  appearance,  from  which  circumstance  the  fish  oft- 
times  receives  the  name  of  Green-bone." ' 

Mr.  Neill  says:  "Though  not  a  delicate  morsel,  this  fish  is  often  brought  to  the  Edinburgh 
market." 

In  Holland  aud  Germany  they  are  not  often  eaten;  there  is  a  general  impression,  however, 
that  they  are  edible. 

PACIFIC  LYCODIDS. — This  family  is  represented  on  the  Pacific  coast  by  Lycodopsis  paucidena 
(Lockington)  Jor.  &  Gilb.,  and  L.  microstomus  Lockiugton,  small  fishes,  scarcely  a  foot  in  length, 
living  in  rather  deep  water  from  San  Francisco  northward.  They  have  no  economic  importance, 
being  only  brought  into  the  market  when  mixed  with  the  tomcod  and  "soles." 

76.  THE  WOLF-FISHES  OR  SEA  CATFISHES— ANARRHICHADIDJE. 

SEA  CATFISHES. — The  Wolf-fish  family  is  represented  on  our  Atlantic  coast  by  three  species — 
all  large,  voracious,  and  frequently  taken  by  cod  and  halibut  fishermen.  The  best  known,  and 
in  fact  the  only  species  definitely  ascertained  to  occur  in  the  Western  Atlantic  until  the  other  two 
were  recently  brought  to  light  by  the  labors  of  the  Fish  Commission,  is  the  common  "Catfish"  of 
the  fishermen,  Anarrhicas  lupus  Linnaeus,  and  which  is  found  throughout  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Northern  Atlantic,  ranging  upon  the  New  England  coast  south  to  the  region  of  the  Nantucket  Shoals, 
where  it  ever  breeds  in  deep  water,  young  specimens  having  been  obtained  by  the  Fish  Commission 
at  a  depth  of  over  one  hundred  fathoms  in  the  summer  of  1880,  while  in  1874  several  specimens 
were  brought  to  Noauk,  caught  by  the  New  York  smacks  on  the  Nantucket  Shoals,  the  largest  four 
feet  or  more  in  length.  De  Kay  records  the  capture  of  a  specimen  four  feet  long  off  Block  Island, 
and  states  that  they  are  not  unfrequently  taken  off  Rock  Beach  in  company  with  the  common  cod. 

In  the  Eastern  Atlantic  it  is  found  in  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  south  coast  of  Great  Britain 
and  in  the  Channel,  and  along  the  shores  of  Holland.2  According  to  Uichardson  it  is  somewhat 
common  on  the  French  coast.  Though  it  does  not  appear  to  enter  the  Baltic,  it  is  found  on  the 
coast  of  Norway  and  in  the  Cattegat.  Yarrell  records  the  capture  of  this  fish  on  the  coast  of 
Yorkshire,  in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  in  the  Orkneys.  Collet  records  its  presence  everywhere 
along  the  Norwegian  coast  up  to  the  North  Cape  and  Varanger  Fjord  in  Eastern  Finmark,  while 
it  is  known  to  occur  in  Iceland  and  Greenland  and  along  the  entire  eastern  coast  of  Northern 
North  America.  This  is  the  best  known  species,  and  until  recently  all  others  have  been  con- 
founded with  it.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  others  by  its  general  color  of  gray  slate,  or 
light  brown,  marked  with  from  nine  to  twelve  transverse  bauds  of  darker  hue.  By  many  of  the 
nations  of  Northern  Europe  it  is  called  the  Catfish;  and  this  name  is  still  in  general  use  among 
our  own  sea-fishermen,  although  the  fishes  most  generally  known  in  North  America  by  this  name 
are  fresh-water  species  of  the  family  Siluridae,  closely  related  to  the  sheet-fish  or  wels  of  Europe. 
To  an  untrained  observer  there  is  some  resemblance  between  these  fishes  and  the  Catfish  of  the 


1  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  tones  of  the  American  species  ever  become  green.     The  name  Green-bone  is  also 
applied  iu  Europe  to  the  silver  gar-fish. 

"SCHUSGKL:  De  Dieren  van  Nederland.     Visucheu,  p.  68. 


HABITS  OF  WOLF  FISHES.  L>49 

sea,  t«i  which  resemblance  they  doubtless  owe  their  common  name,  bestowed  upon  them  by  the 
early  English  settlers.  They  are  also  called  in  this  country  "Wolf-fish,"  this  being  the  common 
book -name.  In  the  Orkneys  the  name  is  "Swine-fish,"  professedly  on  account  of  a  peculiar 
movement  of  the  snout  which  has  been  observed;  while  in  Scandinavia  the  name  "Stone-biter"  ia 
also  common.  Another  species,  which  may  be  called  the  Spotted  Cat-fish,  or  the  Wolf-fish,  is 
on •Msiniially  olitained  by  oar  cod-fishermen  on  the  off-shore  banks,  and  has  been  taken  near  the 
shore  in  the  Bay  of  Fnudy.  In  form  and  general  appearance  it  is  similar  to  the  species  just 
deserilied,  but  instead  of  transverse  bands  of  brown  or  black  it  is  marked  with  numerous  circular 
spots  and  blotches;  sometimes  several  of  these  are  confluent,  forming  a  large,  irregular  blotch. 
This  species,  Anarrhicas  minor,  Olafsen,  has  been  observed  on  the  coast  of  Norway  throughout 
nearly  its  whole  extent,  north  of  latitude  58°;  it  occurs  in  Iceland,  whence  were  received  the  first 
specimens,  and  on  our  own  coast  has  been  seen  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  on  several  of  the  banks 
north  of  Georges. 

Besides  these  two,  there  is  the  "  Blue  Oat-fish  ",  A.  latifrons,  which  is  much  smaller,  rarely  exceed- 
ing three  feet  in  length,  with  a  very  soft  and  flabby  body,  and  of  a  uniform  blue-slate  or  mouse 
color.  This  is  a  resident  of  the  deep  waters,  in  two  to  four  hundred  fathoms,  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  off-shore  banks,  and  has  also  been  observed  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  Dr.  Beau  has 
recently  described  a  species  from  Alaska  somewhat  resembling  Anarrhicas  lupm,  but  without  the 
cross  bands;  the  color  of  the  alcoholic  specimens  is  dark  brown  without  bands  or  spots,  and  with 
1  telly  of  light  brown  or  gray  clouded  with  very  dark  brown.  To  this  he  has  given  the  name 
Anarrhicatt  lepturus.  The  types  were  obtained  at  Saint  Michaels. 

The  Wolf-  or  Cat-fishes  are,  emphatically,  lovers  of  cold  water,  their  range  corresponding 
closely  to  that  of  the  halibut,  though  perhaps  not  extending  quite  so  far  southward.  They  are 
almost  invariably  found  upon  the  same  feeding-grounds,  where  the  Cat-fish  devour  the  heavy- 
siicllcd  crustaceans  and  mollusks  which  are  too  strongly  protected  to  be  eaten  by  other  fisLes. 
According  to  Fabricius  it  migrates  from  the  coast  to  the  deep  sea  in  the  autumn  and  returns  again 
in  the  spring,  being  associated  in  these  movements  with  the  common  lump-fish. 

It  is  impossible  to  imagine  a  more  voracious-looking  animal  than  the  Sea  Cat  fish,  with  its 
massive  head  and  long,  sinuous,  muscular  body,  its  strongly  rayed  fins  and  its  vise-like  jaws, 
armed  with  great  pavements  of  teeth,  those  in  front  long,  strong,  pointed  like  those  of  a  tiger, 
closely  studded,  re-enforced  in  the  rear  by  others  rounded  and  molar-like,  adapted  tor  crushing  the 
objects  which  have  been  seized  by  the  curved  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaw.  The  character  of 
their  food  has  already  been  mentioned.  Professor  Verrill  found  in  the  stomach  of  one  of  these 
fishes  over  a  quart  of  spiny  sea-urchins,  and  it  is  believed  that  upon  these  and  upon  hermit-crabs 
they  depend  very  largely  for  food.  They  are  pugnacious  in  the  extreme,  and  have  been  known  to 
attack  furiously  persons  wading  at  low  tide  among  the  rock-pools  of  Eastport,  Maine.  When  one 
is  lifted  into  a  fishing-boat,  which  is  a  not  unfrequent  occurrence,  it  is  necessary  to  kill  it  at  once 
to  prevent  it  from  injuring  the  fishermen,  by  biting  or  stabbing  them  with  its  sharp  spines.  They 
are  quickly  killed  by  blows  upon  the  head. 

The  only  record  of  the  spawning  time  of  the  Anarrhicas  lupus  in  Europe,  which  I  can  at 
present  find,  is  in  Schlegel's  "Fishes  of  the  Netherlands,"  where  it  is  stated  that  it  occurs  in  May 
and  June.  It  is  probable  that  on  our  own  coast  the  period  is  approximately  the  same,  since  young 
fish  of  one  and  two  inches  in  length  have  been  several  times  taken  by  the  fishermen  in  August 
and  September.  DeKay  states  that  they  spawn  in  May.  According  to  Fabricius,  it  spawns  on 
the  Greenland  coast  in  May  among  the  largest  seaweeds,  a  short  way  from  the  shore.  The  largest 
individuals  of  this  species  are  six  or  seven  feet  in  length,  and  would  probably  weigh  forty  pounds. 
The  specimen  mentioned  by  Richardson,  three  feet  long,  weighed  twenty  pounds. 


250  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

It  caunot  be  said  that  they  are  at  present  of  great  economic  importance.  Storer,  writing  in 
1807,  said:  "By  many  of  our  fishermen  it  is  considered  very  delicate;  the  smallest  specimens,  from 
five  to  ten  pounds,  are  quite  palatable  when  fried  or  broiled,  the  skin  having  been  previously 
removed;  it  is  also  occasionally  split  and  salted  or  dried  ami  smoked,  and  is  said  to  be,  when  thus 
prepared,  very  good." ' 

Parnell  wrote:  "It  is  quite  common  in  the  rocky  parts  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  also  found 
on  the-  haddock  lines,  and  is  occasionally  taken  in  the  same  nets  above  Queen's  Ferry.  About 
June  the  young  are  about  two  feet  in  length,  and  are  sold  in  the  market  for  sixpence  each.  The 
appearance  of  this  fish  is  not  very  prepossessing,  and  the  natives  are  not  aware  of  its  quality  as 
food;  but  if  properly  dressed  and  disguised  by  the  head  being  cut  off,  it  is  considered  equal  to 
many  of  the  marine  fishes."* 

Yarrell  says:  "According  to  Mr.  Neill,  specimens  of  small  size,  about  two  feet  in  length,  are 
frequently  brought  to  the  Edinboro'  market;  and  those  who  are  able  to  overcome  the  prejudices 
caused  by  its  appearance  find  it  good  food.  Mr.  Hoy  and  Mr.  Low  have  borne  their  testimony  to 
the  excellence  of  its  flesh,  and  Mr.  Donovan  states  that  it  is  delicious.  It  may  be  observed  here 
that  this  is  the  general  character  of  the  flesh  of  those  fishes  that  feed  on  crustaceous  animals.  It 
is  eaten  by  the  Greenlanders  and  Norwegians,  as  well  as  by  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
part  of  Europe,  the  head  and  skin  being  first  taken  off.  The  skin  is  converted  into  very  durable 
bags  and  pockets.11  Malm  writes :  "  They  occur  along  the  whole  coast  of  Bohuslan,  and  are  caught 
most  frequently  of  all  from  March  to  May." 

Frank  Buckland  remarks :  "  Notwithstanding  the  ugly  appearance  of  this  fish  its  flesh  is  said 
to  be  of  a  very  good  flavor.  It  is  sometimes  seen  hung  up  in  the  shops  of  London  fish-mongers, 
and  I  can,  for  the  most  part,  say  that  it  is  very  good ;  I  can  compare  it  to  nothing  but  a  nice  veal 
chop."  DeKay  also  bears  testimony  to  their  excellence,  saying  that  "when  smoked  their  flesh  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  salmon."  Schlegel  says  they  are  not  eaten  on  the  coast  of  Holland. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  there  is  a  fish  of  a  closely-related  genus  commonly  known  as  the  Eel, 
Anarrichthyg  occllatus.  This  species  is  commonly  known  as  the  "Eel,"  or  "Wolf-eel,"  the  latter 
name  proltably  having  been  given  by  some  one  familiar  with  the  Atlantic  Wolf-fish,  The  name 
"  Azia"  is  given  to  it  by  the  Dalmatian  fishermen  on  Puget  Sound,  and  that  of  "  Morina"  by  the 
Italians  at  Monterey.  It  reaches  a  length  of  eight  feet  and  a  weight  of  about  thirty  pounds. 
The  average  length  is  five  to  six  feet.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Puget  Sound,  lurking  among 
the  rocks,  and  occasionally  left  by  the  falling  tide.  It  is  not  rare  about  San  Francisco,  but 
becomes  much  more  abundant  northward.  It  feeds  on  crustaceans,  echinoderms,  and  fishes.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Lockiugton  the  broken  shells  of  Echinarachnius  excentricus  are  often  found  in  its 
stomach.  Nothing  special  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits,  enemies,  or  diseases.  As  a  food-fish 
it  meets  always  with  a  ready  sale. 

77.  THE  BLENNY  FAMILY— BLENNIID2E. 

The  Blenny  family  is  represented  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  by  two  species 
of  insignificant  size  and  absolutely  without  value.  Upon  the  Pacific  coast  they  are  represented 
by  numerous  atnall  fishes,  mostly  living  about  the  rocks  between  tide-marks,  and  often  exceedingly 
abundant.  A  few  of  them  live  in  the  kelp,  and  some  of  them  swim  freely  in  shallow  water.  Large 
individuals  are  occasionally  brought  into  the  markets,  especially  of  XipMater  mucosus,  Cebedichthys 


•Fishfs  of  MassaolniBotts,  p.  100. 
'Fishes  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  p.  240. 
3 British  Fishes,  18:»,  vol.  1,  p.  248. 


Till:  15LEXNY  FAMILY.  251 

violaceus,  and  Ileterostichu*  rotitratus,  often  selling  as  "eels,"  at  thirty  ceiits  per  pouud.  In 
-cm Tal  these  (islics  .in-,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  entirely  insignificant,  ami  probably  not  a 
hundred  pounds  a  year  of  t  hem  are  sold  on  the  whole  coast.  The  Lumpenm  anguillari*  is  often 
taken  in  large  numbers  in  the  seines,  but  a  prejudice  seems  to  exist  against  it  and  no  one  will  eat  it. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Bleunioid  fishes:  Lumpenux  anguillaris  (Pallas)  Gill,  from  Cape 
Meiidocino  northward;  abundant.  Apodichthyg  violnceus  (Ayres)  Grd.;  Xiphister  rupestris  Jor.  & 
Gilb.:  Xipkutter  mucomu  (Urd.)  Jor.;  Xiphutter  chirus  Jor.  &Gilb.;  Apr -oplarchus at 'ropurpureus  (Kitt- 
lit/)  Gill;  Apodichthys  Jlaridus  Gnl.;  Apodichthyn  fucorum  Jor.  &  Gilb.;  all  these  living  among 
rocks  and  ranging  from  Monterey  to  Alaska;  Mnranurides  ornatus  Girard,  from  Cape  Mendocino 
noi tli ward;  Gremnobates  integripinnis  Rosa  Smith;  Qibbontria  elegans  Cooper,  and  Hypleurochilu* 
tilix  (Girard)  Gill,  among  rocks,  chiefly  from  Point  Coucepciou  southward;  and  finally  Neochnw 
Grd.,  Keoclinus  Blanchardi  Girard,  and  Heterostichus  rostratus  Girard,  living  in  the  kelp 
along  the  shore  from  Monterey  to  Lower  California. 

78.  THE  TOAD-FISH— BATRACHUS  TAU. 

The  Toad-fish,  Batrnchus  tax,  called  also  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
Southern  States  "Oyster-fish,"  is  one  of  the  most  repulsive  looking  fishes  upon  our  coast,  with  its 
dark,  slimy,  almost  shapeless  body  and  its  mud- wallowing  habits.  In  general  appearance  it  resem- 
bles a  sculpin  without  prominent  spines  upon  its  head  or  upon  its  fins.  Although  it  is  armed 
with  by  no  means  insignificant  spines,  which  are  capable  of  inflicting  serious  cuts,  when  touched 
they  show  no  disposition  to  bite,  but  erect  their  opercular  spines  in  a  very  threatening  manner; 
these  are  so  covered  by  the  lax  skin  that  they  can  scarcely  be  seen.1 

Species  of  this  family  inhabit  the  roasts  of  nearly  all  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions  of  the 
world.  The  American  species  was  the  first  brought  to  notice,  specimens  having  been  sent  about 
1701  from  South  Carolina  by  Dr.  Garden  to  Linnaeus,  by  whom  it  was  described  under  the  name 
Umlii*  tau,  the  great  Swedish  naturalist  considering  it  to  be  a  kind  of  codfish.  The  name  which 
he  gave  it  refers  to  a  character  not  discernible  except  in  dried  specimens,  the  bones  of  the  upper 
surface  of  the  scale  forming  a  group  of  ridges  which  leseinble  in  shape  the  Greek  letter  T. 

Our  species  is  found  in  shallow  waters  from  Cape  Cod  south  at  least  its  far  as  to  the  mouth  of 
tht  Mississippi  Eiver.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  however,  it  is  found  in  deep  water,  and  many  large 
ones  are  token  on  the  snapper  grounds  at  a  considerable  distance  from  shore.  In  the  South  it 
would  appear  to  be  somewhat  more  active  in  its  habits,  though  frequently  found  on  the  oyster- 
beds,  hiding  between  the  valves  of  empty  oyster-shells. 

There  are  at  least  three  distinct  forms :  (1)  The  northern  variety,  rarely  exceeding  ten,  twelve, 
and  even  fifteen  inches  in  length,  the  general  color  of  which  is  brown  coarsely  marbled  with  darker 
marks.  (2)  The  southern  variety  of  Giiuther,  which  is  found  on  the  Florida  Keys  and  in  the  Gulf, 
though  often  associated  with  the  northern  variety,  which  is  similar  in  color  to  this,  but  has  the 
body  and  the  fins  dotted  and  spotted  with  white.  (3)  A  form  found  only  in  the  Gulf,  Batrachu* 
piintus,  which  is  much  larger  and  of  «,  light-yellow  color  spotted  and  blotched  with  brown.  This 
form  is  known  to  the  fishermen  as  the  "  Sarpo"  and  the  "Sea-robin,"  the  former  name  being  doubt- 
less a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  word  sapo,  meaning  toad.  This  form  is  said  by  Mr.  Stearns  fre- 
quently to  attain  the  length  of  eighteen  inches.  The  color  of  these  fish  usually  corresponds  very 

'A  closely  related  form,  Thal<uiophry*e  maculota,  which  occurs  on  tho  Atl.intic  side  of  the  isthmus  of  Pauamo, 
baa  true  poisoning  glands  at  the  base  of  its  opercnlar  spines,  by  means  of  which  it  can  inflict  injurious  wounds;  this 
being  almost  the  only  fish  which  possesses  weapons  of  this  character. 


252  NATURAL    HISTORY  OF   AQUATIC   ANIMALS. 

closely  to  that  of  the  bottom  upon  which  they  are  resting,  and,  like  many  other  muddy-water 
species,  they  have  the  power  of  changing  their  color  to  lighter  or  darker  shades  when  exposed  to 
the  light  in  shallow  vessels  with  dark  or  light-colored  bottom.  They  are  very  voracious,  feeding 
upon  small  fishes  of  all  kinds,  especially  upon  anchovies  and  sand-smelt,  and  upon  shells,  crabs, 
shrimps,  and  marine  worms.  "It  secures  its  food  rather  by  strategy  and  stealth  than  by  swiftness 
of  motion,"  writes  Mr.  Stearns,  "hiding  under  or  behind  stones,  rocks,  or  weeds,  or  stealing  from 
one  cover  to  another  it  watches  its  victim  until  the  latter  is  near  by,  when  it  darts  forth  with  a 
quickness  quite  astonishing,  considering  its  usual  sluggishness,  and  back  again  to  its  hiding 
place,  having  one  or  more  fish  in  its  stomach  and  on  the  alert  for  others." 

On  the  south  coast  of  New  England  it  is  found  chiefly  in  the  shallow  bays.  "The  sandy  or 
muddy  bottom  of  these,"  writes  Storer,  "is  overgrown  with  eel-grass,  under  cover  of  which  it  lives 
in  secui ity  and  finds  abundant  sources  of  food.  Where  the  coast,  on  the  contrary,  is  more  or  less 
rocky,  we  meet  with  it  chiefly  under  stones.  Examining  the  places  where  the  water  is  but  a  few 
inches  in  depth  at  low  tide,  ve  see  that  under  many  of  the  stones  and  smaller  rocks  the  sand  on 
one  side  has  been  removed,  leaving  a  shallow  cavity  perhaps  a  foot  in  width  and  extending  back 
beneath  the  stone.  If  we  approach  this  cautiously  we  shall  probably  distinguish  the  head  of  a 
Toad-fish  very  much  in  the  position  of  that  of  a  dog  as  he  lies  looking  out  of  his  kennel.  The  fish 
is  at  rest,  and  might  be  overlooked  by  a  careless  observer;  a  closer  attention,  however,  readily  dis- 
tinguishes the  curve  of  its  broad  mouth  and  delicately  laciniated  tentacles  with  which  its  jaws 
and  other  parts  of  its  head  are  ornamented.  Its  eyes,  and  sometimes  the  anterior  portion  of  its 
body,  are  truly  beautiful.  At  the  slightest  alarm  it  retreats  beneath  the  stone,  but  presently  reap- 
pears; it  is  lying  here  merely  as  in  a  safe  resting-place,  perhaps  on  the  watch  for  its  prey.  But 
during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August  we  shall  in  many  instances  be  able  to  discover 
another  purpose;  it  is  apparently  guarding  its  eggs  or  young;  we  shall  then  find  on  the  interior 
surface  of  the  stone  the  young  Toad-fish  adhering,  to  the  number  of  several  hundreds.  They  will 
be  in  different  stages  of  development,  according  to  the  season  of  our  examination.  We  may  see 
the  eggs  not  larger  than  very  small  shot ;  a  little  later  they  are  increased  in  size,  the  young  fish 
plainly  visible  through  their  walls;  a  little  later  still  the  young  have  made  their  escape,  but  are 
still  attached  to  the  stone.  The  attachment  now,  however,  is  accomplished  in  a  different  manner; 
the  yolk  not  being  yet  absorbed,  occupies  a  rounded  sac  protruding  by  a  narrow  orifice  from  the 
abutment,  and  the  part  of  this  sac  near  its  outer  border  being  constricted  leaves,  externally  to  it, 
a  disc,  by  means  of  which,  acting  as  a  sucker,  the  young  fish  adheres  so  firmly  as  to  occasion  diffi- 
culty in  detaching  it.  They  remain  thus  until  they  have  attained  the  length  of  one-half  or  threo- 
fpurths  of  an  inch,  or  until  the  yolk  sac  is  entirely  absorbed.  During  this  period  the  adult  fish 
occupies  the  cavity  beneath  the  stone,  and  if  driven  from  it  speedily  returns.  The  fish  is  in  all 
cases  the  mother  of  the  young  ones,  but  that  she  is  there  for  the  purpose  of  guarding  them  we 
have  no  means  of  determining;  we  can  only  infer  it." 

At  Noank,  Connecticut,  in  1874,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  watching  the  progress  of  the  spawn- 
ing season.  July  14,  numerous  eggs  were  found  clinging  to  the  stones  in  water  one  to  two  feet  in 
depth;  later  in  the  season,  July  21,  young  fish,  half  an  inch  long,  were  plenty,  and  September  1 
these  had  attained  an  average  length  of  one  inch.  Individuals,  apparently  of  the  second  year's 
growth,  were  also  common,  and  would  average  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length.1 

'Silas  Stearns  writes:  "In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  Toad-fish  spawns  in  April  or  May.  When  iU  young  have 
been  hatched,  the  older  fish  seem  to  guard  them,  and  teach  them  the  devices  of  securing  food  in  much  the  same 
manner  that  a  hen  does  her  chickens.  I  have  spout  hours  in  watching  their  movements  at  this  time,  and  was  at  first 
mnch  surprised  by  the  sagacity  and  patience  displayed  by  the  parent  fish." 


HABITS  OF  THE  TOAD  FISH. 

The  bottom  temperature  of  the  water  frequented  by  these  lisli  would  appe.u  to  range  t'rotn 
54»°  F.  to  90°  F.  In  tin-  more  northern  regions  throughout  which  they  are  distributed  they  up|x>ai 
to  become  torpid,  or  nearly  so,  in  winter;  and  it  is  stated  by  Storer  that  they  are  frequently  found 
in  tin-  mud  by  men  spearing  eels.  They  are  very  hardy,  and  when  taken  from  the  water  will  lie 
lor  many  hours,  and  soon  recover  their  ordinary  activity  when  restored  to  the  water.  When 
handled  they  litter  a  loud  croaking  sound. 

The  Toad  lish  is  very  abundant  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  its  range,  and  is  easily  captured 
with  hook  and  line.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  many  are  taken  in  seines.  Mr.  Stearns  states  that  its 
tlcsli  is  highly  esteemed  by  many  of  the  Gulf  fishermen.  Dr.  Storer  writes:  "The  Toad-fish  is  not 
commonly  employed  as  an  iuticle  of  food.  Its  generally  repulsive  aspect  causes  it  to  be  looked 
iil><pn  rather  with  disgust.  That  its  flesh  is  delicate  and  good,  however,  can  scarcely  be  questioned, 
though  the  small  size  which  it  attains  and  the  fact  that  it  never  is  taken  in  any  large  quantities 
prevent  it  from  being  of  any  economic  value."  Professor  Baird  also  bears  testimony  to  the  fact 
that  its  flesh  is  very  sweet  and  palatable. 

The  Toad-fish  may  be  regarded  as  constituting  one  of  the  undeveloped  resources  of  our  waters, 
and  it  can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  in  future  years  it  will  be  considered  as  much  more  important 
than  at  present.  No  estimates  can  be  given  as  to  the  quantity  now  yearly  entering  into  consump- 
tion, and.  since  it  is  almost  never  offered  for  sale,  no  price  quotations  can  be  presented.  It  has  still 
another,  and  at  present  more  important,  relation  to  the  fisheries  than  this;  on  account  of  its  great 
abundance  and  its  pertinacity  in  taking  the  hook  baited  for  nobler  game  it  is  regarded  by  the 
fishermen  as  one  of  their  worst  pests. 

The  BatrachiAa:  are  represented  on  the  Pacific  coa«t  by  the  "Singing-fish,"  or  "Toad-fish," 
I'orii-hthy*  porosutftimux.  This  fish  lives  on  muddy  bottoms  from  Alaska  to  Panama,  and  is  every- 
where extremely  abundant.  It  reaches  the  length  of  eighteen  inches,  but  being  never  used  for 
food  has  no  economic  importance. 

The  family  Trichodontidte,  which  follows  Batracbidas  in  the  classification  of  Gill,  is  represented 
on  the  California  coast  by  the  species  Trichodon  Sielleri,  an  estray  from  Alaska,  rarely  seen.  On  the 
Atlantic  coast  this  family  is  entirely  absent. 

79.   THE   LUMP-SUCKERS:    LUMP-FISH   AND   SEA-SNAILS. 
THE  SEA  SNAILS — LIPARIDID^E. 

The  three  families  Oobiesocidce,  Liparidida;  and  Cyclopteridce  are  represented  on  our  coast 
1>.\  M-veral  species,  most  of  them  minute  and  of  no  economic  value;  all  of  them  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  a  peculiar  suctorial  organ  upon  the  belly,  a  modification  of  the  ventral  fins,  by 
which  they  are  able  to  cling  to  rocks  and  shells  and  to  retain  their  positions  in  currents  of  water. 
The  Lamp-Bucket*,  Liparis  lineatus  and  L.  vulgarin,  which  are  found  on  oyster  and  scallop  beds  and 
among  the  roots  of  the  kelp,  and  along  the  New  England  coast,  are  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
thev  are  often  parasitic,  living  within  the  shells  of  the  large  scallops,  in  company  with  a  small 
crab  resembling  the  oyster-crab.  From  the  Chesapeake  Bay  southward,  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  allied  forme  belonging  to  the  genus  Gobienox  occur,  especially  among  the  oyster-l>eds,  but 
these  also  are  of  no  economic  value.  • 

THE  LUMP-FISH — CYCLOPTKEUS  LUMPUS. 

To  this  group  belongs  a  iish  which,  though  of  little  value,  is  often  seen  in  our  markets,  ano 
is  so  conspicuous,  on  account  of  its  grotesque  form  and  striking  colors,  that  it  is  worthy  of  passing 


254  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

mention.  This  is  the  common  Lump-fish,  Cyclopterus  lumpus,  known  in  England  by  the  names 
"  Lump-sucker,"  "  Sea-owl,"  "  Cock-paddle,"  and  by  numerous  local  appellations.  This  fish  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  entire  North  Atlantic,  ranging  on  our  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Chesa- 
peake to  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  abundant  in  Greenland  and  Iceland,  along  the  entire  western 
coast  of  Scandinavia,  from  the  North  Cape  to  the  Cattegat,  entering  the  Baltic,  and  not  rare  along 
the  shores  of  East  and  West  Prussia,  well  known  in  Holland,  Northern  France,  and  everywhere 
in  the  British  Isles.  The  largest  English  specimen  recorded  weighed  eleven  and  a  half  pounds; 
the  largest  on  our  own  coast,  as  observed  by  Storer,  eighteen  and  three-quarters  pounds. 

"The  Lump-fish,"  writes  Benecke,  "lives  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  swims  slowly  and  with  diffi- 
culty, and  in  May  and  June  conies  into  shallow  water  to  spawn.  The  male  makes  pits  in  the  sand, 
between  the  stones,  in  which  the  female  deposits  its  eggs.  The  male  watches  over  the  eggs,  and 
later  over  the  tender  young  which  cling  to  its  body  with  their  suckers.  The  number  of  eggs  ranges 
from  200,000  to  400,000.  It  is  a  voracious  species,  which  preys  upon  small  crustaceans,  mollnsks, 
and  fish-spawn." 

Benecke's  observations  were  made  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Baltic;  the  spawning  time  is 
recorded  by  him  as  probably  not  very  different  from  that  in  Southern  New  England.  Young  speci- 
mens from  one-fourth  to  one  inch  in  length  are  very  abundant  in  Southern  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut in  July  and  August,  swimming  at  the  surface.  They  have  not  yet  assumed  the  ponderous, 
unwieldy  shape  of  the  adults,  and  swim  much  more  rapidly  and  gracefully.  In  Sweden,  according 
to  Malm,  the  spawning  time  is  in  June;  "In  England,"  says  Yarrell,  "in  April  and  the  beginning 
of  May" — dates  which  correspond  precisely  to  those  given  by  Fabricius  for  Greenland. 

The  male  Lump-fish  is  said  to  be  very  fierce  in  defense  of  its  young,  and  to  be  able  to  protect 
them  from  much  larger  fish  than  themselves,  even  from  the  wolf-fish.  It  is,  in  its  turn,  a  favorite 
prey  for  the  seals  and  wolf-fish.  At  the  time  of  the  spawning  season  the  ordinary  translucent 
green  color  of  the  body  becomes  much  brighter,  and  the  under  parts  of  the  fish  are  of  a  brilliant 
red.  After  spawning,  the  red  disappears  and  the  general  color  of  the  body  becomes  dull.  When 
in  the  season  of  the  brightest  coloration  they  are  frequently  shown  in  the  fish  markets,  where  their 
remarkable  appearance  attracts  much  attention. 

"If  the  authority  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  is  to  pass  current  in  gastronomy,"  writes  Richardson, 
"Lump,  or  Cock-paidle,  as  it  is  named  in  Scotland,  is  a  fish  of  good  quality,  for  he  makes  Mr.  Old- 
buck  give  the  same  price  for  one  that  he  does  for  the  bank-fluke  or  turbot." 

Parnell  states:  "On  the  west  coast  of  Scotland  sometimes  as  many  as  two  dozen  are  taken  in 
the  salmon  nets  at  almost  every  tide,  principally  in  the  month  of  June,  when  they  seek  the  sandy 
ground  to  deposit  their  spawn.  The  fishermen  boil  them  down  with  vegetables  for  their  pigs,  and 
consider  them  to  be  fattening  food.  The  flesh,  when  cooked,  is  soft  and  very  rich,  and  is  considered 
by  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh  as  a  luxury ;  but  there  are  few  stomachs  with  which  it 
agrees,  in  consequence  of  its  oily  nature.  The  males  are  considered  the  best  for  the  table."  In 
Scotland  it  is  also  sometimes  eaten  in  a  salted  state. 

Buckland  also  has  an  opinion  on  record :  "  So  great  is  the  difference  between  the  different 
specimens  that  our  fishermen  consider  them  to  be  distinct  species  and  call  them  the  "Red-lump" 
and  the  "Blue-lump,"  but  the  difference  in  color  and  flavor  is. only  the  effect  of  the  season.  I  do 
uot  like  the  flesh  at  all  myself;  it  is  like  a  glue  pudding." 

It  is  stated  that  the  Greenlanders  eat  the  flesh  either  cooked  or  dried  and  the  skin  raw,  while 
they  eat  the  roe,  which  is  remarkably  large,  after  having  reduced  it  by  boiling  it  to  a  pulp. 

Perley  records  that  "  In  the  spring  the  Lump-fish  approaches  the  shores  of  New  Brunswick 


HA  p.  ITS  or  TIIK  j,  KM  p- FISH.  255 

;m<l  Nova  Scnti:i  lo  deposit  it^  spawn.  It  is  then  taken  in  considerable  numbers  near  the  harbors 
;it  ll:ilit':i\.  the  largest  weighing  almiti  live  pounds.  They  are  takeu  there  of  two  different  colors, 
the  one  lieinj:  a  dark  l>luc  approaching  to  black,  and  the  other  quite  red.  Those  of  a  red  color 
only  an-  used  as  loud;  they  are  considered  good  by  many,  although  very  lilt  and  somewhat  oily ; 
the  dark -colored  is  considered  very  inferior  and  is  not  eaten." 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  Uobiesocida;  are  represented  by  Gobiesox  reticulatus  (Grd.)  J.  &  G.,  a 
small  fish  four  or  live  inches  long,  adhering  to  rocks  by  a  sucking  disk  on  the  breast.  It  is  found 
from  Monterey  northward,  and  has  no  economic  value.  The  Cyclopterida;  are  represented  by  the 
rare  Ci/flo/itfrus  orbis  occasionally  takeu  in  the  Straits  of  Fuca  and  northward.  The  lAparididte 
are  represented  liy  Lipnris  pulehelliw  Ayres,  aud  Ifeoliparis  mucosu*  (Ayres)  Steiudachner,  small 
lishes  occasionally  taken  about  San  Francisco  and  Monterey,  of  no  economic  importance. 

80.  THE  GOBIES— GOBIIDJE. 

The  (loliy  family  is  represented  on  the  Atlantic  coast  by  several  species,  none  of  which  have 
i-\er  heeii  found  north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  none  of  which  are  or  ever  can  be  of  the  slightest  impor- 
tance.  rhief  among  these  are  the  scaleless  Goby,  Gobonoma  alepidotum,  which  is  found  between 
i  'ape  Cod  and  Texas;  the  Chubby  Goby,  Gobiwt  soporator,  common  along  the  Gulf  coast,  and  several 
species  belonging  to  the  genera  Eleotris  and  Dormitator.  They  are  not  even  abundant  enough  to 
lie  worthy  of  consideration  as  food  for  other  fishes.  On  the  Pacific  coast  there  are  several  small 
-pccies.  which  may  be  seen  lying  on  the  bottoms  entering  the  lagoons.  They  reach  the  length  of 
t luce  to  si\  inches,  and  are  of  no  economic  importance,  though  the  Chinese  eat  the  Long-jawed 
liy.  <;ilticlithi/n  mirabilUt,  and  its  flesh  is  said  to  be  very  good.  The  other  species  are  Gobiux 
-Hiim  (Gill)  J.  &  G.,  in  Puget  Sound;  Lepidogobius  granite  (Girard)  Gill,  from  San 
Francisco  northward;  Eucyclogobiu*  Newberrii  (Girard)  Gill,  rarely  seen  about  San  Francisco,  and 
ilillii'hthys  miraJrili*  Cooper,  found  the  entire  length  of  the  coast,  but  abundant  only  from  San 
Francisco  southward.  The  latter  species  burrows  in  the  muddy  bottoms  of  the  lagoons. 

81.  THE  SEA-ROBIN  OR  GURNARD  FAMILY— TRIGLID2E. 

This  family  is  represented  on  our  Atlantic  coast  by  several  species,  some  of  them  being  quite 
abundant.  The  most  striking  of  them  all  is  the  Sea-bat  or  Flying  Gurnard,  Dactylopterus  rolitans, 
which  is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  enormous  spreading  fins,  larger  than  those  of  a  flying-fish — 
wings  which,  however,  are  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  lift  the  body  above  the  surface  of  the  water, 
though  useful  in  maintaining  the  equilibrium  of  the  heavy-headed  body  swimming  through  the 
water.  The  colors  of  the  body  and  of  the  fins  are  very  brilliant,  and  the  fish  is  often  exhibited  as  a 
curiosity.  It  is  found  along  our  entire  coast  south  of  Cape  Cod,  and  in  the  waters  of  Brazil;  also 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  neighboring  parts  of  the  Eastern  Atlantic. 

The  genus  Prionotm.  of  which  we  have  five  specimens,  resembles  Daclylopterus  in  general 
form,  but  the  wings  are  much  smaller,  while  two  or  three  of  the  lower  rays  of  these  fins  are  devel- 
oped into  finger-like  appendages  which  are  used  in  stirring  up  the  weeds  and  sand  to  rout  out  the 
small  animals  upon  which  they  feed.  In  Southern  New  England  there  are  two  large  species,  P. 
piilmipes  and  P.  evolans,  the  latter  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  dark  stripes  upon  its  sides. 
These  attain  the  length  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  and  the  weight  of  one  and  a  quarter  to  two 
pounds.  They  have  excellent  food  qualities,  but  are  eaten,  so  far  as  we  have  record,  only  in  the 
vicinity  of  Hartford, Connecticut,  where  they  are  known  as  "Wing-fish."  They  are  takeu  in  great 
quantities  in  the  pound-nets  along  the  Vineyard  Sound,  especially  the  unstriped  species,  the  habits 


256  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  which  are  better  understood  than  those  of  the  allied  species.  It  feeds  upon  crabs,  shrimps,  and 
small  fishes. ' 

In  Vineyard  Sound  the  Sea-robin  spawns  during  the  summer  months.  A  specimen  obtained 
at  Wood's  Holl,  August  12,  1875,  contained  eggs  nearly  ripe.  Another,  observed  at  Noank,  Con- 
necticut, Jnly  11,  1874,  was  in  precisely  the  same  condition.  Lyinan  states  that  in  1871  the  eggs, 
which  are  bright  orange,  were  thrown  up  in  quantities  during  the  last  third  of  May  on  the  beach 
on  the  inner  parts  of  Waquoit  Bay,  and  the  females  had  well  developed  spawn  in  them. 

The  species  just  mentioned  are  found  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod;  the  web-fingered  Sea-robin, 
P.  paltnipes,  even  north  of  the  cape,  two  or  three  specimens  having  been  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of 
Salem  and  Lynn.  These  two  species  apparently  do  not  occur  much  to  the  south  of  Cape  Hatteras, 
and  on  our  Southern  coast  they  are  replaced  by  others  which  are  smaller  and,  at  present,  of  no 
economic  importance.2  The  genus  Prionotus  does  not  occur  in  Europe,  the  family  being  there  rep- 
resented by  a  very  similar  form,  genus  Trigla,  which,  however,  has  still  smaller  wings.  Its  habits 
are  much  the  same.  A  single  specimen  of  the  Red  Gurnard  of  Europe,  Trigla  cuculus,  is  said  to 
have  once  been  taken  at  New  York.  Europe  has  nine  species  of  Trigla,  most  of  which  are  highly 
esteemed  for  food;  some  of  these  species  have  been  known  to  attain  the  length  of  two  feet  and  the 
weight  of  eleven  pounds.  These  fishes  are  held  in  high  estimation,  and  ar«  frequently  seen  In  the 
markets. 

USES. — Parnell  writes :  "The  Red  Gurnard  occurs  on  the  Devonshire  coast  in  great  numbers, 
and  on  some  occasions  thousands  of  them  may  be  seen  exposed  for  sale  daily,  especially  in  those 
small  towns  where  the  trawl -boat  fishing  is  carried  on.  The  flesh  is  firm  and  well-flavored.  The 
Tub-fish,  T.  Miranda,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  is  occasionally 
brought  to  the,  Edinburgh  market.  Its  flesh  is  firm  and  wholesome,  and  is  considered  by  some  to 
be  superior  to  the  last  species,  but  in  general  more  dry.  In  the  north  of  Europe  it  is  salted  for 
keeping.  The  Gray  Gurnard,  T.  gurnardus,  is  considered  by  all  fishermen  richer  and  sweeter  than 
any  of  the  other  Gurnards,  although  in  the  markets  it  is  less  sought  after  than  the  Red  Gurnard, 
which  is  the  drier  and  worse  flavored  of  the  two.  It  is  taken  generally  with  hooks  baited  with 
mussels.  These  fish  are  taken  in  very  great  numbers  in  the  trawl-nets;  they  appear  to  be  much 
more  abundant  on  the  European  coast  than  their  cousins,  the  Sea-robins,  with  us."3  Their  recom- 
mendations are  quoted  here  in  order  to  draw  attention  to  this  neglected  group  of  fishes,  which  are 
certainly  worthy  of  greater  consideration  than  they  have  hitherto  received. 

Mr.  J.  Carson  Brevoort  has  given  the  following  testimony  regarding  the  food  qualities  of  the 
American  species: 

"  The  Gurnard  as  an  edible  fish. — Among  the  fish  that  may  be  classed  as  edible,  but  which 
are  entirely  neglected  here,  is  the  Sea-robin.  Grunter,  or  Gurnard.  This  curious,  but  rather  for- 
bidding creature,  is,  in  reality,  one  of  the  most  delicate  morsels  that  can  be  laid  before  an  epicure, 
the  flesh  being  snow-white,  firm,  and  fully  as  good  as  that  of  the  king-fish,  or  whiting.  In  fact  it 
would  be  hard  to  distiuguish  them  when  placed  on  the  table. 

"  In  Europe  every  one  of  the  various  kinds  of  Trigla,  or  Gurnard  family,  is  sought  after  eagerly, 
and  finds  a  ready  sale  on  the  fish-stalls.  They  have  eight  or  ten  kinds  of  the  group  there,  and  we 
have  but  six  here;  all  but  one  different  from  the  .European  kinds,  though  belonging  to  the  same 


'Specimens  caught  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  May  29,  1871,  contained  shrimp,  Crangon  vulgaris,  and  a  small 
flounder.  Another,  taken  May  29,  contained  a  small  beach-flea,  Anonyx,  sp.,  and  Crangon  vulgaris.  Others,  dredged  in 
Vineyard  Sound  in  August,  contained  crabs,  Panopeus  Sayi,  Cancer  irroratus,  and  small  fishes.  Auothcr,  taken  at 
Noank,  Connecticut,  in  July,  1874,  contained  sand-fleas,  Uncrola  irrorata  and  Ampelisca  sp. 

3  A  single  specimen  of  .S.  palmipet  was  taken  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Gilbert,  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1882. 

3  PARNELL,  RICHARD  :  Fishes  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  1838,  p.  174. 


TI1K  GUHNARD  FAMILY.  257 

family.  We  shall  not  atti'inpt  to  Describe  all  those  fish,  which  resemble  each  other  very  much  in 
all  but  the  color.  They  all  have  large  heads,  sheathed  with  rough,  bouy  plates,  and  armed  with 
many  acute  points,  and  their  dorsal  flu  has  also  several  sharp,  thorny  rays.  These  prickles  are  all 
erected  by  (lie  fish  when  takeu  alive,  and  they  inflict  a  painful,  though  not,  as  many  say,  a  poison 
ons  wound.  The  broad  mouth  is  furnished  with  rough,  but  not  sharp,  teeth;  the  pectoral  fins  in 
most  of  the  s]>ecies  are  very  long,  and  can  be  expanded  like  a  fan,  whence  they  are  sometimes 
railed  Flying-fish  and  Butterfly- fish.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  they  can  actually  fly  like  a 
living-fish,  but  they  have  been  said  to  skip  from  wave  to  wave,  a  peculiarity  often  alluded  to 
by  halieutic  poets.  They  also  emit  a  grunting  sound,  which  can  be  distinctly  heard  in  still  weather 
while  lying  at  anchor  on  a  shallow,  which  they  frequent.  At  such  a  time  the  sound  resembles  the 
distant  lowing  of  kine.  When  freshly  takeu  from  the  water  they  grunt  quite  loudly,  whence 
i heir  popular  name  of  Gruntor,  or  Cuckoo-fish. 

"The  Gurnards  live  on  crabs  and  delicate  fresh  food,  taking  all  such  baits  readily,  on  a  clean 
bottom,  and  they  sometimes  annoy  fishermen  hugely  by  their  voracity.  They  play  well  on  the 
hook,  and  a  large  one  tugging  at  a  rod  is  often  supposed  to  be  n  game  fish  and  a  prize,  till  the 
ugly  Sea-robin,  with  his  spiky  helmet,  shows  himself  at  the  surface. 

"The  Gurnards  of  our  coasts  do  not  reach  a  large  size,  at  least  we  have  but  rarely  seen  any  that 
\\cighed  over  a  pound,  while  in  Europe  some  of  the  species,  such  as  the  Tub-fish,  Trigla  hirundo, 
have  been  found  weighing  eleven  pounds,  and  those  of  seven  or  eight  are  common.  The  Red  Gur- 
nard, or  Rotchet,  T.  CMCM/IM,  and  the  Piper,  T.  lyra.  reach  three  or  four  pounds,  averaging  about 
two,  while  the  other  European  kinds  resemble  ours  as  to  size. 

"  Small  as  our  species  are,  they  are  not  the  less  delicate  when  cooked,  and  we  have  often  veri- 
fied this  fact.  They  are  sold  in  England  by  the  number,  and  not  by  weight,  for  their  large  heads 
an-  inedible,  while  they  add,  perhaps,  one-quarter  to  their  weight.  The  English  fishermen  take 
them  almost  everywhere  along  the  coast  in  large  trawl-nets,  constructed  for  their  capture,  though 
other  bottom  fish  may  find  their  way  into  the  net.  These  trawls  are  generally  twelve  or  sixteen 
feet  wide  at  the  month,  with  a  bag  proportioned  to  their  beam,  which  has  one  or  two  labyrinths 
like  a  fyke-net  Inside.  The  trawl  is  managed  from  a  large  sail-boat,  with  a  block  and  tackle,  and 
is  hauled  in  water  as  deep  as  eight  or  ten  fathoms.  We  do  not  recommend  this  special  fishery  to 
our  coast  fishermen,  as  our  Gurnards  are  small,  but  wish  only  to  call  attention  to  the  edible  qual- 
ities of  this  generally  despised  fish. 

"  Piscator  (the  anonymous  author  of  the  'Practical  Angler'),  in  his  excellent  little  treatise 
entitled  'Fish;  How  to  Choose  and  How  to  Dress,'  published  in  1843,  says  of  the  Gurnard  that 
their  flesh  is 'white,  excellent,  exceedingly  firm,  and  shells  out  into  snowy  flakes,  and  is  of  a 
remarkably  agreeable  flavor,'  and  that  'they  keep  well.'  He  recommends  them  to  be  boiled— that 
i>.  the  large  ones ;  while  the  small  ones  may  be  split  and  fried. 

"  We  have  no  popular  names  for  the  species  that  are  found  in  our  waters.  All  are  called 
Sea-robins,  Flying-fish, 'Grnnters,  &c. 

"  Having  drawn  attention  to  this  first  as  one  that  deserves  a  place  on  our  tables,  we  leave  his 
fate  hereafter  to  the  tender  care  of  a  good  cook  and  a  discerning  paJate." 

Another  member  of  this  family  is  the  Pcriatedium  miniatum  Goode,  a  brilliant  red  species  recently 
diseovered  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  the  deep  waters  on  the  coast  of  Southern  New  England. 

THE  AOONUS  FAMILY.— Another  family  closely  related  to  the  family  Triylidw  is  the  family 

Ayonida;,  the  members  of  which  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  angular  bodies  encased  in 

spinons,  bony  plates;  it  is  represented  on  our  east  coast  by  one  species.     The 

17  r 


258  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

monopterygius — tbe  "  Greenlander,"  as  it  has  been  christened  by  the  seamen  on  the  Fish  Commission 
steamer — has  been  observed  as  far  south  as  Watch  Hill,  Rhode  Island,  and  is  quite  abundant  in 
deep  water  north  to  the  polar  regions,  having  been  frequently  observed  on  the  coast  of  Greenland. 
This  fish  attains  a  length  of  seven  or  eight  inches,  and,  although  it  is  not  much  thicker  or  softer 
than  an  iron  spike,  is  sometimes  found  in  the  stomachs  of  codfish  and  halibut. 

"  On  the  Pacific  coast,"  writes  Professor  Jordan,  "  the  Agonidse  are  represented  by  numerous 
species  inhabiting  deep  waters  from  Santa  Barbara  northward.  They  have  no  economic  importance, 
being  brought  into  market  only  by  accident.  These  species  are  Leptagonua  rerrucosus  (Locking- 
ton),  J.  &  G. ;  Lepta-gonus  xyoxterntm,  J.  &  G. ;  Podothecus  acipenserinus  (Pallas),  J.  &  G. ;  Podothecm 
vutsitSf  J.  &  G.;  Odontopyxis  trispinosus  Lockiugton;  Bothragonws  Swani  (Steind.),  Gill,  and  Aspi- 
dophoroides  inermis  Gthr.  The  Triglidai  are  represented  by  Prionotus  stephanophrys  Lockington; 
rarely  seen  at  San  Francisco." 

82.  THE  SCULPIN   TEIBE— COTTID-ZE. 

SCULPINS  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  COAST. — On  our  Atlantic  coast  are  found  several  species  of 
this  family,  generally  known  by  the  name  "  Sculpin,"  and  also  by  such  titles  as  "Grubby," 
"Puffing- grubby,"  "  Daddy  Sculpin,"  "  Bullhead,"  "  Sea-robin,"  " Sea-toad,"  and  "  Pig-fish."  Their 
economic  value  is  little  or  nothing,  but  they  are  important  as  scavengers,  and  are  used  for  lobster 
bait.  They  are  often  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  the  fishermen  by  cumbering  their  hooks  and 
by  stealing  their  bait.  The  most  abundant  species  is  the  Eighteen-spined  Sculpin,  Coitus  octo- 
decim*pino8u*,  which  frequents  shallow  and  moderately  deep  waters  from  Labrador  to  New  York. 
It  is  usually  associated  with  a  much  smaller  species,  Coitus  (eneus,  which  maybe  called  the  "Pigmy 
Sculpin,"  and  which  ranges  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  New  York. 

Cottus  scorpius,  of  Europe,  is  represented  on  our  coasts  by  C.  georpiua  subsp.  gramlandicun. 
which  is  abundant  everywhere  from  New  York  to  Greenland  and  Labrador.  This  subspecies 
has  been  found  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,1  and  the  typical  Cottus  scorpius  has  been  shown  by 
Dr.  Bean  to  occur  in  Maine.  There  is  also,  in  addition  to  several  insignificant  species  seldom 
seen  except  by  naturalists,  a  large,  brilliantly  colored  form,  known  as  the  "Sea-raven,"  "Rock 
Toad-fish,"  or  "Deep-water  Sculpin,''  which  is  found  as  far  south  as  the  entrance  to  Chesapeake 
Bay,  is  abundant  throughout  New  England,  and  has  been  discovered  oft'  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia. 
This  fish,  Hemitripterus  hispidua,  or  H.  americanm,  attains  the  length  of  two  feet,  and  is  conspicuous 
by  reason  of  its  russet-orange  or  brick-red  colors,  its  harlequin-like  markings,  its  warted  body, 
its  grotesquely  elongated  fins,  and,  above  all,  by  its  peculiar  liabit  of  swallowing  air  until  its  belly 
is  inflated  like  a  balloon. 

These  fishes  feed  upon  all  bottom  animals,  mollusks,  crustaceans,  sea-urchins,  and  worms, 
and  may  also  be  found  in  the  harbors  devouring  any  refuse  substances  which  may  be  lying  upon 
the  bottom.  They  breed,  for  the  most  part,  in  summer,  and  certain  species,  like  the  Sea-raven 
and  the  Greenland  Sculpin,  at  that  time  assume  very  brilliant  colors.  They  are  not  eaten  by  our 
people,  although  the  Sea-raven  is  decidedly  palatable.  Those  species  which  occur  in  Greenland 
are  said  to  be  eaten  by  the  natives.  As  has  been  remarked,  they  are  a  source  of  annoyance  to 
ti.shermen,  whose  bait  they  steal  and  whose  hooks,  especially  the  hooks  of  their  trawl-lines,  they 
encumber.  Boys  delight  to  catch  them  and  fix  a  piece  of  light  wood  between  their  teeth;  they 
are  theu  unable  to  swim  and  struggle  vigorously  at  the  top  of  the  water. 

About  the  fish-curing  stations  they  are  very  abundant,  and  exceedingly  useful  as  scavengers, 


1  Annals  of  Natural  History,  1641,  p.  402. 


SCI' LIMNS   OF   TIIK    ATLANTIC   COAST.  259 

gorging  theinsehes  \\itli  refuse  thrown  kick  into  the  sea;  they  can-  little  for  the  presence  of  man, 
ami  can  hanlK  lie  driven  a\\a\,  even  when  roughly  punched  with  a  Ixmt-hook. 

In  tin-  lakes  and  streams  of  the  Northern  States  are  numerous  species  of  (franidea  and  allied 
genera,  known  in  sonic  localities  liy  the  English  name  of  "  Miller's  Thumb,"  also  culled  "Bull-heads," 
"GoMiiis."  ••  r,lo!>s,"  and  ••  Muffle-jaws."  They  are  small  and  of  no  importance  except  as  the  food 
of  larger  species. 

ScruTOS  OK  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. — The  Cottidu>,  according  to  Jordan,  are  represented  on 
i lie  I'acilic  coast  Ity  about  eighteen  separate  species,  known  by  such  names  as  "Sculpin,"  "Drum- 
mer." ••  Salpa,"  "Johnny,"  "  Biggy-head,"  and  "Cabezon."  Only  one  of  these  species,  Scorpa-n- 
ii'lithijx  nmrmoratu*,  has  any  sort  of  economic  importance;  the  others  maybe  considered  collect- 
ively. The  names  applied  to  them  may  be  briefly  considered.  The  name  Sculpin,  of  course,  is 
derived  from  that  in  use  for  the  Atlantic  species  of  Cottus.  "  Drummer"  comes  from  the  quivering 
noise  made  by  many  species  when  taken  alive  out  of  the  water.  "Salpa"  is  a  Spanish  word  for 
toad,  and  applied  also  to  species  of  Batrachidie.  "Johnny"  is  applied  only  to  very  little  Sculpins 
along  the  shore,  notably  Oligocottwi  maculomut.  The  same  name  is  given  in  the  Ohio  Valley  to 
fishes  of  precisely  similar  habits,  the  Ethewtomatina:  "Biggy-head"  and  its  Spanish  cognate 
"Cabezou"  are  used  by  the  Italians  and  Spanish  about  Monterey,  Santa  Barbara,  and  elsewhere, 
for  different  Cottidse. 

Most  of  the  Cottidie  feed  upon  small  fishes,  and  especially  Crustacea;  one  species,  Enophryx 
liixon,  being  a  vegetable  feeder.  All  take  the  hook  readily.  The  flesh  is  poor,  tough,  and  dry,  aud 
the  waste  by  the  removal  of  the  head,  viscera,  and  skin  is  so  great  that  even  the  poorest  people 
do  not  use  them  as  food.  Various  sorts  (notably  Leptocottim  armatus)  are  dried  by  the  Chinese, 
who  consider  them  the  poorest  of  all  dried  fishes. 

The  specio  arc:  I'xychrolutes  paradoxus  Gthr.,  found  from  the  Straits  of  Fuca  northward; 
Affclii-htlti/x  rluxloriiH  Jor.  and  <; ilk.  also  chiefly  northward;  Cottu*  polyacanthocephalu*  Pallas,  one 
of  the  largest  species,  from  Cape  Flattery  northward;  Artediu*  luteralis  Grd.,  found  among  the 
rocks  from  Montcrc\  northward;  Artedius  notoxpilottm  Grd.,  in  the  kelp,  etc.,  from  Santa  Barbara 
to  San  Francisco:  Artcdiiix  />•  next  rails  Jor.  aud  Gilb.,  about  Vancouver's  Inland;  Artediwt  quadri- 
xa-liiiux  Lockington  and  Artetllua  megacephalus  Lockingtou,  taken  in  deep  water  oft'  San  Francisco; 
Artediux  /KII/I  ttmxix  Steind.,  in  deep  water  from  Puget  Sound  northward;  Hemilepidotux  npinonun 
A  vies,  found  chiefly  about  San  Francisco  and  Monterey,  and  the  large  Hemilepidotus  trachuruit 
(Tilesius),  ranging  from  San  Francisco  to  Alaska ;  Enophrys  bi#on  Grd.,  a  large  species,  the  sole 
member  of  the  group  feeding  exclusively  on  plants,  ranging  from  San  Francisco  to  Alaska,  and 
exceedingly  abundant  in  Puget  Sound;  Scorpmrichthys  marmoratus  Grd.,  noticed  below;  Leptocottun 
«rmutiiii  Grd.,  the  commonest  of  all  the  species,  abundant  iu  every  bay;  Liocottus  hirundo  Grd.,  and 
Oligocottux  tinalix  Grtl.,  two  species  ranging  chiefly  southward ;  Oligocottus  globicep^,  Grd.,  and  Oligo- 
rtittux  Hini-itloxiix  (Inl..  small  and  active  inhabitants  of  the  rock  pools  northward;  and,  finally,  the 
curious  i;ici>xi(ix  eirrhoxux  (Pallas)  Gthr.,  yuntivhthyn  ocvlofaseiatwi  Grd.,  and  Khti mphocottus  Rich- 
<inlxoni  Gthr.,  Alaskan  fishes  straggling  southward  to  San  Francisco.  In  the  fresh  waters  ami 
often  running  into  the  sea  are  I'ntnidea  aspera  (Rich.)  J.  and  G.,  aud  Uranidia  guloaa  (Grd.)  J.  and 
<!..  found  in  all  the  streams  north  of  the  San  Joaquin.  Only  one  of  this  numerous  series  merits 
especial  consideration,  namely  the  "Cabezon."  Xmrpa  nii-hthyx  marmoratun  (Ayrew)  Grd.  The  name- 
"Cabe/on,"  "Sculpin,"  "Scori>ion,"  "Salpa,''  and  "Biggy-head"  arc  applied  to  this  species.  The 
latter  is  heard  chiefly  among  the  Italians,  who  have  about  Monterey  and  elsewhere  adopted  the 
Spanish  ••  Cabezon,"  which  appears  to  be  the  most  distinctive  term.  The  names  "Sculpin,"  "Scor- 
pion," aud  "Salpa"  are  applied  to  various  other  species,  and  are  rather  collective  than  specific  names. 


260  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

This  species  reaches  a  length  of  more  than  two  feet,  and  a  weight  of  more  than  ten  pounds, 
being  by  far  the  largest  member  of  its  family  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  found  from  San  Diego  to 
Victoria,  but  is  more  abundant  about  Monterey  and  San  Francisco  than  either  northward  or  south- 
ward. It  inhabits  moderate  depths,  and  is  taken  in  considerable  numbers  with  gill-nets  and  hooks. 
It  feeds  upon  Crustacea  and  small  fish.  Its  value  is  very  small,  the  flesh  being  tough  and  flavorless, 
and  it  is  rarely  sent  to  the  market  when  good  fish  are  abundant. 

83.  ROSE-FISH  OR  RED  PERCH— SEBASTES  MARINUS. 

Although  upon  the  west  coast  of  North  America  the  fishes  of  the  family  (Scorpwnida;)  are  among 
the  most  important,  there  are  only  four  species  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America ;  of  these, 
two  have  been  discovered  within  the  past  year,  and  the  others,  though  well  known  and  very  widely 
distributed,  are  not  of  great  importance.  The  Rose-fish,  Sebastes  marinus,  is  conspicuous  and  unique 
among  cold-water  fishes  by  its  brilliant  scarlet  color;  it  is  also  known  as  "Red  Perch,"1  "  Norway 
Haddock,"  "Heuidurgan,"  and  "Snapper,"  as  "Bream"  in  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  and  called 
"  John  Dory"  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  found  also  in  Northern  Europe,  where  it  has  been 
recorded  as  far  south  as  Newcastle,  in  Northern  England,  latitude  55°,2  and  it  has  also  been 
found  in  Aberdeen  and  Berwick,  and  in  Zetland,  where  it  is  called  "Bergylt"  and  "Norway 
Haddock." 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  North  Sea  the  species  has  not  been  seen  south  of  Gothenborg,  lati- 
tude 58°,  but  is  said  to  be  abundant  along  the  entire  western  coast  of  Norway  to  the  North  Cape 
and  Varenger  Fjord  in  East  Finmark,  while  Malingren  records  it  from  Baren  Island,  and  Scoresby 
found  it  at  Spitzbergen,  latitude  80°.  lu  Iceland  it  is  abundant,  and  in  Davis'  Straits,  at  least  as 
far  north  as  Disco,  where  it  is  found  associated  with  the  halibut,  and  is  said  to  constitute  a  liberal 
share  of  its  food.  In  Eastern  Labrador,  about  Newfoundland,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence, 
it  is  abundant,  and  also  along  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  and  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  In  these 
uorthern  regions  the  Rose-fish  prefers  shallow  water,  and  may  be  taken  in  the  greatest  abundance 
in  the  bays  and  around  the  wharves  in  company  with  the  sculpins  and  the  cunner  or  blue  perch. 
On  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  south  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  they  are  rarely  seen  near  the  shore, 
but  have  been  found  in  deep  water  in  all  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts  Bay, 
and  also  abundantly  south  of  Cape  Cod.  In  the  fall  of  1880  the  United  States  Fish  Commission 
obtained  great  quantities  of  them,  young  and  old.  DeKay  included  this  fish  in  his  New  York  list, 
stating,  however,  that  it  was  very  rare  in  those  waters.  He  remarks  that  "  the  coast  of  New  York 
is  probably  its  extreme  southern  limit." 

Of  late  years  none  have  been  taken  south  of  the  locality  already  mentioned,  which  was  in 
•water  from  one  to  three  hundred  fathoms  in  depth,  at  the  inner  edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  miles  southwest  of  Newport,  and  about  the  same  distance  east  of  Sandy  Hook. 
A  hundred  or  two  hundred  miles  farther  south  it  is  replaced  by  a  fish  resembling  it  somewhat  in 
form  and  color,  Scorpcena  dactyloptera  De  la  Roche,  discovered  by  the  Fish  Commission  during 
the  past  year,  and  by  Scorpcena  Stearnsi,  detected  at  Pensacola  by  Silas  Stearns,  and  at  Charles- 
ton by  C.  H.  Gilbert. 

It  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  Roae-fish,  as  a  shore  species,  is  not  known  south  of  parallel  4^°, 
which  is  13°  south  of  its  transatlantic  limit.  When  the  deep  waters  of  Southern  Europe  have 
.been  as  carefully  explored  as  those  of  the  United  States,  it  is  probable  that  the  range  of  this  fish 
•will  be  extended  considerably  farther  to  the  south. 

'In  distinction  from  the  "bine  perch"  or  "cunner"  (Ctenolabru«  adspertut),  which  it  resembles  in  form,  but  uot 
iu  color. 

•(Ji'Miir.i;:  Cat.  Fbheg  Brit.  Mus.  2,  p.  96. 


DISTRI1U  TION   OF  T11K   KOSKI  [Sll.  261 

The  temperature  range  of  the  Uose-lish  corresponds  closely  to  tliut  of  the  halibut,  and  its 
limits  will,  on  more  careful  study,  probably  he  found  included  between  32°  and  50°.  It  is  found 
everywhere  on  the  shallow  ott'-shore  banks  north  of  (Jape  Cod,  where  it  attains  its  greatest  size. 
A  specimen,  brought  in  by  one  of  the  Gloucester  halibut  schooners,  was  about  two  feet  in  length 
and  weighed  alxmt  fourteen  pounds.  Along  the  Maine  coast  they  are  much  smaller  than  this, 
rarely  exceed  in--  ciiiht  or  ten  inches  and  the  weight  of  twelve  ounces,  but  occasionally  growing  to 
tin'  weight  of  one  and  a  half  pounds. 

In  Scandinavia  there  have  been  recognized  two  species:  one,  a  large,  orange-colored  form, 
inhabiting  deep  water,  known  to  the  Norwegians  as  the  "Red-fish"  (Rod-fisk),  and  considered  to 
be  8.  marinug  (8.  noricegicim) ;  the  other,  a  smaller  species  of  much  deeper  color,  called  the 
"Lysanger,"  and  described  by  Kroyer  under  the  name  "8.  viviparm,"  and  by  Ekstrom  as  "& 
,;,iiiliix.~l  After  the  most  careful  study  of  all  the  specimens  in  the  National  Museum,  we  have 
been  unable  to  recognize  more  than  one  species  on  our  coast,  and  recent  Norwegian  ichthyologists, 
among  them  especially  Mr.  Robert  Collet,  believe  that  the  two  Norwegian  forms  are  not  actually 
distinct  species,  but  that  the  smaller  one  is  simply  a  pigmy  race  which  is  especially  .adapted 
to  life  in  the  long,  shallow  fiords  of  that  region.  Dr.  Liitken,  always  conservative,  is  inclined  to 
believe  the  two  forms  distinct,  regarding  the  large  fish  of  the  deep  water  as  the  primitive  type 
from  which  the  smaller  littoral  form  has  been  derived  by  development.  According  to  the  last- 
mentioned  authority,  the  two  forms  have  very  different  geographical  distribution,  8.  virijutrua 
inhabiting  the  shallows  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Faroe  Islands,  Southern  Sweden,  Norway,  and  New 
England,  but  unknown  to  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Finmark,  Iceland,  and  Greenland;  while  N. 
itHtrinuii  is  found  in  Greenland  and  Iceland  and  all  the  length  of  the  Norwegian  coast,  in  Spitsber- 
gen, Biiren  Island,  on  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  and  occasionally  in  the  north  of  England  and 
Ireland.  Possibly,  he  suggests,  it  inhabits  the  deep  waters  at  a  distance  from  shore,  off  the  Faroe 
Islands  and  North  America,  but  that  is  not  yet  certainly  known.  S.  viriparus,  then,  he  declares, 
is  a  form  less  arctic  as  well  as  more  littoral.1 

This  subject  is  here  referred  to  in  the  hope  that  additional  observations  may  be  drawn  out 
tending  to  settle  the  question  whether  or  not  there  are  two  forms  of  Sebustes  on  the  American 
coast.  It  seems,  however,  improbable,  since  the  physical  conditions  are  so  different  from  those 
under  which  they  occur  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  food  of  the  Rose-fish  consists,  like  that  of  its  cousins,  the  Sculpins,  of  small  fish,  crusta- 
ceans, and,  to  some  extent,- of  mollusks,  although  its  teeth  are  not  formed  for  crushing  the  thick- 
shell  species.  In  Greenland  they  are  said  to  feed  upon  the  pole-flounder.  A  specimen  taken  off 
Kastern  Point,  Gloucester,  in  July,  1878,  had  its  throat  full  of  shrimp-like  crustaceans  (Mynis  sp.),. 
and  others,  taken  at  Eastport,  were  feeding  extensively  on  a  larger  crustacean  (Thynanopoda  sp.), 
which  is  also  a  favorite  food  of  the  mackerel.  They  may  be  caught  with  almost  any  kind  ot  bait, 
but  are  not,  like  their  associates,  the  cunners,  given  to  feeding  upon  refuse  substances,  and,  being 
also  more  shy  and  watchful,  cannot  be  captured  in  bag-nets.  They  breed  in  summer,  from  June 
to  September,  in  deep  holes  in  Massachusetts  Bay  and  off'  the  coast  of  Southern  New  England, 
where  it  has  not  been  uncommon  for  the  Fish  Commission  to  obtain  thousands  of  young  one, 
two,  and  three  inches  long,  at  one  set  of  the  trawl-net,  and  also  adults  full  of  spawn.  The  young 
are  lighter  in  color  than  the  adults,  and  are  conspicuously  banded  with  reddish-brown  upon  a 
grayish  ground.  The  young  constitute  a  favorite  food  of  the  codfish,  while,  at  all  ages,  they  are 
preyed  upon  by  the  halibut  and  other  large  predaceous  nshes  of  the  cold-water  districts. 

1 1879.  LCTKEN,  CHB.  :  Korelobige  Meddelelser  oni  nordiske  Ulketwke  (Cottoidei).  <Aftryk  «f  Vidensk.  Medilel. 
iirtturh.  Foren.  1870,  pp.  355-388. 


262  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Although  the  Rose-fish  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food,  and  is  caught  in  considerable 
numbers  all  along  the  coast  of  Maine  and  the  British  Provinces  in  the  season  when  it  frequents  the 
shallows  near  the  shore,  and  in  winter  at  Gloucester  when  flocking  in  large  numbers  into  the 
harbor,  the  most  extensive  fisheries  are  probably  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  where  they  are  highly 
prized  by  the  natives,  who  feed  on  the  flesh  and  use  the  spines  of  the  fins  for  needles,  and  in 
Massachusetts  Bay,  where  great  quantities  are  taken  by  the  Irish  market-fishermen  on  trawl- 
lines.  In  winter  they  are  occasionally  found  in  the  New  York  markets,  and  on  one  or  two  occa- 
sions have  been  brought  in  considerable  numbers  to  New  Haven,  and  even  to  Philadelphia. 
The  flesh  is  firm,  rich,  and  delicate  in  flavor;  the  young  fish,  fried  crisp,  make  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  white-bait. 

84.  THE  ROCK  CODS  OF  THE  PACIFIC. 

By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

[On  the  Pacific  coast,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the  fishes  of  this  family,  known  as  Rock-cod 
and  Rock-fish,  are  of  great  importance.  They  are  discussed  at  length  by  Professor  Jordan,  who 
writes:] 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  Califoruian  fish  fauna  is  the  enormous  abundance 
both  in  individuals  and  in  species  of  the  group  of  Scorpseuidai.  All  of  them  are  excellent  food- 
lishes,  and  scarcely  a  boat  returns  from  any  kind  of  fishing  in  which  these  fishes  do  not  form  a 
conspicuous  part  of  the  catch.  In  every  fish-market  they  are  found,  and  from  their  large  size 
and  brilliant  coloration  they  are  everywhere  the  most  conspicuous  fishes  on  the  stalls. 

These  fishes  have  so  many  traits  in  common,  that  a  review  of  the  group  as  a  whole  is  desira- 
ble before  we  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the  several  species. 

NAMES. — These  fishes  are  universally  known  by  the  names  of  Rock-fish  and  Rock-cod.  The 
latter  name  is  the  one  most  commonly  heard,  the  other  name  being  apparently  a  reaction  against 
the  obvious  error  of  calling  these  fish  "Cod."  The  name  Rock-fish  is  an  appropriate  one,  and  in 
time  it  will  probably  supplant  that  of  Rock-cod.  The  name  Cod  or  Cod-fish  is  never  applied  to 
them  without  the  accompanying  "Rock."  In  the  southern  part  of  California,  the  name  "Garrupa" 
or  "Grouper"  is  in  common  use,  especially  for  the  olivaceous  species.  This  is  a  Portuguese  word, 
and  belonged  originally  to  the  species  of  Epinephelm  and  related  genera.  Different  species  have 
also  special  names,  mostly  given  by  the  Portuguese  fishermen.  These  are  noticed  below. 

The  average  size  of  the  species  of  the  group  is  about  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  a  weight 
of  two  or  three  pounds.  Some  of  them  reach  a  length  of  nearly  three  feet,  and  a  weight  of  twelve 
pounds.  Nothing  is  known  of  their  rate  of  growth. 

The  greatest  abundance  both  of  individuals  and  of  species  in  this  group  is  to  be  found  from 
Santa  Barbara  to  San  Francisco,  the  maximum  about  Monterey.  They  occur  from  Cerros  Island, 
where  they  are  rather  scarce,  at  least  ap  far  as  Kodiak,  and  other  species  similar  are  found  on  the 
coasts  of  Japan,  Chili,  etc.  The  individuals  are  extremely  local.  Most  of  the  species  are  found 
about  rocky  reefs,  often  in  considerable  depths,  and  they  probably  stray  but  little  from  their  abodes. 
In  general,  the  red  species  inhabit  greater 'depths  than  the  brown  or  green  ones,  and  the  latter 
swim  about  more  freely.  Their  abundance  on  certain  reefs  about  Monterey  and  the  Farallones  is 
doubtless  being  diminished;  elsewhere  there  has  been  little  danger  of  overfishing.  All  are  preda- 
tory and  voracious,  feeding  mainly  upon  other  fishes,  and  sometimes  on  crustaceans. 

All  of  the  species  are  ovo-viviparous.  The  eggs  are  small  and  exceedingly  numerous,  and  are 
hatched  within  the  body.  The  eggs  themselves  are  bright  yellow.  In  the  spring,  at  a  season  vary- 
ing with  the  latitude  and  perhaps  with  different  species,  these  yellow  eggs  turn  to  a  grayish  color. 


TIIK  KOCK  CODS  OF  Till:   PACIFIC. 

If  then  exa  ninotl,  the  two  eyes  of  I  ho  young  fish  can  be  distinctly  seen.  I.;  tier  a  slender  body 
appears,  with  traces  of  vertical  tins,  tho  length  then  being  about  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch. 
They  ;iro  probaMx  extruded  at  :ilnnit  ilir  length  of  one-third  of  mi  inch,  and  in  a  very  slender  and 
l>elluc:d  ciniiliiiiiii.  as  I  have  never  soon  them  in  anymore  advanced  stage  of  development.  Noth- 
ing is  Known  of  the  modes  of  copulation,  nor  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the  young  are 
exoluili •<!,  lint  the  time  of  breeding  is  probably  for  the  most  part  in  May.  Young  fishes  of  one  and 
a  hall  ii>  two  inches  are  common  in  August,  and  in  the  fall  they  are  large  enough  (S. panciitpinis, 
flu  rid  UK)  to  be  taken  with  hook  and  line  from  the  wharves.  Individuals  of  less  than  six  or 
eight  inches  are  rare  in  the  spring,  and  the  fish  of  that  length  are  probably  a  year  old. 

Tho  enemies  of  these  fishes  are  of  course  their  predatory  neighbors,  and  the  larger  individ- 
uals prey  upon  the  smaller.  The  hag-fish  (Polistotremn)  destroys  considerable  numbers.  They  are 
usually  very  free  from  internal  parasites. 

All  the  members  of  this  family  rank  high  as  food-fishes.  The  flesh  is  firm  and  white,  and, 
although  not  very  delicate,  is  of  a  fair  quality.  That  of  Scorpama  guttata  is  probably  best;  that  of 
s,'l><txtichthy><  myxtinux  brings  the  lowest  price  in  market,  but  the  prejudice  against  the  latter  species 
perhaps  rests  on  its  color. 

s<  ORPENE  (Scorptrna  guttata  Girard).— This  species  is  known  by  the  names  "Scorpene,"  "Scor- 
pion," and  "  Sculpin."  "Scorpene"  (Scorjrina),  in  common  use  among  the  Italian  fishermen,  is, 
<»f  course,  the  name  of  Scorpa'na  porcus,  »S'.  scrofa,  and  other  Mediterranean  fishes,  transferred  to 
this  very  similar  North  American  fish.  The  wound  made  by  the  dorsal  spines  of  this  fish  is 
excessively  painful,  far  more  so  than  the  sting  of  a  bee,  as  though  the  spines  had  some  venomous 
secretion.  The  name  Scorpccna,  is  evidently  derived  from  this.  This  species  reaches  a  length  of 
something  over  a  foot  and  a  weight  of  about  two  pounds.  It  is  found  only  from  Point  Concepcion 
south  ward  to  Ascension  Island,  living  about  rocks  and  kelp,  but  often  entering  the  bays.  It  is 
generally  common,  and  takes  the  hook  freely.  It  feeds  upon  Crustacea  and  small  fishes,  and  spawns 
in  spring.  Nothing  distinctive  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits.  As  a  food-fish  it  ranks  with  the 
Nest,  being  superior  to  the  sjieeies  of  Selaxtichthys,  and  it  always  is  in  good  demand  wJere  known. 

BLACK-BANDED  ROCK-FISH  (Sebantichthyii  nigrocinctun  (Ayres)  Gill). — This  species  has,  so  far 
as  we  know,  received  no  distinctive  name  from  the  fishermen.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  about  four 
pounds  and  a  length  of  eighteen  to  twenty  inches.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  northward,  being 
found  only  in  deep  water  (ten  to  twenty  fathoms).  About  San  Francisco  it  is  exceedingly  rare,  not 
half  a  dozen  usually  coming  into  the  markets  in  a  year.  In  the  Straits  of  Fuca  and  outside  in  the 
open  ocean  it  is  tolerably  abundant.  The  food  and  the  breeding  habits,  so  far  as  known,  differ 
little  in  this  family,  and  the  general  remarks  on  the  group  apply  to  all  the  species  of  Selxwtichthyx. 
A  -  a  food-fish  this  species  sells  readily  on  account  of  its  brilliant  and  attractive  colors,  second  only 
in  brilliancy  to  those  of  the  "Spanish  Flag." 

TKEE-FISH  (Nebattichthy*  serriceps  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — Wherever  this  species  receives  a  distinctive 
name, it  is  known  as  the  "Tree-fish,"  an  appellation  originating  with  the  Portuguese  at  Monterey, 
and  without  obvious  application.  Southward  it  is  confounded  with  other  species  as  a  Garrupa. 
Its  size  is  rather  less  than  that  of  S.  nigrocinctux,  which  it  much  resembles.  It  ranges  from  San 
Martin  Island  to  San  Francisco,  being  found  in  rather  deep  water  among  rocks.  It  is  most 
common  about  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands  and  is  rare  in  the  markets  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  a 
handsomely-colored  species,  and  therefore  sells  well  in  the  markets. 

SPECKLED  GAERUPA  (Sebaxtichthyx  nebulomts  (Ayres)  Gill). — This  species  is  known  as  "Gar- 
ni pa"  and  "Rock  Cod,"  rarely  receiving  any  distinctive  name.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  throe  and 
one-half  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Puget  Sound,  being  generally  common  at  all  points, 


264  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

and  most  abundant  northward.  It  lives  in  water  of  moderate  depth.  It  forms  about  two  per 
cent,  of  the  total  rock-fish  catch,  and  is  always  readily  salable.  It  is  the  most  attractive  iu  color 
of  any  of  the  dark-colored  species. 

BLACK  AND  YELLOW  GAREUPA  (Sebastichthys  chrysomelas  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species  also 
is  confounded  under  the  names  "Garrupa"  and  "Rock-cod."  It  is  one  of  the  smaller  species,  reach- 
ing a  weight  of  about  two  pounds.  It  ranges  from  San  Nicolas  Island  to  San  Francisco,  and  is 
generally  common  in  water  of  moderate  depth,  although  not  one  of  the  most  abundant  species. 
It  is  an  attractive  fish  in  color  and  therefore  readily  salable. 

FLESH-COLORED  GARRUPA  (Sebastichthys  carnatus  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species  reaches  a 
somewhat  larger  size  than  the  last,  and  ranges  from  Santa  Barbara  to  San  Francisco.  About  San 
Francisco  it  is  considerably  more  abundant,  forming  nearly  seven  per  cent,  of  the  total  rock- 
fish  catch. 

YELLOW-BACKED  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  maliger  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — We  have  heard  no  dis- 
tinctive name  for  this  species.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Puget  Sound,  in  rather  deep  water- 
It  is  not  very  common  about  San  Francisco,  but  many  are  caught  in  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  of  the  species,  reaching  a  weight  of  six  or  eight  pounds.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  not  n.s 
good  as  some  of  the  others. 

RED  GARRUPA  (Sebastichthys  caurinws  and  subsp.  vexillaris  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species  is 
known  as  "Garrupa,"  "  Rock-fish,"  and  "  Rock-cod."  It  reaches  a  length  of  twenty  inches  and  a 
weight  of  six  pounds.  It  ranges  from  San  Nicolas  to  Puget  Sound,  being  generally  common  in 
water  of  moderate  depth.  It  is  subject  to  greater  variations  than  any  of  the  other  species  in  the 
different  parts  of  its  range.  It  forms  about  seven  per  cent,  of  the  total  rock-cod  catch.  Its  flesh 
ranks  as  about  average. 

GRASS  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  rastrelliger  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species,  like  all  those  of  dusky 
color,  is  known  as  "Garrupa."  At  San  Francisco  it  is  often  called  "Grass  Rock-fish,"  perhaps 
from  its  color.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  two  to  four  pounds.  It  lives  in  water  of  moderate  depth, 
and  is  rather  common  everywhere  from  San  Nicolas  to  Humboldt  Bay.  Its  abundance  is  greatest 
south  of  Point  Concepcion.  It  is  said  to  be  the  best  of  all  the  Rock-fish  for  the  table,  and  to  be 
an  especial  favorite  with  the  Jews. 

BROWN  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  auricnlatus  (Girard)  Gill).— This  species  seldom  receives  a 
distinctive  name  from  the  fishermen.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  three  or  four  pounds,  although  as 
usually  seen  in  the  markets  it  is  smaller  than  any  other  of  the  species.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  its  young  are  caught  iu  seines  in  the  bay,  while  those  of  other  species  are  less  frequently 
taken,  and  then  only  in  the  open  ocean.  It  ranges  from  San  Martin  Island  to  Puget  Sound,  living 
iu  shallow  water  and  entering  all  the  bays,  and  being  taken  with  a  hook  from  all  the  wharves.  It 
is  thus  apparently  more  abundant  than  any  other  species,  although  in  actual  numbers  probably 
many  of  the  deep-water  forms  (S.  favidus,pinniger,  rosaceus)  far  exceed  it.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  held 
in  lower  esteem  than  most  of  the  others. 

PESCE  VEEMIGLIA  (Sebastichthys  chlorostictus  Jor.  &  Gilb.).— This  species  is  known  as  "  Pesce 
Vermiglia,"  or  "Vermilion-fish,"  by  the  Portuguese  fishermen  at  Monterey.  It  is  known  only  from 
Monterey  Bay  and  the  Farallones,  occurring  about  the  rocks  in  considerable  depths  of  water  and 
being  taken  only  with  the  hook.  In  its  native  haunts  it  is  not  a  rare  species.  It  reaches  a  weight, 
of  three  or  four  pounds,  and  is  excellent  food. 

FLY-FISH  (Sebastichthys  rhodochloris  Jor.  &  Gilb.).— The  inexplicable  name  of  "  Fly-fish"  isgiven 
to  this  species  by  the  fishermen  at  Monterey.  Like  the  preceding,-it  is  known  only  from  very  deep 


THE  ROCK  FISHES  OF  CALIFORNIA.  265 

water  about  Monterey  and  the  Farallones.  It  is  out-  of  tli>-  smallest  species,  rawly  weighing  more 
than  a  pound. 

CORSAIR  (Sebantichthyg  rosaceus  (Grd.)  Lock).—  This  species  is  known  to  the  Portuguese  fish- 
ermen at  Monti  rev  by  the  name  "Corsair,"  a  name  of  unknown  application  transplanted  from  the 
Azores.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  species,  rarely  weighing  more  than  a  pound  and  a  half.  It 
ranges  from  Santa  Barbara  to  San  Francisco,  in  deep  water,  and,  where  found,  it  is  the  most  abun- 
dant of  the  red  species.  When  the  weather  permits  outside  fishing  with  trawl-lines,  this  is  one  of 
the  most  abundant  species  in  the  San  Francisco  markets.  It  ranks  high  as  a  food-fish. 

SPOTTED  CORSAIR  (Sebantichthys  constellates  Jor.  &  Gilb.).  —  In  size,  distribution,  habits,  and 
value  this  species  agrees  with  the  "Corsair."  It  is,  however,  considerably  less  abundant,  although 
not  a  rare  fish  in  the  markets  of  San  Francisco. 

YELLOW  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  umbrosus  Jor.  &  Gilb.).  —  Two  specimens  only  of  this  species 
are  known,  both  of  which  are  from  Santa  Barbara. 

SPANISH  FLAG  (Sebastichthytt  rubrivinctus  Jor.  &  Gilb.).  —  At  Monterey  this  species  is  known 
by  the  very  appropriate  name  of  "Spanish  Flag,"  from  its  broad  bands  of  red,  white,  and  red.  It 
reaches  a  weight  of  about  six  pounds.  It  is  found  in  very  deep  water  on  rocky  reefs  about  Santa 
Barbara  and  Monterey.  It  is  perhaps  the  least  common  in  the  markets  of  all  the  species,  except 
In  coloration  it  is  the  most  brilliant  fish  on  the  coast. 


RED  ROCK-FISH  (Sebasticlithys  ruber  (Ayres)  Lock.).  —  This  species  is  usually  the  "Red  Rock- 
fish  "par  excellence.  At  Monterey  it  is  called  by  the  Portuguese  "Tambor,"  a  name  evidently 
transferred  from  some  Atlantic  species.  It  probably  reaches  a  larger  size  than  any  other  species, 
attaining  a  weight  of  twelve  or  more  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Puget  Sound,  its 
abundance  increasing  to  the  northward.  It  lives  in  water  of  considerable  depth.  In  the  markets 
of  San  Francisco  it  is  one  of  the  most  common  species.  Large  specimens  about  Victoria,  in  the 
Straits  of  Fuca,  had  the  skull  above  the  brain  infected  by  an  encysted  parasitic  worm.  Great 
numbers  of  them  were  seen  in  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  according  to  Mr.  Swan,  swimming  stupidly  near 
the  surface,  so  torpid  that  the  Indians  killed  them  with  clubs.  According  to  the  Indians,  they  had 
been  struck  by  the  Thunder-bird,  which,  with  its  companion,  the  Lightning-fish,  causes  many  of 
the  phenomena  in  that  region.  The  smaller  specimens  of  this  species  rank  well  as  food-fishes;  the 
larger  ones  are  likely  to  be  coarse  or  tough. 

RASHER  (Sebastichthys  miniatus  Jor.  &  Gilb.).  —  This  species  is  known  to  the  Portuguese  at 
Monterey  as  the  •'  Rasher,"  a  name  of  unknown  origin  and  orthography.  It  ranges  from  Santa 
Barbara  to  San  Francisco,  living  in  water  of  moderate  depth.  It  is  comparatively  common,  and  is 
frequently  seen  in  the  markets,  though  in  much  less  numbers  than  8.  ruber  and  8.  pinniger.  In  size 
and  quality  it  agrees  closely  with  S.  pinniger. 

ORANGE  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  pinniger  (Gill)  Lock.).  —  This  species  is  usually  called  simply 
"Red  Rock-cod"  or  "Red  Rock-fish"  and  not  distinguished  from  the  two  preceding.  The  Portu- 
guese at  Monterey  know  it  by  the  name  "Fliaum,"  a  word  of  unknown  origin.  It  is  one  of 
the  largest  species,  reaching  a  weight  of  eight  or  ten  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  to  Puget 
Sound,  being  generally  very  abundant  in  deep  water,  where  it  is  taken  on  trawl-lines.  This 
is  probably  the  most  abundant  of  the  larger  species.  At  San  Francisco  individuals  are  often 
found  with  black  discolored  areas,  looking  like  ink-blotches,  on  their  sides.  No  cause  for  this  has 
been  noticed,  and  if  it  be  a  disease  it  does  not  seem  to  discommode  the  fish.  In  the  market  this 
species  grades  with  S.  ruber,  and,  like  it,  is  often  split  and  salted. 

GREEN  GARRUPA  (Sebastickthys  atrovirens  Jor.  &  Gilb.).  —  This  species  is  commonly  known 
as  "Garrupa"  and  "Green  Rock-fish,"  being  rarely  distinguished  Irom  S.  rastrclliger.  It  reaches  a 


266  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

weight  of  about  three  pounds.  It  ranges  from  San  Diego  to  Monterey,  beiug  more  southerly  in 
its  distribution  than  the  other  species.  It  lives  in  rocky  places,  in  rather  shallow  water,  and  is  gen- 
erally common,  especially  south  of  Point  Concepcion.  It  is  considered  excellent  food. 

REINA  (Sebastichthys  elongates  (Ayres)  Gill). — This  species  is  known  as  "  Reiua"  (Queen)  at 
Monterey.  It  is  a  small  fish,  reaching  a  weight  of  less  than  two  pounds,  and  lives  in  deep  water 
abonr  Monterey  and  the  Farallones.  It  is  never  very  common  in  the  markets,  although  frequently 
taken  in  considerable  numbers. 

RED  ROCK-FISH  OF  ALASKA  (Sebastichthys  proriger  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — In  habits  this  species  agrees 
with.  N.  elongatuf.  It  is  usually  still  smaller,  rarely  weighing  more  than  a  pound.  Its  range 
extends  northward  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  where  it  reaches  a  large  size,  and  is  of  considerable 
importance  as  a  food-fish. 

VIUVA  (Sebastichthys  ovalis  (Ayres)  Lock.). — This  species  is  known  at  Monterey  as  "Viuva" 
(Widow) ;  the  reason  not  evident.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  three  or  four  pounds.  It  is  found  from 
Santa  Barbara  to  Monterey,  in  deep  water,  and  is  seldom  brought  to  market. 

Sebastichthys  entomelas  Jor.  &  Gilb.,  is  a  species  very  similar  to  the  preceding  in  size  and 
habits.  Thus  far  it  has  been  only  found  in  deep  water  outside  of  Monterey  Bay. 

BLACK  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  mystinus  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species,  usually  called  the 
"Black  Rock-fish,"  in  Puget  Sound  is  known,  with  its  more  abundant  relative,  Sebastichthys  mela- 
nops, as  the  "Black  Bass."  The  Portuguese  at  Monterey  call  it  "Pesce  Pr6tre,"  or  Priest-fish,  in 
allusion  to  its  dark  colors,  so  different  from  those  of  most  of  the  other  members  of  the  family.  It 
reaches  a  weight  of  five  pounds,  but  as  usually  seen  in  the  markets  varies  from  two  to  three.  It 
ranges  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Vancouver's  Island,  inhabiting  water  of  moderate  depths.  It  is 
much  more  abundant  about  Monterey  and  San  Francisco  than  either  northward  or  southward,  and 
large  numbers  are  taken  in  Tomales  Bay.  In  the  markets  of  San  Francisco  it  is  found,  taking  the 
year  through,  in  greater  numbers  than  any  other  species.  It  sells  at  a  lower  price  than  the  others, 
its  color  causing  a  prejudice  against  it,  although  the  quality  of  the  flesh  doubtless  differs  little 
from  that  of  the  rest. 

ALASKA  BLACK  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  ciliatxs  (Tiles.)  Jor.  &  Gilb.).— Specimens  of  this 
species  from  the  Aleutian  Islands  are  in  the  National  Museum.  Nothing  distinctive  is  known  in 
regard  to  its  habits,  which  probably  agree  with  those  of  S.  melanops. 

SPOTTED  BLACK  ROCK-FISH  (Sebastichthys  melanops  (Grd.)  Jor.  &  Gilb.).— This  species  is 
confounded  with  S.  mystinus  by  the  fishermen,  under  the  name  of  "Black  Bass"  in  Puget  Sound, 
"  Black  Rock-fish"  in  San  Francisco,  and  "Pesce  Pretre"  at  Monterey.  In  size  and  value  it  agrees 
with  S.  mystinus.  Its  range  is  more  northerly,  ffom  Monterey  to  Puget  Sound,  being  not  very 
common  at  San  Francisco,  and  one  of  the  most  abundant  species  in  Puget  Sound. 

YELLOW-TAIL  ROCK-FISH,  (Sebastichthys  flavidm  (Ayres)  Lock.).— This  species  is  occasionally 
called  the  "  Gre«n  Rock-fish "  or  "  Rock-cod "  at  San  Francisco.  At  Monterey  it  is  always  known  by 
the  appropriate  name  of  "  Yellow  -tail,"  the  caudal  fin  being  always  distinctly  yellow.  To  distinguish 
it  from  the  Yellow-tail  of  farther  south  we  may  call  it  the  Yellow-tail  Rock-fish.  This  species  reaches 
a  weight  of  six  or  seven  pounds,  but  its  usual  weight  is  about  two.  It  ranges  from  Santa  Catalina 
Island  to  Cape  Mendocino,  and  is  taken  both  in  deep  water  and  near  shore.  About  Monterey  and 
San  Francisco  it  is  very  abundant,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  species  in  the  markets.  As  a  food- 
fish  it  is  considered  as  one  of  the  best  in  the  group. 

BOCCACCIO  (Sebastodes  paucispinis  (Ayres)  Gill).— About  Monterey  and  San  Francisco  this 
species  is  known  as  "Boccaccio"  or  "Boccac"'  (bocatch)  to  the  Italians,  and  as  "Merou"  (mdroo)  to 
the  Portuguese.  American  fishermen  use  the  name  "Jack,"  and  those  who  fish  for  the  young  from 


Till:   Hot  K  I  I  SI  IKS  OF  CAI.iroKXIA.  267 

tin-  whai\es  i-all  them  '•  Tom  cod."  The  name  "Boccaccio"  (Big-mouth)  is  very  appropriate; 
••Mima"  is  transferred  from  Atlantic  species  of  Epii«i>lu  In* ;  ".lack"  comes  from  the  species  of 
/.'.N.-.i'  :iii«l  xti:».tt<nlin»i  which  in  the  Southern  States  are  called  by  that  name.  This  species  is  one 
of  the  largest  of  the  group,  reaching  a  weight  of  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds.  Its  average  size  in  the 
markets  is  greater  than  that  of  any  of  the  others.  It  ranges  from  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands  to 
C;i|>.'  M«  ndocino.  It  inhabits  reefs  in  deep  water,  only  the  young  coming  near  the  shore.  It  is 
rather  more  abundant  southward  than  about  San  Francisco.  It  is,  however,  a  common  market  - 
lisli,  and  its  hVsh  is  considered  excellent.  It  is  probably  the  most  voracious  of  the  family. 

Five  secies  of  the  genus  Sebastichthyii,  namely,  8.  melanops,  S.  cauriniui,  S.  maliger,  S.proriger, 
and  N.  ciliatiin,  attain  to  large  size  and  considerable  commercial  importance  in  Alaska,  and  are 
disonssed  by  Dr.  Bean  in  his  paper  on  the  "SHORE  FISHERIES  OF  ALASKA"  in  another  section  of 
tliis  work.  8.  melanops  is  called  "  Black  Bass"  at  Sitka. 

85.  THE  BOCK  TROUTS— CHIEID2E.. 

•  By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

A  family  of  fish  of  considerable  importance  on  our  Pacific  coast  is  that  of  the  Chiridte,  or  Bock 
Trouts,  no  representatives  of  which  are  known  in  the  Atlantic.  One  or  two  species  of  the  family 
occur  in  the  Sea  of  Japan. 

BOBEOATA  (Hejcagrammus  Stelkri  Tilesius). — This  species  is  known  in  Puget  Sound  by  the 
Italian  name  of  "  Boregata"  or  " BoregatV  The  name  "  Starling"  is  applied  to  some  fish,  supposed 
by  us  to  be  this  species,  in  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  It  reaches  a  length  of  fifteen  inches  and  a  weight 
of  three  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Puget  Sound  to  Kamtschatka.  lu  Puget  Sound  it  is  compara- 
tively abundant,  living  about  rocks.  It  spawns  in  July.  It  feeds  on  crustaceans,  worms,  and 
fishes,  and  apparently  gets  its  food  on  the  bottom  in  deep  water,  as  the  animals  taken  from 
its  stomach  are  often  of  a  kind  not  seen  near  shore.  Its  intestines  are  very  often  full  of  long 
tabloid  worms,  supposed  to  be  parasitic.  As  a  food-fish,  it  ranks  with  the  other  Kock-trout,  being 
of  fair  quality,  but  inferior  to  Ophiodon  and  Sebastichthyit. 

GREEN  ROCK  TROUT  (Hexagmmmus  lagocephaJu»  (Pallas)  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species  is 
confounded  with  others  of  this  genus  under  the  names  of  "Rock  Trout,"  "Sea  Trout,"  "Horegaf," 
and  "Bodieron."  At  Cape  Flattery  this  fish  and  the  preceding  receive  the  Indian  name  of 

•  •T-rbarqna."    In  size  and  value  it  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  preceding.    It  ranges  from 
Monterey  to  Kamtschatka,  being  nowhere  very  abundant,  although  not  a  rare  fish.    Its  food  is 
largely  crustacean.     Its  flesh,  like  that  of  Ophiodon,  is  often  colored  green. 

SPOTTED  ROCK  TROUT  (Htxayrammu*  decngrammux  (Pallas)  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — The  name  "Bore- 

•  a  i  a "'  is  applied  to  this  species  by  the  Italians  on  Puget  Sound.    The  name  "  Rock-cod"  is  also  given 
to  it.    From  San  Francisco  southward,  the  names  "Rock  Trout"  and  "Sea  Trout"  are  common. 
Tin'  Portuguese  at  Monterey  call  it  "  Bodieron."    It  reaches  a  length  of  fifteen  inches  and  a  weight 
of  two  or  three  pounds.    It  ranges  from  San  Luis  Obispo  to  Alaska,  and  is  much  more  generally 
common  than  any  of  the  other  species,  and  large  numbers  are  brought  into  the  market  of  San 
I'rancisco.     It  lives  in  rocky  places  at  no  great  depth.    It  feeds  voraciously  on  Crustacea  and 
worms.     It  spawns  in  July.    It  dies  at  once  on  being  taken  from  the  water,  and  the  flesh  becomes 
rigid  and  does  not  keep  as  well  as  that  of  the  rock-fish.     It  is  a  food  fish  of  fair  quality,  but  not 
extra.    The  sexes  are  very  unlike  in  color,  and  have  been  taken  for  distinct  species. 

CrLTrs  COD  (OpMoAon  elongatm  Girard).— This  species  is  universally  called  "Cod-fish" 
where  the  true  cod  is  unknown.  About  Puget  Sound  the  English  call  it  "Ling."  Among  the 


268  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Americans  the  word  "coil"  is  used  with  some  distinctive  adjective,  as  Cultus  Cod  ("cultus"  mean- 
ing, in  the  Chinook  jargon,  of  little  worth),  "Bastard  Cod,"  "Buffalo  Cod,"  etc.  The  name  "Blue 
Cod"  is  also  given  to  it  from  the  color  of  its  flesh.  The  name  "Rock  Cod"  applied  to  other  Chiroids 
and  to  Sebastichthys,  and  thence  even  transferred  to  Serranus,  comes  from  an  appreciation  of  their 
affinity  to  Ophiodon,  and  not  from  any  supposed  resemblance  to  the  true  codfish.  The  Cultus  Cod 
reaches  a  length  of  five  feet,  and  a  weight  of  fifty  or  sixty  pounds,  the  largest  specimens  being 
taken  in  northern  waters.  Many  very  small  ones  come  into  the  San  Francisco  market,  being  taken 
in  the  sweep-nets  of  the  paranzelle.  These  weigh  less  than  a  pound;  the  average  of  the  large  ones 
is  from  six  to  ten  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Alaska,  being  very  abundant  every- 
where north  of  Point  Concepcion.  It  lives  about  rocky  places,  and  sometimes  in  considerable 
depths,  and  spawns  in  summer.  It  feeds  upon  fishes  and  Crustacea  and  is  excessively  voracious. 
It  often  swallows  a  red  rock-fish  when  the  latter  is  on  the  hook,  and  is  thus  taken.  Like  other 
large  fishes,  it  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the  hag-fish  (Polistotrema).  As  a  food-fish  it  holds  a 
high  rank,  being  considered  rather  superior  to  the  rock-fish.  From  its  great  abundance,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  important  fishes  on  the  Pacific  coast.  • 

Zaniolepis  latipinnis  Girard. — This  species  ranges  from  San  Francisco  northward  in  deep 
water.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot,  and  is  of  no  economic  value. 

Oxylebius  pictw  Gill. — This  bright-colored  little  fish  ranges  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Vancouver's 
Island,  living  among  rocks  near  shore.  It  reaches  a  length  of  six  inches,  is  rarely  taken,  and  then 
used  only  for  bait. 

Myriolepw  zonifer  Lock. — The  single  specimen  known  was  takeu  at  Monterey. 

BLACK  CANDLE-PISH  (Anoplopoma  fimbria  (Pallas)  Gill). — This  species  is  known  in  Puget 
Sound  by  the  name  of  "Horse-mackerel."  At  San  Francisco  it  is  usually  called  "Candle-fish." 
In  the  markets  it  is  sometimes  fraudulently  sold  as  Spanish  mackerel.  It  reaches  a  length  of 
twenty  inches  and  a  weight  of  five  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  northward  to  Sitka,  in  rather 
deep  water,  and  is  generally  common,  especially  northward.  At  Seattle  it  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  fishes,  but  in  the  San  Francisco  market  it  is  seldom  seen  in  large  numbers.  It  feeds  on 
crustaceans,  worms,  and  small  fishes.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  held  in  low  esteem,  the  flesh  being  rather 
tough  and  tasteless. 

In  the  Straits  of  Fuca  it  reaches  a  much  larger  size  than  has  been  noticed  elsewhere.  It  is  here 
very  highly  valued  by  the  Indians,  according  to  Mr.  Swan.  It  is  called  by  the  Indians  "  Beshow." 

In  Alaska,  according  to  Dr.  Bean,  the  most  important  chiroid  fishes  are  Ophiodon  clongatm, 
Anoplopoma  Jimbria,  Hexagrammus  decagrammus,  H.  lagocephalus,  H.  ordinatus,  H.  asper,  and  the 
"  Yellow  Fish,"  "  Striped  Fish,"  or  "Atka  Mackerel,"  Pleurogrammus  monopterygius  (Pallas)  Gill, 
which  is  the  chief  of  them  all.  This  fish  is  most  abundant  about  the  Aleutian  chain  and  the 
Shumagins,  its  northern  limit  as  now  understood  being  about  Kodiak,  and  its  western  limit  at 
Attti.  It  congregates  in  immense  schools,  and  can  be  taken  in  purse-seines  like  the  mackerel, 
which  it  strongly  resembles  in  taste  after  being  salted  in  the  same  manner. 

86.  THE  TAUTOG  OR  BLACK-FISH— TAUTOGA  ONITIS. 

NAMES. — One  of  the  best  known  shore  species  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  the  Tautog  or  Black- 
fish.  This  fish  is  now  found  in  greater  or  less  abundance  from  Saint  John,  New  Brunswick,  to 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  East  of  New  York  it  is  usually  called  Tautog,  a  name  of  Indian  ori- 
gin, which  first  occurs  in  Roger  Williams'  "Key  to  American  Language,"  printed  in  1643,  in  which 
this  fish  is  enumerated  among  the  edible  species  of  Southern  New  England.  "Tautauog"  would 
consequently  seem  to  be  a  word  from  the  dialect  of  the  Narragansett  Indians.  On  the  coast  of  New 


NA.MKS  OF  THK  TAl'TOG.  269 

n  i.scallcd  "Black-lish":  in  NYw  Jersey  also"  Black-fish"  and  "Smooth  Black-fish,"  "Tautog," 
or  ••<  'hull":  <>n  the  eastern  short-  of  Virginia  "Moll,"  or  "Will  George";  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Chesapeake  "Salt-water  Chub,"  and  in  North  Carolina  the  "Oyster-fish."  Of  all  these  names 
Tailing  is  by  tar  the  most  desirable  for  general  use.  There  are  several  other  species  along  our 
coast  railed  Black  fish,  especially  the  sea-bass,  which  is  often  associated  with  the  Tautog.  The 
names  Oyster-fish  and  Chub  are  also  pre-engaged  by  other  species. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Though  the  present  geographical  distribution  of  the  Tautog  is  well  understood, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  its  range  has  been  very  considerably  extended  in  the  present  century 
by  the  agency  of  man.  That  this  species  was  known  in  Rhode  Island  two  hundred  and  thirty 
years  ago  is  reasonably  certain  from  the  reference  by  Roger  Williams,  already  referred  to,  and 
in  177ti  it  was  stated  by  Schoepf  that  it  was  very  abundant  in  summer  at  New  York.  It  is  in 
greatest  abundance  between  the  southern  angle  of  Cape  Cod  and  the  Capes  of  Delaware,  which 
would  indicate  that  within  these  limits,  at  least,  the  sj>ecies  has  always  existed.  The  waters  of 
Long  Island  Sound  and  those  immediately  adjoining  seem  especially  well  adapted  for  its  residence. 

Mitchill,  writing  in  1814,  remarked:  "The  Tautog  was  not  originally  known  in  Massachusetts 
Bay:  but  within  a  few  years  he  has  been  carried  beyond  Cape  Cod,  and  has  multiplied  so  alum 
dantly  that  the  Boston  market  has  now  a  full  supply  without  the  necessity  of  importing  from 
Newport  and  Providence."  This  statement  is  confirmed  in  a  way  by  Mr.  Isaac  Hinckley,  of  Phila- 
delphia, who  tells  me  that  in  1824  he  saw  several  individuals  from  Cohasset  Bocks,  Jerusalem  Road, 
Massachusetts,  and  that  the  fish  was  at  that  time  said  by  the  fishermen  to  be  entirely  new  to  them. 
Storer,  writing  about  1867,  remarked:  "Although  a  few  years  only  have  passed  since  this  species 
«as  brought  into  Massachusetts  Bay,  it  is  now  taken  along  a  large  portion  of  the  coast.  At 
Plymouth,  Nahant,  and  Lynn,  at  some  seasons,  it  is  found  in  considerable  numbers,  and  is  fre- 
quently caught  from  the  bridges  leading  from  Boston.  The  Boston  market  is  for  the  most  part 
supplied  by  Plymouth  and  Wellfleet."  As  early  as  1851  they  had  spread  northward  to  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  and  in  that  year  it  is  stated  that  many  were  sold  in  the  fish  market  at  Saint  John,  the 
largest  of  which  weighed  eight  pounds :  Mr.  Lanman  wrote  that  he  obtained  there  in  July  and 
August  specimens  nineteen  inches  long  and  weighing  four  pounds. 

The  rocky  shores  of  Cape  Ann  seem  particularly  well  adapted  to  its  peculiar  habit s.  and  large 
numbers  are  annually  obtained  from  the  rocks.  So  long  has  it  been  acclimated  and  so  well 
known  is  it,  that  the  local  authorities  of  that  region  are  inclined  to  doubt  that  it  is  not  native, 
The  "Gloucester  Telegraph"  of  May  5,  1860,  challenged  the  statement  that  the  Tautog  was  a  new 
tish,  declaring  that  many  years  ago  they  were  very  plenty,  and  that  after  a  period  of  scarcity  they 
reappeared.  So  abundant  had  they  become  in  1836  in  the  harbor  of  Wellfleet,  Massachusetts,  that 
three  Connecticut,  smacks  were  accustomed  summer  after  summer  to  devote  their  entire  energies  to 
their  capture  in  this  locality,  and  this  fishery  has  continued  up  to  the  present  day.  In  sandy 
loealities.  like  the  harbor  of  Proviucetowu,  they  have  never  secured  a  firm  hold,  though  large 
specimens  are  sometimes  taken  under  the  wharves. 

As  to  the  extension  of  the  range  of  this  species  southward  we  have  the  statement  of  Holbrook, 
quoted  by  DeKay,  writing  in  1842:  "Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  this  fish  farther 
south,  but  with  limited  success.  I  am  informed  by  my  friend,  Dr.  Holbrook,  that  General  Thomas 
1'inekney  imported  from  Rhode  Island  a  smack  load  of  the  Tautog  and  set  them  adrift  in  the 
harbor  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  where  they  are  to  be  found  to  this  day.  They  are  still 
occasionally  caught,  weighing  from  one  to  two  pounds,  but  never  in  such  quantities  as  to  be 
brought  to  market."  Mr.  Earll  obtained  specimens  at  Charleston  in  January,  1880.  Certain  ich- 


270  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

thyologists,  among  whom  is  Professor  Jordan,  express  skepticism  as  to  the  range  having  been 
thus  artificially  extended  southward. 

At  Cape  Lookout,  North  Carolina,  Jordan  records  the  species,  uuder  the  name  "Oyster-fish," 
as  rather  common,  the  young  abundant  about  the  wharves.  About  Norfolk  and  in  the  mouth  of 
Chesapeake  Bay  they  occur,  and  also  on  the  coast  of  Southern  New  Jersey,  where  they  are  taken 
in  the  vicinity  of  Beasley's  Point,  in  the  channel  ways  and  along  the  shores,  and  they  are  said  to  be 
somewhat  common  on  the  banks  off  Sandy  Hook  and  in  the  southern  bays  of  Long  Island.  These 
sandy  regions,  however,  are  not  so  much  frequented  by  them  as  those  abounding  in  rocky  beaches 
and  ledges. 

HABITS.—' Although  the  Tautog  appears  to  thrive  in  cool  water,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  rapid 
extension  of  the  northern  range,  they  seek  refuge  from  too  great  cold  by  retreating  in  winter  to 
somewhat  deeper  water  than  that  preferred  in  summer.  Here  they  appear  to  take  refuge  under 
the  stones  and  in  crevices  of  the  rocks,  if  we  may  judge  from  their  habits  as  observed  in  aquaria, 
their  smooth,  slimy  skins,  with  scales  protected  from  abrasion  by  a  thick  epidermis,  enabling  them 
to  move  about  among  the  sharp-pointed  rocks  unharmed.  They  are  on  this  account  also  especially 
well  suited  for  confinement  in  the  wells  of  smacks  and  in  "live-cars,"  where  it  is  customary  to  keep 
them  living  until  required  for  market.  They  appear  to  enter  upon  an  actual  state  of  hibernation, 
ceasing  to  feed  and  the  vital  functions  partially  suspended.  It  is  the  opinion  of  fishermen  that  during 
the  hibernating  season  the  vent  becomes  entirely  closed  up,  as  is  known  to  be  the  case  with  hiber- 
nating mammals.  It  is  certain  that  they  do  not  retreat  far  from  the  shore  in  winter,  and  that 
very  cold  weather,  especially  in  connection  with  a  run  of  low  tides,  often  causes  very  remarkable 
fatalities.  There  are  instances  of  their  death  in  immense  numbers.  In  February,  1857,  after  a  very 
cold  season,  hundreds  of  tons  drifted  upon  the  beach  at  Block  Island,  and  along  the  southern  shores 
of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  and  a  similar  catastrophe  took  place  in  1841.  In  March,  1875, 
it  is  stated  that  as  much  as  a  ton  was  thrown  ashore  in  the  drift  ice  at  Cnttyhunk.  They  were 
seen  floating  by  the  Hen  and  Chickens  light-ship  for  three  successive  days.  In  Southern  New 
England  they  become  torpid  in  November  and  December.  It  is  stated  that  they  are  sometimes 
caught  as  late  as  Christmas.  It  is  probable  that  many  do  not  enter  upon  a  state  of  complete  tor- 
pidity, but  remain  in  a  partially  active  state  in  deep  holes  not  far  from  the  shore,  and  that  it  is 
these,  rather  than  the  hibernating  individuals,  which  are  especially  liable  to  injury  from  the  cold. 
A  few  are  taken  in  Rhode  Island  in  midwinter  both  by  line  and  in  lobster-pots.  North  of  Cape 
Cod  they  are  rarely  taken  except  in  summer,1  while  towards  the  southern  limit  of  their  range  they 
are  apparently  as  abundant  in  winter  as  at  any  other  time.  Mr.  Nathan  King,  a  Rhode  Island 
fisherman,  states  that  when  the  sun  is  very  hot  the  Tautog  leaves  the  clear  spots  for  shelter  among 
the  weeds  and  rocks. 

FOOD. — As  might  be  inferred  from  its  haunts  and  from  the  character  of  its  strong,  sharp  teeth, 
the  food  of  this  fish  consists  of  the  hard-shelled  mollusks  and  crustaceans  which  are  so  abundant 
among  the  rocks.  In  their  stomachs  have  been  found,  among  other  things,  lobsters,  crabs  of  va- 
rious species,  clams,  mollusks,  squids,  scallops,  barnacles,  and  sand-dollars.  Many  of  the  smaller 
inollusks  they  swallow,  shells  and  all,  ejecting  the  hard  parts  after  the  flesh  has  been  digested. 
The  common  bait  for  Tautog  in  the  spring  is  the  clam,  preferably  the  soft  clam,  for  at  this  time  the 
fishermen  say  they  have  tender  mouths.  In  the  fall  crabs  and  lobsters  are  used,  the  fiddler-crab 
and  rock-crab  being  the  favorites.  They  are  sometimes  taken  with  a  bait  of  marine  worms. 

REPRODUCTION. — In  Narragansett  Bay  and  vicinity  they  spawn  from  the  end  of  April  until 
August. 

'The  first  of  the  season  were  taken  at  Gloucester  May  13,  1881. 


II AT. ITS  OF  TIIK  TAUTOG.  271 

The  pound  fishermen  liinl  them  to  In-  full  of  ripe  eggs  when  they  begin  to  approach  the 
shore  in  early  summer.  Mr.  ( 'hristopher  K.  Dyer,  of  Nc\\  iJedford.  has  \\itnes.M-d  the  operation 
nt'  spawning  in  ISux/anl's  Bay  in  tlie  middle  of  Juno,  in  water  about  two  fathoms  tire]).  This 
was  in  is."iit  or  isiid.  about  two  miles  east  of  Secoimet  Point.  The  number  of  eggs  lias  not  yet 
been  determined,  nor  is  it  known  how  long  the  period  of  incubation  continues,  but  young  fish  are 
found  abundantly  in  the  eel-grass  along  the  shore  in  August  and  September,  and  have  been 
observed  at  various  points  from  Cape  Lookout  to  Monomoy.  There  can  be  no  question,  however, 
that  there  are  breeding  grounds  near  Charleston,  South  Carolina-,  and  north  to  Cape  Cod,  since  the 
-pecics  is  very  local  in  its  habits  and  does  not  make  long  journeys  to  select  spawning  beds.  Little 
is  known  of  their  rate  of  growth,  though  it  is  probably  slow.  Capt.  Benjamin  Edwards,  of  Wood's 
Hull,  Massachusetts,  kept  thousands  of  small  Tautog  confined  in  a  pond  for  Jive  years,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time,  when  six  years  old,  none  weighed  more  than  two  and  one-half  pounds.  A  half- 
pound  tish  which  he  confined  in  a  lobster-car,  with  plenty  of  room  and  plenty  of  food,  increased 
from  one  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  in  six  months.  The  average  weight  of  those  sent  to 
market  does  not  exceed  two  or  three  pounds,  though  individuals  weighing  ten,  twelve,  and  four- 
teen pounds  are  by  no  means  unusual.  The  largest  on  record  was  obtained  near  New  York  in  July, 
1S70,  and  is  preserved  in  the  National  Museum  —  its  length  thirty-six  and  one-half  inches,  its 
weight  twenty-two  and  one-half  pounds. 

A H i  NUANCE. — The  abundance  of  this  species  past  and  present  has  been  actively  discussed 
and  much  interesting  testimony  on  the  subject  may  be  found  in  the  report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Fisheries.  This  was  one  of  the  fish  regarding  which  the  claim  was  made  that 
it  has  l>een  almost  exterminated  in  Rhode  Island  by  overfishing:  upon  this  point,  however,  the 
opinions  of  fishermen  and  experts  are  much  at  variance.  In  1870  when,  according  to  general 
(•pinion,  Tautog  had  been  almost  exterminated  in  the  waters  of  Narragansett  Bay,  the  records  of 
Newport  fob-markets  show  that  in  one  day,  November  2,  eleven  men  caught  about  .'$,000  pounds 
of  Tautog  with  hook  and  line,  besides  cod  and  other  flsh,  while  on  the  following  day  the  catch 
of  fifteen  men  was  28,000  pounds,  besides  codfish  caught  to  the  amount  of  600  pounds,  being  an 
average  of  over  2,000  pounds  to  each  man.  These  catches  compare  very  favorably  with  that 
iveorded  at  Fir  Rock  Ledge,  VVarebam,  ten  years  previous,  when,  on  the  9th  of  October,  two  men 
caught,  in  three  hours,  271  pounds  of  Tautog,  a  catch  which  was  pronounced  by  local  authorities 
the  greatest  ever  made  in  those  waters.1  Colonel  Lyman.  Massachusetts  commissioner,  writing  in 
1-sT'J.  remarked:  "Great  complaint  is  made  of  the  scarcity  of  this  valued  species  north  and  south 
of  Cape  Cod.  but  especially  near  the  mouth  of  Xarragansett  Bay,  where  they  are  said  to  be  not 
more  than  one-eighth  as  numerous  as  they  were  a  score  of  years  ago."  Although  much  testimony 
lias  been  printed  in  the  reports  of  the  Fish  Commission  of  the  United  States  and  of  Rhode  Island, 
the  gem  nil  tendency  of  which  is  to  show  that  old  fishermen  believe  that  Tautog  and  other  fish  are 
much  less  abundant  than  in  the  days  of  their  youth,  nothing  definite  has  yet  been  proved. 

The  Tautog  has  always  been  a  favorite  table  fish,  especially  in  New  York,  its  flesh  being 
white,  dry,  and  of  a  delicate  flavor.  Storer  states  that  they  are  frequently  pickled,  and  may  be 
kept  in  weak  brine  for  a  long  time,  and  in  this  state  they  are  considered  by  epicures  a  delicacy. 

Tin:  TAIIOGOK  BLACK-FISH  FISHERY.— The  capture  of  Tautog  is  chiefly  accomplished  by  the 
line  fishermen  of  Southern  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  and  the  weir  fishermen  of  the  same 
district.  No  one  tishes  for  Tautog  alone,  and  it  is  consequently  more  difficult  to  estimate  the 


1  Banistable  Patriot,  October  9,  1860. 


272  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

quantity  annually  taken.  About  200,000  pounds  were  brought  to  the  New  York  market  last  year. 
Local  consumption  is  considerable,  and  the  total  amount  annually  taken  may  be  estimated  at  from 
400,000  to  450,000  pounds.  At  least  two  hundred  fishermen  are  entirely  or  partly  engaged  in  this 
business  between  Cape  Cod  and  New  York.  The  catch  of  such  fishermen  in  Narragansett  Bay  is 
estimated  at  6,000  pounds  each  annually.  This  gives  in  round  numbers  100,000  pounds  taken  by 
hook  and  line  along  this  stretch  of  coast.  To  this  should  be  added  20,000  pounds  estimated  to  be 
taken  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  southward,  and  20,000  more  north  of  Cape  Cod.  Tautog  are 
also  frequently  taken  in  the  weirs  and  pounds,  and  the  catch  of  these  for  the  year  1876  was  esti. 
mated  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

PouiidR. 

Weirs  on  north  side  of  Cape  Cod 2, 274 

Weirs  on  south  side  of  Cape  Cod 561 

Weirs  in  Vineyard  Sound 29, 220 

Weirs  in  Buzzard's  Bay 39, 423 

Weirs  in  Narragansett  Bay 156,  750 

Weirs  on  Block  Island 33,153 

AVeirs  in  Fisher's  Island  Sound 14, 000 

Weirs  on  eastern  end  of  Long  Island 36, 000 


311, 381 

At  Noank,  Connecticut,  there  is  in  the  fall  a  season  of  "black-fishing"  which  continues  from  the 
middle  of  October  until  the  snow  begins  to  fall,  about  the  first  of  December.  About  twenty-five  men 
are  engaged  in  this  fishery  during  the  season  specified,  some  of  whom  begin  a  month  or  two  earlier. 
They  fish  in  Fisher's  Island  Sound  at  a  depth  of  six  to  eight  fathoms,  using  crabs  and  lobsters  for 
bait.  The  average  catch  of  each  man  for  the  season  is  estimated  by  Captain  Ashby  at  one  thou- 
sand pounds.  The  most  northerly  point  where  there  is  a  regular  fishery  ior  them  is,  as  has  already 
been  mentioned,  in  Wellfleet  harbor.  According  to  DeKay,  three  smacks  were  constantly  em- 
ployed from  April  to  November.  These  smacks  doubtless,  then  as  now,  hailed  from  Connecticut. 
In  1879  these  vessels  were  still  upon  the  old  ground,  one  of  them  hailing  from  Westport  and  one 
or  two  from  New  London.  One  of  the  skippers  was  said  to  have  fished  upon  this  ground  every 
seasou  for  thirty  years.  I  was  told  in  Wellfleet  that  they  ordinarily  remained  about  three  weeks 
to  fill  their  wells,  obtaining  in  that  time  from  two  to  four  thousand  pounds. 

Angling  for  Tautog  from  rocks  is  a  favorite  pursuit  of  amateur  fishermen  all  along  the  coast, 
particularly  about  New  York,  where  there  are  precipitous  shores,  the  anglers  standing  upon  the 
rocks.  July  12,  1879,  Capt.  S.  J.  Martin  caught  in  this  way,  at  Eastern  Point,  Gloucester,  seven, 
two  of  which  weighed  twenty-one  and  a  half  pounds.  In  Long  Island  Sound  and  other  protected 
waters  they  are  usually  fished  for  from  a  boat  anchored  among  the  reefs  or  near  wrecked  vessels. 
Mitchill,  writing  in  1814,  describes  the  methods  of  this  fishery  better  than  any  other  subsequent 
authority :  "Rocky  shores  and  bottoms  are  the  haunts  of  Blackfish.  Long  experience,  is  required 
to  find  all  these  places  of  resort.  Nice  observations  on  the  landmarks  in  different  directions  are 
requisite  to  enable  a  fishing  party  to  anchor  on  the  proper  spot.  For  example,  when  a  certain  rock 
and  tree  range  one  way,  with  a  barn  window  appearing  over  a  headland  the  other  way,  the  boat 
lying  at  the  point  where  two  such  lines  intersect  each  other,  is  exactly  over  some  famous  rendez- 
vous. ...  At  some  places  Black-fish  bite  best  upon  the  flood.  In  others  they  are  voracious 
during  the  ebb.  Thunder  accompanying  a  shower  is  an  indication  that  no  more  of  them  cun  be 
caught.  The  appearance  of  a  porpoise  infallibly  puts  an  end  to  the  sport.  Dull  weather  with  an 
easterly  wind  is  generally  the  omen  of  ill  luck.  .  .  .  Some  persons  who  live  contiguous  to 


THE  TAUTOG  FISHERY.  273 

the  shores  where  are  situated  the  rocks  which  are  frequented  by  Tautog  invite  the  fish  there  by 
baiting.  By  this  is  meant  tin-  throwing  overboard  broken  clams  or  crabs  to  induce  the  Black-fish 
to  renew  their  visits;  and  fine  sport  is  procured." 

As  has  been  already  stated,  the  Tautog  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States  is  extremely  sensi- 
tive to  cold,  and  at  the  approach  of  the  time  of  hibernation  the  vent  becomes  sealed,  the  fish  thus 
becoming  prepared  for  a  minimum  consumption  of  its  own  fat  during  its  winter  sleep. 

The  subjoined  notice  of  the  torpidity  of  the  Tautog  and  the  Scup  by  Captain  Atwood  will  be 
found  on  page  212  of  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  for 
1871-'72.1 

87.  THE  CHOGSET  OR  GUNNER— CTENOLABRUS  ADSPER8U8. 

The  Chogset  or  Cunuer,  Ctenolabriu  acbtpersus,  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Tautog, 
though  much  smaller  and  far  less  important.  Its  range  is  more  northerly.  I  can  find  no  record 
of  its  occurrence  south  of  New  York.  DeKay  remarks:  "I  am  not  aware  that  it  is  found  south  of 
Delaware  Bay."  From  New  York  to  the  Straits  of  Canso  the  species  is  exceedingly  abundant, 
being  found  everywhere  in  harbors  and  bays,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  fish-houses  where  offal 
is  thrown  overboard.  Cuvier  had  specimens  from  Newfoundland,  but  it  abounds  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  " Goldsinny,"  Ctenolabrus  rupegtris,  and  the  "Connor"  or 
"Gilt-head,"  Crenilabrus  melops,  of  Great  Britain  and  adjoining  Europe.  It  has  numerous  common 
names.  In  Southern  New  England  it  is  called  "Cbogset,"  a  name  of  Indian  origin,  sometimes  pro- 
nounced Cachogset.  This  name  appears  to  have  been  in  occasional  use  as  far  west  as  New  York, 
where,  in  Mitchill's  time,  it  was  also  called  "Blueflsh."  In  Maine,  the  British  Provinces,  and  in 
some  parts  of  Massachusetts  the  name  "  Gunner"  is  in  use,  evidently  having  been  brought  over  by 
the  English  colonists  who  remembered  a  very  similar  fish  at  home  which  has  this  name.  In  New 
York,  in  revolutionary  times,  the  name  "Burgall"  was  in  use,  and  continued  in  use  at  least  until 
1854,  when  it  is  stated  by  Gill  to  have  been  the  accepted  name  in  the  New  York  market.  This  name 
also  is  of  English  origin,  certain  species  of  this  family  being  called  "Bergylt"  in  parts  of  England. 
This  name  appears  to  hold  in  Eastern  Long  Island  at  the  present  time.  At  Provincetown  they 
are  called  "Sea-perch,"  and  at  the  Isle  of  Shoals  and  occasionally  on  the  adjoining  mainland 
"Blue-perch"  and  "Perch,"  this  also  being  a  reminiscence  of  English  usage.  At  Salem  they  are 
railed  "Nippers,"  and  occasionally  here  and  elsewhere  " Bait-stealers."  Where  Gunners  are  found 
at  all  they  are  exceedingly  abundant,  and,  though  performing  a  useful  duty  as  scavengers,  are  a  pest 
of  fishermen,  from  their  habit  of  nibbling  the  bait  from  their  hooks.  They  are  the  especial  detes- 
tation of  those  who  fish  for  tautog,  since  the  two  species  are  ordinarily  found  together.  Their 

1  In  Brown's  "American  Angler's  Guide,"  in  the  article  on  Tantog  or  Black-fish,  it  is  remarked:  "The  Black- 
tlsh  abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  Long  Island,  and  is  a  stationary  inhabitant  of  the  salt  water.  He  may  be  kept  for  a 
long  time  in  ponds  or  cars,  and  even  fatted  there.  When  the  cold  of  winter  bennmbs  him  he  refuses  to  ont  any  more, 
and  a  membrane  is  observed  to  form  over  the  vent  and  close  it.  He  begins  to  regain  appetite  with  the  return  of 
warmth  in  the  spring."  (P.  178.) 

"  Now  wo  know  that  Tantog  hibernate  among  rocks  near  the  const  and  in  our  rivers,  and  it  has  been  stated  by 
Mr.  L.  Tallman  or  Mr.  Daniel  Chnrch  that  some  years  ago,  after  a  very  cold  snap,  not  only  many  Tautog  were 
washed  ashore  frozen  stiff,  but  afterward  quantities  were  also  fonnd  dead  among  rocks  off  the  coast.  If,  during  the 
winter,  they  don't  feed  as  stated  above,  and  this  membrane  closes  them  up,  the  conclusion  must  be  that  they  remain 
in  a  state  of  torpor  or  sleep  during  cold  weather.  Now  it  happens  that  the  scup,  when  first  taken  by  traps,  are  in  a 
state  of  tnquir ;  they  neither  eat  nor  have  any  passage.  It  is  probably  sealed  up  like  the  Tantog,  and  nothing  in  the 
shape  of  food  is  to  bo  fonnd  within  them.  Some  say  they  are  blind,  and  they  seem  hardly  able  or  willing  to  move. 

"The  inference,  then,  is,  that  the  scup  have  also  been  hibernating  within  a  short  distance  from  the  coast,  in  the 
same  state  as  the  Tantog.  This  would  account  for  the  stray  scnp  mentioned  by  Mr.  South  wick  as  having  been  occa- 
sionally found  in  March.  A  warm  day  wakes  him  up,  and  he  visits  the  shore  for  a  day  or  so  and  then  returns.  To 
my  mind  this  is  a  more  reasonable  way  of  accounting  for  his  presence  than  to  assume  that  he  has  been  left  behind. 
If  these  facts  arc  as  stated,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  soup  are  a  local  fish,  and  do  not  leave  their  localities  any  more 
than  Tantog,  about  the  propriety  of  the  classification  of  which  as  a  local  fish  there,  is  no  question."— ATWOOD. 
18  F 


274  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

food  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  tautog,  except  that  they  cannot  swallow  large  shells.  They 
feed  also  upon  dead  animal  matter,  and  are  among  the  most  important  scavengers  of  our  harbors. 
Numbers  of  them  may  be  taken  by  lowering  a  net  containing  a  piece  of  meat  or  fish  and  quickly 
raising  it  to  the  surface.  Like  the  tautog,  Gunners  are  local  in  their  habits,  only  moving  from 
the  shoal  water  in  extreme  cold  weather,  and,  though  adapted  for  living  in  colder  water,  rarely 
retreat  except  in  the  severest  weather.  In  winter,  however,  they  rarely  are  caught  with  the  hook. 
The  first  of  the  season  of  1881  at  Gloucester  were  caught  May  8.  A  very  cold  season  sometimes 
destroys  them.  It  is  recorded  that  in  January,  1835,  great  quantities  were  frozen  and  thrown  up 
on  the  shore  between  Gloucester  and  Marblehead.1  In  June  and  July  they  spawn  on  their  feeding 
grounds  in  Southern  New  England,  and  in  July  and  August  young  fish  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
or  more  are  taken  abundantly  along  the  shores.  They  appear  to  become  adult  and  to  breed  when 
three  inches  long.  The  largest  I  have  observed  was  taken  at  Wood's  Holl,  in  July,  1875:  its 
weight  was  twelve  ounces,  its  length  ten  and  a  half  inches,  and  it  was  spawning  freely.  Storer 
claims  to  have  seen  them  fourteen  inches  long,  and  I  am  assured  that  they  sometimes  attain  a 
weight  of  two  pounds.  From  Eastport,  Maine,  to  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  the  Gunner  is  a  favorite 
article  of  food.  Elsewhere  it  is  rarely  eaten  and  is  usually  regarded  with  disgust — afoolish  prejudice, 
for  it  is  one  of  the  most  agreeably  flavored  small  fishes  on  our  coast.  Immense  quantities  are  taken 
with  the  hook  from  the  rocks,  bridges,  and  boats,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  like  Boston  and 
Portland.  They  are  also  taken  in  immense  quantities  in  nets.  The  Irish  market-boats  of  Boston 
make  a  special  business  of  catching  them,  using  circular  nets  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  which 
are  baited  and  set  among  the  rocks.  Dr.  Storer  records  that  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  Lab- 
rador, in  1849,  he  found  them  so  plentiful  in  the  Gut  of  Cansothat,  by  sinking  a  basket  with  a  salt 
fish  tied  therein  for  bait,  he  continually  caught  them  by  the  score,  and  by  putting  a  few  hundreds 
in  the  well  of  his  sloop  kept  the  crew  well  supplied  with  fish  while  at  sea  on  the  way  to  Labrador. 
The  people  of  Nova  Scotia,  like  those  south  of  Gape  Cod,  rarely,  if  ever,  eat  the  Gunner.  Mr.  J. 
Matthew  Jones  informs  me  that  in  the  summer  of  1863,  when  the  French  fleet  was  anchored  in 
Halifax  Harbor,  the  sailors  caught  them  for  food  in  great  numbers.  About  Saint  Margaret's  Bay, 
according  to  Mr.  Ambrose,  they  are  given  as  food  to  pigs:  since,  however,  the  pork  of  these 
fish-fed  pigs  always  tastes  oily,  they  are  generally  fed  on  some  other  food  for  a  short  time  before 
being  killed,  and  well  dosed  with  sulphur.  It  was  formerly  customary  in  Boston  to  keep  these  fish 
alive  for  market  in  large  cars,  described  by  Storer  as  three  feet  deep,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long, 
closed  beneath  and  latticed  at  the  sides,  and  anchored  in  deep  water.  Storer  states  that  sometimes 
as  many  as  five  thousand  fish  were  kept  in  a  single  car,  and  that  these  cars  were  replenished  every 
week  or  fortnight.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  quantity  of  Gun- 
ners annually  taken.  The  catch  of  the  Irish  market-boats  of  Boston  cannot  fall  much  short  of 
300,000  pounds,  and  that  of  the  other  towns  and  States  on  the  coast  of  New  England  is  certain  to 
be  from  200,000  to  250,000  pounds. 

88.  THE  PAEROT-FISHES  AND  SOME  OF  THEIR  ALLIES. 

Several  of  the  Parrot-fishes  occur  on  the  Florida  coast,  notably  the  Blue  Parrot-fish,  Platy- 
!/U>xsu8  radiatm  (Linn.)  Goode,  sometimes,  according  to  Jordan,  seen  in  Key  West  market,  and  /'. 
bivittatug,  known  in  Bermuda  as  "  Slippery  Dick,"  recorded  by  Jordan  from  Charleston  market. 
They  are  gorgeous  in  color,  but  the  flesh  is  so  dry  that  they  are  held  in  slight  esteem  for  table  use. 

'Qloucenter  Telegraph,  January  14,  1835. 


TEE  PARROT-FISHES  AND  THElIt  ALLIES.  275 

THE  RED-FISH,  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

This  species,  Trochocopus pulcher,  writes  Jordan,  is  everywhere  kuowu  as  the  "Red-fish":  the 
name  "Fat-head"  is  occasionally  used,  and  it  is  very  rarely  called  "  Sheepshead."  It  reaches  a 
weight  of  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds.  It  is  found  from  Point  Concepcion  southward  to  Ce.rros  Island 
in  enormous  numbers  in  the  kelp.  It  is  taken  chiefly  with  hook  and  line.  It  feeds  ou  crustaceans 
and  mollusks.  It  is  taken  chiefly  by  the  Chinese,  who  salt  and  dry  it.  It  forms  half  of  the  total 
catch  of  the  Chinese  south  of  Point  Concepciou.  It  does  not  rank  high  as  a  food-fish,  its  flesh 
being  coarse.  The  fat  forehead  is  said  to  make  excellent  chowder. 

THE   SENORITA-FISH,  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

At  Monterey,  California,  this  species,  Paeudojulis  modestus,  is  known  as,  "  Pescerey  " ;  south- 
ward it  is  called  "  Seflorita."  It  reaches  a  weight  of  less  than  half  a  pound.  It  is  found  in  the 
kelp  from  Monterey  southward  to  Cerros  Island,  and  is  generally  common.  It  feeds  chiefly  on 
Crustacea.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  bait,  although  the  flesh  is  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 

THE  KELP-FISH,  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

ThJs  species,  Platyglossus  semicinctus,  bears  in  company  with  Heterostichus  restrains,  and 
perhaps  others,  the  name  of  "Kelp-fish."  It  reaches  a  pound  weight,  and  a  length  of  nearly  a 
foot.  It  is  found  in  the  kelp  about  Santa  Cataliua  Island  and  southward,  and  is  not  very  abun- 
dant. It  feeds  ou  Crustacea,  and  spawns  in  July.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  of  good  quality. 

THE  HOG-FISH — LACHNOL^IMUS  FALOATUS. 

This  fish  is,  according  to  Mr.  Stearns,  abundant  at  Key  West  and  among  the  Florida  coral  reefs, 
although  he  has  not  observed  it  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  there  attains  a  considerable  size, 
and  a  weight  of  twelve  or  fifteen  pounds,  although  the  average  size  is  not  more  than  one-fourth 
that  size.  In  the  Key  West  market  it  appears  almost  daily,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  food.  This 
species  occurs  throughout  the  West  Indies,  and  is  one  of  the  favorite  food-fish  of  Cuba,  although 
its  sale  is  forbidden  by  law,  on  account  of  the  supposed  poisonous  nature  of  its  flesh.  In  the 
Bermudas  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  food-fish,  attaining  sometimes  the  weight  of 
twenty  pounds.  It  is  caught  by  line-fishermen  among  the  reefs,  at  a  depth  of  five  to  forty  fathoms. 
Like  the  other  members  of  this  family,  it  feeds  upon  small  fish  and  upon  bottom  crustaceans  and 
mollusks.  Its  brilliant  red  color  renders  it  a  conspicuous  object  in  the  markets.  During  the 
different  stages  of  growth  its  species  undergoes  many  changes  of  form,  and  has  been  described 
under  several  different  names.  The  large  adult  male  is  remarkable  on  account  of  a  heavy  black 
blotch  over  the  forehead  and  over  the  eyes.  The  name  "  Hog-fish"  refers  to  the  swine-like  appear- 
ance of  the  bead,  jaws,  and  teeth.  At  the  entrance  to  the  Great  Sound,  in  Bermuda,  is  a  reef  called 
Hog-fish  Shoal,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  beacon  bearing  an  enormous  effigy  of  a  Hog-fish  in  metal. 

89.  THE  DEMOISELLE  AND  THE  CICHLID  FAMILIES. 

Among  the  reefs  of  Florida  two  or  three  species  of  the  family  Pomacentrulas  are  abundant. 
Most  prominent  among  these  is  the  "Sergeant  Major,"  OlypJiidodon  saxatilis  (L.)  C.  &  V.,  called 
in  Bermuda  the  "  Cow-pilot,"  from  an  alleged  habit  of  being  always  found  in  the  society  of  the 
"Cow-fish,"  or  Ostracion.  This  fish  sometimes  attains  the  length  of  ten  inches  and  the  weight  of 
a  pound  or  so,  but  is  usually  of  a  smaller  size  and  is  not  highly  esteemed  for  food.  It  is  found 
throughout  the  tropical  waters  of  the  entire  world. 


276  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

There  are  several  smaller  species  of  this  and  of  allied  genera  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  in  the  Gulf  of  California.  On  the  California  coast 
occurs  a  species,  Pomacentrus  rubicundus,  conspicuous  by  reason  of  its  uniformly  deep  crimson  or 
orange  coloration,  which  is  usually  known  as  the  "Garibaldi"  among  the  Italians.  The  names 
"  Gold-fish"  and  "Red  Perch"  are  also  used,  all  of  them  referring  to  its  brilliant  orange  colorations. 
It  reaches  a  weight  of  three  pounds,  and  a  length  of  less  than  a  foot.  It  is  found  about  the  Santa 
Barbara  Islands  and  southward  to  Lower  California.  It  lives  about  rocky  places,  and  is  generally 
abundant.  Its  food  is  largely  crustaceous.  It  is  a  food-fish  of  low  grade,  and  has  little  economic 
importance.  Another  somewhat  noteworthy  species  is  known  in  California,  on  account  of  its  dusky 
colors,  as  the  "  Blacksmith."  Chromis  punetlpinnis,  Cooper. 

"This  fish,"  writes  Jordan,  "is  known  as  the  'Blacksmith'  from  its  dusky  colors.  It  reaches  a 
weight  of  about  two  pounds.  It  ranges  from  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands  southward,  living  about 
reefs  of  rock,  and  is  locally  abundant.  It  feeds  on  shells  and  Crustacea.  It  is  considered  as 
inditt'erent  food." 

The  family  Cichlidce  is  large,  and  is  composed  chiefly  of  fresh-water  fishes  occurring  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  Africa  and  America.  Among  its  members  is  a  South  American  species,  Ueoplictfim 
surinamensis,  which  is  often  mentioned  by  writers  on  the  instincts  of  animals  on  account  of  a 
peculiar  habit  of  the  males  which  carry  in  their  mouths  the  eggs  until  they  are  hatched,  and 
which  are  even  said  to  allow  the  young  fish  to  seek  refuge  within  their  jaws.  We  have  no  repre- 
sentatives of  the  family  on  our  Atlantic  coast,  though  one  or  two  species  of  the  genus  Heron  occur 
in  the  brackish  waters  of  Texas. 

90.  THE  SURF-FISH  FAMILY— EMBIOTOCID-ffi. 
By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

This  remarkable  group  of  fishes  forms  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  fauna  of  our  Pacific 
coast.  Of  the  nineteen  species  now  known,  all  but  one  (Ditrema  TemmincJci  of  Japan)  occur  on  the 
coast  of  California,  and  most  of  them  in  very  great  abundance.  The  species  are  most  of  them  very 
similar  in  habits  and  economic  value,  and  the  following  general  remarks  are  proffered  before  pro- 
ceeding to  the  discussion  of  the  different  species. 

NAMES. — The  general  name  "Perch"  is  applied  to  these  fishes  everywhere  along  the  coast. 
This  unfortunate  misnomer  came  about  from  their  resemblance  to  the  sun-fishes  or  "  perch"  of  the 
Southern  States,  and  to  the  "  white  perch,"  Roccus  americanus,  of  the  East.  On  the  coast  of  Oregon 
the  large  species  (especially  Damalichthys  argyrosomm]  are  called  "Pogy"  or  "Porgee,"  in  allusion 
to  their  undoubted  resemblance  to  the  scup  or  porgee  of  the  East.  The  names  "  Minny,"  "  Sparada," 
and  "Moharra"  are  also  applied  to  the  smaller  species  northward.  About  San  Francisco,  the  name 
"Perch"  is  given  to  them  all,  as  well  as  to  Archoplites  interruptus,  and  separate  names  for  the 
different  species  are  seldom  heard.  From  Monterey  southward,  the  name  "Surf-fish"  is  in  common 
use,  although  the  name  "  Perch"  is  still  more  common. 

HABITS,  &c. — The  largest  Bhacochilus  toxotes,  reaches  a  weight  of  four  pounds;  the  smallest, 
Abeona  minima,  a  length  of  four  or  five  inches.  So  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge,  the  growth  of  the 
young  is  quite  rapid,  as  the  specimens  are  about  half  grown  the  first  winter,  and  probably  reach 
full  size  in  two  and  a  half  to  three  years — perhaps,  in  some  cases,  in  the  second  year. 

The  center  of  distribution  of  this  group  is  from  Santa  Barbara  to  Tomales  Bay.  Northward 
the  number  of  species  decreases,  while  the  number  of  individuals  is,  perhaps,  equally  great  as  far 
as  the  Gulf  of  Georgia.  Southward  both  individuals  and  species  rapidly  diminish  in  number. 


HABITS  OF  THE  SIUT  KISIIKS. 

Their  range  probably  extends  from  <  Yrros  Island  to  Sitka;  certainly  no  farther.  Most  of  them  live 
in  shallow  water,  on  a  sandy  bottom,  both  in  the  OJMSU  sea  and  in  sheltered  bays.  A  seine  drawn 
in  the  surf  will  often  be  filled  with  the  silvery  speeies  (Amiiltixtichu/t:  //o/cwiof ««),  and  a  seinedrawn 
in  a  bay  may  l>e  equally  lull  of  Ditrema  laterals,  Ditrema  Jacknoni,  etc.  One  species  is  confined 
to  the  fresh  waters.  Nearly  all  of  them  feed  chiefly  on  Crustacea,  together  with  such  small  fish  as 
they  ean  swallow.  The  species  of  Abeona  are  chiefly  herbivorous,  feeding  on  seaweed. 

The  Kmbiotocoids  are  all  oviparous.  The  youug  are  fifteen  to  twenty  in  number,  and  are 
brought  forth  in  summer:  when  born,  the  little  fish  are  from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  two  and 
a  half  inches  in  length,  according  to  the  species.  They  are  closely  packed  together  in  the  uterus, 
the  inner  surface  of  which  forms  folds  partly  separating  the  young  from  each  other.  The  young 
are  at  first  excessively  compressed,  with  the  soft  parts  of  the  vertical  fins  excessively  elevated.  As 
their  development  proceeds  they  resemble  more  and  more  the  parent,  and  when  born  their  form  is 
quite  similar,  the  body,  however,  more  compressed,  the  fins  higher,  and  the  color  usually  red. 

Impregnation  probably  takes  place  in  the  fall.  In  January  most  of  the  species  have  the  young 
half  grown  as  to  length,  and  when  the  parent  fish  is  caught  the  youug  readily  slip  out  from  the 
ovary.  From  January  to  June  the  fish-stalls  where  these  fishes  are  sold  are  littered  with  these 
foetal  fish.  Little  is  known  of  the  place  of  spawning,  but  I  suppose  that  the  young  are  simply 
extruded  in  the  water  just  outside  the  breakers  and  left  to  shift  for  themselves.  As  to  the  mode 
of  impregnation,  we  have  made  no  observations.  Dr.  Blake  thinks  that  the  fleshy  thickening  on 
the  anal  fin  of  the  male  is  to  give  the  female  something  to  hold  to  with  the  ventral  fins,  and  that 
the  two  sexes  approach  each  other,  ventral  surfaces  together,  and  with  their  heads  in  opposite 
directions.  They  have  110  special  enemies  except  the  larger  predatory  fishes  and  the  fishermen, 
who  destroy  great  numbers  at  the  breeding  time.  No  diseases  have  been  noticed. 

The  species  are  all,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three  of  the  smallest,  used  as  food.  Their 
flesh  is  watery,  flavorless,  and  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  Scorpaeuoid,  Seia-uoid.  and  Percoid 
fishes,  and  only  their  abundance  gives  them  value.  Great  quantities  of  them  are  consumed  by  the 
Chinese. 

ALFIONE  Rhacochilus  toxotes  Agassiz). — This  species  is  called  "Alfione"  at  Soquel,  "Sprat" 
at  Santa  Cruz;  elsewhere  it  is  simply  "Perch."  It  reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches  and  a 
weight  of  five  pounds,  being  mnch  the  largest  of  the  group.  It  ranges  from  San  Pedro  to  Cape 
Mendociuo,  and  is  generally  common,  although  not  nearly  so  abundant  as  some  of  the  others.  A  - 
a  food-fish  it  is  considered  the  best  of  this  very  indifferent  group. 

POEGEE  (Damalichthys  argyrosomus  (Girard)  J.  &  G.). — On  the  coast  of  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington this  species  is  known  as  "Porgee";  elsewhere  simply  as  "Perch,"  or  "White  Perch.r>  It 
reaches  a  weight  of  two  and  a  half  pounds.  It  ranges  from  San  Pedro  to  Vancouver's  Island,  its 
abundance  steadily  increasing  to  the  northward  so  far  as  traced.  At  San  Francisco  it  is  rather 
common,  but  south  of  Point  Coucepciou  rather  rare.  As  a  food-fish  it  ranks  next  to  the  preceding. 

WHITE  PEBCH  (Ditrema  furcatum  (Grd.)  Giinther). — This  species  occasionally  reaches  a  weight 
of  a  pound,  but  is  usually  smaller.  It  ranges  from  Cape  Mendocino  to  the  Mexican  line,  being 
everywhere  exceedingly  abundant.  It  lives  in  sheltered  bays.  It  is  always  present  in  the  markets 
and  is  held  in  low  esteem. 

Ditrema  atripes  Jor.  &  Gilb. — This  8|>ecies  reaches  a  weight  of  one  and  a  half  pounds.  It 
has  been  noticed  only  in  the  Bay  of  Monterey,  where  it  is  generally  rather  common,  being  taken 
in  seines  near  the  shore. 

BLUE  SURF-FISH  (Ditrema  lateralc  (Agassiz)  Giinther). — This  species  is  known  as  the  "Blue 
Perch"  or  "Stirf-lish.''  It  reaches  a  weight  of  about  two  and  a  half  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Santa 


278  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Barbara  to  Vancouver's  Island,  and  is  everywhere  abundant.  North  of  San  Francisco  it  is  the 
most  common  of  the  larger  species.  It  is  au  important  food-fish,  although  not  of  very  good  quality. 

BLACK  SURF-FISH  (Ditrema  Jacksoni  (Agassiz)  Giinther). — This  species  is  known  as  "Perch,' 
"Surf-fish,"  "Black  Perch,"  etc.  About  San  Diego  it  is  called  ''Croaker,"  which  name,  however, 
belongs  properly  to  the  Sciaenoid  fishes.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  two  pounds.  It  ranges  from  San 
Diego  to  Puget  Sound.  North  of  Cape  Mendocino  it  is  scarce.  From  San  Francisco  southward 
it  is  probably  brought  into  the  market  in  greater  numbers  than  any  other  species.  It  is  but  an 
indifferent  food-fish. 

Sypsurus  Garyi  (L.  Agass.)  A.  Agass. — This  species  is  knowu  as  "Moharra"  to  the  Portuguese 
at  Monterey;  elsewhere  it  is  a  "Perch."  It  reaches  the  weight  of  a  pound.  It  ranges  from 
Tomales  Bay  to  Santa  Barbara,  and  is  rather  common,  being  sometimes  taken  in  great  numbers 
in  spring.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  bait  for  rock-fish,  the  larger  individuals  only  being  sent  to  market. 
It  is  the  most  brightly  colored  of  its  family. 

SILVER  SURF-FISH  (Amphistichm  argenteus  Agassiz). — This  species  is  kuowu  as  "  Surf-fish"  and 
"  White  Perch."  It  reaches  a  weight  of  three  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Tomales  to  San  Diego,  and 
is  locally  often  very  abundant,  especially  along  sandy  beaches. 

EOSY  SURF-FISH  (Holconotus  rhodoterus  Agassiz). — This  species  has  no  distinctive  name  with 
the  fishermen.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  one  and  a  half  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Cape  Mendociuo 
to  Santa  Barbara,  being  often  locally  abundant,  especially  at  Soquel,  but  it  is  not  one  of  the  more 
common  species. 

Holconotus  Agassizi  (Gill)  Jor.  &  Gilb. — This  species  reaches  a  weight  of  but  half  a  pound.  In 
distribution  and  abundance  it  agrees  with  the  preceding. 

WALL-EYE  SURF-FISH  (Holconotus  argenteus  (Gibb.)  Jor.  &  Gilb.). — This  species  is  usually 
known  as  the  "Wall-eye,"  in  allusion  to  the  great  size  of  its  eyes.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  half  a 
pound.  It  ranges  from  Cape  Meudocino  to  the  Mexican  line,  and  is  generally  abundant,  especially 
in  the  surf.  It  is  taken  in  large  quantities,  and  is  little  esteemed. 

Holconotus  analis  (A.  Agass.)  Jor.  &  Gilb. — This  species  reaches  a  weight  of  a  quarter  of  a 
pound.  It  is  found  from  San  Luis  Obispo  to  San  Francisco.  It  is  only  locally  abundant,  and  is 
not  purposely  sent  to  market.  At  Soquel,  where  it  is  abundant,  it  is  used  for  bait. 

Brachyistius  romceus  Jor.  &  Gilb. — This  species  weighs  less  than  half  a  pound.  It  has  been 
taken  only  in  deep  water  off  Point  Eeyes. 

Brachyistius  frenatus  Gill. — This  species  rarely  weighs  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  pound.  It 
ranges  from  Catalina  Island  to  Vancouver's  Island,  living  in  water  of  moderate  depth,  and  is 
locally  exceedingly  abundant,  as  at  Monterey,  Point  Reyes,  etc.  It  comes  into  the  market  only  by 
accident,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  bait. 

SPARADA  (Cymatogaster  aggregatus  Gibb.). — This  fish  is  usually  known  as  the  "  Shiner."  On 
Puget  Sound  the  Americans  call  it  "Minuy,"  and  the  Italians  "Sparad"  or  "Sparada."  It  is  found 
from  Vancouver's  Island  to  the  Mexican  line,  everywhere  in  great  numbers,  and  is  perhaps  the 
most  abundant  species  on  the  coast.  It  is  rarely  used  except  for  bait. 

Abeona  aurora  Jor.  &  Gilb. — This  species  reaches  a  weight  of  nearly  half  a  pound.  It  is 
abundant  in  rocky  places  from  Monterey  to  San  Francisco,  often  frequenting  rock-pools.  It  feeds 
ou  plants,  and  is  occasionally  sent  to  market. 

SHINER  (Abeona  minima  [Gibbous]  Gill.). — This  little  fish  is  usually  known  as  the  "  Shiner."  It 
is  the  smallest  of  the  group,  rarely  weighing  a  quarter  of  a  pound.  It  ranges  from  Tomales  Bay 
to  San  Diego,  and  is  generally  common,  although  not  one  of  the  most  abundant  species.  Its 
appearance  in  the  market  is  accidental. 


TIII:  SII;F  FISH  FAMILY.  279 

"EiVEH  PERCH"  (ni/st,-r«<-arpu*  Trattki,  Gibbous). — This  s]>ecies  very  often  reaches  the  weight 
of  about  h:ilf:i  pound.  It  is  confined  to  the  fresh  water,  being  found  in  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Jou<|iiin  Ilivers,  and  other  streams  as  Car  southward  at  least  as  San  Luis  Obispo.  It  is  sent  in 
small  numbers  to  the  markets  of  San  Francisco,  and  is  chiefly  eaten  by  the  Chinese. 

91.  THE  MOHARRA  FAMILY— GERRIDJE. 

Tliis  family  is  represented  on  our  eastern  coast  by  four  species,  all  of  which  are  very  small 
and  of  little  consequence  except  as  food  for  larger  fishes. 

Qerre*  argenteus,  first  discovered  by  Professor  Baird  at  Beesley's  Point,  New  Jersey,  appears 
tn  ]»•  common  from  North  Carolina  to  New  Jersey,  and  has  been,  within  two  or  three  years, 
observed  at  Wood's  IIoll,  Massachusetts. 

<;.  harengultu  and  O.  homonymuii  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  Bermudas  there  are 
three  species  of  this  genus;  these  are  known  by  the  names  "Shad"  and  "Long-boned  Shad." 
They  are  seined  in  great  numbers,  and  constitute  an  important  article  of  food. 

92.  THE  THREAD-FISH  FAMILY— POLYNEMID-E. 

The  family  Polynemidce  is  remarkable  by  reason  of  the  elongate  filaments  which  are  developed 
in  connection  with  the  pectoral  fin.  Giinther  has  remarked:  "Their  eyes  are  large,  but  generally 
obscured  by  a  filmy  skin,  so  that  these  feelers  must  be  of  great  use  to  them  in  helping  them  to 
find  their  way  to  their  food.  It  is  evident,  from  the  organization  of  these  fishes,  that  they  live  in 
thick  water  or  muddy  bottoms,  such  as  are  found  near  the  mouths  of  great  rivers." 

There  are  two  or  three  species  upon  our  coast,  one  of  which,  the  "  Thread-fisli "  of  Peusacola, 
I'<iliinimu»  octonemus,  is  the  subject  of  the  following  interesting  observations  by  Mr.  Stearns: 

"The  Thread-fish  is  rather  common  at  Pensacola  in  summer,  and  has  not  been  observed  else- 
where in  the  Gulf  by  me.  My  first  specimen  was  taken  at  the  surface  of  the  water  in  Peusacola 
l»a.\ .  May  iM,  1878.  Later  in  the  season  I  saw  large  schools  of  them  in  shoal  water  along  the  sea- 
beach  swimming  towards  the  harbor  mouth.  On  June  14  a  very  large  school  of  them  came  into  the 
surf  near  Fort  McRae,  and  large  numbers  were  thrown  ashore  by  the  waves,  until  perfect  wind- 
rows of  dead  fish  were  found  upon  the  sands.  Sharks  and  other  fishes  were  preying  upon  them  in 
the  water,  and  vast  numbers  of  sea-birds  and  buzzards  awaited  them  on  land.  The  individuals 
composing  this  school  were  of  various  sizes,  the  majority  being  adults.  (Several  of  these  were 
sent  to  the  National  Museum.)  They  were  evidently  moving  towards  the  bay.  Small  schools 
were  seen  during  the  months  of  July  of  that  and  the  follow  ing  year." 

93.  THE  SURGEON-FISH  FAMILY— ACANTHURLD-E. 

On  the  coast  of  Florida,  as  well  as  through  the  West  Indies  and  in  the  Bermudas,  occur  two 
species  of  this  family,  Acanthurus  cceruleus  and  A.  nigrican*,  generally  known  as  "Doctor-fish"  or 
"Surgeon-fish."  They  are  distinguished  by  slight  differences  of  proportion  and  color.  Each  side 
of  the  tail  is  provided  with  a  sharp,  lancet-Like  spine,  which,  when  at  rest,  is  received  into  a  sheath, 
but  it  may  be  thrust  out  at  right  angles  to  the  body,  and  used  as  a  weapon  of  offense;  sweeping 
the  tail  from  side  to  side  as  they  swim,  they  can  inflict  very  serious  wounds,  and  I  have  seen,  in 
the  Bermudas,  large  fishes,  confined  in  the  same  aquarium  tank  with  them,  covered  with  gashes 
inflicted  in  this  manner.  They  are  available  for  food,  but  are  more  worthy  of  consideration  on 
account  of  their  power  of  wounding  the  fishermen.  The  "Bone-fish"  of  Key  West,  according  to 
Stearns,  belongs  to  this  family  and  genus.  It  is  quite  common  about  the  coral  reefs  of  the  South 
Florida  coast. 


280  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

94.  THE  ANGEL-FISH  FAMILY— CH-ETODONTIDJE. 

This  family  contains  numerous  species  of  fully-formed,  beautifully-tinted  fishes,  usually  of 
small  size,  which  abound  in  all  tropical  seas,  especially  among  the  coral  reefs.  Their  teeth  are 
very  small  and  feeble,  and  they  feed  upon  minute  invertebrates.  To  this  group  belong  the  beau- 
tiful "  four-eyed  fish  "  of  the  West  Indies ;  also  the  Angel-fish,  Holacanthus  ciliaris,  a  lovely  species, 
familiar  to  the  residents  of  New  York,  specimens  having  been  brought  from  the  Bermudas  at  vari- 
ous times  during  the  past  thirty  years  for  exhibition  in  the  aquaria  of  that  city.  This  species  is 
found  also  along  the  Florida  coast,  and  as  far  north  as  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  It  is  con- 
sidered the  most  delicious  food-fish  of  the  Bermudas. 

Stearns  writes:  "The 'White  Angel-fish,'  the  'Yellow  Angel-fish,'  and  the  'Black  Angel- 
fish'  are  reported  as  common  about  the  Florida  reefs,  the  two  first  as  being  abundant  and  the  last 
as  rare.  I  did  not  secure  a  specimen  of  either." 

The  Black  Angel-fish  is  probably  the  species  known  under  this  name  in  the  Bermudas,  Hola- 
canthus tricolor. 


TIIK  MACKKIIKL  AND  ITS  ALLIES.  281 


L.— THE  MACKEREL  AND  ITS  ALLIES. 

95    THE  MACKEREL— SCOMBER  SCOMBRUS 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION — The  common  Mackerel,  Scomber  ncombrun,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean.  On  our  coast  its  southern  limit  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Hat- 
teras  in  early  spring.  The  fishing  schooners  of  New  Hngland  find  schools  of  them  in  this  region 
at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  but  there  is  no  record  of  their  having  been  taken  in  any  numbers 
in  shoal  water  south  of  Long  Island.  A.  W.  Simpson  states  that  the  species  has  been  observed  in 
the  sounds  about  Cape  Hatteras  in  August,  September,  and  October.  It.  E.  Earll  finds  evidence 
that  stragglers  occasionally  enter  the  Chesai>eake.  Along  the  coasts  of  the  Middle  States  and  of 
New  England  Mackerel  abound  throughout  the  summer  mouths,  and  are  also  found  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  where,  in  past  years,  fishermen  of  the  United  States  congre- 
gated in  great  numbers  to  participate  in  their  capture.  They  are  also  found  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  though  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  ordinarily  frequent  the  waters  north  of  the  Straits 
of  Belle  Isle. 

Captain  Atwood1  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  they  vis'c  Northern  Labrador  only  in  seasons 
remarkable  for  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winds,  and  that  in  other  seasons  they  do  not  go  so  far 
north. 

Professor  Hind  was  told  by  the  residents  of  Aillik  and  Kypokok,  Labrador,  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  northwest  of  Hamilton  Inlet,  that  Mackerel  were  abundant  there  in  1871,  and  that 
a  few  were  caught  in  cod-seines.  While  at  Double  Island  harbor,  some  fifteen  miles  north  of 
Hopedale,  a  French  Canadian  resident  informed  him  that  there  is  "a  scattering  of  Mackerel'1  on 
that  part  of  the  coast. 

They  appear  also  at  times  to  have  been  abundant  on  the  northeastern  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
though  their  appearance  there  is  quite  irregular.  Mackerel  do  not  occur  in  Hudson's  Bay  nor  on 
the  coast  of  Greenland.  It  seems  probable  that  the  natural  northern  limit  of  the  species  in  the 
Western  Atlantic  is  not  far  from  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  Professor  Packard,  who  visited  this 
region  in  1866,  recorded  that  a  few  Mackerel  are  taken  in  August  in  Salmon  Bay  and  Red  Bay,  but 
that  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  were  evidently  the  northern  limits  of  the  genus,  while  Fortin,  one  of 
the  best  Canadian  authorities  on  fisheries,  in  his  annual  report  for  1864,  stated  that  in  summer 
they  appear  in  some  places,  such  as  Little  Mecattina,  on  the  adjoining  coast,  latitude  50£°  north, 
and  even  sometimes  enter  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.* 

1  Proceedings,  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  vol.  10,  p.  66. 

'In  1860  Capt.  Peter  Avery,  of  the  schooner  Alabama,  of  Provincetown,  took  100  barrels  of  fat  Mackerel  at  Port 
au  Port,  Newfoundland.  Captain  Atwood,  however,  has  seen  them  at  the  Bay  of  Islands.  He  has  also  seen  largo 
schools  at  Mecattina. 

Capt.  J.  W.  Collins  writes:  "As  early  as  1837  or  183(3,  Capt.  Stephen  Rich,  of  Gloucester,  spent  almost  the  entire 
mackerel -fishing  season  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  pursuit,  of  Mackerel.  He  was  induced  by  the  reports  brought  him 
by  the  Labrador  cod-fishermen  to  make  this  attempt.  They  had  reported  seeing  Mackerel  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  and  Captain  Rich,  being  of  an  adventurous  turn,  decided  to  devote  one  summer  to  the  \\\\- 
gation  of  the  subject,  feeling  in  hoped  of  obtaining  a  largo  catch.  My  father  was  one  of  the  crow,  and  I  have  often 
heard  him  tell  that  the  trip  was  entirely  unsuccessful,  notwithstanding  the  tact  that  they  cru ised  all  the  w.-i\  fnmi 
Mecattiiia  Islands  through  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  and  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Newfoundland  as  far  down  ax  the 
Bay  of  Inland.-.  I'ew  or  no  Mackerel  wen-  taken  until  the  vessel  returned  in  the  fall  to  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf 
of  Saint  Lawrence,,  where  a  small  fare  was  obtained  in  a  few  weeks'  tUhing." 


282  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Perley  says  that  they  are  rarely  known  to  visit  the  coast  of  Labrador.  H.  R.  Storer,  after 
carefully  studying  the  fauna  of  Southern  Labrador,  in  1849,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were 
sometimes  found  at  Little  Mecattiua. 

In  the  various  reports  of  the  Canadian  inspectors  of  fisheries  on  the  Labrador  coast  from  1864 
to  1870  may  be  found  evidence  that  Mackerel  are  rarely  taken  even  on  the  Labrador  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 

Professor  Verrill,  who  visited  Anticosti  and  Miugau  in  1861,  was  unable  to  find  any  Mackerel 
in  the  waters  of  that  region,  although  the  best  methods  of  catching  them  were  often  used. 

Some  years  ago  Mackerel  were  abundant  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  as  many  as  twelve  vessels  from 
Eastport,  besides  others,  being  engaged  in  their  capture,  chiefly  about  Digby  and  Saint  Mary's 
Bay.  They  have  now  so  completely  disappeared  as  not  to  form  an  item  in  the  commercial  record 
of  the  catch. 

The  species  is  found  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  Norwegian  coast  from  the  Christiania 
Fjord  to  the  North  Cape  and  Varanger  Fjord,  latitude  71°.  It  occurs  on  the  south  coast  of  Swe- 
den, and,  entering  the  Baltic,  is  found  along  the  shores  of  Eastern  Denmark  and  Eastern  Prussia, 
and  also  abundantly  in  the  German  Ocean  and  the  English  Channel,  as  well  as  everywhere  in  all 
parts  of  the  British  Isles,  and  southward  to  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  abounds,  especially  in  the 
Adriatic.  There  is  no  record  of  its  capture  in  Africa,  South  America,  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  even  about  the  Bermudas. 

The  Mackerel,  then,  would  appear  to  be  a  shore-loving  fish,  not  addicted  to  wide  wanderings 
in  the  ocean,  and  with  range  limited  in  the  Western  Atlantic  between  latitudes  35°  and  56°;  in 
the  Eastern  Atlantic  between  36°  and  71°. 

MIGRATIONS. — The  migrations  of  the  Mackerel,  the  causes  of  their  appearance  and  disap- 
pearance at  certain  seasons  at  different  points  along  the  coast,  the  causes  of  their  relative  abun- 
dance and  scarcity  in  different  years,  have  previously  been  discussed  by  numerous  writers.  The 
subject  has  received  special  attention  on  account  of  the  disputes  between  our  own  and  the  Canadian 
Government  concerning  the  value  to  our  fishermen  of  the  right  to  participate  in  the  mackerel 
fisheries  in  the  Provincial  waters. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  amount  of  paper  which  has  been  covered  with  theories  to  explain 
the  various  mooted  questions,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  habits  of  the  Mackerel  are  understood  at 
all  better  than  those  of  other  fishes  which  have  not  attracted  so  much  attention.  The  most  volu- 
minous writer  upon  this  subject  has  been  Prof.  Henry  Youle  Hind,  who  devotes  many  pages  of 
his  book,  "The  Effect  of  the  Fishery  Clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington  on  the  Fisheries  and 
Fishermen  of  British  North  America,"  to  the  attempt  to  prove  that  the  Mackerel  which  have  been 
at  certain  seasons  in  the  past  so  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  Nova  Scotia  remain  there  throughout  the  year,  hibernating  in  deep  waters  not  very  remote  from 
the  shore.1  1  have  attempted  to  show  the  weakness  of  his  argument  in  an  essay  published  in  the 

'Mr.  Barnet  Phillips,  in  the  New  York  Times,  December  31,  1880,  thus  criticises  the  theory  of  Mr.  Hind,  while 
referring  to  Mr.  William  H.  Ricleing's  essay  entitled  "First  Families  of  the  Atlantic": 

"In  an  article  entitled  'First  Families  of  the  Atlantic,'  to  be  found  in  the  January  number  of  Harper's  Muga/im  •. 
certain  assertions  are  advanced  in  regard  to  the  habits  of  the  Mackerel  which  are  entirely  of  an  ex  parle.  charartrr, 
and  might  unintentionally  act  injuriously  to  our  interests  in  case  fntuie  disputes  arose  between  the  Provinces  iiml  i  he- 
United  States  on  the  fishery  question.  The  writer  states  that,  '  seeking  a  soft  muddy  or  sandy  bed  at  the  approach  of 
winter,  it  [the  Mackerel]  buries  itself  therein,  first  drawing  a  scale  or  film  ovi-r  r;i<-h  r\r.'  In  a  prior  paragraph  of 
tlii.s  same  article  the  possibility  of  the  hibernation  of  the  Mackerel  is  advanced.  Now,  exactly  these  two  arguments 
were  presented  by  Professor  Hind,  who  wished  to  prove  that  the  Markm-l  was  a  local  fish,  in  favor  of  the  Provinces, 
which  assertions  were  entirely  refuted  by  Prof.  Spencer  F.  Baird,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  by 
Prof.  G.  Brown  Goode.  The  great  argument  used  by  the  Provincial  iish  experts  was  to  show  that  the  Mackerel 
belonged  to  their  waters,  and  the  ideas  of  hibernation  were  therefore  represented.  If  this  had  been  granted,  our  case 


MIGRATIONS  OF  TIIE  MACKEREL  SCHOOLS.  283 

Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  for  the  year  1877,  pp.  50-70. 
It  is  by  no  means  demonstrated  that  certain  schools  of  Mackerel  do  not  remain  throughout  the 
year  in  waters  adjacent  to  the  coast  of  Canada,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  at  present  seeniH  to  rest 
with  those  who  believe  that  the  Mackerel  are  given  to  extensive  migrations  north  and  south  along 
our  coasts.  These  migrations  are  believed  to  be  carried  on  in  connection  with  another  kind  of 
migration  which  1  have  called  "bathic  migration,"  and  which  consists  in  a  movement,  at  the 
approach  of  cold  weather,  into  the  deeper  waters  of  the  ocean.  The  menhaden  and  many  other 
fishes  have  these  two  kinds  of  migrations,  littoral  and  bathic.  The  sea-herring,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  extensive  littoral  migrations  and  probably  very  slight  movements  of  a  bathic  nature.  In  some 
the  latter  is  most  extended,  in  others  the  former.  Anadromous  fishes,  like  the  shad  and  the  ale- 
wife,  very  probably  strike  directly  out  to  sea  without  ranging  to  any  great  degree  northward  or 
southward,  while  others,  of  which  the  Mackerel  is  a  fair  type,  undoubtedly  make  great  coastwise 
migrations,  though  their  bathic  migrations  may,  without  any  great  inconsistency,  be  as  great  as 
those  which  range  less. 

Upon  this  point  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  from  a  manuscript  letter  from  Professor 
Haiid  to  the  Hon.  Hamilton  Fish,  Secretary  of  State,  dated  July  21,  1873.  Having  expressed 
certain  views  concerning  the  well-known  phenomenon  of  the  migration  of  the  herring  and  shad, 
he  continues: 

"The  fish  of  the  Mackerel  family  form  a  marked  exception  to  this  rule.  While  the  alewife  and 
shad  generally  switn  low  in  the  water,  their  presence  not  being  indicated  at  the  surface,  the 
Mackerel  swim  near  the  surface,  sometimes  far  out  to  sea,  and  their  movements  can  be  readily 
followed.  The  North  American  species  consist  of  fish  which  as  certainly,  for  the  most  part  at 
least,  have  a  migration  along  our  coast  northward  in  spring  and  southward  in  autumn,  as  do  the 
throngs  of  pleasure-seekers,  and  their  habit  of  schooling  on  the  surface  of  the  water  enables  us 
to  determine  this  fact  with  great  precision.  Whatever  may  be  the  theories  of  others  on  the  sub- 
ject, the  American  mackerel-fisher  knows  perfectly  well  that  in  the  spring  he  may  find  the  schools 
of  .Mackerel  oft'  Cape  Henry,  and  that  he  can  follow  them  northward  day  by  day  as  they  move  in 
countless  myriads  on  to  the  coasts  of  Maine  and  Nova  Scotia." 

The  movements  of  the  mackerel  schools,  like  those  of  the  menhaden,  appear  to  be  regulated 
solely  by  the  temperature  of  the  ocean. 


would  have  liuil.  .MS  far  as  Mackerel  go,  little  to  rest  npou.  As  to  hibernation  of  tbe  Mackerel  there  are  innii 
reasons  to  suppose  that  nothing  of  tbe  kind  exists.  In  fact,  hibernation  is  one  of  those  ichthyological  questions 
which  require  very  long  research  to  know  anything  aboat.  It  does  seem  that  sturgeon  in  Russian  waters,  and  carp 
in  cold  temperatures,  take  to  the  mud,  and  may,  perhaps,  do  something  like  hibernation,  but  this  habit  has  no  prece- 
dent  in  si-.-i-iisli.  It  may  happen  that  a  few  individuals  of  tbe  Scomber  family  have  been  inclosed  in  the  winter  season 
in  i  In-  waters  of  the  Newfoundland  coast.  Such  coses  have  undoubtedly  happened,  for  on  page  G2  of  the  late  report 
"i  tin-  United  States  Commission  the  statement  is  made  that  in  a  river  of  Nova  Scotia  where  a  school  of  Mackerel  had 
been  detained  the  fish  \M-IV  speared  out  of  the  mud.  Returning  to  the  numbing  effecta  of  cold  weather  on  sea-fish,  in 
in  del-  in  show  how  unusual  it  must  be,  the  American  turbot  is  taken  with  hooks  in  the  dead  of  winter  under  the  floe 
ii-r  of  North  Green  laud  at  a  depth  of  300  fathoms.  If  sea-fish  were  mummified  in  the  ocean  depths  by  the  cold,  because 
m  the  deeper  strata  of  tbe  ocean  temperatures  are  fairly  uniform,  once  a  fish  had  hibernated  his  sleep  might  continue 
on  forever.  There  can  be  no  better  proof  of  the  migratory  character  of  the  Mackerel  than  to  cite  a  paragraph  from 
tho  'Cape  Ann  Advertiser, '  published  this  week,  where  the  fact  is  announced  that  the  mackerel  fleet  havu  gone  off 
llaiiera.s  in  hopes  of  securing  Mackerel,  and  that  some  time  ago  'vessels  reported  having  sailed  through  immense 
M-hools  for  forty  miles.'  The  film  over  the  eye  of  Mackerel  Professor  Hind  placed  great  stress  on,  as  ho  supposed  it 
was  u  preparatory  step  to  the  liiliernatiii^  process.  Now,  this  film  over  the  eye,  as  Mr.  Goodo  shows,  is  not  peculiar 
lo  the  Ki-ombrn,  for  many  lish,  such  as  the  shad,  the  alewife,  the  menhaden,  the  bluefish,  the  mullet,  the  lake  white- 
lish.  and  various  eyprinoid  fishes,  have  this  membrane,  though  it  never  does  cover  the  whole  eye.  The  fact  remains 
I  be  proved  that  a  skin  forms  over  the  eye  in  winter  only.  The  writer  of  this  article,  has  apparently  culled  his 
t'.-ii'ts  ill  regard  to  Mackerel  from  one  side,  and  h:\s  read  most  superficially  the  whole  of  the  testimony.  •  1'iiblic  docu- 
;:>  -nt-,'  are  rarely  of  an  amusing  ehurueter,  l>nt  when  they  happen  to  be  of  inten  >t.  as  \\.n-  those  published  as 'The 
Award  of  tbe  Fisheries  Commission.'  it  is  most  unfortunate  when  false  deductions  are  derived  from  tin-in." 


284  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

lu  my  essay  upou  menhaden,  which  has  just  been  referred  to,  I  have  attempted  to  show,  in  a 
preliminary  way,  the  relations  of  the  movements  of  the  menhaden  schools  to  the  temperature  of 
the  water  at  different  stations  along  the  coast  in  accordance  with  certain  crude  observations,  which 
at  present  constitute  the  only  material  available  as  a  basis  for  such  generalizations.  I  have  there 
claimed  that  menhaden  make  their  appearance  near  the  shore  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  in  the  harbors  has  reached  a  weekly  average  of  50°,  and  that  they  disappear  in 
the  fall  soon  after  the  waters  have  again  cooled  down  to  the  same  average  temperature. 

The  Mackerel  are  partial  to  much  colder  waters.  They  range  ten  to  fifteen  degrees  farther  to 
the  north,  and  their  southern  limit  is  proportionally  high.  They  appear  earlier  in  the  spring  and 
disappear  later  in  the  fall,  and  their  presence  is  nearly  synchronous  with  the  time  when  the  water 
temperatures  of  the  harbor  have  reached  a  weekly  average  of  45°.  It  has  been  remarked  tbat  the 
presence  of  the  menhaden  depends  upon  a  weekly  average  of  the  harbor  temperature  of  50°  or 
more.  These  harbor  temperatures  are  several  degrees— it  is  not  known  exactly  how  many — higher 
than  those  of  the  open  ocean  at  the  same  latitude,  and  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  menhaden 
thrives  in  water  as  cold  as  45°.  Mackerel  will  remain  active  and  contented  in  a  temperature  of 
40°,  or  even  less.  The  normal  time  of  the  departure  of  Mackerel  from  the  coast  is,  therefore,  a 
month  or  two  later  than  that  of  the  menhaden. 

There  are  well  recorded  instances  of  the  capture  of  menhaden  in  Massachusetts  Bay  as  late 
as  December,  and  there  are  also  many  instances  where  Mackerel  have  been  taken  not  only  on  the 
New  England  coast,  but  also  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  in  midwinter.1 

Mr.  John  Fletcher  Wonson  tells  me  that  at  one  time  he  left  Gloucester  on  a  halibut  trip 
January  1,  and  January  3  or  4,  on  George's  Bank,  caught  a  hogshead  of  herring  and  seven  or  eight 
Mackerel  in  a  gill-net.  Schooner  "  Shooting  Star"  took  a  number  of  Mackerel  on  George's  Bank 
in  March,  1856.8 

The  fishermen  on  George's  took  Tinkers  from  the  stomachs  of  codfish  in  February,  1878,  using 
them  for  bait.  Sometimes  five  or  six  were  taken  from  one  fish. 

In  January.  1868  or  1869,  Capt.  Warren  Brown,  of  the  schooner  "Charles  Frederick,"  of 
Gloucester,  caught  thirty  Mackerel  on  a  trawl-line  set  on  the  Middle  Bank. 

The  "Yarmouth  Herald"  (Yarmouth,  Nova  Scotia),  January  2,  1879,  states  that  "  two  fine, 
fat,  fresh  Mackerel  were  found  among  the  kelp  at  Green  Cove  on  Friday,  December  28,  1878." 

Basing  their  arguments  upon  such  occurrences  as  these,  Canadian  writers  have  attempted  to 
prove  that  large  bodies  of  Mackerel  hibernate  along  their  shores  in  the  winter  months.  It  is  still 
believed  by  many  fishermen  that  the  Mackerel,  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  go  down  into  the 
•iud  and  there  remain  in  a  state  of  torpidity  until  the  approach  of  warm  weather  in  spring.  All 
that  can  be  said  regarding  this  claim  is  that,  although  we  do  not  know  enough  about  the  subject 
to  pronounce  this  impossible,  American  ichthyologists  think  they  know  enough  to  be  of  the  opinion 
that  it  is  very  decidedly  improbable. 

It  seems  only  fair  to  quote  in  this  connection  a  letter  printed  in  "  Forest  and  Stream,"  a  leading 
New  York  journal  devoted  to  field  sports  and  the  fisheries,  in  criticism  of  views  published  at  the 

'Twenty  Mackerel  were  caught  in  a  gill-net  at  Provincotown  January  17,  1878.  Others  were  taken  late  in 
December.  Captaiu  Harding  tells  me  that  they  sometimes  come  ashore  frozen  in  cold  weather,  and  arc  found  in  (lie 
ice  on  the  beach. 

Early  in  February,  1881,  small  Mackerel  five  or  six  inches  in  length  were  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the 
stomachs  of  hake  and  cod,  tnken  on  the  eastern  part  of  Oeorge's  Bank  in  tifty  fathoms,  and  on  the  southeastern  part 
of  Le  Have  in  sixty  and  eighty  fathoms  of  water  ;  sometimes  ten,  twelve,  or  fifteen  in  the  stomach  of  a  single  iish. 
On  the  8th  and  9th  of  February,  Captaiu  Ol&en  observed  them  schooling  at  the  surface  on  George's.  Gloucester 
fishermen  had  before  seen  them  in  winter  on  George's,  but  never  so  abundant. 

•  "Gloucester  Advertiser,"  April,  1856. 


MOVEMENTS  OF  TIIK   MACK  El!  El.  SCHOOLS.  I'M;') 

time  in  that  paper,  and  also  in  the  .Report  of  the  Fish  Commission,  part  v.  I  feel  tin-  utmost 
confidence  in  I>r.  (iilpin's  statements  as  to  facts  observed,  though  my  interpretation  might  pcrhups 
lie  different: 

HALIFAX,  June  19, 1878. 

MK.  EDITOR:  In  some  papers  published  some  time  since  in  the  "Forest  and  Stream"  upon 
tin-  habits  of  the.  Mackerel,  it  is  asserted  by  Prof.  Brown  Goode  that  there  is  no  reliable  evidence 
ut'  Mackerel  being  seen  upon  ih«-  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  after  the  25th  of  October,  quoting  me  as  his 
authority.  Mad  he  quoted  me  as  giving  the  1st  of  November,  1868,  when  the  fish  market  at 
Halifax  was  full,  I  should  have  felt  more  complimented,  as  I  should  have  known  he  had  read  my 
paper  with  more  attention.  In  summing  up  my  remarks  1  stated  that  Mackerel  remain  usually  all 
November  on  the  surface  in  Nova  Seotia,  and  during  mild  winters  linger  to  December.  This, 
Professor  Goodc  sa\>.  i>  not  reliable  as  scientific  evidence,  because  no  specific  dates  are  given. 
To  admit  this  would  l>e  to  destroy  almost  the  whole  mass  of  information  compiled  in  the  report  of 
both  the  Royal  ami  American  Commissioners  of  English  and  American  fisheries.  But  as  I  am 
certain  that  Professor  Goode's  desire  is  to  have  the  truth  simply,  will  you  allow  me  a  place  in  your 
columns  to  add  to  my  previous  assertions  such  specific  dates  as  I  may  be  able  now  to  obtain, 
though  not  admitting  his  principle? 

On  May  23,  1875,  going  into  the  Halifax  fish  market,  I  asked  generally  how  long  are  Mackerel 
in  market.  I  was  answered,  generally  all  fhrough  November.  On  asking  how  long  in  December 
they  had  known  them  in  market,  Mr.  Greywire  said:  "I  recollect  them  as  late  as  the  10th  of 
December.  We  keep  our  nets  out  to  the  30th  of  November.  Men  hire  to  that  time.  Mackerel 
are  seen  after  that  date,  but  the  seas  are  so  boisterous  that  our  nets  are  destroyed.  Some  few 
part  ies  will  keep  them  out  in  December  in  spite  of  cold  and  storms."  Mr.  White  corroborated  this. 
Mr.  Thomas  Brac.kett  said  he  had  taken  them  often  in  December,  and  olten  in  weather  so  cold 
that  the  fish  were  frozen  in  removing  them  from  the  meshes  of  the  nets,  but  could  remember  no 
dates.  Mr.  William  Duft'y  stated  he  saw  one  once  on  the  24th  of  December.  He  recollected  it 
because  it  was  Christmas  eve,  and  on  account  of  its  rarity ;  but  he  had  frequently  taken  them 
during  December,  though  having  no  dates.  The  nets  used  are  about  two  fathoms  deep,  set  near 
the  shore  in  about  five  to  ten  fathoms  of  water.  My  own  recollections,  but  without  dates,  are 
seeing  stops  made  in  very  cold  weather  and  frozen  groaud,  which  must  have  been  late  in  November. 
I  think  I  have  now  made  good  my  assertion  that  they  linger  to  December,  and  that  in  any  fature 
history  of  their  habits  it  must  be  assumed  as  truth  that  they  remain  in  numbers  during  November, 
but  are  found  sparingly  later  on  our  coasts.  Where  they  are  during  those  dates  in  any  intermediate 
point  from  Maine  to  Virginia,  must  be  left  to  American  observers.  When  these  blanks  are  filled 
and  a  generalization  made  their  history  will  be  more  complete,  a  task  we  may  well  leave  in  the 
hands  of  the  American  Commissioners  of  Fisheries. 

In  my  paper  (1865)  I  speak  of  their  asserted  torpidity  and  the  story  of  their  blindness  as 
needing  more  proof  before  they  are  asserted  as  facts.  I  have  had  nothing  to  alter  my  opinion 
since.  In  examining  the  eyes  of  many  Mackerel  on  May  23  and  27  and  October  27,  in  different 
years,  I  have  found  that,  as  in  most  fish,  the  bony  orbit  is  much  larger  than  the  base  of  the  eye, 
and  that  the  space  is  filled  by  gelatinous  substance,  which  may  be  called  cellular  membrane,  and 
adipose  deposit  to  this  transparent  membrane  arising  from  the  outer  angle  of  this  orbit  and  spread- 
ing half  over  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  It  may  easily  be  raised  and  defined  by  passing  a  penknife 
between  it  and  the  eye.  At  the  inner  angle  there  is  also  a  similar,  but  much  smaller,  membrane, 
not  reaching  to  the  eye.  As  the  Mackerel  appear  on  our  coasts  about  the  15th  of  May,  and  these 


286  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF   AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

observations  were  made  the  23d,  I  do  not  think  it  can  be  asserted  the  eye  is  closed  entirely  in 
spring;  and  as  the  same  appearance  is  found  in  September,  we  must  admit  it  to  be  a  permanent 
structure.  An  analogous  membrane  is  found  in  the  Clupeidce  and  doubtless  other  fish.  On  asking 
Thomas  Loyd,  our  roughest  and  oldest  fisherman:  "I  don't  know  anything  about  the  scales  of  the 
eyes,  but  I  do  know  that,  curse  them,  they  see  too  sharp  for  us,  steering  clear  ot  our  spring  nets," 
and  doubtless  old  Tom  was  right. 

On  dissecting  a  Mackerel,  May  23, 1  found  the  heart  first  presenting  the  tricornered  ventricle 
with  its  white  aorta  and  deep-red  auricle  resting  upon  the  fringe  of  cceca  that  covered  the  intes- 
tines, sweeping  down  to  the  vent.  The  liver  and  stomach  were  both  covered  by  the  coeca.  The 
latter  was  about  three  inches  long,  its  upper  lobe  thick  and  round,  but  ending  in  a  narrow  tail  or 
point.  The  cardiac  end  of  the  stomach  was  prolonged  two  and  a  half  inches,  ending  in  a  point. 
Tlie  cfflca  were  attached  to  the  gut  about  an  inch  below  the  pylorus.  There  was  but  little  differ- 
ence in  appearance  and  size  between  stomach  and  gut.  This  we  may  roughly  sum  up:  Stomach 
and  gut  very  simple;  coaca  usually  large  and  complicated;  liver  small — all  noteworthy  facts  in  the 
study  of  comparative  life.  The  fish  being  a  male  one,  lobe  on  either  side  of  ivory-white;  milt 
reached  from  gills  to  vent,  slightly  adhering  to  the  sides  by  thin  membrane,  and  covered  by  a 
similar  one.  They  were  divided  in  lobes  by  shallow  lines,  the  upper  lobes  slightly  fimbriated. 
On  removing  both  entrails  and  milt  a  dark  purple  space  about  an  inch  wide  extended  from  gills  to 
vent  beneath  the  back  bone.  This,  when  opened,  seemed  tilled  with  coagulated  blood.  It  had  in 
some  respects  the  appearance  of  the  air-bladder  in  the  Salmonidte,  though  wanting  in  the  direct 
communication  they  have  with  the  oesophagus.  But  this  communication  is  also  wanting  in  the 
Oadida,  where,  especially  in  the  hake,  the  air-bladder  assumes  its  highest  form  of  organization. 
I  have  often  found  coagulation  and  reticulated  plexi  in  air-bladders  of  other  fish. 

It  has  been  asserted  the  European  Mackerel  have  no  air-bladders,  and  a  new  genus  proposed, 
but  with  more  probability  they  have  the  same  organization  as  our  own,  and  the  difference  lies  in 
the  opinion  whether  or  not  it  is  an  air-bladder. 

The  Mackerel  appear  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  almost  simultaneously  on  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  about  the  15th  of  May.  Nearly  all  spawners,  male  and  female,  perform  a  somewhat 
easterly  and  northerly  route,  disappear  from  the  surface  in  a  few  weeks  and  reappear  again  in 
September  without  spawn  and  fat,  remain  in  numbers  during  November,  and  very  sparingly  during 
December,  coming  from  the  eastward,  and  then  disappear.  It  may  be  asserted,  generalizing  from 
observation  extending  over  a  series  of  eight  or  ten  years,  that  they  are  kregular  in  their  move- 
ments as  regards  localities,  though  probably  not  as  regards  ocean  surfaces. 

The  very  great  difficulty  of  accounting  how  these  enormous  masses  of  surface  feeders  find 
food  after  disappearing  from  the  surface  has  caused  many  ingenious  theories  as  to  the  question  in 
what  state  and  where  they  pass  that  time.  These  are  all  pleasant  reading,  but  valuable  more  or 
less  as  regards  the  ingenuity  and  scientific  standing  of  the  writers.  In  this  paper  and  the  one  I 
inclose  (1865)  I  have  stated  what  I  think  are  facts,  and  which  must  be  accepted  in  the  future 
history  of  American  Mackerel,  which  I  hope  soon  to  see  written  by  that  commission  which  has 
already  done  so  much  in  Atlantic  waters. 

BERNARD  GILPIN. 

The  appearance  of  the  mackerel  schools  at  the  approach  of  summer  in  ordinary  years  has  been 
noticed  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  following  dates:  At  sea,  off  Cape  Hatteras,  March 
20  to  April  25;  off  Norfolk,  Virginia,  March  2  to  April  30;  off  the  Capes  of  Delaware,  April  15  to 
May  1 ;  off  Barnegat  and  Sandy  Hook,  May  5  to  May  25,  and  at  the  same  date  along  the  whole 


MOVEMENTS  OF  TOE  MACKEREL  SCHOOLS.  'JS7 

southern  coast  of  New  England,  and  us  tar  east  as  Southern  Nova  Scotia,  while  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence  they  appear  late  in  May,  and  in  abundance  early  in  .lane.1 

There  appears  to  be  a  marked  difference  between  the  movements  of  Mackerel  and  the  menhaden, 
for  while  the  menhaden  are  much  more  gradual  in  their  approach  to  the  shore,  and  much  more 
dependent  upon  a  small  rise  of  temperature,  the  Mackerel  make  their  appearance  almost  simul- 
taneously in  all  the  waters  from  New  Jersey  to  Nova  Scotia  at  about  the  same  time.  Stragglers, 
of  course,  appear  much  earlier  than  the  dates  just  mentioned;  a  few  Mackerel  were  observed  at 
Waquoit,  Massachusetts,  as  early  as  April  19,  1871. 

In  the  fall  the  Mackerel  disappear  as  suddenly  as  they  came  in  the  spring,  but  they  have  only 
in  one  instance  been  observed  oft'  the  Carolina  coast,  except  during  the  spring  run.  This  is  very 
probably  because  no  fishing  vessels  ever  visit  this  region  later  than  June. 

The  instance  referred  to  is  the  experience  of  Mr.  Peter  Sinclair,  a  well-known  fisherman  of 
Gloucester,  who  states  that  he  has  frequently  taken  them  in  great  abundance  off  Cape  Hatteras  in 
December,  where  they  are  not  known  at  all  in  the  summer  season.  He  has  found  them  in  the 
spring  as  far  south  as  Charleston,  and  followed  them  from  Cape  Henry  to  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 
the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 

The  very  vagueness  of  the  statements  just  made  is  evidence  to  show  how  little  is  actually 
known  about  the  movements  of  these  fish.  The  subject  must  be  studied  long  and  carefully  before 
it  can  be  understood,  and  the  interests  of  the  American  fishermen  demand  that  it  should  be  thus 
studied. 

"There  is,"  writes  Professor  Baird,  "no  very  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  Mack- 
erel iu  the  winter  or  any  other  season  south  of  Cape  Hatteras,  and  it  is  not  given  by  Poey  and 
other  writers  as  occurring  in  the  West  Indies.  A  few  Mackerel  are  said  to  be  occasionally  brought 
into  the  Charleston  market,  and  Mr.  Moses  Tarr,  of  Gloucester,  thinks  that  some  years  ago  he  saw 
in  the  early  part  of  March,  a  short  distance  to  the  southeast  of  Key  West,  a  large  school  of  Mack- 
erel. He,  however,  did  not  capture  any,  and  it  is  more  likely  that  the  fish  observed  belonged  to 
some  other  small  species  of  the  mackerel  family  which  occasionally  school  like  the  Mackerel  itself, 
and  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  it.  The  skip-jack  or  leather-back  may  possibly  have  been  the 
species  referred  to. 

"  I  have  been  quite  surprised  to  find  the  extent  of  belief  among  Massachusetts  fishermen  that 
the  Mackerel  goes  into  the  mud  in  the  winter  time.  I  have,  indeed,  been  assured  by  trustworthy 
parties  that  they  have  known  Mackerel  caught  on  eel  spears  when  fishing  for  eels  in  the  mud  of 
Provincetown  harbor. 

"A  similar  belief  is  referred  to  by  Dr.  Gilpin  in  his  paper  on  the  Mackerel  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Nova  Scotia  Scientific  Association,  and  it  is  difficult  to  refuse  assent  to  the  testimony  of 
otherwise  credible  observers.  There  is  nothing  apparently  iu  the  economy  of  the  Mackerel  to  pre- 
vent its  following  the  example  of  the  sand  lance,  the  eel,  and  other  fish.  We  know  that  the 


'The  following  Irttrr  from  tin-  skipper  of  the  schooner  ''Edward  E.  Webster"  is  important,  in  that  it  gives  tli.- 
exact  positions  a«  well  as  the  dates  of  some  of  the  earliest  captures  in  1878,  79,  '80,  and  '81 : 

NEW  YORK,  April  22,  1881. 
Captiiin  r<«i. I.INS: 

DKAH  Sns:  I  have  just  received  your  letter  of  March  14,  in  which  you  wanted  to  know  whereabouts  I  caught  my 
first  Markrrrl.  Th.-  tirst  cairh  in  1-7H,  April  1C.,  lat.  3t>°  10'  N.,  long.  74°  45'  W. ;  in  1879,  April  12,  Int.  36°  35'  N., 
Icmn.  7-1  :.(!•  \V. :  in  i-.si,  April  1,  Int.  35°  30'  N.,  long.  74°  15'  W.;  in  1881,  March  20,  lat.  37°  10-'  N.,  long.  74°  05' 
\V. :  and  thi>  trip  uv  -jut  ilinn  April  18  in  lat.  38°  38'  N.,  and  long.  74°  00'  W.  This  is  onr  second  trip  this  season. 
I  have  seen  Mackerel  in  lat.  35 ->  15'  N.  and  long.  73°  46'  W.,  which  is  the  farthest  south  I  have  ever  seen  any.  I 
have  been  oil'  (.'ape  Lookout  many  times,  but  have  never  seen  Mackerel  there.  .  .  . 

Yours,  truly, 

SOLOMON  JACOBS. 


2S8  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

melanora,  the  tench,  and  many  other  fresh-water  fish  have  the  burrowing  habit,  some  of  them 
being  imbedded  very  deep  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  a  dried-np  pond,  to  emerge  again  when  the 
water  is  restored. 

"The  entire  disappearance  of  Mackerel  during  the  winter  season  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  as  we  can 
hardly  suppose  that  if  it  schooled  on  the  surface  in  the  Gulf  Stream  during  that  season  it  would 
not  be  noticed  by  the  experienced  eyes  of  sea  captains,  and  we  can  hardly  imagine  that  the  fish 
would  remain  in  the  depths,  without  an  occasional  rise. 

"It  appears  to  be  a  well-established  fact  that  Mackerel  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  the 
stomachs  of  cod,  and  possibly  of  halibut,  taken  on  the  George's  Banks  in  the  winter  season.  Per- 
haps the  number  noted  would  be  still  larger  if  fishermen  had  the  time  and  inclination  to  examine 
more  frequently  than  they  do  the  stomachs  of  the  fish  captured  by  them. 

''Another  curious  fact  in  relation  to  the  Mackerel  is  in  respect  to  the  membrane,  the  vertical 
edge  of  which  is  observed  during  the  summer  season  on  the  corner  of  the  eye.  This,  it  is  claimed, 
during  the  winter  extends  over  the  whole  eye,  and  imparts  the  appearance  of  blindness.  This  the 
Mackerel  is  said  to  possess  on  making  its  first  appearance  near  the  coast  in  the  spring,  when  it 
extends  over  the  greater  part  of  the  eye,  thus  preventing  the  fish  from  seeing  the  bait,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  common  remark  that  Mackerel  in  the  spring  cannot  be  taken  with  the  hook,  but  must  be 
captured  with  the  net.  The  membrane  appears  to  recede  with  the  advancing  season,  and  during 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  time  of  its  abode  in  the  north  it  is  scarcely  appreciable." 

Mr.  Perley,  of  Saint  John,  .New  Brunswick,  in  his  work  upon  the  fishes  of  the  Provinces, 
remarks  that  Mackerel  have  been  taken  on  cod-hooks  in  deep  water,  near  Grand  Manan,  in  the 
winter  season,  and  there  is  evidence  to  show  that  a  few  remain  on  the  coast.  It  is,  however, 
believed  that  these  cases  are  exceptional  and  confined  to  stragglers,  as  such  instances  frequently 
occur  with  all  the  migratory  fishes. 

The  Mackerel  belongs  to  what  may  technically  be  termed  pelagic  or  wandering  fish,  as  their 
movements,  something  like  those  of  the  herring,  are  apparently  more  or  less  capricious,  though 
probably  governed  by  some  definite  law,  which  has  not  yet  been  worked  out.  It  moves  in  large 
schools  or  bands,  more  or  Jess  isolated  from  each  other,  which  sometimes  swim  near  the  surface 
and  give  distinct  evidence  of  their  presence,  and  at  others  sink  down  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean 
and  are  entirely  withdrawn  from  observation.  The  army  of  fish,  however,  moves  along  with  a 
very  broad  front,  a  portion  coming  so  close  to  the  shore  as  to  be  taken  in  the  weirs  and  traps 
along  the  coast  of  the  Middle  States,  especially  in  Vineyard  Sound  and  on  Cape  Cod;  while  at  the 
same  time  other  schools  are  met  with  from  twenty  to  fifty  miles,  or  even  more,  out  to  sea.  It  is, 
however,  still  a  question  whether  the  fish  that  skirt  the  coast  of  the  United  States  enter  the  Bay 
of  Saint  Lawrence,  or  whether  the  latter  belong  to  another  series,  coming  directly  from  the  deep 
seas  off  the  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia  coast.  Until  lately  the  former  has  been  the  generally 
accepted  theory,  in  view  of  the  alleged  fact  that  the  fishermen  of  the  Nova  Scotia  coast  always 
take  the  fish  coining  from  the  west  in  the  spring  and  from  the  oast  in  the  fall. 

Capt.  Hanson  B.  Joyce,  of  Swan's  Island.  Maine,  one  of  the  most  expert  and  observing  mack- 
erel-fishermen of  New  England,  thinks  that  the  movements  of  the  spring  schools  of  Mackerel  are 
very  much  influenced  by  the  direction  and  force  of  the  prevailing  winds  while  the  fish  are  perform- 
ing their  northerly  migration.  He  has  generally  found,  he  says,  that  when  there  has  been  a  con- 
tinuance of  strong  northerly  winds  about  the  last  of  May  and  early  in  June,  the  season  at  which  tln^ 
Mackerel  are  passing  the  shoals  of  Nantucket  and  George's  Bank,  the  schools  have  taken  a 
southerly  track,  passing  to  the  southward  of  George's  Shoals  and  continuing  on  in  an  easterly 
direction  to  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  thence  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 


MOVEMENTS  or  Tin:  MACK i:i;i:i.  SCHOOLS.  289 

When  southerly  wiuds  or  calms  prevail  at  that  season  the  Mackerel  are  carried  into  the 
waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Maine,  and  in  consequence  are  much  plentier  off  the  Now  England  coast 
than  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  Gulf. 

On  this  theory  Captain  Joyce  bases  his  actions  in  cruising  for  Mackerel,  always  fishing  off 
the  New  England  shores  when  southerly  wiuds  have  predominated  in  the  spring,  and  going  to  the 
Saint  Lawrence  if  northerly  winds  have  been  exceptionally  strong  and  continuous  about  the  last 
of  May. 

The  movements  of  the  fish,  as  already  stated,  season  by  season,  are  quite  uncertain,  sometimes 
being  very  abundant  in  one  direction  and  sometimes  in  another,  and  occasionally,  indeed,  they 
may  disappear  almost  entirely  for  several  years,  subsequently  reappearing  after  a  considerable 
absence.  In  some  years  the  fish  are  very  abundant  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  at  others 
rare;  the  same  condition  applying  to  the  fish  of  the  Bay  of  Saint  Lawrence.  It  is  not  certain,  of 
course,  that  this  indicates  an  entire  absence  of  the  fish  from  the  localities  referred  to,  but  they 
may,  possibly,  for  some  reason,  remain  in  the  depth  of  the  sea,  or  some  change  in  the  character  of 
the  animal  life  in  it,  which  constitutes  the  food  of  the  fish,  may  produce  the  changes  referred  to. 
A  notable  instance  of  a  somewhat  permanent  change  in  the  migration  of  the  Mackerel  is  found  in 
the  entire  failure  since  1876  of  the  mackerel  fishery  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  which,  a  few  years  ago, 
enabled  a  merchant  of  Eastport  to  employ  successfully  as  many  as  a  dozen  vessels,  especially  in 
Digby  and  Saint  Mary's  Bays,  but  which  is  now  abandoned.  There  are  indeed  faint  suggestions, 
in  the  early  history  of  the  country,  of  their  total  absence  from  the  whole  coast  for  several  years, 
as  was  also  the  case  with  the  bluefish. 

ABUNDANCE. — The  wonderful  abundance  of  Mackerel  in  our  waters  has  always  been  a 
subject  of  remark.  Francis  Higginson,  in  his  "Journal  of  his  Voyage  to  New  England,  1629," 
speaks  of  seeing  "  many  schools  of  Mackerel,  infinite  multitudes  on  every  side  of  our  ship,"  off  Cape 
Ann  on  the  26th  of  June;  and  Richard  Mather,  in  his  "journal,"  1635,  states  that  the  seamen  took 
abundance  of  Mackerel  off  Meuhiggin  (Mouhegau).  In  Governor  Winthrop's  journal,  speaking  of 
the  year  1639,  he  remarks:  "There  was  such  store  of  exceeding  large  and  fat  Mackerel  upon  our 
coast  this  season  as  was  a  great  benefit  to  all  our  Plantations,  since  one  Boat  with  three  men  would 
take  in  a  week  ten  hogsheads,  which  were  sold  at  Connecticut  for  £3  12*.  Qd.  per  hogshead." 

Their  abundance  has  varied  greatly  from  year  to  year,  and  at  times  their  numbers  have  been 
so  few  that  grave  apprehensions  have  been  felt  lest  they  should  soon  depart  altogether. 

As  early  as  1670,  laws  were  passed  by  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  forbidding  the  use  of  cer- 
tain instruments  of  capture,  and  similar  ordinances  have  been  passed  from  time  to  time  ever  since. 
The  first  resource  of  our  State  governments  has  always  been,  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  to  attempt 
to  restore  fish  to  their  former  abundance  by  protective  legislation.  It  seems  to  us  at  the  present 
day  absurd  that  the  Massachusetts  people  should  have  supposed  that  the  use  of  shore-seines  was 
exterminating  the  Mackerel  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  but  it  is  a  fair  question  whether  their 
apprehensions  were  not  as  well  grounded  as  those  of  legislators  of  the  present  century  who  have 
endeavored  to  apply  a  similar  remedy  for  a  similar  evil.  In  connection  with  the  chapter  on  THE 
MACKEREL  FISHERY  will  be  shown  a  diagram,  which,  by  means  of  curves,  exhibits  the  catch  of 
Mackerel  in  New  England  for  a  period  of  seventy-five  years. 

From  a  study  of  this  it  seems  quite  evident  that  the  periods  of  their  abundance  and  scarcity 
have  alternated  with  each  other  without  reference  to  overfishing  or  any  other  causes  which  we  are 
prepared  to  understand.  In  the  year  383,548^  barrels  of  Mackerel  were  caught  by  the  citizens  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1881  the  number  of  barrels  suited  was  269,495;  to  this,  however,  should  be 
added  125,000  barrels  caught  and  marketed  fresh  by  the  Massachusetts  fleet,  making  an  aggregate 
19  p 


290  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  394,495  barrels.  The  fluctuations  in  the  catch  year  by  year  from  1804  to  1881  are  shown  most 
instructively  in  a  plate  accompanying  this  report. 

The  stories  which  are  told  by  experienced  fishermen  of  the  immense  numbers  of  Mackerel 
sometimes  seen  are  almost  incredible.  Capt.  King  Harding,  of  Swampscott,  Mass.,  described  to  me 
a  school  which  he  saw  in  the  South  Channel  in  1848 :  "  It  was  a  windrow  of  fish,"  said  he;  "  it  was 
about  half  a  mile  wide,  and  at  least  twenty  miles  long,  for  vessels  not  in  sight  of  each  other  saw  it 
at  about  the  same  time.  All  the  vessels  out  saw  this  school  the  same  day."  He  saw  a  school  off 
Block  Island,  1877,  which  he  estimated  to  contain  one  million  barrels.  He  could  see  only  one  edge 
of  it  at  a  time. 

Upon  the  abundance  of  Mackerel  depends  the  welfare  of  many  thousands  of  the  citizens  of 
Massachusetts  and  Maine.  The  success  of  the  mackerel  fishery  is  much  more  uncertain  than  that 
of  the  cod  fishery,  .for  instance,  for  the  supply  of  cod  is  quite  uniform  from  year  to  year.  The 
prospects  of  each  season  are  eagerly  discussed  from  week  to  week  in  thousands  of  little  circles 
along  the  coast,  and  are  chronicled  by  the  local  press.  The  story  of  each  successful  trip  is  passed 
from  mouth  to  month,  and  is  a  matter  of  general  congratulation  in  each  fishing  community.  A 
review  of  the  results  of  the  American  mackerel  fishery,  and  of  the  movements  of  the  fish  in  each 
part  of  the  season,  would  be  an  important  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  American  fisheries. 
Materials  for  such  a  review  are  before  me,  but  space  will  not  allow  that  it  should  be  presented  here. 

FOOD  OF  THE  MACKEREL. — The  food  of  the  Mackerel  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  small 
species  of  crustaceans,  which  abound  everywhere  in  the  sea,  and  which  they  appear  to  follow  in 
their  migrations.  They  also  feed  upon  the  spawn  of  other  fishes  and  upon  the  spawn  of  lobsters, 
and  prey  greedily  upon  young  fish  of  all  kinds.1  In  the  stomach  of  a  "Tinker"  Mackerel,  taken 
in  Fisher's  Island  Sound,  November  7,  1877,  Dr.  Bean  found  the  remains  of  six  kinds  of  fishes — of 
the  anchovy,  sand-lants,  the  smelt,  the  hake,  the  barracuda,  and  the  silver-sides,  besides  numerous 
shrimps  and  other  crustaceans.  Captain  Atwood  states  that  when  large  enough  they  devour 
greedily  large  numbers  of  young  herring  several  months  old.  Specimens  taken  July  18, 1871, 
twenty  miles  south  of  Neman's  Land,  contained  numerous  specimens  of  the  big-eyed  shrimps, 
Thymnopoda,  larval  crabs  in  the  zoea  and  megalops  stages,  the  young  of  hermit  crabs,  the  young 
lady  crabs,  Platyoniehus  ocellatus,  the  young  of  two  undetermined  Macrura,  numerous  Copepoda 
and  numerous  specimens  of  Spiriali*  Gouldii,  a  species  of  Pteropod.  They  also  feed  upon  the  centers 
of  floating  jelly-fishes  (discophores).  In  Gaspe"  the  fishermen  call  jelly-fishes  "mackerel  bait." 

The  greed  with  which  Mackerel  feed  upon  the  chum,  or  ground  menhaden  bait,  which  is 
thrown  out  to  theui  by  the  fishing-vessels,  shows  that  they  are  not  at  all  dainty  in  their  diet,  and 
will  swallow  without  hesitation  any  kind  of  floating  organic  matter. 

Large  Mackerel  often  eat  smaller  ones.  Captain  Collins  has  frequently  found  young  Mackerel 
three  or  four  inches  long  in  the  stomachs  of  those  full  grown.  This  is  generally  noticeable  only  in 
the  fall,  and  the  young  fish  are  probably  those  which  have  been  hatched  in  the  spring. 

In  the  fall  of  1874  the  writer  made  a  trip  upon  a  gill-net  schooner  to  the  grounds  off  Portland, 
Maine,  some  distance  to  sea,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  food  of  the  Mackerel,  and  found  their 
stomachs  full  of  a  species  of  Thysanopoda  and  of  a  large  copepod  crustacean.  The  greater  part  of 
the  food  of  Mackerel  consists,  however,  of  minute  crustaceans.  Owing  to  the  infinite  abundance 
of  these  in  the  sea,  Mackerel  probably  have  very  little  difficulty  in  finding  food  at  almost  any 
portion  of  the  ocean  visited  by  them,  whether  on  the  edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream  or  near  the  shore. 

'Near  the  New  London  light- house  is  a  Hmall  brook  which  empties  into  th«  harbor  and  abounds  with  a  small 
species  of  fish  of  which  the  Mackerel  appear  to  be  fond.  A  few  days  since  tli»  keeper  of  the  light-house,  while  the 
Mackerel  were  indulging  in  a  meal,  caught  five  hundred  at  one  haul  with  a  scoop-net.— Gloucester  Telegraph, 
December  3,  1870. 


FOOD  OF  TIIK  MACKI:I;I:I..  L».ti 

In  an  interview  with  (';ipi.  King  Harding,  of  Swampscott,  one  of  the  most  experienced  maekerfl 
mi  mir  masts,  I  obtained  the  following  amusing  observations:  lie  described  one  kind 
of  ernstacean  Maekeivl  food  wliich  looked  like  spiders,  which  were  red,  and  crawled  over  his  hand 
when  he  took  them  up.  They  look  like  little  spiders;  the  Mackerel  are  especially  fond  of  them. 
At  Hooiie  Inland.  Maine,  in  July,  1850,  the  water  all  around  the  island  was  red  for  one  hundred 
\  aids  from  the  shore;  these  crawled  up  the  rock-weed  on  the  shore  until  it  was  red.  He  took  the 
sprays  of  rock-weed  in  his  hands  and  pulled  them  slowly  to  him,  and  the  Mackerel,  one  and  a  half 
pound  lish,  would  follow  in  quite  to  the  rocks.  He  killed  three  with  his  oar,  and  tried  to  catch 
some  in  a  basket  by  tolling  them  over  it,  but  they  were  too  quick  for  him.  He  asked  his  old 
skipper,  Capt.  Gorham  Babsou,  what  they  were,  and  was  told  that  they  were  "  Boone  Island  bed- 
bugs." And,  said  he,  "  Young  man,  when  you  see  this  kind  of  bait,  no  matter  if  yon  don't  see 
any  fish,  never  leave ;  the  fish  will  be  there  in  a  few  days." 

Then  there  is  another  kind,  called  "  snappers."  These  are  white,  aud  dart  rapidly  about  in 
the  water;  they  are  doubtless  small  crustaceans.  He  says  that  sometimes  they  swim  at  the  sur- 
face, where  the  Mackerel  follow  them.  A  few  days  before  he  had  been  standing  on  the  stern  of  his 
\  essel,  and  though  he  could  see  nothing  under  the  water  he  knew  the  snappers  were  there  about 
two  feet  below  the  surface,  for  he  could  see  a  school  of  Mackerel  swimming  along,  opening  their 
mouths  and  taking  in  their  food,  and  then  letting  the  water  out  through  their  gills. 

When  the  Mackerel  are  tolled  up  from  twelve  or  fifteen  fathoms  below  the  surface  their 
stomachs  are  often  full  of  bait;  so  it  is  certain  that  these  little  animals  swim  at  all  depths. 

Another  kind  of  food  is  red,  and  is  hot  to  the  hands.  This  is  called  "Cayenne";  it  spoils 
the  fish. 

Tears  ago,  according  to  Captain  Harding,  Mackerel  did  not  school  as  they  do  now. 

When  you  see  pollock  jumping  near  the  shore,  it  is  a  pretty  good  sign  that  there  is  plenty  of 
mackerel  food. 

The  presence  of  abundance  of  mackerel  food  is  indicated  by  the  great  schools  of  sea-birds, 
particularly  by  the  flocks  of  phalaropes,  or  sea-geese,  as  the  fishermen  call  them,  which  congregate 
together,  floating  upon  the  water,  and  when  seen  in  summer  give  a  sure  sign  of  the  presence  of 
Mackerel  also. 

The  various  invertebrate  animals  preyed  upon  by  Mackerel  are  known  to  the  fishermen  by 
such  names  as  "  shrimp,"  "  red-seed,"  and  "  Cayenne." 

"The  wide-spread  distribution  from  shore  seaward  of  the  Thysanopoda  and  other  minute  crus- 
tacea,  which  constitute  to  so  great  an  extent  the  food  of  the  Mackerel  and  herring  on  our  shores, 
was  proved,"  writes  Professor  Baird,  "during  a  trip  of  the  'Speedwell'  from  Salem  to  Halifax  in 
1877."  At  numerous  points  and  at  regular  intervals  on  the  way  across,  including  the  middle  of 
the  route,  immense  numbers  of  these  shrimp  were  met  with  and  collected  by  the  towing  net.  They 
were  found  in  especial  abundance  at  Le  Have  Bank.  These  prove  to  be  specifically  identical  with 
those  found  in  immense  quantities  in  Eastport  Harbor  at  the  surface. 

"  That  these  same  animals  occur  at  least  as  far  east  as  the  Gulf  Stream  is  shown  by  the  list 
of  the  collections  made  by  Professor  Smith  off  the  Georges  near  the  edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
and  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  iii, 
July,  1874." 

Capt.  Stephen  Mar,  of  Gloucester,  confirms  the  statements  of  Captain  Harding  regarding 
the  effects  of  "  red-seed"  upon  Mackerel ;  he  states  that  when  Mackerel  are  feeding  on  "  red-seed" 
the  fishermen  have  great  trouble  in  keeping  them  sufficiently  long  to  dress  them  properly.  Their 
bellies  soften  at  once.  When  the  weather  is  good  and  dogfish  are  not  troublesome,  the  common 


292  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

practice  is  to  allow  the  fish  to  lie  in  the  net  until  they  have  disposed  of  the  food  in  their  stomachs. 
Capt.  Henry  Willard,  of  the  schooner  "  Henry  Willard,"  of  Portland,  Maine,  carries  a  large  net  of 
coarse  twine,  which  is  suspended  over  the  side  of  the  vessel  from  two  long  booms.  Into  this  he 
turns  the  fish  and  leaves  them  until  the  seed  works  out.1 

Gaptain  Mar  states  that  the  "  red-seed"  is  very  troublesome  to  the  men  engaged  in  dressing 
the  fish;  it  makes  their  hands  very  sore,  often  causing  the  blood  to  run.  A  man  can  clean  twice 
as  many  fish  in  a  given  time  if  he  is  not  annoyed  by  the  "red-seed"  in  their  stomachs. 

Captain  Mar  describes  another  kind  of  mackerel  food,  which  he  calls  "  small  brit,"  which,  he 
says,  resembles  young  herring,  which  also  rots  the  fish.  This  is  probably,  as  he  supposes  it  to  be, 
«'  white-bait"  in  the  young  of  the  sea  herring,  Olupea  harengus.  It  is  known  as  "  eye-bait"  to  the 
Canadian  fishermen. 

Captain  Merchant  tells  me  that  when  Mackerel  are  fotfnd  with  "red-seed"  in  their  stomachs 
fishermen  are  sure  that  they  are  on  the  right  fishing  grounds. 

I  am  told  by  Captain  Collins  that  it  is  common  for  many  of  the  American  fishermen  to  con- 
sider it  a  good  sign  of  Mackerel  when  they  see  floating  seaweed,  more  especially  eel- grass,  "  chopped 
up,"  i.  e.,  cut  into  short  pieces,  which  they  think  is  done  by  these  fish.  Perhaps  there  may  be  a 
good  reason  for  this  supposition,  as  the  Mackerel,  while  feeding  on  the  diminutive  shells  with 
which  the  weeds  are  covered,  may  also  bite  the  latter  in  two.  The  presence  of  gannets  is  also 
considered  a  good  sign  of  Mackerel. 

In  England  the  food  of  the  Mackerel  is  called  the  "  mackerel  mint,"  and  this  is  said  to  consist 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  of  the  sand-lants  and  five  other  fish,  especially  the  herring  and  the 
sprat,  while  they  have  also  been  observed  to  devour,  in  the  summer  months,  minute  crustaceans, 
the  swimming  larva  of  tape- worms,  and  the  embryos  of  the  small  spiral  shell  Rissoa,  which,  iuits 
adult  state,  is  found  in  great  abundance  upon  seaweed.  It  is  probably  some  animal  of  this  kind 
which  was  referred  to  by  Captain  Harding  in  the  statement  above  quoted,  concerning  the  abun- 
dance of  red-seed  about  Boone  Island.  Mr.  J.  F.  Whiteaves  has  recorded  a  similar  habit  for  the 
Mackerel  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.* 

Professor  Hind  has  pointed  out  certain  relations  which  exist  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence 
between  the  Mackerel  and  the  lant,  or  sand-eel,  which  appears  to  be  one  of  its  most  important 
articles  of  diet  in  these  waters.  I  quote  here  in  full  his  observations  upon  this  subject,  and  also 
his  views  upon  the  relations  of  currents  and  tides  to  the  presence  of  mackerel  food,  and  the  con- 
stant movements  of  the  schools  of  fish : 

"The  movements  of  the  Mackerel,  like  those  of  the  cod,  and  indeed  of  most  species  of  fish,  are 
determined  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  by  the  geographical  position  of  its  food;  and  the  first 
important  kind  of  food  which  appears  to  lure  the  Mackerel  inshore,  after  spawning  in  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence,  is  the  lannce  or  sand-eel. 

"The  relation  of  the  launce  or  sand-eel  (Ammodytes  americanus)  to  the  Mackerel  is  very  much 
greater  than  appears  at  the  first  blush,  and  resembles  the  relation  of  the  herring  to  the  cod  in 
general,  and  in  particular  the  relation  of  the  so-called  Norwegian  'Sull  cod,'  or  lauuce  cod,  to  this 
wide-spread  and  important  bait-fish.  The  approach  of  the  launce  to  the  coast  in  spring  is  most 
probably  the  cause  why  the  so-called  spring  cod  fishing  suddenly  ceases  on  rnauy  banks  and  shoals, 
commencing  again  at  different  localities  two  and  three  weeks  later. 

"The  cod  leaves  the  banks  and  shoals  to  meet  and  to  follow  the  launce  as  they  approach  the 

"This  "large  net  of  coarse  twine"  is  the  mackerel  pocket  described  in  the  chapter  on  THE  PURSE-SKINE 
MACKEREL  FISHERY. 

*  Report  on  the  Second  Deep-sea  Dredging  Expedition  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  1872. 


HIND,  ON  THE  FOOD  OP  THE  MACKEREL.  293 

coast.    In  tin-  sumo  manner  they  meet  and  follow  the  caplin,  guided  no  doubt  by  the  peculiar  odor 
i  |f\  rli  i|  "-I  I  by  each  species  at  the  approach  of  the  spawning  season. 

"But  it  is  the  habit  of  the  sand-eel  of  burying  itself  in  the  sand  between  the  tides,  or  in  sub 
merged  sand  beaches,  that  leads  the  Mackerel  so  close  inshore. 

"There  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  similar  indraught  and  outdraught  of  Mackerel  and  other 
fish  occur  in  our  waters  when  the  launce  leave  the  deep  sea  to  approach  the  land,  or  when  they 
return  to  the  deep  sea  again.  Unlike  many  of  the  shrimps  and  larval  forms  on  which  the  Mack- 
erel feed,  which  arc  drifted  to  and  fro  by  winds  and  currents,  the  launce  is  independent  of  the 
wind;  but  it  is  only  in  certain  favorable  localities  frequented  by  this  fish  that  the  burying  process 
between  tide-marks,  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  can  be  easily  effected;  hence,  these  resorts  are 
not  only  valuable  as  bait  grounds,  but  generally  noted  mackerel  grounds,  such  as  Seven  Islands, 
and  some  parts  of  Bay  of  Ghaleur,  and  part  of  the  gulf  coast  of  New  Brunswick. 

"This  bait-fish  approaches  the  sandy  beaches  fringing  the  shores  of  the  gulf  in  the  early  sum- 
mer months  to  spawn;  and  here  the  Mackerel  are  found  pursuing  them  while  engaged  in  deposit- 
ing their  comparatively  large  reddish-colored  ova  on  the  sands  between  high  and  low  water. 
Hence,  during  flood  tide,  and  in  the  launce  season,  Mackerel  are  commonly  taken  close  inshore  on 
tin-so  coasts,  in  pursuit  of  the  launce;  and  the  best  catches  are  said  to  be  made  during  the  period 
of  high  tide,  for  the  following  reason:  In  dull,  cloudy  weather  the  launce  buries  itself  in  the  sands 
left  bare  by  the  ebbing  tides;  but  in  bright,  hot  weather  it  rarely  seeks  the  shelter  of  the  sand, 
except  near  low-water  mark,  probably  because  the  heat  of  the  sun  would  be  oppressive.  The 
breadth  of  sandy  ground  in  which  the  launce  buries  itself  for  the  brief  period  between  high  and 
low  water  marks  is  thus  dependent  upon  the  clearness  of  the  sky. 

"A  continuance  of  cloudy  weather  is  conducive  to  this  kind  of  close  inshore  fishery;  whereas 
a  bright  sky,  and  a  day  with  a  drying  wind,  leads  the  launce  to  select  the  narrow  bauds  of  sandy 
beach  near  the  margin  of  ebb-tide,  which  always  remain  moist.  In  cloudy  weather  with  a  moist 
wind,  the  area  in  which  the  launce  bury  themselves  and  emerge  during  the  incoming  tide  is  thus 
very  much  greater  than  in  bright,  hot  weather;  and  it  is  not  unfrequently  found  by  experience 
that  the  Mackerel  catch  in  such  localities  is  much  greater  in  clondy  weather  than  in  bright  weather, 
because  the  bait  ground  is  then  far  more  extensive  close  inshore. 

"As  the  summer  advances  and  the  launce  retire  to  deep  water  the  Mackerel  feed  upon  the 
free-swimming  and  floating  embryonic  forms  of  crustaceans ;  among  the  latter  the  zoea  of  differ- 
ent forms  of  crabs  are  the  most  common.  Adult  shrimps  of  many  species  form  also  a  large  portion 
of  their  food,  and  the  infinite  numbers  of  these  forms  of  life  which  exist  in  the  sea,  from  the  coast 
line  to  a  thousand  miles  from  land,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that,  together  with  fish,  they 
form  the  great  staple  of  food  of  seals  in  northern  seas. 

"  Dr.  Robert  Brown  states  that,  during  the  sealing  season  in  Spitzbergen  seas,  he  has  taken 
out  of  the  stomachs  of  seals  various  species  of  Oammarus  (O.  Sabini;  G.  loricatus;  Q.pinguis;  Q. 
dentatm;  O.  mutatus,  etc.),  collectively  known  to  whalers  under  the  name  'mountebank  shrimps,' 
deriving  the  designation  from  their  peculiar  agility  in  water.1 

"These  small  crustaceans  are  found  in  countless  numbers  on  the  great  outlying  banks  off  the 
North  American  coast,  and  in  the  Labrador  seas  they  are  also  in  great  profusion. 

*'  It  is  of  special  importance  to  notice  that  very  many  if  not  all  of  these  free-swimming  crea- 
tures  in  the  sea,  from  invisible  microscopic  forms  to  the  largest  shrimp,  sink  to  different  zones  of 
water  or  rise  to  the  surface  with  the  variations  in  temperature  and  changes  in  the  direction  and 
force  of  the  wind.  In  fine  weather,  when  the  food  is  at  the  surface,  the  Mackerel,  the  herring,  and 

1  Dr.  R.  BROWN  :  On  the  Seals  of  Greenland. 


294  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

other  surface  feeders  swim  open-mouthed  against  the  wind.  Dr.  Brown  states  that  the  right 
whale  and  most  of  the  whale  species  feed  in  a  similar  manner.  The  right  whale  feeding  swims 
leisurely  at  the  rate  of  about  four  miles  an  hour.  Mackerel,  when  feeding,  come  often  by  millions, 
like  a  swiftly  moving  ripple  on  the  water,  with  eager,  staring  eyes  and  mouths  distended  to  entrap 
the  floating  prey.  Many  of  the  free-swimming  pteropoda  are  active  only  during  the  night-time, 
sinking  during  the  day  to  a  certain  zone  of  depth. 

"The  effect  of  currents  and  tides,  assisted  by  winds,  is  to  drive  these  free-swimming  forms 
towards  the  different  shores  and  into  land-locked  or  sheltered  bays.  On  the  shores  of  the  open 
sea  a  continued  laud  breeze  drives  them  far  out  to  sea,  and  the  fish  following  them  will  be  lost  to 
view.  Off  the  coast  of  the  United  States  the  Mackerel  ground  is  not  uufrequently  found  near  the 
summer  limit  of  the  Gulf  Stream  where  wide-spreading  eddies  prevail,  caused  by  the  meeting  of 
the  great  Labrador  current  flowing  in  an  opposite  direction,  or  the  surging  up  of  the  arctic  under- 
flow. In  these  vast  eddies  the  temperature  is  greatly  reduced  by  the  mixing  of  almost  ice-cold 
water  from  beneath  with  a  warm  overlying  stratum. 

"It  is  here,  too,  that  the  free-swimming  mackerel  food  will  congregate,  sometimes  at  the  sur- 
face, at  other  times  at  different  depths,  dependent  upon  the  temperature  of  the  mixed  waters.  In 
the  vicinity  of  the  south  edge  of  the  Grand  Bank  of  Newfoundland  the  line  of  contact  between  the 
Arctic  and  the  Gulf  Streams  is  sometimes  very  marked  by  the  local  currents  which  'boil  and  form 
strong  eddies.'  The  line  of  contact  of  the  two  great  cold  and  warm  currents  is  continually  chang- 
ing for  hundreds  of  miles  with  the  varying  seasons,  and  under  the  influence  of  winds;  hence,  also, 
the  changes  in  geographical  position  and  in  the  depth  or  zone  of  the  open-sea  mackerel  grounds.1 

"Inshore  the  floating  and  free-swimming  food  is  drifted  to  and  fro  by  winds  and  tides,  and 
great  accumulations  are  sometimes  thrown  up  upon  the  beaches  in  windrows  after  storms.  This 
floating  and  swimming  food  gathers  in  eddies,  either  near  the  coast  line  or  at  the  junction  of 
opposing  tidal  waves  or  currents.  Hence,  along  sheltered  and  embayed  coasts,  confronting  the 
open  sea  in  the  vicinity  of  banks  where  great  tidal  currents  and  eddies  are  formed,  or  in  the  gulf 
and  estuary  of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  where  two  opposite  and  wholly  different  tides  dragging  along  the 
coast  line  approach  to  meet,  there  will  be  the  mackerel  ground  of  the  fishermen,  but  not  necessarily 
at  the  surface.*1 

The  winged  pteropods  very  properly  form  an  important  part  of  the  mackerel  food,  as  they 
sink  and  rise  with  changes  of  the  temperature  of  the  zone  or  sheet  of  water  in  which  they  are 
feeding. 

REPRODUCTION. — Although  little  is  actually  known  concerning  the  spawning  habits  of  the 
Mackerel  compared  with  those  of  fish  which,  like  the  shad  and  the  salmon,  have  been  artificially 
propagated,  it  is  perhaps  safe  to  say  that  the  subject  is  understood  in  a  general  way.  The  testi- 
mony of  reliable  observers  among  the  fishermen  of  our  coast  and  the  coast  of  the  British  Provinces 
indicates  that  the  spawning  takes  place  in  rather  deep  water  all  along  the  shore  from  the  eastern 

'There  are  no  mackerel-fishing  grounds  within  300  miles  or  more  of  the  Grand  Bank,  and  certainly  none  nearer 
than  400  miles  of  its  southern  edge.  It  is  possible  that  mackerel  have  occasionally  been  seen,  or  stray  specimens 
captured,  nearer  the  Grand  Bank  than  this,  bnt  no  mackerel  fishermen  would  think  of  trying  for  these  fish  east  of 
the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland.  There  arc  but  two  instauces  on  record  where  mackerel  fishermen  have  gone  so  far 
east  as  that.  Whatever  influence  may  bo  exerted  upon  other  forms  of  ocean  life  by  the  meeting  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
amhtho  Arctic  Current,  it  can  be  quite  safely  asserted  that  the  Mackerel  are  never  found  in  Hummer  near  the  junction 
of  these  currents,  excepting,  perhaps,  on  the  southern  edge  of  George's  Bank  and  off  the  south  shoal  of  Nantucket. 
These  localities  are  the  nearest  mackerel-fishing  grounds  to  the  Gulf  Stream  of  any  on  the  United  States  coast.  And 
even  here  Mackerel  are  rarely  or  never  taken  nearer  than  fifty  or  sixty  miles  from  the  northern  edge  of  the  stream.— 
J.  W.  COLLINS. 


KKPRODUCTION  OF  TIIK  MACKKUHL.  295 

t ml  of  Long  Island  to  Kastport,  Maim-,  along  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawivmv.  Tin-  spawning  season  occurs  in  May  in  Southern  New  England,  in  May  and  June  in 
Massachusetts  Mas  and  in  June  in  the  (lull'  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and  on  tbo  Bradley  Bunks  and 
about  the  Magdalene*  early  in  the  month,  and,  according  to  Ilind,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  New- 
foundland toward  the  end  of  the  month.1 

Capt.  Benjamin  Ashby,  of  Noauk,  Connecticut,  states  that  in  the  spring  of  1877  Mackerel 
spawned  in  great  numbers  in  Vineyard  Sound  and  Buzzard's  Bay.  Many  Mackerel  were  taken  in 
tin-  pounds,  and  the  eggs  were  so  ripe  that  when  the  fish  were  thrown  from  the  net  to  the  boat  the 
eggs  escaped  to  such  an  extent  that  in  cleaning  out  the  boat  afterwards  he  found  at  least  half  a 
bushel  at  the  bottom.  This  was  as  early  as  the  2d  of  May, !  ml  continued  through  the  month. 

Capt.  B.  H.  Hurlbert,  of  Gloucester,  found  the  spawn  running  out  of  Mackerel  taken  oft'  Kettle 
Inland,  south  of  Cape  Ann,  in  May  and  June. 

Capt.  Henry  Webb,  who  owns  a  weir  on  Milk  Island,  under  the  shadow  of  the  Thatcher's 
Island  lights,  obtains  many  Mackerel  every  year  in  his  nets.  He  informs  me  that  when  they  first 
make  their  appearance,  about  the  first  of  June,  the  spawn  is  running  out  of  them,  and  many  of 
them  are  half  through  the  process  of  spawning.  The  eggs  will  spurt  from  a  female  fish  in  a  stream 
si\  feet  long,  and  there  is  a  large  percentage  of  females  in  the  catch,  probably  two-thirds  of  the 
whole.  The  spawn  begins  to  dry  up  after  the  first  of  August,  and  young  fish  begin  to  appear 
about  the  4th  of  August.  He  thinks  that  it  takes  Mackerel  four  or  five  weeks  to  spawn;  after 
that  they  begin  to  grow  fat,  and  when  they  are  fat  there  is  no  sign  of  spawn  to  be  seen,  the  male 
and  female  not  being  distinguishable. 

The  growth  is  rapid,  and  in  about  seven  weeks  the  young  fish  are  about  four  or  five  inches 
long. 

Mackerel  spawn  abundantly  in  Graver's  Beach  at  a  depth  of  one  and  a  half  to  two  fathoms. 
The  eggs  are  very  minute,  and  the  old  Mackerel  feed  upon  them  greedily. 

Captain  Fisher,  of  Portland,  Maine,  told  me,  in  1874,  that  when  the  Mackerel  come  in  they 
are  almost  empty  and  have  a  muddy  taste.  They  first  engage  in  spawning,  but  toward  the  last  of 
June  they  have  finished  and  begin  to  grow  fat. 


'Daring  the  entire  month  of  June  Mackerel  are  taken  in  the  Bay  of  Saint  Lawrence  with  roes  fully  developed. 
Having  been  engaged  in  the  Mackerel  fishery  in  the  Gulf  for  twenty-two  consecutive  seasons,  ten  of  which  I  went  to 
the  Bay  early  in  June,  I  have  therefore  had  abundant  opportunity  to  learn  the  spawning  season  of  the  Mackerel  in 
that  region.  It  is  my  opinion  that  Mackerel  spawn  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  some  time  between  the  1st  and  the 
15th  of  July.  Have  caught  them  in  abundance  and  full  of  roe  as  late  as  the  4th  and  5th  of  July,  and  it  is  exceedingly 
rare  to  find  spent  Mackerel  previous  to  the  20th  of  June.  In  the  period  when  hook-aud-line  fishing  was  most  prosper- 
ous, the  fishermen  usually  planned  to  leave  the  Gulf  about  the  first  week  in  July  if  they  hod  succeeded  in  getting  nearly 
a  faro  of  Mackerel  previous  to  that  time,  since  while  the  fish  were  spawning,  or  between  the  1st  and  the  15th  of  the 
month,  but  little  conld  be  done,  as  the  Mackerel  would  not  readily  take  the  hook.  The  fishermen,  therefore,  knowing 
that  they  conld  catch  few  fish  during  this  period,  between  "hay  and  grass,"  as  they  termed  it,  usually  improved  the 
opportunity  thus  afforded  of  making  their  passage  home  and  refitting  for  another  trip  with  comparatively  little  loss 
of  timo.  Apparently  one  of  the  most  favorite  breeding  grounds  for  Mackerel  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  is  the 
area  along  the  shores  of  Now  Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward  Island  (on  the  north  side  of  the  latter)  lying  inside  of  a 
line  drawn  from  North  Cape  to  Point  Miscou.  Bank  Bradley  is  also  a  breeding  ground  for  Mackerel  of  considerable 
importance.  The  fish  seemed  to  assemble  'on  the  grounds  mentioned  above  during  Jnne,  in  *a  depth  varying  from 
three  to  forty  fathoms.  The  greater  part,  however,  were  found  in  a  depth  varying  from  ten  to  twenty  fathoms.  The 
spawning  season  being  over,  they  usually  stay  on  the  same  grounds,  though  later  in  the  summer  and  during  autumn 
the  Mackerel  were  abundant  around  the  Magdalenes  and  the  bend  of  Prince  Edward  Island ;  when  the  fall  migration 
takes  place  they  move  farther  south.  It  is  probable  that  largo  numbers  of  Mackerel  may  deposit  their  spawn  around 
Magdalene  Island,  though  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  but  few  or  no  fish  have  been  taken  in  that  locality  on  hook  and 
lino  during  the  month  of  June.  Considerable  quantities  are,  however,  caught  by  the  gill-net  fishermen  early  in  June, 
though  iln-  cutch  was  small  compared  with  that  formerly  obtained  by  hook-ond-line  fishing  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Bay.— J.  W.  COLLINS. 


296  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Captain  Hurlbert  caught  a  dozen  fish  off  Cainden  July  1, 1870,  which  were  half  spawned  and 
had  spawn  running  out  of  them. 

According  to  Mr.  Wilkins,  of  Two  Isles,  Grand  Manan,  the  Mackerel  spawn  there  on  the 
rocks  and  sand  in  water  from  one  foot  to  ten  feet  or  more  in  depth.  This  is  in  the  first  half  of 
June.  The  spawn  is  in  bunches  and  does  not  float  on  the  water. 

During  the  spawning  season  Mackerel  are  taken  in  seines,  as  they  will  not  bite  and  are  then 
very  poor.  They  come  again  in  September  and  October,  and  are  then  taken  with  the  hook. 

Mr.  Hall,  of  Charlottetown,  Prince  Edward  Island,  says  that  Mackerel  spawn  only  once  in 
seven  years  in  large  numbers,  this  period  representing  the  interval  between  the  successive  large 
catches.  The  Mackerel  strike  in  there  about  the  10th  of  June.  They  spawn  about  the  2d  or  3d 
of  July  on  the  Bradley  Bank  to  the  north  of  Prince  Edward  Island.  At  that  time  they  have  been 
taken  with  spawn  running  out  of  them.  They  cease  to  bite  for  several  weeks  while  spawning. 
One  of  the  principal  spawning  grounds  on  our  coast  appears  to  be  on  the  Nantucket  Shoals,  where 
for  a  period  of  three  or  four  weeks  after  their  first  appearance  the  Mackerel  hug  the  bottom  and 
rarely  take  the  hook.  At  this  time  there  is  a  lull  in  the  prosecution  of  the  mackerel  fishery, 
although  before  its  beginning  great  quantities  are  taken  in  the  purse-seines  far  south  along  the 
coast.  After  the  close  of  the  spawning  season  the  old  fish  are  said  to  be  very  poor,  but  take  the 
hook  greedily  along  the  entire  coast,  as  also  before  the  beginning  of  the  spawning  season.  Although 
the  fish  first  brought  to  market  are  sold  at  a  high  price  on  account  of  their  previous  scarcity,  it  is 
not  until  after  the  close  of  the  spawning  season  and  the  subsequent  fattening  up  of  the  fish  that 
they  attain  their  highest  excellence  as  an  article  of  food.  Fall  Mackerel  are  well  understood  to  be 
by  far  the  best  fish.  Storer,  in  his  "History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  remarks:  "From  the 
10th  of  May  to  the  15th  of  June  they  appear  at  the  entrance  to  Massachusetts  Bay,  having  been  a 
few  days  previous  at  Nantucket  and  the  Vineyard  Sound.  Nine-tenths  of  those  first  seen  are 
males,  and  they  are  all  large  but  poor,  weighing  from  one  pound  to  one  pound  and  a  half.  At 
their  first  appearance  they  will  not  take  the  hook,  and  are  therefore  captured  in  seines." 

The  contrast  between  the  statements  of  Storer  and  Captain  Webb  should  be  carefully  noted. 
The  former  states  that  the  early  fish  taken  near  the  end  of  Cape  Cod  are  mostly  males.  This 
would  naturally  be  the  case,  as  the  females  at  this  time  are  either  engaged  in  spawning  or  are 
perhaps  so  weak  that  they  would  not  be  likely  to  come  to  the  surface.  At  Milk  Island,  however, 
which  seems  to  be  in  the  middle  of  the  spawning  region,  the  majority  of  the  fish  are  females. 

We  are  indebted  to  Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood  for  the  most  complete  series  of  observations  upon  the 
spawning  of  the  Mackerel  which  has  ever  been  made,  and  what  he  has  seen  he  shall  be  allowed  to 
tell  in  his  own  words : 

"I  have  many  seasons  been  engaged  in  fishing  for  Mackerel  in  our  bay  with  gill-nets.  I 
watched  the  Mackerel  more  particularly  in  regard  to  their  time  for  spawning.  In  1856,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  a  measure  had  passed  the  Massachusetts  legislature  authorizing  the  appointment  of 
three  commissioners  to  make  investigations  with  regard  to  the  artificial  propagation  of  the  fish, 
and  that  I  expected  to  be  named  one  of  the  commissioners,  I  went  to  the  upper  part  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  where  it  is  about  twenty  miles  broad,  and  I  found  these  spawning  Mackerel  there  near 
the  bottom.  This  year  the  Mackerel  came  in  about  the  middle  of  May;  few  at  first.  On  the  20th 
I  went  out  for  the  first  time  with  my  drifting-nets  all  night  in  the  bay;  I  caught  2,250  Mackerel; 
on  the  following  night  I  caught  3,520.  When  I  first  began  to  catch  them  I  observed  that  the  spawn 
had  come  to  its  full  size,  though  it  was  not  free  to  run  from  them,  not  being  yet  fully  matured. 
On  or  about  the  1st  of  June  we  found  that  some  of  them  were  depositing  spawn,  and  as  I  took  them 
from  the  nets  the  spawn  ran  freely.  On  the  5th  of  June  I  took  the  mature  eggs  as  they  came  from 


REPRODUCTION  OF  THE  MACKEREL.  297 

the  fish  and  put  them  in  alcohol,  marking  the  date,  aa  I  considered  this  time  the  middle  of  the 
spawning  season.  (By  the  10th  of  Jane  the  fish  had  all  deposited  their  spawn,  and  they  then 
prom-drd  to  the  grounds  whore  they  expected  to  meet  with  better  food  in  order  to  fatten  and 
recruit.  The  spawning  takes  place  at  a  depth  of  from  five  to  fifteen  fathoms.)  Thirty  days  after 
I  went  out  in  the  bay  and  found  any  quantity  of  schools  of  little  Mackerel  which  were,  I  should 
think,  about  two  inches  long,  though  their  length  might  have  been  a  little  less.  I  took  a  number 
of  specimens  and  put  them  in  alcohol,  marking  the  date.  Twenty-five  days  later  I  procured 
another  lot  of  them  which  had  grown  to  double  that  size.  I  don't  mean  to  imply  that  they  were 
twice  as  long,  but  twice  as  heavy.  I  put  them  also  in  alcohol,  marking  the  date.  The  first  time  I 
subsequently  went  to  Boston  I  called  on  Professor  Agassiz  and  gave  him  the  specimens.  He  said 
that  he  had  never  before  been  able  to  ascertain  these  facts  so  clearly  and  so  well,  and  that  he  was 
very  much  pleased  with  them.  I  watched  the  growth  of  these  young  Mackerel  all  along,  and  I 
saw  them  grow  considerably  from  month  to  month,  so  much  so  that  the  same  fall,  in  the  latter 
part  of  October,  I  caught  some  of  them  with  a  very  small  mesh  net  and  found  they  had  grown  to 
a  length  of  six  and  a  half  or  seven  inches.  I  kept  a  small  quantity  of  them,  split,  salted,  and 
packed  them,  in  accordance  with  the  Massachusetts  inspection  law,  as  No.  4's,  and  since  Mackerel 
were  then  scarce  and  very  high  in  price,  I  sold  them  for  as  much  as  $6  a  barrel." 

"Much  yet  remains  to  be  learned  in  regard  to  the  spawning  season  of  the  American  Mackerel," 
writes  Professor  Baird,  "and  little  more  is  known  of  this  except  in  regard  to  the  European 
variety.  It  is,  however,  well  established  by  the  researches  of  Sars  that  this  fish,  like  the  cod,  and 
many  of  the  flat  fish,  etc.,  spawns  in  the  open  sea,  some  times  at  a  great  distance  from  the  land,  at 
others  closer  inshore.  Sars  found  them  on  the  outer  banks  of  the  coast  of  Norway;  and  Mr. 
Matthias  Dunn,  of  Mevagissey,  England,  communicates  to  '  Land  and  Water '  his  observations 
of  Mackerel  found,  with  ripe  spawn,  six  miles  from  the  coast.1 

"  The  fish  taken  in  the  weirs  and  pounds  on  Vineyard  Sound  and  about  Cape  Cod  in  the  early 
spring  are  filled  with  ripe  spawn ;  and  that  the  operation  of  spawning  takes  place  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast  is  shown  by  the  immense  schools  of  small  fish  that  are  taken  throughout  the  summer,  of 
various  sizes,  from  a  few  inches  up,  and  from  Buzzard's  Bay  to  Portland  and  Penobscot  Bay.  No 
species  of  young  fish  is,  at  times,  more  abundant  throughout  the  summer  season  than  the  Mackerel. 

•'The  egg  of  the  Mackerel  is  exceedingly  minute,  not  larger  than  that  of  the  alewife  or  gaspe- 
reau.  It  appears  to  be  free  from  an  adhesive  envelope,  such  as  pertains  to  the  egg  of  the  herring, 
and  in  consequence  of  which  it  agglutinates  together,  and  adheres  to  gravel,  the  rocks,  or  the  sea- 
weed at  the  bottom.  As  with  the  egg  of  the  cod,  that  of  the  Mackerel  is  provided  with  an  oil 
globule,  which  makes  it  float  nearly  at  the  level  of  the  surface." 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Frederick  W.  True  for  an  enumeration  of  the  eggs  in  two  Mackerel  takeu 
at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  in  May,  1873;  one  of  these  contained  363,107,  the  other  393,887. 

SIR:  I  have  been  agaiu  fortunate  in  taking  a  Mackerel  alive  in  the  act  of  spawning,  on  the  night  of  May  10,  abont 
six  miles  from  land.  A  better  specimen  could  not  possibly  be  bad,  and  the  roe  ran  freely  without  assistance.  I  got 
a  bucket  of  sea- water,  and  allowed  the  fish  to  spawn  in  it ;  for  some  time  I  had  a  difficulty  in  finding  what  became  of 
it,  as  the  globules  would  not  reflect  the  light  of  the  candle  like  the  pilchard  spawn  ;  but  by  running  the  water  into  a 
clean  bottle,  and  holding  it  to  the  light,  I  found  them  floating  on  the  surface,  but  not  so  buoyant  as  the  pilchard  roe. 
In  this  state  they  continued  for  about  half  an  hour,  and  then  gradually  sank  to  the  bottom;  but,  unlike  the  pilchard 
spawn,  they  retained  their  vitality  there  for  more  than  twelve  hours.  With  the  daylight  the  globules  could  scarcely 
be  discerned  by  looking  directly  down  into  the  water ;  but  on  holding  it  towards  the  light  in  a  bottle  they  could  be  seen, 
with  that  healthy,  bright  silvery  hue  so  peculiar  to  living  ones,  each  marked  with  a  dark  spot  in  the  center.  Believ- 
ing the  pilclutrd  spawn  would  have  reached  you,  I  did  not  send  you  any  of  these.  As  I  sent  that  spawn  by  post,  I 
suppose  the  bottle  must  have  been  broken  in  the  post-bag. — MATTHIAS  DUNN  (Mevagissey,  Cornwall,  May  15,  1871), 
Land  and  Water,  May  20,  1871,  p.  353. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


The  only  previous  record  of  the  number  of  eggs  yielded  by  Mackerel  is  that  made  by  Thomas 
Harmer,  in  1764,  and  published  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  of  London,  vol.  57,  p.  285. 
He  found  in  one  large  Mackerel,  weighing  one  and  a  quarter  pounds,  454,961  eggs;  in  a  second, 
of  much  the  same  weight,  430,846 ;  and  in  a  third,  weighing  about  one  pound  two  ounces,  546,681.' 

RATE  OF  GROWTH  AND  SIZE. — The  rate  of  growth  of  the  Mackerel  during  the  first  sum- 
mer has  been  quite  carefully  studied  by  Captain  Atwood;  and  the  same  authority  has,  perhaps 
more  satisfactorily  than  any  other,  interpreted  the  facts  from  which  may  be  deduced  the  conclu- 
sions as  to  their  growth  year  by  year. 

Referring  to  the  small  fish,  six  and  a  half  or  seven  inches  in  length,  which  he  believed  to  be 
the  young  of  the  year,  caught  by  him  in  October,  1856,  he  says:  "Fish  of  this  size  are  sometimes 
called  '  Spikes,'  but  I  do  not  know  their  proper  name.  The  next  year  I  think  they  are  the  '  Blinks,' 
being  one  year  old;  the  following  year  they  are  the  'Tinkers,'  two  years  old,  and  the  year  after 
they  return  to  us  as  the  second-size,  three  years  old.  It  is  probable  that  the  fish  reaches  its  full 
maturity  in  four  years."  He  continues:  "The  first  Mackerel  that  come  in  are  very  large  and 
spawners,  but  these  do  not  bite  at  the  hook;  and  you  don't  catch  them  with  the  seine,  because 
they  don't  show  themselves.  You  would  not  know  of  their  presence  if  you  did  not  set  nets  for 
them.  When  they  are  taken  in  nets  set  anywhere  along  the  coast,  at  Provincetown,  etc.,  a  good 
many  people  imagine  that  they  are  the  remnant  of  the  Mackerel  which  were  there  the  year  before, 
and  which  have  been  imbedded  in  the  mud;  and  when  they  taste  these  fish  they  fancy  that 
they  taste  mud.  When  the  next  school  arrives  there  appear  Mackerel  of  different  sizes,  which 
take  the  hook.  They  are  carried  to  Boston  market  and  are  sold  fresh  in  their  season.  They  are 
not  sold  by  weight,  but  are  culled,  and  are  denominated  as  follows :  Large  ones,  second-size,  "  Tink- 
ers," and  "  Blinks."  When  the  large  ones  are  worth  twelve  cents,  the  others  may  sell,  second-size, 
eight  cents;  Tinkers,  four  cents,  and  Blinks,  one  and  a  half  cents.  These  prices  may  fluctuate 
when  there  occurs  a  large  proportion  of  one  or  more  of  the  above-named  kinds  at  the  same  time. 
Any  man  who  is  well  acquainted  with  them  will  make  the  same  culling,  as  there  seems  to  be  a  line 
of  demarkation  between  the  different  kinds  which  stands  out  prominently. 

"Admitting  this  to  be  the  fact,  those  that  come  as  Blinks  are  from  the  spawn  of  the  year 
before,  while  those  which  are  called  '-Tinkers"  are  from  the  Blinks  of  the  year  previous,  being  the 
two-year-old  fish;  and  those  that  are  called  second-size  are  from  the  Tinkers  of  the  year  before; 
when  they  grow  up  and  mix  with  the  bigger  ones,  I  don't  know  how  they  live,  or  much  about 
them.  This  is  my  opinion  about  these  matters.  You  will  find  that  fishermen  will  tell  you  they 
think  that  Mackerel  are  six  or  seven  years  in  getting  their  growth." 

Mackerel,  when  full  grown,  are  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches  in  length;  sometimes  they 
attain  a  larger  size.  In  August,  1880,  a  school  of  Mackerel  was  taken  in  the  vicinity  of  Plymouth ; 
they  weighed  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  pounds  each,  and  were  from  nineteen  to  nineteen  and 
a  half  inches  long.  They  were  regarded  as  extraordinarily  large,  and  a  barrel  of  them  were  sent 
to  the  Fishery  Exhibition  at  Berlin  as  an  illustration  of  the  perfection  to  which  the  Mackerel 
attains  in  this  country.  Although  the  size  just  mentioned  is  unusual  at  present,  in  past  years 
many  thousands  of  barrels  have  been  taken  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  large.  The  size  varies  from 
year  to  year,  sometimes  very  few  barrels  which  can  be  rated  as  No.  1's  being  found  in  our  waters. 


'No. 

Mt 

Weight. 

Weight  of 
spawn. 

Number  of 
««(?»• 

Number  to 
a  grain. 

1 

June  20  1764 

I},,,.,:-. 

20 

drain*. 

'    I  027 

454  (Nil 

443 

2 

June  211  1704               

20 

949 

430,  84(1 

454 

3 

June  18  17(J5 

18 

1  223i 

516  681 

447 

si xi-:  or  TIIK  MACKEREL.  299 

A  No.  1  Mackerel,  according  to  the  Massachusetts  inspection  laws,  measures  thirteen  inches  from 
the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  crotch  or  fork  of  the  caudal  fin.  The  average  length  from  year  to  year 
for  the  whole  coast  is  probably  not  far  from  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  a  weight  of  twelve  to  six- 
teen ounces.  The  following  quotations  from  writers  of  two  centuries  ago  are  interesting,  since  they 
show  that  large  Mackerel  were  known  to  the  early  colonists  of  New  England : 

"The  mackerel,  of  which  there  is  choicefull  plenty  all  summer  long;  in  the  spring  they  are 
ordinarily  18  inches  long;  afterwards  there  is  none  taken  but  what  are  smaller."1 

"The  Makarels  are  the  baite  for  the  Basse,  &  these  have  been  chased  into  the  shallow  waters, 
where  so  many  thousands  have  shott  themselves  a  shore  with  the  surle  of  the  Sea  that  whole 
hogges-heads  have  been  taken  np  on  the  Sands;  &  for  length  they  excell  any  of  other  parts:  they 
have  bin  measured  18.  &  19.  inches  in  length  and  seaven  breadth :  &  are  taken  with  a  drayee,  (as 
boats  use  to  pass  to  &  froe  at  Sea  on  business,)  in  very  greate  quantities  all  along  the  Ooaste. 

"The  Fish  is  good,  salted;  for  store  against  the  winter,  as  well  as  fresh,  &  to  be  accounted  a 
good  commodity."1 

ENEMIES  OF  THE  MACKEREL. — The  gannot  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  the 
Mackerel.  These  birds  are  often  seen  so  heavily  weighted  with  these  fish  that  they  are  unable 
to  rise  on  the  approach  of  the  vessel  until  they  have  disgorged  from  two  to  four  good-sized  Mackerel. 
This  is  so  common  an  occurrence  that  there  are  but  few  fishermen  who  have  not  witnessed  it. 

Porpoises  and  whales  may  also  be  included  in  the  list  of  enemies  of  the  Mackerel.  It  is  by  no 
means  an  unusual  sight  on  the  fishing  grounds  to  see  hundreds  of  the  former  rushing  and  leaping 
among  schools  of  Mackerel,  scattering  them  in  every  direction. 

The  shark  known  to  fishermen  as  the  "  mackerel  shark  "  is  one  of  the  principal  enemies  of  the 
Mackerel.  I  have  often  seen  them  chasing  Mackerel,  and,  when  jigging  was  practiced,  it  was  a 
common  occurrence  for  sharks  to  drive  off  a  school  from  alongside  of  a  vessel. 

Dogfish  often  hover  around  the  outside  of  large  schools  of  Mackerel,  and  doubtless  feed  on 
them.  Great  difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  saving  fish  that  have  been  inclosed  in  a  purse- 
seine,  owing  to  the  immense  numbers  of  dogfish  that  gather  around  and,  in  their  efforts  to  eat  the 
Mackerel,  which  they  see  through  the  meshes,  bite  off  the  twine,  making  large  holes  in  the  seine 
through  which  the  inclosed  fish  escape. 

Among  the  other  principal  enemies  of  the  Mackerel  are  the  bluefish,  mackerel  shark,  and  the 
cod.  The  appearance  of  a  school  of  bluefish  in  waters  crowded  witli  Mackerel  is  an  almost  sure 
signal  for  their  disappearance. 

The  young  Mackerel  are  eaten  by  squids  also.  Professor  Verrill  has  recorded  the  following 
account  of  the  maneuvers  of  the  squid  known  to  zoologists  by  the  name  Ommastrcphes  illecebrosus : 

"  Messrs.  S.  I.  Smith  and  Oscar  Harger  observed  it  at  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  among  the 
wharves,  in  large  numbers,  July  28,  engaged  in  capturing  and  devouring  the  young  Mackerel, 
which  were  swimming  about  in  '  schools,'  and  at  that  time  were  about  four  or  five  inches  long.  In 
attacking  the  Mackerel,  they  would  suddenly  dart  backward  among  the  fish  with  the  velocity  of  an 
arrow  and  suddenly  turn  obliquely  to  the  right  or  left  and  seize  a  fish,  which  was  almost  instantly 
killed  by  a  bite  in  the  back  of  the  neck  with  the  sharp  beaks.  The  bite  was  always  made  iii  the 
same  place,  cutting  out  a  triangular  piece  of  flesh,  and  was  deep  enough  to  penetrate  to  the  spinal 
cord.  The  attacks  were  not  always  successful,  and  were  sometimes  repeated  a  dozen  times  before 
one  of  these  active  and  wary  fishes  could  be  caught.  Sometimes  after  making  several  unsuccessful 
attempts  one  of  the  squids  would  suddenly  drop  to  the  bottom,  and,  resting  upon  the  sand,  would 

'JO88ELYX,  1675. 

•New  England's  Fish,  JOHN  SMITH,  1622.    United  Slates  Fish  Commission  Report,  Part  I,  p.  153. 


300  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

change  its  color  to  that  of  the  sand  so  perfectly  as  to  be  almost  invisible.  In  this  way  it  would 
wait  until  the  fishes  came  back,  and  when  they  were  swimming  close  to  or  over  the  ambuscade,  the 
squid,  by  a  sudden  dart,  would  be  pretty  sure  to  secure  a  fish.  Ordinarily  when  swimming  they 
were  thickly  spotted  with  red  and  brown,  but  when  darting  among  the  Mackerel  they  appeared 
translucent  and  pale.  The  Mackerel,  however,  seemed  to  have  learned  that  the  shallow  water  is 
the  safest  for  them  and  would  hug  the  shore  as  closely  as  possible,  so  that  in  pursuing  them  many 
of  the  squids  became  stranded  and  perished  by  hundreds,  for  when  they  once  touch  the  shore  they 
begin  to  pump  water  from  their  siphons  with  great  energy,  and  this  usually  forces  them  farther 
and  farther  up  the  beach.  At  such  times  they  often  discharge  their  ink  in  large  quantities.  The 
attacks  on  the  young  Mackerel  were  observed  mostly  at  or  near  high  water,  for  at  other  times  the 
Mackerel  were  seldom  seen,  though  the  squids  were  seen  swimming  about  at  all  hours ;  and  these 
attacks  were  observed  both  in  the  day  and  evening." 

The  dogfish  is  doubtless  a  dangerous  foe  to  the  Mackerel  weakened  by  the  act  of  spawning 
and  remaining  near  the  bottom.  An  old  fisherman  has  described  to  me  with  great  animation  how 
greedily  the  dogfish  devour  the  Mackerel  which  have  become  gilled  in  the  nets,  how  they  follow 
them  to  the  surface  and  linger  about  the  vessel  while  the  process  of  cleaning  is  going  on,  drinking 
the  blood  of  the  fish  as  it  flows  from  the  scuppers. 

STUDIES  OF  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  MACKEREL  SCHOOLS. 

HIND  ON  THE  CAUSES  OF  IRREGULAR  MOVEMENTS. — In  closing  this  chapter  upon  the 
natural  history  of  the  Mackerel,  it  seems  appropriate  to  quote  from  the  writings  of  Professor  Hind 
some  very  important  paragraphs  in  which  he  has  attempted  to  interpret  the  irregular  movements 
of  the  mackerel  schools  in  our  waters,  and  to  explain  the  causes  of  the  alleged  annual  variation 
of  their  numbers : 

"What  is  the  proper  interpretation  of  the  movements  of  the  Mackerel  from  its  first  appear- 
ance in  the  spring  to  its  disappearance  in  the  fall  ?  These  movements  vary  with  the  geographical 
position  of  local  schools  of  this  fish.  On  the  coasts  of  the  United  States  and  Nova  Scotia,  its 
annual  movements  resemble  in  all  particulars  those  of  the  same  species  in  European  seas  where 
the  schools  have  a  free  and  unobstructed  ocean  in  which  to  seek  their  prey. 

"In  the  spring,  at  the  end  of  April  and  May,  the  Atlantic  schools  of  this  fish  which  have 
wintered  off  the  coasts  approach  the  land  iu  separate  bodies,  full  of  spawn  and  poor,  coming  direct 
from  winter  homes  where  they  have  remained  in  a  torpid  condition,  partially  buried  in  sand  or 
mud.  After  spawning,  the  different  schools  feed  for  a  short  time  on  the  fry  of  fish,  and  as  the 
temperature  rises  they.go  out  to  sea  in  search  of  free-swimming  crustaceans  and  larval  forms  of 
food  according  as  they  are  distributed  by  wind  and  tide. 

"They  pursue  this  food  against  the  current  or  tide.  They  often  feed  during  the  night,  because 
at  that  period  great  numbers  of  free-swimming  larval  forms  approach  the  surface.  This  is  one 
reason  why  mackerel  schools  are  frequently  missed  by  fishermen,  and  areas  supposed  to  be  deserted 
may  really  abound  with  this  fish,  which  would  be  discovered  by  sink-net  fishing.  The  currents 
are  constantly  changing  with  the  seasons  under  the  influence  of  temperature  and  prevailing  winds, 
hence  the  course  of  direction  and  depth  of  the  food  is  constantly  changing  also. 

"Sometimes  it  is  carried  far  off  from  the  land,  at  other  times  towards  it,  and  the  mackerel 
schools  following  the  food  move  first  in  one  direction,  then  in  another,  and  range  from  close  inshore 
to  fifty  miles  and  more  seawards,  and  often,  doubtless,  at  a  considerable  depth  below  the  surface. 

"The  general  direction  of  these  movements,  when  plotted  on  paper,  would  be  a  series  of  irregu- 


HIND  ON  TUB  MOVEMENTS  OF  MACKEREL.  301 

lar  circles  or  elongated  ellipses,  the  range  of  each  school  or  group  of  schools  being  opposite  and 
often  adjacent  to  that  part  of  the  coast  where  they  spawn. 

"As  the  fall  approaches,  owing  to  the  diminution  in  the  supply  of  their  floating  food  out  at 
sea,  they  come  more  inland. 

"All  the  free-swimming  larval  forms  of  most  species  of  shrimps,  crabs,  lobsters,  sea-urchins, 
star-fish,  sea-worms,  &c.,  have  disappeared  in  the  open  sea,  after  passing  through  their  final  trans- 
formation. But  near  the  shore  there  are  great  numbers  of  other  forms  of  life,  which  are  developed 
later  in  tin-  \r;ir.  Coining  inshore  to  feed  on  these  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Mackerel  are  found 
by  American  fishermen  later  and  later  on  their  return  voyage  to  the  southwest,  which  gives  rise  to 
tin-  impression  that  they  are  following  the  schools,  when  they  are  only  meeting  with  fresh  schools 
approaching  the  shore  from  their  feeding  grounds.  Similar  movements  occur  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton.  As  winter  approaches,  beginning  at  Cape  Breton  in  November, 
the  different  schools  retire  to  their  winter  homes  off  the  coast  in  deep  water  later  and  later  from 
north  to  south. 

"In  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  where  land  is,  as  it  were,  on  all  sides,  the  local  schools  come 
from  their  winter  haunts  to  the  banks  and  beaches  of  the  Magdalens,  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  in 
the  Bay  Chaleur,  etc.,  to  spawn  about  the  first  week  in  June.  They  retire  after  spawning  to  deep 
water,  and  meet  the  incoming  sand-launce.  They  follow  the  sand-lauuce  inshore  or  on  to  banks, 
and  for  some  weeks  feed  on  these  fish.  When  the  saud-launce  again  retires  to  deep  water,  the 
season  of  the  small  crustaceans  has  arrived,  and  these  by  tidal  action,  already  described,  and 
winds,  are  concentrated  near  the  coast  lines  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  New  Brunswick,  the  north 
and  south  shore  of  the  estuary  and  gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and  the  shores  of  Cape  Breton.  On 
all  these  coasts  the  effect  of  the  single  and  confluent  tides,  dragging  along  the  coast  line  and 
retarded  by  it,  is  to  produce  eddies,  where  the  free-swimming  food  concentrates.  The  course  of 
direction  of  the  different  schools  during  the  summer  is  thus  dependent  upon  winds  and  tides,  and 
their  movements  would,  if  correctly  plotted,  resemble  long  narrow  ellipses  adjacent  to  the  coast, 
which  are  doubtless  many  times  repeated. 

"At  the  approach  of  winter  the  different  schools  seek  their  winter  quarters  opposite  and  near 
to  the  places  where  they  spawned  in  the  preceding  spring,  as  is  the  case  of  the  schools  on  the 
Atlantic  coasts.  In  these  particulars  their  movements  resemble  those  of  different  species  of  fish 
which  feed  and  move  in  great  schools  in  directions  outlined  by  circles  or  ellipses  throughout  the 
period  during  which  they  are  at  the  surface.1 

'It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  experienced  mackerel  fishermen  that  during  the  month  of  May  and  the  early  part 
of  June  large  bodies  of  Mackerel  pass  along  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton  from  west  to  east,  and  while 
many  schools  move  through  the  waters  of  Chodubucto  Bay  and  the  Straits  of  Canso  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence, 
another  body  passes  in  around  the  east  end  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  their  destination  being  the  same  as  those  fish 
taking  the  shorter  route.  No  better  evidence  of  this  migratory  habit  can  be  deduced  than  the  fact  that  at  this  season 
of  the  year  the  fishermen  along  the  Nova  Scot  ian  coast  and  about  the  Strait  of  Canso  are  busily  employed  in  catching 
Mackerel  both  in  gill- nets  and  in  drag-seines.  On  some  occasions  when  the  season  has  been  exceptionally  favorable 
tin-  amount  of  Mackerel  so  taken  has  often  been  very  great.  This  movement  of  the  Mackerel  is  so  regular  and  so 
well-defined  that  the  fishermen  rarely  fail  to  tell  within  a  few  days,  or  perhaps  even  a  few  hours,  ef  the  time  when 
they  will  appear  on  certain  portions  of  the  coast.  The  fall  migrations  aro  quite  as  regular.  As  the  season  advances 
and  the  temperature  of  the  water  decreases,  the  Mackerel,  instead  of  simply  changing  their  position  into  deeper  water 
near  their  summer  habitat,  as  has  been  stated  by  Professor  Hind,  move  in  vast  bodies  towards  the  southern  part  of 
the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  frequently  striking  in  a  succession  of  waves,  as  it  were,  on  the  northern  shores  of  Cape 
Breton  Island,  where,  deflected  from  their  southern  course,  they  divide  into  two  streams  or  branches,  one  pausing 
through  the  Strait  of  Canso,  and  the  other  out  round  the  north  cape  of  the  island,  and  by  its  eastern  and  southern 
sides,  and  so  on  up  along  the  south  coast  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  Mackerel  which  are  found  about  the  Magdalene 
Islands  during  the  summer  and  early  autumn  apparently  move  in  a  nearly  direct  line  towards  Hie  northeast  end  of 
Cape  Breton  Island,  when  they  begin  their  fall  migration.  I  have  often  li:id  occasion  to  notice,  in  a  practical  way, 
these  movements,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  li>licrineu  and  of  considerable  interest  to  the 


302  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"  Sacs  has  shown  that  this  form  of  movement  is  taken  by  the  herring  on  the  Norwegian  coast.1 

"The  Mackerel  are  pursued  by  cod  and  hake,  and  these  fish  gather  where  offal  is  thrown 
over  from  vessels  on  which  the  Mackerel  are  cleaned.  As  a  natural  consequence  the  Mackerel 
avoid  the  sea  areas  where  their  enemies  are  congregated,  and  fishermen  attribute  the  desertion  of 
the  mackerel  ground  directly  to  the  throwing  of  oft'al  overboard.  Cod,  and  probably  hake,  follow 
up  the  scent  of  offal  or  food  of  any  description  carried  by  currents  with  remarkable  facility,  as 
may  be  witnessed  during  the  process  of  jigging  for  cod  in  calm  and  clear  waters.  On  looking  over 
the  side  of  a  boat,  with  a  man  engaged  in  jigging  at  the  bow  or  stern,  as  soon  as  a  fish  is  wounded 
merely  by  the  jigger  and  blood  flows  from  the  wound,  the  creature  may  be  seen  to  dart  here  and 
there  in  pain.  The  neighboring  fish  of  the  cod  tribe  are  attracted  by  the  scent  and  follow  the 
blood  'tracks'  against  the  current,  hunting  their  wounded  comrade  to  the  death.  A  fish  coining 
across  the  stream  of  scent  immediately  follows  it  up,  and  it  is  thus  that  fish  offal  or  bait  thrown 
overboard  in  the  open  sea,  or  some  distance  from  shore,  gathers  the  fish  on  the  course  of  the  cur- 
rent. In  harbors  and  confined  or  laud-locked  bays,  where  there  is  no  constant  strong  current  to 
carr^  off  the  results  of  decomposition,  and  where  the  sea-scavengers  are  not  sufficiently  numerous 
to  consume  it,  the  effect  cannot  fail  to  be  extremely  prejudicial  to  young  fry  and  to  fish-spawn.2 

"The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  local  movements  of  the  Mackerel  may  be  recognized  in  the 
process  employed  by  fishermen  to  'raise'  Mackerel  by  toll  bait,  and  luring  them  seawards.  The 
Mackerel  follow  the  bait  for  some  distance  from  shore,  where  suddenly  they  cease  to  bite  and  dis- 
appear. They  probably  find  long  exposure  to  the  warm  temperature  of  the  surface  waters  unsuited 
to  their  habits,  and  sink  to  a  cooler  zone. 

"  Hence  the  reason  why  a  '  mackerel  breeze,'  mixing  the  heated  surface  water  with  the  cooler 
understratum,  is  favorable  to  prolonged  mackerel  fishing  with  bait.  The  mixing  produced  by 
agitation  cools  the  surface  and  permits  the  fish  to  feed  for  a  lengthened  period.'" 

"The  Mackerel,  like  the  herring  and  the  cod,  seeks  cold  water  for  its  spawning  grounds 
wherever  the  Labrador  current  exercises  its  influence.  Between  Block  Island  and  No  Man's 


naturalist.  On  one  occasion,  in  the  fall  of  1867,  an  immense  body  of  Mackerel  was  found  along  the  north  shore  of 
Cape  Breton,  and  on  the  last  day  that  the  fish  were  seen  the  schools  came  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  I  feel  safe 
in  saying,  from  actual  observation,  that  they  moved  at  a  rate  of  no  less  than  three  or  four  miles  r.er  hour  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  north  capo  of  the  island.  On  another  occasion,  a  body  of  Mackerel  that  was  found  near  Amherst  Island 
(one  of  the  Magdalenes)  one  day,  were  met  with  the  following  morning  about  thirty  miles  distant  from  the  first 
locality,  in  the  direction  of  the  north  capo  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  towards  which  they  were  moving  at  the  rate  of  one 
or  two  miles  an  hour.  I  have  myself  seen  schools  of  Mackerel  off  the  Nova  Scotian  coast,  in  the  fall,  moving  quite 
rapidly  in  a  westerly  direction,  but  all  efforts  to  catch  them  with  a  hook  failed,  since  they  seemed  to  pay  no  regard 
whatever  to  toll  bait.  All  of  my  own  observations,  and  those  of  the  Nova  Scotian  fishermen  with  whom  I  have  been 
brought  in  contact,  lead  me  to  believe  that  Mackerel  will  not  bite  the  hook  to  any  extent  during  their  fall  migrations 
along  the  southern  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia.  This  is  all  the  more  remarkable  since  they  seem  to  take  the  hook  very 
eagerly  up  to  the  last  moment  of  their  stay  on  their  feeding  grounds  in  the  gulf.  The  spring  and  fall  migrations  of  the 
Mackerel  on  our  own  coast  are  carried  on  with  equal  regularity  and  precision.  On  more  than  one  occasion,  in  autumn, 
I  have  followed  these  fish  day  after  day  in  their  progress  to  the  south  and  west  along  the  shores  of  Maine  and  Massa- 
chusetts. On  one  occasion,  in  the  fall  of  1862,  I  caught  Mackerel  nearly  down  to  the  fishing  rip  on  the  Nautucket 
Hboals.  These  fish  were  moving  rapidly  southward,  and  the  schools  could  be  kept  alongside  of  the  vessel  only  a  short 
time,  and  each  trial  liad  to  be  made  two  or  three  miles  farther  south  than  the  previous  one.  At  another  time,  in  the 
fall  of  1870,  the  Mackerel  moved  in  large  schools  very  rapidly  from  Ipswich  Bay  across  in  the  direction  of  Cape  Cod. 
The  schools  were  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  it  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  their  speed  was  not  less  than 
three  or  four  miles  an  hour.  Each  body  of  fish  was  separated  from  the  others,  perhaps  many  hundred  fathoms,  but 
all  seemed  to  bo  impelled  by  the  same  motive,  and  were  moving  steadily  in  the  same  direction.  These  fish  would  bite 
eagerly  at  the  hook  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time,  but  so  strong  was  their  instinct  of  migration  that  it  was  impossible 
to  detain  them  only  a  short  time  in  their  onward  movement.— J.  W.  COLLINS. 

1  See  chart  by  Dr.  G.  O.  SARS,  in  his  report  for  1874. 

'Fisheries  of  British  North  America,  pp.  20,21. 

'Fisheries  of  British  North  America. 


HIND  ON  THK  MOVEMENTS  OF  MACKEREL.  -J03 

Land,  where  the  spawning  grounds  on  the  United  States  coast  south  of  Cape  Cod  are  alleged  to 
i-\isi,  a  thin  wedgo  of  tin-  Labrador  current  stretches  far  into  Long  Island  Sound. 

"In  Massachusetts  Bay,  whore  a  mackerel  spawning  ground  also  exists,  as  also  in  the  vicinity 
of  Stellwagen  Hank,  tin-  temperature  when  observed  by  Dr.  Packard  in  September  ranged  from 
41£°  to  45°,  and  the  fauna  resembled  the  cold-water  species  on  each  side  of  Jefi'ney's  Ledge.  On 
('•corse's  Shoals  the  marine  life  is  said  by  Verrill  to  be  the  same  us  that  found  in  the  deeper 
muddy  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and  indicates  a  temperature  not  above  40°,  and  prob- 
ably considerably  lower.  Bradelle  Bank,  according  to  Mr.  Whiteaves,  presents  the  phenomenon  of 
a  small  stony  patch  tenanted  by  an  assemblage  of  marine  animals  which  usually  inhabits  very 
cold  water,  and  are  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  another  series,  which  are  for  the  most  part 
prevalent  where  the  bottom  is  warmer  and  more  affected  by  surface  conditions  of  temperature. 

"Wherever  the  areas  are  situated  where  young  Mackerel  are  found  in  the  summer  we  find 
near  at  hand  a  cold-water  zone,  either  existing  as  a  part  of  the  Labrador  current  at  the  surface  or 
brought  up  from  greater  depths  by  banks  and  shoals.  On  the  coast  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  and 
in  the  gulf  generally,  the  cold  water  lies  frequently  near  the  shore,  because  the  diurnal  tides  mix 
the  strata  warmed  during  the  daytime  with  the  cold  underlying  strata.  In  the  estuary  of  the 
Saint  Lawrence  Dr.  Kelly  found  the  surface  temperature  57°  F.  on  the  9th  July,  but  three  feet 
below  the  surface  it  was  44°,  having  in  that  short  vertical  space  sunk  13°;  at  twenty-four  feet  it 
was  40°,  or  17°  below  the  surface  temperature." 

96.  THE  CHUB  MACKEREL— SCOMBER  COLIAS. 

The  Chub  Mackerel,  or,  as  it  is  also  called,  the  "Thimble-eye,"  "Big-eyed  Mackerel,"  or  "Bull 
Mackerel,"  closely  resembles  in  general  appearance  the  common  Mackerel,  from  which  it  is  distin- 
guished chiefly  by  the  presence  of  an  air-bladder,  and  also  by  the  occurrence  of  a  row  of  indistinct 
circular  spots  upon  the  sides  below  the  lateral  line.  This  is  the  fish  which  is  called  "  Spanish 
Mackerel "  in  England,  and  the  name  was  brought  to  us  by  .the  early  English  fishermen  of  New 
England.  It  has  been  found  at  Pensacola  and  Charleston,  as  well  as  in  New  England.  There  is 
another  fish  closely  related  if  not  identical  with  8.  colias,  which  Professor  Jordan  found  to  be 
abundant  in  California,  which  corresponds  to  the  S.  pneumatophoru-s  of  the  Mediterranean,1  and 
has  been  described  from  the  Pacific  as  S.  diego.  Professor  Jordan  considers  this  to  be  the  8.  grex 
of  various  authors,  but  writes  that  he  is  not  yet  prepared  to  accept  as  final  the  judgment  of 
Steiudachuer  and  Vaillaut  that  it  is  the  young  of  S.  colias.  The  lower  half  of  its  sides  is  silvery 
and  without  any  gray  spots,  such  as  are  conspicuous  in  S.  colias.  Jordan  has  specimens  of  the 
unspotted  form  much  larger  than  his  smallest  specimens  of  the  true  S.  colias. 

The  history  of  the  Chub  Mackerel  on  our  coast  is  a  peculiar  one.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  it  was  exceedingly  abundant  all  along  the  coast  of  New  England  and  New  York. 
M  iii-lii  11.  writing  in  1814,  remarked  of  it: 

"Comes  occasionally  in  prodigious  numbers  to  the  coast  of  New  York  in  autumn.  This  was 
memorably  the  caSe  in  1781  and  1813,  when  the  bays,  creeks,  and  coves  were  literally  alive  with 
them,  and  the  markets  full  of  them." 

DeKay  remarks:  "In  the  early  part  of  November,  1828,  they  were  also  very  abundant,  and 
many  persons  were  poisoned  by  eating  them." 

Capt.  Epes  W.  Merchant,  of  Gloucester,  a  veteran  fishing  skipper,  who  has  been  familiar 
with  the  fisheries  of  Massachusetts  Bay  for  the  past  seventy  years,  told  me  that  the  Thimble-eye 

•CAM-STUINI  :  Fauna  d'  Italia.     Pesci,  1872,  p.  101.  * 


304  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

were  so  abundant  from  1814  to  1820  that  with  three  men  and  a  boy  and  a  small  vessel  he  could 
catch  ten  barrels  of  them,  or  about  three  thousand  fish,  in  a  day. 

The  "  Fishermen's  Memorial  and  Eecord  Book,"  published  in  Gloucester,  contains  the  follow- 
ing note: 

"In  1812  a  large  school  of  Spanish  Mackerel  visited  this  bay,  and  so  plenty  and  numerous 
were  they  that  they  would  bite  readily  at  the  bare  hook  aud  seize  upon  small  bits  of  line  hanging 
from  the  vessel.  Standing-room  boats  were  then  mostly  in  use,  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons. 
These  rooms  held  from  fifteen  to  twenty  barrels,  and  the  crews  would  catch  them  full  in  a  few 
hours.  Mr.  Timothy  Rogers,  at  Eowe's  Bank,  bought  most  of  these  Mackerel,  fresh,  after  being 
dressed,  at  two  cents  per  pound,  salting  them  in  his  buildings,  and  the  business,  which  lasted  two 
months,  was  a  lively  one.  These  Mackerel  did  not  continue  on  this  coast  but  a  few  years,  and  have 
now  almost  entirely  disappeared.  There  were  a  few  caught,  with  the  other  Mackerel,  as  late  as 
1825,  since  which  time  it  is  very  rare  to  see  one  during  the  entire  season." 

Captain  Oakes  states  that  the  "Thimble-eye  Mackerel,"  or  "Mixed  Mackerel,"  were  very 
plentiful  from  1826  to  1830.  In  1826  he  went  fishing  in  the  schooner  "Delegate."  The  season's 
catch  amounted  to  fifteen  hundred  barrels.  Perhaps  twenty-five  barrels  of  these  were  "Thimble- 


Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood,  of  Provincetown,  wrote,  in  1878,  that  sixty  years  ago,  when  he  was  a 
boy,  and  many  years  afterwards,  they  were  very  abundant  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  but  that  he  has 
not  seen  them  for  nearly  thirty  years.  They  went  away  before  the  bluefish  returned,  and  before 
any  weir,  trap,  pound,  or  any  other  engine  of  wholesale  destruction  was  set  in  the  New  England 
waters. 

Storer,  writing  in  1846,  remarked:  "This  fish  is  of  late  years  found  more  rarely  along  our 
coast  than  formerly.  Captain  Blanchard  informs  me  that  during  some  seasons  but  two  or  three 
individuals  are  taken  by  the  fishermen.  Captain  Atwood  has  seen  but  a  single  specimen  during 
the  last  four  or  five  years.  Many  years  ago  it  was  abundant  at  Provincetown,  and  would  run  up 
the  small  creeks  and  be  left  by  the  tide." 

J.  V.  C.  Smith,  in  his  "Natural  History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  published  in  1843, 
remarked  that  "  they  abound  at  New  York,  but  for  some  reason  make  their  appearance  north  of 
Cape  Cod." 

From  these  testimonies  it  would  appear  that  between  1840  and  1850  the  species,  formerly  so 
abundant,  had  disappeared  along  the  whole  coast  line.  In  an  essay  by  the  writer,  written  in  the 
spring  of  1879,  this  sentence  occurs:  "For  ten  years  past  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  with  its 
collectors  stationed  at  various  points  from  Halifax  to  Galveston,  has  tried  in  vain  to  secure  one  of 
them,  aud  it  is  probable  that  no  museum  in  the  world  possesses  a  species  of  this  fish,  once  so 
common." 

In  the  summer  of  1879,  however,  during  the  stay  of  the  Fish  Commission  at  Provincetown,  a 
considerable  school  of  these  fish  came  into  the  harbor  and  were  taken  in  company  with  the  Tinker 
Mackerel.  None  were  observed  there  in  1880,  however,  and  it  remains  to  be' seen  whether  they 
have  returned  to  be  again  counted  among  the  permanent  members  of  the  fauna.  This  fish,  during 
the  period  of  its  abundance  on  our  coast,  was  considered  an  excellent  article  of  food,  and  was  by 
many  preferred  to  the  common  Mackerel.  On  account  of  its  small  size,  however,  it  was  not  so 
much  sought  after  by  the  fishermen. 

Concerning  the  Mackerel  of  the  Pacific  coast,  which  Professor  Jordan  considers  to  be  iden- 
tical with  the  Scomber  pneumatophorus  of  the  Eastern  Atlantic,  this  authority  writes: 

"The    Tinker    Mackerel,  8.  pneumatophorus,  is  known    as    'Mackerel,'  'Easter  Mackerel,' 


THE  TINKER  MACKEREL  OF  CALIFORNIA.  305 

'Tinker  Mackerel,'  and  'Little  Mackerel.'  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  fourteen  inches.  It 
ranges  northward  to  Monterey  Bay,  appearing  in  the  fall  in  irregular  and  often  large  schools, 
usually  disappearing  in  November.  Some  years  few  or  none  are  seen.  It  is  a  good  food-fish,  but 
little  Munition  is  paid  to  it,  on  account  of  its  small  size  and  irregular  occurrence." 

The  following  account  of  the  early  discovery  of  Mackerel  on  the  California  coast  appeared  in 
the  (llmu-ester  "Telegraph"  of  July  20,  1870: 

"Mackerel  are  rejwrted  quite  abundant  along  the  coast  of  California,  but  the  people  of  that 
State  have  not  learned  to  catch  them,  and  continue  to  import  their  Mackerel  from  the  Eastern 
States.  Only  one  or  two  attempts  have  been  made  to  avail  themselves  of  a  supply  nearer  home. 
In  IS')")  a  few  San  Francisco  fishermen  made  a  trip  to  Santa  Barbara  Channel,  in  a  small  schooner, 
and  soon  filled  her  with  Mackerel,  but  instead  of  cleaning  them  and  soaking  them  out  they  threw 
tin-in  into  salt  without  dressing,  and  when  they  arrived  home  their  fish  were,  of  course,  in  bad 
order.  A  more  experienced  captain  in  1858  put  up  properly  a  hundred  barrels  of  No  2  Mackerel 
at  Santa  Barbara,  which  he  disposed  of  at  $16  per  barrel.  The  San  Francisco  'Bulletin'  claims  that 
enough  can  be  caught  there  to  supply  the  want  of  their  market,  while  salt  of  the  best  quality  for 
mi  in<:  them  can  be  got  free  from  the  neighboring  salt-water  lagoons.  It  says  that  the  Mackerel 
abound  there  all  the  year  round — which  is  probably  incorrect — but  that  the  months  for  taking  them 
in  the  largest  quantities  are  June,  July,  and  August.  'If  Mackerel  are  caught  before  June  and 
alter  August,'  says  the  'Bulletin,'  'they  are  too  poor  to  cure  to  advantage,  and  deserve  the  name  of 
••leather-bellies."  And  if  they  are  not  cleaned  and  washed  in  salt  water  immediately  after  being 
(  anirlit.  and  before  salting,  they  will  spoil  and  become  at  least  inferior  food.  But  with  necessary 
exj>erience,  skill,  and  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  fishermen,  and  the  encouragement,  enterprise, 
and  outlay  on  the  part  of  all  interested  in  trade  and  the  development  of  our  home  industries, 
there  are  Mackerel  enough  on  our  coast  of  the  best  quality  to  supply  all  the  wants  of  our  city  and 
State.'" 

97.  THE  FRIGATE  MACKEREL— AUXIS  THAZARD. 

This  species  has  also  lately  made  its  appearance  in  our  waters,  none  having  been  observed 
before  1880,  when  they  came  in  almost  countless  numbers.  It  is  yet  to  be  determined  whether  this 
species  is  to  be  a  permanent  accession  to  our  fauna.  It  is  the  "Timberello"  of  the  Adriatic  fisher 
folk. 

The  United  States  Fish  Commission  obtained  numerous  specimens,  twenty-eight  barrels 
having  been  taken  in  a  mackerel  seine  ten  miles  east  of  Block  Island  on  August  3,  1880,  by  the 
schooner  "American  Eagle,"  Capt.  Joshua  Chase,  of  Provincetown,  Massachusetts. 

The  Frigate  Mackerel  resembles,  in  some  particulars,  the  common  Mackerel ;  in  others,  the 
bouito,  the  genus  Auxin  being  intermediate  in  its  character  between  the  Scomber  and  the  related 
genera  T'ellumjH  and  Orcynua.  It  has  the  two  dorsal  fins  remote  from  each  other  as  in  Scomber, 
and  the  general  form  of  the  body  is  slender,  like  that  of  the  Mackerel.  The  body  is,  however, 
somewhat  stouter,  and,  instead  of  being  covered  with  small  scales  of  uniform  size,  has  a  corselet 
of  larger  scales  under  and  behind  the  pectoral  fins.  Instead  of  the  two  small  keels  upon  each 
side  of  the  tail,  which  are  so  noticeable  in  the  Mackerel,  it  has  the  single,  more  prominent  keel  of 
the  bonito  and  the  tunny.  Its  color  is  grayish-blue,  something  like  that  of  the  pollock,  the  belly 
being  lighter  than  the  back.  Under  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  above  the  lateral  line,  are  a 
few  cloudings  or  maculatious  resembling  those  of  the  Mackerel.  The  occurrence  of  a  large  school 
of  this  beautiful  species  in  our  waters  is  very  noteworthy,  for  the  fish  now  for  the  first  time 
observed  are  very  possibly  the  precursors  of  numerous  schools  yet  to  follow.  It  is  not  many  years 


306  NATURAL   HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

since  the  bonito  became  an  inhabitant  of  our  waters,  and  the  distribution  and  habits  of  the  Frigate 
Mackerel  are  supposed  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  bonito,  Sarda  pelamys,  and  the  little  tunny, 
Orcymis  thynnus,  which  also  first  came  on  the  coast  in  1871,  and  have  since  been  found  in 
considerable  numbers. 

The  Frigate  Mackerel  has  been  observed  in  the  West  Indies,  and  other  parts  of  the  tropical 
Atlantic,  as  well  as  on  the  coast  of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  called  the  "  Plain  Bouito." 
It  is  not  unusual  in  the  Bermudas,  where  it  is  called  the  "  Frigate  Mackerel,"  a  name  not  inap- 
propriate for  adoption  in  this  country,  since  its  general  appearance  is  more  like  that  of  the 
Mackerel  than  the  bonito,  while  in  swiftness  and  strength  it  is  more  like  the  larger  members  of 
this  family. 

Since  the  first  appearance  of  this  fish  many  new  observations  of  its  abundance  have  been 
received.  These  fish  appeared  to  come  in  immense  schools  into  the  waters  between  Montauk  Point 
and  George's  Bank;  and  from  Mr.  Clark's  statements  it  appears  that  they  have  been  observed 
in  small  numbers  by  fishermen  in  previous  years.  Several  vessels  have  come  into  Newport  recently 
reporting  their  presence  in  immense  numbers  in  the  vicinity  of  Block  Island.  It  will  interest 
the  "  ichthyophagists "  to  know  that  several  persons  in  Newport  have  tested  the  fish,  and  pro- 
nounce it  inferior  to  the  bonito.  Part  of  the  flesh,  that  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  is 
white,  but  behind  the  gills  it  is  black  and  rank,  while  the  meat  near  the  backbone  is  said  to  be  of 
disagreeable,  sour  flavor. 

It  is  hard  to  predict  what  its  influence  will  be  upon  other  fishes  already  occupying  our  waters. 
Its  mouth  is  small  and  its  teeth  feeble,  so  that  it  is  hardly  likely  to  become  a  ravager,  like  the 
bonito  and  the  bluefish.  There  is  little  probability,  on  the  other  hand,  that  its  advent  will  be  of 
any  special  importance  from  an  economical  point  of  view,  for  its  oil  does  not  seem  to  be  very  abun- 
dant, and  it  will  hardly  pay  at  present  to  capture  it  solely  for  the  purpose  of  using  its  flesh  in  the 
manufacture  of  fertilizers. 

Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark,  at  that  time  in  charge  of  the  Fish  Commission  station  at  Gloucester, 
communicated  to  Professor  Baird  interesting  statements  regarding  its  abundance.  From  these 
it  would  also  appear  that  the  species  has  been  observed  occasionally  in  past  years.  He  wrote 
under  date  of  August  10:  "I  have  received  this  morning  from  the  schooner  'Fitz  J.  Babson,'  just 
arrived  from  Block  Island,  a  fish  answering  to  your  description  of  the  Auxis,  having  a  corselet  of 
scales  around  the  pectoral  fin,  as  in  the  tunny.  The  captain  of  the  vessel,  Joshua  Riggs,  reports 
that  about  a  week  ago  we  had  a  hundred  barrels  in  the  seine  at  one  time,  and  saw  over  twenty 
schools  of  them.  He  saw  them  as  far  east  as  Sow-and-Pig  light-ship.  They  are  very  easy  to 
catch,  flip  like  menhaden,  do  not  rush,  and  are  not  frightened  at  the  seine.  They  go  in  immense 
numbers — he  thinks  as  many  as  one  thousand  barrels  to  a  school.  The  day  after  the  appearance 
of  these  fish  the  Mackerel  disappeared,  but  he  does  not  know  whether  the  Mackerel  were  driven 
away  by  them  or  not.  They  feed  on  Mackerel  food.  Mr.  Daniel  Ililtz,  of  the  same  vessel,  says 
that  he  caught  one  of  just  the  same  kind,  in  February,  1879,  on  a  haddock  trawl  on  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Middle  Bank,  in  forty  fathoms  of  water.  He  took  it  to  Boston,  where  it  was  called  a 
young  bonito. 

"Mr.  John  Henderson,  of  the  schooner  'Sarah  C.  Wharf,'  says  that  two  vessels  caught  such 
fish  recently  eastward  of  here.  The  schooner  'American  Eagle,'  of  Provincetown,  took  a  number 
of  barrels  of  them  into  Newport,  and  sold  them  for  a  dollar  a  barrel.  Another  Cape  Cod  vessel 
[he  does  not  know  her  name]  took  about  fifty  barrels  of  them  and  threw  them  away.  All  the 
mackerel  seiners  from  Block  Island  report  seeing  quantities  of  this  new  fish  within  the  past  fort- 
night. The  captain  of  the  schooner  '  Sarah  C.  Wharf  says  he  first  saw  them  a  fortnight  ago,  some 


MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  FRIGATE  MACKEREL.  307 

fifteen  miles  off  Block  Island.  The  captain  and  several  of  the  crew  of  the  'Ella  M.  Johuson,'  of 
Newburyport,  just  arrived  from  Block  Island,  state  they  saw  abundance  of  the  Auxis,  but  did  not 
know  what  it  was  until  the  reports  came  from  you  at  Newport.  They  opened  one  and  found  in  its 
stomach  the  ordinary  red  mackerel  food.  This  crew  differ  with  the  crew  of  the  schooner  'Fitz  J. 
Babson'  with  regard  to  the  ease  of  capturing  them;  think  them  rather  difficult  to  take;  say  they 
flip  like  pogies,  and  do  not  rush  like  Mackerel.  They  saw  ten  large  schools  of  them  on  Saturday 
last,  when  some  fifteen  miles  south  of  Block  Island." 

It  is  very  important  that  any  observations  made  upon  this  species  in  years  to  come  should  be 
reported  to  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  The  length  of  those  I  have  seen  ranges  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  inches,  and  their  weight  from  three-quarters  of  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half  or 
more.  Those  sent  to  New  York  market  were  part  of  the  lot  taken  by  the  schooner  "  American 
Eagle  "  and  brought  into  Newport,  whence  they  were  shipped  by  Mr.  Thompson,  a  fish-dealer  of 
that  place.  It  would  require  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  of  them  to  fill  a  barrel;  so  the  estimate 
of  Captain  Riggs,  that  there  are  a  thousand  barrels  in  one  of  the  schools,  shows  how  exceedingly 
abundant  they  must  be.  The  name  "Frigate  Mackerel,"  used  in  Bermuda,  would  seem  to  be  the 
best  name  for  use  in  this  country,  since  the  fish  resemble  the  Mackerel  more  than  they  do  the 
bonito  or  tunny. 

Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood,  of  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  the  veteran  fisherman-ichthyologist,  has 
examined  the  specimens,  and  is  satisfied  that  they  belong  to  the  same  species  with  a  fish  which  he 
found  abundant  in  the  Azores  in  1840,  when,  led  by  the  reports  of  Cape  Cod  whalers,  he  went  to 
these  islands  in  search  of  the  Mackerel,  the  mackerel  fishing  being  poor  at  home.  No  Mackerel 
were  found  except  the  Frigate  Mackerel. 

98.  THE  SPANISH  MACKEREL  AND  ITS  ALLIES. 

The  genus  Scomberomorus,  until  recently  known  to  naturalists  under  the  name  Cybium,  is  repre- 
sented upon  our  Atlantic  coast  by  three  species,  and  on  the  coast  of  California  by  one.  Of  the 
three  eastern  species  the  Spanish  Mackerel,  8.  maculatus,  is  the  most  important,  although  the 
others  grow  to  a  larger  size.  The  three  species  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  characters: 

The  Spanish  Mackerel,  Scomberomorus  maculatus,  has  the  teeth  somewhat  conical  and  very 
pointed.  It  has  seventeen  dorsal  spines  and  a  black  spot  upon  the  first  dorsal. 

The  Cero,  Scomberomorus  caballa,  has  fourteen  dorsal  spines  and  the  first  dorsal  fin  immaculate. 
The  young  fish  have  the  sides  of  the  body  marked  with  roundish  yellow  spots,  which  disappear 
with  age,  and  the  lateral  line  is  very  sinuous  upon  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body. 

The  Spotted  Cero,  or  King  Cero,  Scomberomorus  regalis,  has  seventeen  dorsal  spines,  and  upon 
the  front  of  the  first  dorsal,  which  is  white,  is  a  spot  of  deep  blue,  which  is  prolonged  far  back  upon 
the  upper  edge  of  the  fin.  The  sides  are  marked  with  broken  longitudinal  bands  with  brown  spots. 

THE  SPANISH  MACKEREL — SCOMBEROMORUS  MACULATUS. 

The  Spanish  Mackerel  is  found  along  our  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  has  also  been  observed  about  Cuba  and  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  A  few  individuals 
have  been  seen  north  of  Cape  Cod.  Storer  records  the  capture  of  one  at  Lynn,  July  24,  1841,  and 
states  that  specimens  were  obtained  at  Provincetown  in  August,  1847,  and  by  Captain  Atwood,  at 
Monhegan  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Maine.  Although  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  species 
is  rarely  seen  on  the  coast  of  Eastern  Florida. 

The  history  of  this  species,  like  that  of  several  others  of  the  Mackerel  tribe,  is  very  interest- 
ing, since  it  shows  that  its  abundance  upon  the  coast  has  varied  much  during  the  past  two  cen- 


308  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQATIC  ANIMALS. 

tnries.  The  early  chronicles  of  the  colonies  do  not  refer  to  it  under  its  present  name,  but  it  is 
possible  that  this  was  the  "Speckled  Hound-fish"  mentioned  by  Josselyn  in  his  "New  England's 
Rarities  Discovered,"  published  in  1673.  Josselyn  wrote:  "Of  Blew-fish,  or  Hound-fish,  two  kinds, 
Speckled  Honnd-fish  and  Blew  Hound-fish,  called  Horse-fish." 

The  "Blew  Hound-fish"  can  have  been  nothing  other  than  the  common  bluefish  of  our  coast, 
and  it  is  hard  to  imagine  what  fish,  except  the  Spanish  Mackerel,  can  have  been  described  under 
the  other  name.  No  other  allusion  to  the  fish  is  found  in  literature  before  1815,  when  the  fish  was 
described  by  Mitchill  in  his  work  on  the  fishes  of  New  York,  under  the  name  Scomber  macnlahm. 
The  biographical  portion  of  his  notice  consisted  of  two  sentences:  "A  fine  and  beautiful  fish. 
Comes  in  July." 

Even  the  publication  of  this  description  does  not  seem  to  have  satisfied  contemporary  ichthy- 
ologists of  the  existence  of  such  a  fish,  for  some  of  them  did  not  hesitate  to  express  the  opinion 
that  Dr.  Mitchill  had  been  deceived  by  accidental  differences  of  color  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  that  there  were  not  so  many  varieties  of  Mackerel  as  he  imagined.1 

1  i  an  essay  on  the  fishes  of  New  York  mark<  t,  published  in  1854,  Prcfi-ssor  Gill  referred  to 
Jhe  Spanish  Mackerel  as  a  species  of  slight  importance. 

In  1878  the  quantity  sold  in  the  New  York  market  cannot  have  fallen  much  below  300,000 
pounds,  with  a  retail  value  of  $225,000,  while  large  numi  ers  were  sent  away  to  Baltimoie  and 
other  cities.  There  is,  however,  need  of  caution  in  drawing  inferences  fiom  marke  reports  with- 
out at  the  same  time  keeping  in  mind  the  true  history  <  f  the  fisheries.  It  is  possible  that  Spanish 
Mackerel  abounded  in  our  waters  long  before  they  began  to  appear  in  the  markets.  Even  now  the 
number  taken  by  the  use  of  hook  and  line  is  very  small.  They  are  caught  chiefly  in  traps  and 
weirs,  which  have  come  into  use  since  1845,  and  many  fishermen  have  expressed  their  belief  that 
of  late  they  have  been  rapidly  increasing. 

Genio  C.  Scott  wrote,  in  1875:  "My  experience  in  trolling  for  Spanish  Mackerel  off  the  inlets 
of  Fire  Island  has  convinced  me  that  the  fish  is  as  numerous  as  the  bluefish,  and  more  so  than 
the  striped  bass,  at  certain  seasons,  and  is  found  a  little  farther  seaward  than  either  of  those 
flshes.  Every  year  the  shoals  of  Spanish  Mackerel  become  more  and  more  numerous,  and  more 
flre  taken,  but  never  in  sufficient  numbers  to  reduce  the  average  price  below  sixty  cents  per  pound. 
The  shoals  which  I  saw  when  last  trolling  for  them  woukl  have  formed  an  area  nearly  five  miles 
square,  and  still  the  most  successful  boat  did  not  take  more  than  a  dozen  in  three  days.  They 
will  not  bite  freely  at  any  artificial  lure,  and  though  numbers  came  near  leaping  on  the  deck  of 
our  yacht,  they  treated  our  lures  with  an  indifference  which  savored  of  perverseness." 

Mr.  J.  M.  K.  Southwick  states  that  the  first  Spanish  Mackerel  taken  in  the  vicinity  of  New- 
port were  found  in  the  summer  of  1857.  No  one  knew  what  they  were. 

The  Gloucester  "Telegraph"  of  August  17,  1870,  contains  the  following  item:  "At  Newport 
the  epicures  are  in  ecstasies  over  the  fact  that  Spanish  Mackerel,  the  most  delicious  fish  caught  in 
the  sea,  are  taken  there  now  in  seines.  It  is  only  by  southerly  winds  that  they  are  tempted  so 
far  north."' 


1  SMITH,  J.  V.  C. :  Natural  History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,  1843,  p.  295. 

'The  Newport  "Daily  News,"  August  19,  1872,  has  this  item: 

"  LARGE  HAUL  OF  SPANISH  MACKEREL.— Saturday,  Arnold  James  &  Co.,  of  this  city,  caught  208  Spanish  Mack- 
-erel,  weighing  495  pounds.  This  is  the  largest  haul  of  this  kind  of  fish  that  has  ever  been  taken  at  any  one  time  by 
any  of  our  Newport  fishermen.  They  were  caught  in  the  West  Bay,  and  subsequently  cold  to  Messrs.  Carry  Brothers, 
of  this  city." 

And  two  days  later,  August  21,  the  Providence  "  Press"  chronicled  a  still  more  remarkable  catch: 

"  Another  haul  of  Spanish  Mackerel  was  made  yesterday.  This  time  it  was  over  four  hundred  fish,  averaging 
about  two  and  a  half  pounds  each.  They  were  sold  to  a  dealer  at  twenty-five  cents  a  pound." 


MOVEMENTS  or  THE  SPANISH  MACKEREL.  309 

Mr.  R.  E.  Earll,  who  lias  studied  the  history  of  the  species  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  the 
Southern  States,  writes  as  follows: 

"  Prior  to  1850  almost  nothing  was  known  of  the  fish  about  Sandy  Hook.  This  is  shown  by 
t lie  fact  that  about  this  time  Mr.  Robert  Lloyd,  a  fisherman  of  Seabright,  was  engaged  in  trolling 
for  bhiefish,  having  a  contract  with  one  of  the  hotels  to  take  his  entire  catch.  He  secured  quite 
:i  number  of  Spanish  Mackerel  (these  being  the  first  he  had  ever  seen),  which  were  carried  with 
the  hluelisli  to  the  hotel;  but  the  proprietor  knew  nothing  of  their  value,  and  even  objected  to 
taking  them  at  the  nominal  price  of  twenty-five  cents  each. 

"From  this  date  they  were  taken  more  frequently,  and  soon  came  to  be  highly  prized  as  an 
article  of  food.  They  were  caught  wholly  by  trolling,  the  average  daily  catch  being  from  ten  to 
twenty  fish  to  a  boat;  the  fishing  being  best  when  the  water  was  a  little  rough.  They  continued 
to  increase  in  number,  or  at  least  came  to  be  more  generally  noticed  by  the  fishermen,  until  1806, 
when  they  were  quite  plentiful,  becoming  most  abuiulajit  between  1870  and  1875.  During  that 
period  it  is  said  that  they  were  often  nearly  as  plenty  as  the  bluefish,  though  comparatively  few 
were  taken,  owing  to  the  lack  of  suitable  apparatus,  and  it  was  not  until  the  introduction  of 
properly  arranged  gill-nets  and  pound-nets  that  the  fishermen  were  successful  in  securing  any 
considerable  quantities. 

"Since  1875  it  is  claimed  that  their  numbers  have  gradually  decreased  on  the  inshore  grounds, 
though  they  are  said  to  be  as  numerous  as  formerly  eight  to  ten  miles  from  land,  where  they 
i  emain  beyond  the  reach  of  gill-nets  and  pound-nets. 

"  Many  of  the  fishermen  of  Chesapeake  Bay  never  saw  the  species  prior  to  1875,  though  there 
are  authentic  records  showing  that  individuals  were  occasionally  taken  in  the  haul-seines  along 
the  Eastern  Shore  as  early  as  18(50,  and  hauls  of  between  one  and  two  hundred  are  reported  by 
Dr.  J.  T.  Wilkins  in  1866.  It  is,  however,  very  easy  to  explain  the  ignorance  of  the  fishermen  as 
to  the  abundance  of  the  species  in  that  region,  for,  until  recently,  the  fisheries  of  the  Chesapeake 
appear  to  have  been  of  small  commercial  importance,  having  been  prosecuted  only  during  the 
spring  and  fall  by  means  of  gill-nets  and  haul-seines.  During  the  summer  mouths,  when  the 
Mackerel  are  most  plenty,  no  fishing  of  importance  was  done.  Pound-nets  were  introduced  into 
the  Chesapeake  region  in  1875,  and  it  was  through  their  use  that  the  fishermen  came  to  know  of 
the  abundance  of  the  species  in  these  waters. 

"On  the  North  Carolina  coast  most  of  the  fishermen,  and,  indeed,  a  majority  of  the  dealers, 
are  still  unacquainted  with  either  the  name  or  the  value  of  the  Mackerel,  and  when,  in  1879,  several 
thousand  pounds  of  them  were  brought  to  Wilmington  the  dealers  refused  to  buy  them,  supposing 
them  to  be  a  species  of  horse-mackerel  (Orcynus),  which  they  understood  had  no  value  as  a  food- 
nsh.  As  no  purchasers  could  be  found  for  them,  they  were  finally  thrown  away.  Farther  south 
few  have  been  taken,  owi.ig  to  the  lack  of  suitable  apparatus,  as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  the  fisher- 
men seldom  fish  beyond  the  inlets.  The  smack  fishermen  of  Charleston  catch  a  few  on  troll-lines 
during  the  pleasant  weather  of  the  spring  and  early  summer,  but  they  fish  only  occasionally  in 
this  way. 

"Though  the  fishing  is  at  present  limited  to  certain  localities,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
the  fish  are  absent  from  other  places;  on  the  contrary,  it  seems  probable  that,  should  proper  appa- 
ratus be  employed,  the  species  could  be  taken  at  almost  any  jwint  along  the  outer  shore  where  the 
menhaden  are  abundant. 

"In  the  Chesapeake  region  there  seems  to  be  no  diminution  in  the  catch;  on  the  contrary,  it 
has  increased  rapidly  from  year  to  year,  until  in  1879  it  amounted  to  fully  1,000,000  pounds,  and 
in  1880  the  quantity  was  increased  to  1,GO'J,G63  pounds.  The  average  daily  catch  for  the  pound- 


310  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

nets  about  Cherrystone,  Virginia,  is  fully  500  fish;  while  as  many  as  4,000  have  been  taken  at  a 
single  'lift,'  and  hauls  of  2,500  are  not  uncommon  during  the  height  of  the  season.  At  Sandy 
Hook  the  catch  is  quite  large;  iu  1879,  3,500  pounds  were  taken  at  one  haul  in  a  pound-net  at 
Seabright,  and  the  average  stock  for  the  pound-nets  in  that  locality  often  exceeds  $1,000  for 
Mackerel  alone,  while  the  catch  of  other  species  is  proportionately  large. 

"We  see  no  reason  for  believing  that  (he  present  enormous  catch  will  have  any  serious  effect 
upon  the  future  abundance  of  the  species;  for,  assuming  that  the  fish  are  plenty  all  along  the 
«oast,  the  catch,  though  extensive  at  certain  points,  must  be  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the 
immense  number  of  individuals  in  the  water.  As  has  been  shown,  however,  there  is  good  reason 
for  believing  that  the  numbers  have  varied  from  time  to  time  in  the  past,  and  it  may  be  that 
natural  causes,  of  which  we  are  still  ignorant,  and  over  which  we  may  have  no  control,  may  cause 
a  like  variation  in  the  future." 

In  1879  the  writer,  in  preparing  an  essay  upon  this  fish,  remarked :  "  Mitchill,  when  he  described 
the  Scomber  maculatus,  sixty-five  years  ago,  summed  up  what  he  knew  of  its  habits  in  a  single  sen- 
tence: 'Comes  in  July,'  and  the  studies  of  later  naturalists  have  added  but  little  to  this  terse  story." 

Since  that  time  the  studies  of  Mr.  Earll  and  Mr.  Stearns  have  added  so  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  life  and  history  of  this  fish  that  it  may  be  said  that  its  habits  are  now  about  as  well  under 
stood  as  those  of  any  other  species  on  our  coast.  Instead  of  weaving  the  facts  which  have  lately 
been  recorded  into  a  compact  narrative,  the  statements  of  different  observers  will  be  given  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  their  own  words. 

Mr.  Earll  thus  discusses  its  movements  along  the  Southern  Atlantic  coast: 

"Spanish  Mackerel  are  gregarious  in  their  habits.  They  are  sometimes  seen  in  enormous 
schools,  covering  several  square  miles  of  ocean  surface.  A  single  school  seen  off  Long  Island  a 
few  years  ago  was  estimated  to  contain  several  million  individuals.  The  density  of  these  schools, 
however,  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  schools  of  menhaden  on  which  they  feed.  The  latter 
are  usually  found  in  compact  masses,  often  many  feet  in  thickness ;  while  the  former  are  consider- 
ably scattered,  a  large  percentage  of  them  being  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 

"The  fish  make  annual  excursions  to  the  coast  of  the  United  States  in  summer;  starting  from 
their  home  in  the  warmer  waters  of  the  South,  or,  perhaps,  from  the  deeper  waters  along  the  inner 
edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  in  the  early  spring,  and  proceeding  northward,  or  landward,  as  the  seasou 
advances.  After  remaining  for  a  few  weeks,  or  months  at  most,  they  again  move  southward,  or 
seaward,  and  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather  entirely  disappear.  They  seem  to  prefer  water 
ranging  from  70°  to  80°  Fahrenheit,  and  seldom  enter  that  which  is  colder  than  65°. 

"Off  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  the  fish  are  first  seen  about  the  last  of  March,  and  late  in 
April  they  enter  the  sounds  of  the  North  Carolina  coast.  By  the  20th  of  May  the  vanguard 
reaches  the  Chesapeake,  and  others  follow  in  rapid  succession,  so  that  by  the  middle  of  June  the 
capture  of  Mackerel  constitutes  the  principal  occupation  of  the  fishermen.  Off  Sandy  Hook  the 
first  individuals  are  not  seen  till  late  iu  July,1  and  from  that  time  they  continually  increase  in 
numbers  till  the  middle,  or  even  the  last,  of  August.  Their  time  of  arrival  at  Narragausett  Bay 
is  about  the  same  as  that  for  Sandy  Hook.  In  this  northern  region  they  remain  till  the  middle  of 

'The  Canadian  fishery  report  for  1880  contains  the  following  notice  of  thu  capture  of  a  Spanish  Macke:el  at 
Prince  Edward's  Island,  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  which  (if  there  is  uo  mistake  in  the  identification)  extends 
by  several  hundred  miles  the  range  of  the  species.  The  re;iort  Hays:  "An  <iudoul>t-r<l  specineu  ot  the  Spanish 
Mackerel,  male,  Cybium  maculatum  of  ihe  United  States,  was  caught  by  hook  at  New  London,  Queen's  County,  on 
the  7th  of  September  It  is  rare  to  find  this  tish  iu  so  high  a  latitude." — Supplement  No.  2  to  the  Eleventh  Annual 
Kisportof  the  Minister  of  Marine  and  Fisheries  for  the  year  IHdO,  p.  iW9. 

With  all  deference  to  the  author  of  this  report,  I  am  unwilling  without  further  evidence  to  accept  this  identifica- 
i  as  accurate.  —  Q.  B.  U. 


SPANISH  MACKEREL  IN  THE  SOUTH.  311 

September,  after  which  the  number  gradually  diminishes,  and  by  the  first  of  October  the  last 
individuals  have,  disappeared.  A  little  later  they  leave  the  Chesapeake,  and  few  are  seen  on  the 
Carolina  coast  after  the  1st  of  November. 

"Their  summer  movements  are  doubtless  affected  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  movements 
of  the  nn-iihadeii  and  oilier  small  tishes  on  which  they  feed,  as  they  are  usually  most  plenty  in  the 
localities  where  these  fish  are  found.  When  feeding  they  remain  constantly  among  these  fish, 
exhibiting  great  activity  in  the  capture  of  their  prey,  rushing  through  the  water  with  great  speed, 
and  often  leaping  into  the  air  in  long  and  graceful  curves.  This  peculiar  leap  is  characteristic  of 
the  specii-s,  and  by  it  the  fishermen  arc  enabled  to  distinguish  the  Mackerel  from  their  allies,  the 
bluefish,  that,  after  jumping  from  the  water,  fall  back  upon  its  surface  with  a  splash,  instead  of 
cutting  it,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Mackerel. 

"During  the  spawning  season  the  Mackerel  enter  the  warmer  and  shoaler  water  of  the  bays, 
the  individuals  at  this  time  being  more  generally  disturbed  and  the  schools  often  considerably 
scattered.  On  entering  the  Chesapeake,  they  remain  about  'The  Capes'  for  some  time,  but  as 
the  season  advances,  according  to  Mr.  Sterling,  of  Crisfield,  Maryland,  they  start  for  the  upper 
waters,  and  distribute  themselves  over  the  large  spawning  grounds  of  the  region.  Some  weeks 
later  they  reassemble,  and  proceed  dov/n  and  out  of  the  bay  on  the  way  to  their  winter  quarters. 

"  In  moving  along  the  coast  the  Mackerel  seem  to  avoid  fresh  or  even  brackish  water,  and  tor 
this  reason  are  seldom  taken  near  the  month  of  the  larger  rivers.  This  habit  is  thought  to 
account  for  their  greater  abundance  on  the  eastern  than  on  the  western  side  of  the  Chesapeake. 
Along  the  last-named  shore  the  saltness  of  the  water  is  considerably  affected  by  the  enormous 
quantity  of  fresh  water  brought  down  by  the  large  rivers  of  the  State,  while  no  rivers  of  impor- 
tance occur  along  the  eastern  shore,  and  the  water  is  therefore  nearly  as  salt  as  the  ocean. 

"  During  its  stay  on  our  coast,  the  Spanish  Mackerel  may  properly  be  styled  a  surface  fish. 
It  seldom  descends  to  any  great  depth,  but  rather  remains  at  or  near  the  surface,  and  may  often 
be  seen  leaping  into  the  air  or  sporting  at  the  top  of  the  water.  On  a  calm,  bright  day  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean  is  sometimes  broken  for  miles  together  by  the  movements  of  a  large  school  of 
these  fish."  . 

Concerning  its  migrations  in  the  Gulf  Stearns  writes:  "The  Spanish  Mackerel  is  extremely 
abundant  on  the  West  Florida  coast.  They  are  first  seen  in  March  or  April,  four  or  five  miles  from 
land,  moving  along  swiftly  towards  the  westward,  or  playing  at  the  surface  with  no  apparent  aim  or 
course  of  movement.  The  time  of  their  arrival  is  not  certainly  known,  but  they  are  quite  sure  to 
appear  some  time  between  the  first  of  March  and  the  last  of  April.  One  season,  1877,  schools  were 
seen  off  the  coast  in  February,  and  the  'run'  continued  as  late  that  year  as  usual.  It  is  not  an 
unusual  habit  tor  these  early  schools  to  remain  at  sea  several  weeks  before  approaching  the  land. 
During  tlie  latter  part  of  April  the  first  schools  are  seen  coming  into  the  Pensacola  Bay,  and  from 
this  time  on  through  the  summer  they  are  continually  passing  in.  I  do  not  think  the  tide  influences 
their  movements,  as  far  as  entering  or  leaving  the  harbor  is  concerned,  for  I  have  seen  them  swim- 
ming against  and  with  the  tide.  They  move  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  frequently  jumping  from 
it  and  splashing  conspicuously.  By  this  commotion  are  attracted  many  sea-birds,  which  learn  that 
there  is  food  for  them  in  the  shape  of  fragments  of  small  fishes  ujwii  which  the  Mackerel  prey. 
The  individuals  that  make  up  the  schools  vary  considerably  in  size ;  as  a  rule,  the  first  to  arrive 
are  the  largest  fish,  and  measure  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches,  while  those  coming  later 
measure  only  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches.  Specimens  of  thirty  six  and  forty  inches  are  some- 
times caught  by  the  use  of  trolling-liues,  but  these  large  fish  are  rarely  found  in  the  schools.  Their 
abundance  varies  with  different  years,  although  not  to  so  great  an  extent  as  some  other  migratory 


312  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

species.  The  first  few  weeks  they  spend  in  the  bays.  They  continue  playing  at  the  surface,  prey- 
ing on  such  schools  of  small  fish  or  fry  as  may  be  present,  but  at  the  commencement  of  July  they 
are  less  frequently  seen,  and  after  another  space  of  two  or  three  weeks  are  not  seen  at  all,  uulcss 
caught  by  trolling-lines  at  sea,  or  wh^n  a  solitary  individual  leaps  from  the  water  in  some  remote 
place.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  movements  of  the  fish  which  are  ready  to  spawii  and 
those  which  have  finished  spawning:  the  former  keep  away  from  the  shore,  playing  at  the  surface 
with  no  apparent  aim,  while  the  latter  swim  in  shoal  water  near  the  shore,  underneath  the  sur- 
face, shaping  their  course  with  all  possible  directness  for  the  harbor  mouth.  The  school,  as  it 
moves  along,  resembles  a  compact  mass  of  reddish-brown  sea-weed.  Santa  Rosa  Island  seems  to 
possess  attractive  features  for  the  Spanish  Mackerel,  for  they  are  very  abundant  there.  This  is  a 
convenient  station  from  which  to  watch  their  movements,  on  account  of  its  narrowness  and  length. 
In  August,  September,  and  October  small  schools  of  Mackerel  are  seen  following  the  shore  aloug 
to  the  sea,  and  on  reaching  it  they  are  lost  to  view  in  deep  water.  Many,  probably,  follow  the 
deep  water  out  of  the  harbor  and  are  not  seen  at  all,  but  enough  are  under  observation  to  signify 
when  they  are  'running'  and  when  the  majority  are  gone." 

As  has  already  been  remarked,  the  Spanish  Mackerel  is  but  rarely  seen  on  the  east  coast  of 
Florida,  though  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  I  have  never  seen  one  in  this-region,  though  the 
fishermen  assure  me  that  a  few  have  been  caught,  and  that  small  ones  are  occasionally  taken  on 
the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  River.  Melton  &  Co.,  of  Jacksonville,  received  a  quantity 
from  Cedar  Keys  in  1876,  and  they  were  exposed  for  sale  in  the  city  markets,  where,  however,  they 
met  with  no  purchasers.  In  the  Indian  River  region  there  is  a  fish  called  there  the  Spanish 
Mackerel ;  it  perhaps  is  the  Spanish  Mackerel,  or  one  of  the  allied  species. 

Holbrook  wrote  in  1860:  "But  little  is  known  of  the  habits  of  this  fish;  it  seems,  however, 
more  solitary  than  the  fishes  of  this  family  generally  are,  as  it  seldom  happens  that  more  than  four 
or  five  are  taken  at  the  same  time.  It  appears  on  the  coast  of  Carolina  in  April  and  May,  but  is 
rarely  seen  during  the  summer  months.  It  feeds  on  various  species  of  small  fish." 

Dr.  Yarrow  wrote  in  1873  of  this  species,  as  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Macon,  North 
Carolina:  "They  are  abundant  in  the  latter  part  of  August  and  September,  and  are  frequently  found 
with  the  bluefish.  A  favorite  locality  is  near  the  southern  point  of  Shackelford  Banks,  where  it  is 
taken  with  nets  and  by  hook;  a  great  many  are  also  taken  near  Cape  Lookout  in  September  in 
gill-nets.  Is  highly  esteemed  as  food,  but  is  not  often  eaten  fresh,  being  generally  salted.  Size 
from  ten  to  thirty  inches." 

Mr.  A.  N.  Simpson  stated  in  1874  that  the  species  was  caught  in  small  quantities  in  the  shoals 
near  Cape  Hatteras,  though  seldom  seen  in  the  sounds. 

Dr.  Wilkins,  of  Hunger's  Wharf,  observed  in  1880  that  the  average  weight  in  that  vicinity  is  from 
two  to  three  pounds.  They  arrive  about  the  first  of  June,  and  leave  about  the  first  of  September. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  it  was  a  very  rare  occurrence  to  catch  a  Mackerel  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay, 
but  now  they  are  very  plenty. 

Mr.  C.  R.  Moore,  of  Johnsontown,  Virginia,  wrote  in  1874:  "Spanish  Mackerel  come  in  Septem- 
ber and  October  and  stay  until  frost.  They  are  most  numerous  about  the  mouth  of  the  York  River, 
where  a  large  number  are  caught  in  seines  and  salted.  They  bring  about  $40  a  barrel." 

Professor  Bairil,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  speak  of  the  abundance  of  this  species  and  to 
testify  to  its  excellent  qualities,  wrote  in  1854:  "But  two  specimens  were  taken  during  my  stay  at 
Beasley's  Point,  and  the  species  is  scarcely  known  to  the  fishermen.  It  was  more  abundant  at 
Greenport,  Long  Island;  in  the  Peconic  Bay,  towards  Riverhead,  four  hundred  were  caught  at  one 
haul  of  the  seine.  The  flesh  is  excellent,  having  much  the  flavor  of  true  Mackerel,  only  a  little 


USES  OF  THE  SPANISH  MACKEREL.  :5i:5 

richer  and  softer.  The  fish  briug  a  high  price  in  the  New  York  market,  where  it  has  beeu  but 
recently  sold  at  from  fifty  cents  to  oue  dollar  a  pound,  the  prices  varying  with  the  season.  It  has 
been  more  abundant  off  our  coast  than  ever  before,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Potomac  numbers 
have  beeu  taken  and  salted  down.  They  may  frequently  be  found  in  this  state  in  the  Washington 
market,  and  readily  recognized  by  the  round  yellow  spots  on  the  sides,  and  also  by  the  size,  which 
is  so  much  larger  than  that  of  the  common  Mackerel." 

DeKay,  in  1842,  mentioned  that  he  had  seen  this  species,  taken  in  the  seine,  in  the  New  York 
market,  in  August  and  September,  nearly  two  feet  long,  but  that  they  were  not  common. 

llEPUODUTiON. — The  breeding  habits  of  this  fish  were  never  understood  until  the  spring  of 
1880,  when,  to  everybody's  astonishment,  it  was  found  by  Mr.  Earll  that  oue  of  the  principal 
spawning  grounds  was  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay. 

1  quote  in  full  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Earll  upon  their  reproductive  habits: 

"Prior  to  1880,  nothing  was  definitely  known  regarding  the  spawning  habits  of  the  Spanish 
Mackerel.  Neither  the  time  nor  place  of  spawning  had  been  discovered.  Mr.  Scott  had  surmised 
that  they  spawned  in  the  waters  of  our  Atlantic  States  in  the  spring,  as  small  ones  which  he  sup- 
]K)sed  to  be  the  young  of  the  previous  year  were  occasionally  seen  in  June.1  Professor  Goode,  in 
his  'Game  Fishes,'  had  ventured  the  assertion  that  they  probably  spawned  in  midwinter,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  about  the  West  Indies.  These  were,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  only  writers  that 
had  referred  to  the  spawning  habits  of  the  Mackerel.  During  an  extended  tour  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  in  company  with  Col.  Marshall  McDonald,  the  writer  had  an  excellent  opportunity  for  exam- 
ining the  species  in  different  localities,  and  succeeded  in  proving  that  the  theory  advanced  by  Mr. 
Scott  was  the  more  nearly  correct,  and  that  the  Spanish  Mackerel  spawn  along  many  portions  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  midsummer.  The  investigation  of  the  Southern  fisheries  began  in  Florida 
in  January,  1880,  and  when  the  fisheries  in  that  region  had  been  sufficiently  studied,  we  proceeded 
northward,  visiting  every  important  fishing  station  along  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  the  Caroliuas, 
reaching  the  Chesapeake  early  in  May.  After  spending  some  time  at  Norfolk,  and  at  the  fishing 
shore  of  Capt  W.  E.  Taylor,  at  Willoughby,  we  accepted  the  invitation  of  Mr.  O.  E.  Maltby  to 
visit  his  fishing  station  at  New  Point,  forty  miles  up  the  bay.  Here  we  spent  a  number  of  days 
in  examining  the  spawning  condition  of  the  different  species  taken  in  the  pound-nets  of  the  locality, 
and  soon  discovered  that  many  of  the  male  Mackerel  were  nearly  ripe,  while  the  eggs  in  the  ovaries 
of  some  of  the  females  were  well  developed.  A  little  later  we  succeeded  in  finding  thoroughly 
ripe  males  and  one  or  two  females  from  which  ripe  eggs  could  be  taken.  Appreciating  the  impor 
tance  of  this  discovery,  we  continued  our  investigation,  and  soon  satisfied  ourselves  that  the 
spawning  time  was  near  at  hand,  as  the  eggs  and  milt  in  all  of  the  specimens  examined  were  well 
advanced.  Later,  the  writer  visited  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Virginia  including  the  counties  of 
Accomack  and  Northampton,  and  found  ripe  eggs  and  milt  in  a  large  number  of  individuals. 
Further  investigation  proved  that  the  spawning  season,  as  in  many  migratory  species,  varied  with 
the  locality,  being  earliest  on  the  Southern  coast,  and  latest  about  Long  Island.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  seems  to  have  a  decided  effect  upon  the  spawning  time  of  the  Mickerel,  and  the 
ovaries  and  spermaries  do  not  develop  very  rapidly  until  it  has  risen  to  upwards  of  70°  Fahrenheit. 
The  time  of  spawning  for  the  Carolinas  begins  in  April,  while  the  season  at  Long  Island  commences 
by  the  20th  of  August,  and  continues  till  the  latter  part  of  September.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
species  in  the  Chesapeake,  in  May,  a  few  of  the  males  are  nearly  ripe,  and  the  ovaries  of  the  females 

'The  following  is  the  language  of  Mr.  Scott  on  this  point:  "Both  the  Spanish  Mackerel  and  Cero  are  spring- 
spawning  fishes,  and  no  doubt  spawn  in  our  bays,  for  there  are  occasionally  small  ones  taken  by  the  anglers  in  June, 
before  the  largu  ones  visit  our  shores,  and  I  argue,  therefore,  that  the  small  half-pounders  are  of  last  year's  hatch."- 
Angliu;;  in  American  Waters. 


314  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

are  very  much  enlarged.  By  the  1st  of  June  occasional  ripe  fish  are  seen.  The  spawning  season 
proper  begins  about  two  weeks  later,  and  continues  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer.  The 
fisliermen  report  many  of  the  Mackerel  to  be  full-roed  when  they  reach  the  Sandy  Hook  region, 
and  claim  that  t>y  the  last  of  August  the  eggs  begin  to  separate  and  run  from  the  female.  From 
this  date  to  the  close  of  the  season  numerous  individuals  are  taken  from  which  eggs  or  milt  will 
run  freely. 

"The  limits  of  the  spawning  grounds  have  not  yet  been  definitely  ascertained,  though  enough 
has  been  learned  to  show  that  the  Mackerel  spawn  at  numerous  points  between  Narragansett 
Bay  and  South  Carolina,  and  it  seems  probable  that  when  a  thorough  investigation  is  made  the 
southern  limits  will  be  found  to  extend  as  far  as  Mississippi,  and  perhaps  to  Texas.  It  is  certain 
that  they  spawn  in  some  of  the  sounds  of  the  Carolinas,  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  off  Sandy  Hook,  and 
along  the  southern  shores  of  Long  Island;  the  Chesapeake  and  Sandy  Hook  regions  being  visited 
by  immense  numbers  of  Mackerel  for  this  purpose. 

"As  has  been  said,  the  spawning  season  for  our  coast  continues  throughout  the  entire  summer, 
and,  in  any  particular  locality,  it  lasts  from  six  to  upwards  of  ten  weeks.  The  time  of  spawning 
for  individuals  of  the  same  school  varies  considerably,  the  ovaries  of  some  of  the  fish  being  fully 
mature  while  those  of  others  are  still  quite  green.  Again,  a  single  individual  is  a  number  of  weeks 
in  depositing  its  eggs,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  the  first  are  excluded  a  large  percentage  are 
still  small  and  immature.  All  of  the  eggs  in  the  ovaries  of  a  shad,  salmon,  or  whitefish  develop 
uniformly,  and  the  whole  number  are  deposited  at  about  the  same  time,  so  that  the  spawning 
season  for  the  individual  lasts  only  a  few  days  at  most.  Up  to  the  winter  of  1878-'79  it  had  been 
supposed  that  all  fishes  were  alike  in  this  particular;  but  our  study  of  the  cod  at  that  time  proved 
that  the  individuals  of  that  species  were  several  months  in  depositing  their  eggs,  and  the  same  is 
found  to  be  true,  within  smaller  limits,  of  the  Spanish  Mackerel. 

"The  number  of  eggs  varies  with  the  size  of  the  parent  fish,  that  for  a  one-pound  Mackerel 
being  estimated  at  300,000,  while  that  for  a  six-pound  fish  can  scarcely  be  less  than  1,500,000.  To 
ascertain  definitely  the  number  for  the  average  fish,  an  immature  female,  weighing  one  pound  and 
thirteen  ounces,  and  measuring  eighteen  and  a  half  inches,  was  selected,  and  the  number  of  eggs 
was  carefully  computed.  The  ovaries,  when  placed  on  accurately  adjusted  balances,  were  found 
to  weigh  34.275  grams.  These  were  then  opened,  and  100  milligrams,  selected  from  different  por- 
tions of  l  he  roe-bags,  so  that  all  sizes  might  be  represented,  were  weighed  out.  When  counted 
this  mass  was  found  to  contain  1,5 .6  eggs.  From  these  data  it  was  found  that  the  ovaries  of  the 
fish  should  contain  526,464  eggs.  This  number  would  be  too  great,  as  no  allowance  was  made  for 
the  weight  of  the  ovary  walls;  allowing  for  these,  the  number  would  be  not  far  from  525,000.  It 
is  thus  seen  that  the  species  is  more  prolific  than  the  salmon,  shad,  or  whitefish,  though  it  is 
much  less  so  than  many  of  the  gadoids,  a  seventy-five-pound  codfish  yielding  fully  9,000,000. 

"The  eggs  of  the  Spanish  Mackerel  are  smaller  than  those  of  any  other  species  with  which  we 
are  familiar.  During  the  early  part  of  the  season  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  by  the  unaided 
eye,  and  although  they  gradually  increase  in  size,  when  fully  ripe  they  have  a  diameter — varying  ' 
somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  parent  and  the  condition  of  the  eggs  when  pressed  from  the  ovaries — 
of  only  one  twenty-second  to  one  twenty -eighth  of  an  inch.  Most  of  those  secured  by  us  were  of 
the  last  named  size,  and,  taking  these  as  a  basis,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  cubic  inch  would  contain 
21,952  eggs,  and  that  1,267,728  could  be  placed  in  a  quart  cup. 

"After  impregnation  the  eggs  have  a  specific  gravity  between  that  of  fresh  and  salt  water,  as 
shown  by  the  fact  that  they  sink  in  one  and  float  in  the  other.  When  thrown  from  the  parent 
they  rise  to  the  surface  and  are  driven  hither  and  thither  by  the  winds  ind  tides  during  the  earlier 
period  of  development.  Many  are  lost  from  lack  of  fertilization,  others  are  destroyed  by  the 
animals  of  the  water,  and  considerable  quantities  are  doubtless  driven  upon  the  shore  during 


i:i:PKODUCTION  OF  THE  SPANISH  MACKEREL.  315 

stormy  weather,  where  they  soon  perish.  When  first  hatched  the  little  Mackerel  is  very  small  and 
transparent,  its  length  .-.carcely  excecdin;j  one  tenth  of  an  inch,  while  its  diameter, eveu  with  the 
comparatively  large  yelk-sac,  is  so  small  as  to  allow  it  to  pass  through  wire-cloth  having  thirty  two 
wires  to  the  inch.  For  several  hours  after  hatching  it  remains  comparatively  quiet  ut  the 
surface  in  an  almost  helpless  condition,  a  small  oil  globule  attached  to  the  yelk-sac  keeping  it 
from  sinking  and  causing  it  to  lie  belly  uppermost.  Later  the  umbilical  sac  with  its  oil  globule  is 
gradually  absorbed,  and  the  little  fish  begins  to  manifest  greater  activity,  and  by  vigorous  and  spas- 
modic efforts  penetrates  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or  so  below  the  surface.  In  n  few  hours  it  finds 
little  or  no  difficulty  in  swimming  at  various  depths,  and  even  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in 
which  it  is  confined,  darting  off  with  surprising  rapidity  when  disturbed. 

"  Little  is  known  of  the  rate  of  growth.  We  know  of  but  two  instances  where  small  Mackerel 
have  been  caught  or  even  seen  along  our  shores.  The  first  is  that  mentioned  by  Mr.  Scott,  in 
the  passage  already  quoted,  of  half-pound  fish  having  been  taken  off  the  Long  Island  coast 
in  June.  A  second  instance  was  made  known  to  us  by  Mr.  Robert  Bosnian1,  superintendent  of 
a  fishing  station  at  New  Point,  Virginia,  who,  in  a  letter  dated  Norfolk,  Virginia,  September  25, 
1880,  says:  'I  have  recently  noticed  large  numbers  of  young  Spanish  Mackerel,  varying  from  four 
to  six  inches  in  length.'  Assuming  that  the  fish  referred  to  were  the  young  of  the  Spanish 
Mackerel,  there  still  remains  a  difficulty  in  determining  the  rate  of  growth.  Some  species  grow 
very  rapidly,  reaching  the  last-named  dimensions  in  a  few  months,  while  others  develop  more 
slowly  and  would  not  attain  a  weight  of  half  a  pound  for  several  years.  From  our  limited  knowl- 
edge of  the  growth  of  other  species  we  would  suppose  that  the  fish  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bosmau  as 
being  four  to  six  inches  long  in  September  were  the  fry  of  the  previous  year,  and  were  therefore 
about  fourteen  months  old,  while  the  half  pounders  mentioned  by  Mr.  Scott  were  probably  nearly 
two  years  old." 

The  observations  of  Mr.  Stearns,  recorded  also  in  1880,  are  exceedingly  interesting  as  confirming 
and  supplementing  those  of  Mr.  Earll: 

"When  the  Spanish  Mackerel  first  appear,  late  in  March  and  early  in  April,  they  contain 
spawn  in  the  half-developed  state.  By  July  this  has  become  quite  full,  and  it  is  believed  by  the 
most  intelligent  fishermen  that  when  they  disappear  from  sight  at  that  time  they  do  so  for  the 
purpose  of  spawning,  and  that  the  spawning-grounds  are  in  the  quiet  bayous  and  lagoons,  the 
places  where  the  old  fish  are  last  seen.  These  views  of  the  fishermen  are  partly  conjectural,  and 
at  first  I  did  not  agree  with  them,  but  the  more  I  observed  the  movements  of  the  fish  the  more 
plausible  seemed  the  fishermen's  views.  The  following  facts  have  led  me  to  adopt  them:  (1) 
The  Spanish  Mackerel  arrive  in  the  spring  with  spawn  and  milt  and  go  away  without  them.  (2) 
They  disappear  into  out-of-the-way  places  with  nearly  ripe  spawn,  and  in  a  short  time  reappear 
in  or  about  the  same  places  without  it.  The  operation  of  spawning  leaves  them  somewhat  emaci- 
ated. They  do  not,  of  course,  spawn  all  at  one  time,  and  it  is  not  unfrequent  that  fish  with  spawn 
and  those  which  have  deposited  it  are  caught  by  a  fishing-crew  on  the  same  day." 

The  Spanish  Mackerel  sometimes  attains  the  weight  of  eight  or  nine  pounds,  though  it  rarely 
exceeds  three  or  four  pounds.  A  specimen  taken  off  Block  Island,  July  8, 1874,  the  first  of  the 
season,  measured  twenty-six  and  one-fourth  inches  and  weighed  three  pounds  and  five  ounces. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  largest  ever  taken  in  this  section,  and  was  a  female  with  the  ovary  spent. 
Those  taken  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  farther  to  the  eastward  are  considered  much  more 
delicately  flavored  than  the  Chesapeake  fish,  and  command  a  higher  price  in  the  market.  In  the 
<inlf  States,  according  to  Mr.  Stearns,  the  Spanish  Mackerel  are  in  great  demand,  though  but  few 
are  caught  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  proper  nets. 


316  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

This  species  was  ascertained  by  Professor  Jordan  to  occur  abundantly  in  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  south  as  far  as  Mexico.  It  is  for  some  reason  not  highly  valued  by  the  Mexicans. 

THE  CERO  OR  KING-FISH — SCOMBEROMORUS  CABALLA. 

The  Cero  is  a  West  Indian  species  which  has  been  recorded  from  Santo  Domingo,  Jamaica, 
Cuba,  Martinique,  Porto  Rico,  and  Brazil.  A  few  specimens  have  been  observed  as  far  north  as 
Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts.  It  is  a  magnificent  fish.  It  often  grows  to  twenty-five  pounds,  and 
sometimes,  it  is  said,  to  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight.  Its  habits  are  probably  not  unlike  those 
of  the  Spanish  Mackerel.  The  name  Cero  is  commonly  accepted  in  the  United  States;  it  is  u 
corruption  of  the  Spanish  sierra,  and  the  Mexicans  call  the  fish  by  that  name. 

"The  King-fish,"  writes  Mr.  Stearns,  "are  very  abundant  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf  and 
common  at  some  places  in  its  northern  portion.  They  live  altogether  at  sea  and  are  caught  with 
trolling-lines.  At  Key  West  they  are  important  as  food-fishes,  large  quantities  being  sold  in  the 
markets.  Two  men  iu  a  small  sail-boat  sometimes  catch  more  than  a  hundred  in  a  day,  and  1 
have  seen  the  market  so  glutted  with  them  that  five  cents  would  buy  one  of  the  largest  size." 

Professor  Jordan  states  that  they  are  regularly  caught  with  trolling  hooks  by  nearly  every 
steamer  from  Savannah  to  New  York.1 

THE  KING  CERO  OR  SPOTTED  CERO — SCOMBEROMORUS  REGALIS. 

The  King  Cero  of  the  Florida  Keys  grows  to  be  five  or  six  feet  long  and  to  twenty  or  thirty 
pounds  iu  weight.  This  fish  also  occasionally  wanders  as  far  north  as  the  southern  shores  of  Cape 
Cod  iu  summer.  It  is  abundant  in  the  West  Indies,  having  been  recorded  from  Cuba,  Santo 
Domingo,  Jamaica,  and  Barbadoes.  Cuvier,  moreover,  had  a  specimen  from  Brazil.  It  is  more 
than  likely  that  this  and  the  preceding  species  are  both  included  by  the  Key  West  fishermen 
under  the  name  "  King-fish,"  the  differences  in  general  appearance  being  so  slight  that  it  is  hardly 
likely  that  they  would  be  noticed  by  ordinary  observers. 

THE  MONTEREY  MACKEREL — SCOMBEROMORUS  CONOOLOB. 

The  Pacific  species  may  be  called  the  Monterey  Mackerel.  It  attains  a  length  of  about  thirty 
inches  and  a  weight  of  about  five  or  eight  pounds.  It  has  only  been  seen  in  the  Monterey  Bay, 
where  from  five  to  forty  individuals  are  taken  every  fall,  most  of  them  at  Soquel.  They  appear 
in  September  and  disappear  perhaps  in  November.  Nothing  further  is  known  of  their  distribution 
or  habits.  They  always  bring  a  very  high  price  in  the  market  (30  to  50  cents  per  pound),  the  flesh 
being  similar  to  that  of  the  Spanish  Mackerel  of  the  East,  which  species  this  fish  closely  resembles. 

99.  THE  BONITO— SARDA  MEDITERRANEA. 

This  fish  is  one  of  those  which  appear  to  live  for  the  most  part  iu  the  open  ocean,  wandering 
hither  and  thither  in  large  schools,  preying  upon  other  pelagic  fishes,  and  approaching  land  only 
when  attracted  by  abundance  of  acceptable  food.  Several  of  the  smaller  species  of  the  group 
of  Tunnies,  to  which  it  belongs,  are  known  to  sailors  by  the  same  name.  The  common  Bonito  of 
England,  Orcynus  pelamys,  is  what  is  here  called  the  "Striped  Bonito,"  two  or  three  specimens 

1 A  RAKE  FISH.— Captain  Matthews,  of  the  steamer  "  Oriental,"  who  arrived  Tuesday  from  Savannah,  brought  homo 
a  fine  specimen  of  the  King-fish,  which  was  caught  in  this  Gulf  Stream  on  the  passage.  It  was  placed  on  exhibition 
in  the  Qnincy  market,  at  stalls  127  and  129,  aud  attracted  considerable  attention  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  first  one 
of  the  kind  ever  seen  here.  It  weighs  about  forty  pounds,  and  more  nearly  resembles  the  Spanish  Mackerel  iu  color 
and  form  than  any  other  fish  usually  seen  in  this  market,  although  it  is  ranch  larger.  It  is  a  very  fat,  handsome  fish, 
and  IB  said  to  be  a  nice  article  for  food.— Boston  Journal,  July  26,  1871. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  BONITO.  317 

of  which  have  been  detected  in  our  waters  since  187G,  but  the  fish  which  most  frequeutly 
anil  in  greatest  numbers  approaches  our  shores  is  the  one  which  is  named  at  the  head  of  this 
section.  Almost  nothing  is  Known  of  its  habits,  and  it  is  even  impossible  to  define  its  geographical 
inii^c  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  its  distribution  being  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other  fish  with 
which  we  are  acquainted.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  it  is  found  only  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
On  our  coast  it  is  found  in  summer  between  Cape  May  and  Cape  Sable,  though  rarely  north  of  Cape 
Ann : '  occasionally  off  Cape  Hatteras  and  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Specimens  have  been  taken  about  the  Canaries  and  Madeira,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in 
the  Mediterranean.  It  has  not  been  observed  on  the  coast  of  Europe  north  of  Gibraltar,  nor  at  the 
Bermudas. 

This  fish  does  not  appear  to  have  been  abundant  in  former  years:  it  attracted  but.  little  atten- 
tion in  our  waters  before  1860,  although  it  was  alluded  to  in  1815  by  Mitchill,  in  1842  by  DeKay, 
and  in  1856  by  Gill;  none  of  these  authors,  however,  seem  to  have  regarded  it  as  at  all  abundant.1 

A  note  from  Prof.  J.  Hammond  Triiinbull  states :  "  This  fish  used  to  be  quite  common,  in  some 
years,  in  the  Stonington  market.  1  have  a  note  of  a  considerable  number  in  market  July  22, 1842, 
their  first  appearance  for  the  season." 

Storer  remarked  in  1846:  "This  species,  called  by  the  fishermen  in  Boston  market  the  'Skip- 
jack,' and  by  those  at  the  extremity  of  Cape  Cod  the  'Bonito,'  is  very  rarely  met  with  in  Massa- 
chusetts Bay.  It  is  occasionally  taken  at  Provincetown.  and  even  at  Lynn.  At  some  seasons  it  is 
frequently  caught  at  Martha's  Vineyard  with  trailing  bait." 

During  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  they  have  become  exceedingly  abundant  about  Block 
Island  and  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Island.3  Fabulous  quantities  are  taken  in  the  pound-nets. 

'August  6,  1876,  Captain  Webb,  of  Milk  Inland,  took  seventy-three  Bonitog  in  bis  weir,  and  August  7  twenty- 
eight  more  in  au  eight-inch  gill-net. 

'The  following  extract*  from  the  journal  of  one  of  the  earliest  settler*  of  New  England  may  refer  either  to  this 
fish  or  to  one  of  the  smaller  species  of  Tunny: 

"1635,  JOLT  18  [near  Newfoundland].  Saturday,  wind  northwest,  a  fair,  cool  day.  We  saw  this  morning  a 
great  many  of  Bonitoes  leaping  and  playing  about  the  ship.  Bonito  in  a  fish  somewhat  bigger  than  a  cod,  but  less 
than  a  porpoise." — Mather's  Journal.  Young's  Chronicles  of  the  First  Planters  of  Massachusetts  Buy  Colony.  Boston : 
1846,  p.  464. 

"16'.t5,  JULY  21  [near  Newfoundland].  Tuesday  morning,  a  great  calm  after  a  hot  night.  This  morning  our 
seamen  took  a  Bonito  and  opened  him  upon  the  deck;  of  which,  being  dressed,  our  master  Bent  Mathew  Michel  and 
me  part,  as  good  ftsh  in  eating  as  conld  bo  desired.  About  noon  the  wind  became  northeast,  good  for  our  purpose, 
so  that  we  went  that  afternoon  nine  or  ten  leagues  a  watch." — Mather's  Journal.  Young's  Chronicles  of  the  First 
Planters  of  Massachusetts  B;iy  Colony.  Boston :  1846,  p.  4G4. 

*  BONITA. — We  did  not  say  half  enough  the  other  day  about  the  new  visitor  in  our  bay,  the  Bonita.  If  it  Hhiill 
become  plentiful  in  our  waters,  as  it  promises  to  be,  it  will  become  a  most  valuable  article  of  food.  A  correspondent, 
whose  opinion  upon  matters  of  this  kind  is  ultimate,  writes:  "Your  article  on  the  Bonita  is  every  word  true;  pray, 
have  your  attention  turned  to  fish,  the  great  question  (economical)  of  the  day.  Last  night  I  had  a  fish  on  my  table 
which  they  said  was  a  kind  of  Spanish  mackerel;  the  moment  I  tasted  it  I  said  it  was  a  Bonita,  having  eaten  it  thirty 
years  since,  on  my  first  voyage  to  India,  and  the  taste  hod  never  been  forgotten.  It  is  the  salmon  of  the  sea.  Mark 
its  solidity  of  flesh,  its  great  weight,  its  purity  of  taste,  entire  absence  of  the  slightly  decayed  taste  all  fish  h:is  during 
warm  weather.  It  is  as  nourishing  as  beef."  The  remainder  of  the  note  is  "strictly  confidential,"  and  so  was  the 
basket  which  accompanied  it  with  the  choicest  treasure  of  the  sea  covered  with  the  greenest  leaves  of  the  land.  We 
certify  from  actual  experiment  that  Bonita  is  the  worthy  rival  of  the  Spanish  mackerel,  the  sbeepsbead,  and  the 
salmon.  We  are  pleased  to  quote  it  in  our  household  market  report  at  the  more  reasonable  price  of  twenty  cents  a 
pound. — Providence  Journal,  July,  1871. 

The  people  of  Rhode  Island  are  happy  in  consequence  of  the  appearance  in  their  waters  of  that  excellent  fish,  t  In- 
Bonita.  This  fish  is  esteemed  superior  to  the  Spanish  mackerel,  and  nearly  equal  in  flavor  to  the  salmon.  It  has  not 
iii-i-n  kuown  in  Rhode  Island  waters  until  recently;  now  it  is  so  plentiful  that  it  is  sold  in  the  Providence  fish  markets 
.•it  twenty  rents  per  pound. — Germantown  Telegraph,  August  2, 1871. 

THE  BONITA.— Mr.  John  Flyun,  of  the  Citizens'  Market,  yesterday  received  another  supply  of  that  new  and 
dainty  fish,  the  Bonita,  and  those  who  have  not  yet  tasted  of  this  worthy  rival  of  the  Spanish  mackerel,  the  sbeeps- 
head,  and  the  salmon,  will  do  well  to  call  at  his  market  to-day  and  obtain  one  of  these  rare  visitors.— Providence 
Journal,  1871. 


318  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

In  1877  four  smacks  were  constantly  running  between  Block  Island  and  New  York,  carrying 
each  from  4,000  to  8,000  Bonitoes  a  week,  or  perhaps  20,000  pounds.  The  yield  of  Block  Island 
alone  that  summer  was  probably  not  less  than  2,000,000  pounds.  In  one  haul  of  the  purse-seine 
by  the  schooner  "Lilian,"  of  Noank,  1,500  were  taken;  and  in  August,  1874, 1,200  in  one  pound-net. 

They  seem  first  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  New  England  authorities  about  1865. 
Genio  0.  Scott,  writing  in  1875,  remarked  :  "His  first  arrival  along  our  beaches  and  in  our  bays 
was  about  eight  years  ago,  and  his  shoals  have  increased  remarkably  fast  ever  since  his  advent. 
As  a  table  luxury  it  ranks,  with  epicures,  below  the  striped  bass  and  bluefish,  but,  because  of  its 
comparative  rarity,  it  commands  a  price  rather  above  either.  The  numbers  of  this  fish  annually 
taken  about  the  approaches  to  our  harbors  with  the  troll  and  in  nets  has  increased  so  much  that 
it  bids  fair  to  become  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  bluefish." 

HABITS,  &c. — In  habits  the  Bonito  has  much  in  common  with  the  blue-fish,  though  it  is, 
if  possible,  even  more  active  and  more  the  embodiment  of  perpetual  and  insatiable  hunger.  They 
come  to  and  go  from  the  coast  together,  and  are  often  taken  together  in  the  nets.  Sometimes  two 
lines  in  one  boat  will  fasten  at  the  same  time  a  bluefish  and  a  Bonito.  The  Bonito,  like  the 
bluefish,  appear  to  be  attracted  to  our  waters  by  the  great  schools  of  mackerel  and  menhaden,  upon 
which  they  feed.  The  Bonito  schools  create  much  confusion  as  they  pass  through  the  water,  and 
their  progress  is  marked  by  flocks  of  screaming  gulls  and  terns,  which  follow  them  to  prey  upon  the 
remnants  of  their  feasts.  At  the  end  of  summer  they  disappear  entirely.  No  very  young  Bonitos 
have  been  found  in  our  waters.  Geuio  C.  Scott,  however,  records  the  capture  of  one  in  Jamaica 
Bay  in  1874,  weighing  less  than  a  pound,  and  which  he  believes  to  have  been  hatched  the  previous 
year.  The  Fish  Commission  also  has  one  of  the  same  size  taken  off  Southern  New  England. 
Charles  Potter,  of  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  states  that  small  specimens,  six  inches  in  length,  were 
from  1870  to  1874  frequently  taken  late  in  the  fall  in  the  weirs  at  Fisher's  Island. 

SIZE. — A  fish  weighing  ten  pounds  measures  twenty-eight  to  twenty-nine  inches ;  eight  pounds, 
twenty-seven  to  twenty-eight  inches ;  seven  pounds,  twenty-six  to  twenty-seven  inches ;  six  pounds, 
twenty -five  to  twenty-six  inches;  four  pounds,  twenty-two  to  twenty-three  inches.  There  have  not 
yet  been  found  in  the  adults  any  traces  of  mature  spawn,  though  one  taken  off  Norwalk,  July  23, 
1874,  had  the  eggs  well  formed  though  not  nearly  mature. 

THE  FISHERY. — In  1875  the  earliest  Bonito  was  taken  in  the  Robinson's  Hole  weir  July  7,  and 
two  more  came  along  July  24.  They  were  not  abundant  until  August,  when  many  more  were  taken 
in  Vineyard  Sound  by  Oak  Bluffs  boats,  trolling.  The  fishermen  then  believed  that  they  were 
gradually  increasing  in  numbers  and  importance  and  taking  the  place  of  the  squeteague  which 
were  dying  out.  August  7  the  weir  at  Cedar  Tree  Neck  had  taken  nothing  but  Bonitoes,  while 
those  farther  west  at  Menemsha  Bight  had  taken  only  squeteagne. 

Bonitos  are  caught  in  the  vicinity  of  Block  Island  with  trolling-hooks.  They  bite  sharply,  like 
blnefish.  The  best  bait  is  an  ordinary  bluefish  hook  with  a  petticoat  of  red  and  white  flannel, 
though  the  fish  will  also  take  any  bluefish  lure. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  Virginia  Bonito  are  caught  by  harpooning,  says  Mr.  0.  R.  Moore,  and 
also  with  the  hook.  They  are  most  numerous  about  the  mouth  of  the  York  River.  They  come  in 
in  June  and  leave  in  September.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  the  Bonito  referred  to  by  Mr. 
Moore  is  quite  another  fish — the  Cobia,  Elacate  atlantica. 

USES. — Tested  side  by  side  with  the  bluefish,  at  the  same  table,  the  Bonito  seems  not  much 
inferior,  though  the  flesh  is  somewhat  softer  and  more  perishable. 

The  Bonito  may  be  ranked  among  the  many  excellent  food-fishes  of  our  coast,  and,  in  any 


USES  OF  THE  BONITO.  310 

country  not  so  abundantly  supplied  with  finely-flavored  fishes,  it  would  be  considered  of  tho 
highest  value.  Their  vitality  is  so  great  and  their  supply  of  blood  so  abundant  that  unless  bled 
immediately  after  capture  their  flesh,  especially  in  warm  weather,  is  apt  to  deteriorate.  Great 
quantities  of  them  are  taken  to  New  York,  and  there,  as  well  as  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut, 
they  are  sold  extensively  under  the  name  of  "Spanish  mackerel,"  at  prices  ranging  from  thirty  five 
to  fifty  cents  a  ]>oiind.  This  was  the  common  practice  in  1874,  and  has  continued  since.  The  state- 
ment made  by  Scott  in  1875,  viz,  that  on  account  of  their  rarity  they  were  preferred  to  the  bluefish 
and  striped  base,  would  not  now  be  true;  his  prediction  that  they  would  in  time  become  as 
abundant  as  the  blueflsh  seems,  however,  during  some  years  to  have  been  almost  verified. 
The  dealers,  by  the  change  of  name  in  the  market  above  referred  to,  are  able  to  obtain  a  high 
price  for  a  fish  which,  under  its  own  name,  would  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion.  An  absurd 
report  that  the  Bonito  was  poisonous  was  current  in  1874,  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  similar 
fish  taken  in  warm  climates  are  sometimes  deleterious. 

In  1874  the  ordinary  price  in  New  York  was  one  cent  apiece,  though  in  the  wholesale  markets 
they  commanded  the  same  price  as  bluefish,  and  many  were  sold,  as  has  been  stated,  at  the  high 
rates  of  Spanish  mackerel.  The  market  was  so  glutted  that  many  of  the  vessels  could  not  dispose 
of  their  cargoes. 

According  to  Stearns,  our  Bonito  occurs  also  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  is  everywhere 
abundant,  and  is  found  in  the  bays  on  the  Florida  coast.  It  usually  moves,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  at  the  surface  of  the  water  in  small  schools.  At  sea  it  is  found  throughout  the  year, 
and  along  the  shore  only  in  the  summer.  Small  schools  are  sometimes  taken  in  drag-seines  in 
shallow  water.  Its  market  value  at  Pensacola  is  not  great,  although  it  has  become  an  article  of 
food. 

THE  PACIFIC  BONITO. — On  the  California  coast  occurs  a  closely  related  species,  Sarda  chilennix, 
which  is  thus  described  by  Professor  Jordan: 

"This  fish  is  every  where  known  as  the  Bonito.  The  names  'Spanish  Mackerel,'  'Skipjack,' and 
'  Tuna'  are  also  sometimes  applied  to  it.  It  reaches  an  average  weight  of  about  twelve  pounds,  but 
the  body  is  considerably  longer  and  more  slender  than  that  of  an  Albicore  of  the  same  weight. 
It  ranges  from  San  Francisco  southward  to  Chili,  being  abundant  in  Monterey  Bay  and  about  the 
Santa  Barbara  Islands  in  the  summer  and  fall.  It  approaches  to  within  half  a  mile  of  the  shore, 
where,  in  company  with  the  barracuda,  it  is  taken  in  great  numbers  by  trolling.  It  spawns  in  August 
or  September.  Its  arrival  is  in  early  summer  and  its  departure  in  the  fall,  at  which  season  the 
young  are  said  to  be  found  abundantly  in  the  kelp.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  anchovies  and  squids.  As 
a  food-fish  it  is  not  held  in  high  esteem,  the  flesh  being  coarse.  Great  numbers  are  salted  and  dried, 
and  are  in  that  state  considered  far  inferior  to  the  barracuda  and  yellow-tail." 

THE  STRIPED  BONITO.— The  Striped  Bouito,  already  mentioned,  is  distinguished  from  other 
species  by  the  presence  of  four  dark  lines,  which  begin  at  the  pectoral  fin  and  run  along  the  side 
of  the  belly  to  the  tail,  the  sides  of  the  common  Bonito  being  of  a  silvery  white.  This  species,  the 
StrijHjd  Bonito,  is  occasionally  taken  on  the  European  coast,  but  rarely  entering  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  found  in  the  Pacific  on  the  coast  of  China  and  Japan,  and  is  the  species  most 
commonly  known  to  mariners  as  the  Bonito,  or  Albicore,  of  the  activity  and  voracity  of  which,  as 
observed  from  the  decks  of  vessels  at  sea,  so  many  descriptions  have  been  written.  The  lirst 
individual  noticed  on  our  coast  was  taken  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Blake  at  Provincetown  in  July,  1S77. 
Others  have  since  been  observed  at  Wood's  Holl  and  in  the  New  York  markets. 

One  of  the  American  men-of-war  of  Revolutionary  times  was  named  "Bonetta,"  after  the 
fishes  of  this  group. 


320  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  LITTLE  TUNNIES.— In  addition  to  the  Striped  Bonito,  which  is,  properly,  a  Tunny,  there 
are  two  other  small  Tunnies — the  Long-flnned  Tunny,  Orcynus  alalonga,  and  the  Silver-spotted 
Tunny,  Orcynm  arpentivittatus — which  have  since  1877  been  added  to  the  fauna  of  the  United 
States. 

The  former  of  these  two  occurs  in  considerable  abundance  on  the  coast  of  California,  and  is 
there  also  known  as  the  Albicore.  Concerning  it  Professor  Jordan  writes:  "This  fish  reaches 
a  weight  of  about  twelve  pounds,  and  is  much  shorter  and  deeper  than  the  Bonito  of  the  Pacific. 
It  is  found  from  San  Francisco  southward,  but  is  abundant  only  in  the  channels  about  the  Santa 
Barbara  Islands.  It  seldom  comes  within  six  miles  of  the  shore,  and  it  is  taken  by  trolling.  It 
spawns  about  the  middle  of  August,  its  arrival  on  the  coast  being  determined  by  the  spawning 
season.  It  usually  is  present  in  June  and  July  and  disappears  in  the  fall.  It  feeds  chiefly  on 
anchovies  and  squid,  and  various  deep-water  fishes  (Merludus,  Sudis,  Myctophum)  arc  found  in 
its  stomach.  As  a  food -fish  it  is  even  less  valued  than  the  Bonito,  rarely  selling  for  more  than 
twenty  to  twenty-five  cents.  It  is  abundant,  but  of  little  economic  importance,  being  usually 
fished  for  by  sportsmen." 

100.  THE  HORSE  MACKEREL,  TUNNY,  OR  ALBICORE. 

The  most  important  of  the  Tunnies  is  the  so-called  Horse  Mackerel,  or  Albicore,  Orcynus 
thynnus,  the  "Ton"  or  "Tuna"  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  "Tunny"  of  English-speaking  people. 

The  distribution  of  this  fish  corresponds  more  closely  with  that  of  the  ordinary  species  of  the 
Atlantic,  since  it  occurs  not  only  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Western  Atlantic  north  to  the  Gulf 
of  Saint  Lawrence,  but  also  on  the  coast  of  Europe  to  the  Loffoden  Islands,  latitude  69°. 

The  following  account  of  this  species  is  for  the  most  part  from  the  notes  of  Professor  Baird: 

Of  this  fish,  as  found  in  American  waters,  our  naturalists  have  not  much  to  say,  the  species, 
although  abundant  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  off  particular  parts  of  the  coast,  being  not  a 
very  familiar  one  to  our  writers.  They  seem  to  be  rather  a  northern  fish,  and  are  said  by  Storer 
to  make  their  first  appearance  on  our  shores  about  Provincetown  early  in  June,  remaining  until 
October.  Of  late  years  they  seem  to  be  increasing  in  abundance  northward,  becoming  more  and 
more  common  during  the  summer  season  at  Newfoundland. 

In  1878,  Capt.  Henry  Webb,  of  Milk  Island,  near  Gloucester,  harpooned  and  killed  thirty  of 
these  monsters,  weighing  in  the  aggregate  at  least  thirty  thousand  pounds.  They  had  entered  his 
pound  in  pursuit  of  small  fish,  cutting  without  difficulty  through  the  netting.  One  had  his 
stomach  full  of  small  mackerel. 

According  to  Captain  Atwood,  on  their  first  appearance  in  Massachusetts  Bay  they  are  very 
poor,  but  by  the  beginning  of  September  become  quite  fat  and  are  very  much  hunted  for  the  oil, 
the  head  and  belly  especially  furnishing  sometimes  as  many  as  twenty  gallons.  They  are  har- 
pooned on  the  surface  of  the  water,  much  like  the  Sword-fish. 

The  early  traditions  of  this  fish  in  Massachusetts  Bay  speak  of  them  as  being  sometimes  so 
tame  as  to  take  food  from  the  hand;  but  they  have  long  since  given  up  this  engaging  habit. 
Their  flesh  is  not  esteemed  in  the  United  States,  being  rarely,  if  ever,  eaten,  although  much  used 
for  mackerel  bait.  It  is,  however,  more  in  favor  in  the  Provinces.  This  species  attains  a  very 
great  size.  One  specimen,  taken  in  1838  off  Cape  Ann,  measured,  according  to  Dr.  Storer,  fifteen 
feet  in  length,  and  weighed  one  thousand  pounds,  while  still  larger  individuals  than,  this  are  on 
record. 

Their  food  while  in  our  waters  consists,  it  is  said,  mainly  of  menhaden,  of  which  they  destroy 
a  vast  number.  Their  inclosure  in  the  fishermen's  nets,  is  not  much  desired,  as  they  are  apt  to 


HABITS  OF  THi:   HOUSE  MACKEKEL.  321 

become  entangled  in  them  and  to  do  much  injury  in  their  efforts  to  escape.  They  are  pursued  by 
thr  killer  whales,  bd'oie  which  they  flex-  in  great  terror. 

Strange  to  *a\ .  although  highly  pri/.cd  in  the  Old  World  from  the  time  of  the  ancient  Romans 
to  the  present  day.  they  are  seldom,  ii'  ever,  used  for  food  iu  this  country.  Although  occurring 
in  large  numbers  and  of  remarkable  size,  no  effort  is  made  toward  their  capture;  and  though 
not  unfrequently  taken  in  weirs  and  pounds  along  the  coast,  they  are  always  allowed  to  rot  on 
the  shore.  Occasionally  a  portion  of  the  flesh  may  be  used  asfood  for  chickens,  but  seldom,  if  ever, 
for  human  consumption. 

In  the  Mediterranean  the  Tunny  is  taken  in  large  nets,  known  as  madraguc*  similar  in  many 
respects  to  the  so-called  "  traps"  of  Seconnet  River  in  Rhode  Island.  The  fish  are  used  partly  fresh 
and  partly  salted,  and  they  are  put  up  in  oil  to  a  considerable  extent  and  largely  consumed  in  all 
the  Latin  countries  of  Europe.  Considerable  quantities  are  salted  and  canned,  and  canned  Tunny 
of  European  manufacture  is  imported  to  New  York  in  small  quantities.  The  flesh  is  dark  and  not 
usually  attractive,  although  wholesome.  They  appears  to  attain  a  greater  size  in  America 
than  in  Europe,  one  of  five  hundred  pounds  in  the  Mediterranean  being  considered  rather  a 
monster,  while  in  America  their  weight  is  not  unfrequently  given  at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred 
pounds. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  iu  regard  to  their  mode  of  reproduction.  The  eggs  are  said  to  be 
deposited  early  in  June,  and  the  young  at  hatching,  according  to  Yarrell,  weigh  an  ounce  and  a 
half,  reaching  a  weight  of  four  ounces  by  August,  and  thirty  ounces  by  October.1 

Mr.  Matthew  Jones,  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  writes :  "  The  Tunny  is  very  common  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia  in  summer,  and  is  known  to  fishermen  and  others  as  the  '  Albicore.'  The  Rev. 
J.  Ambrose  informs  me  that  it  regularly  visits  St.  Margaret's  Bay  every  summer,  several  specimens 
being  taken  and  rendered  down  for  oil.  They  were  particularly  abundant  in  1876.  They  are 
never  seen  in  the  Basin  of  Minas." 

Captain  Atwood  contributes  the  following  note  on  Horse-Mackerel  in  Cape  Cod  Bay : 

"They  don't  come  till  the  weather  gets  warm.  We  don't  see  them  at  first  when  we  begin 
setting  mackerel  nets,  but  about  June  they  are  liable  to  appear,  and  we  find  holes  in  the  nets. 
Sometimes  in  September  they  gill  them  for  the  sake  of  their  oil.  My  brother  had  forty-seven  holes 
through  one  eighty-yard  net  in  one  night.  When  they  strike  a  net  they  go  right  through  it,  and 
when  they  go  through  it  the  hole  immediately  becomes  round.  It  looks  as  if  you  could  put  a  half 
bushel  through  it.  I  said  in  my  Lowell  Institute  lectures  that  a  shark  in  going  through  a  net 
would  roll  himself  up  in  it,  but  the  Horse-Mackerel  get  right  through,  and  the  hole  that  they  cut 
could  be  mended  in  five  minutes.  The  fishermen  don't  dread  them  much  because  they  do  the 
nets  so  little  injury.  They  remain  with  us  through  the  summer  and  early  autumn,  when  they  are 
killed  for  the  oil.  When  they  are  here  they  feed  upon  any  small  fish,  aud  when  menhaden  were 
here  I  have  seen  them  drive  the  harbor  full  of  them.  I  have  seen  the  Horse-Mackerel  swallow 
dogfish  whole  weighing  eight  pounds.  As  fast  as  we  got  out  the  livers  of  the  dogfish  they  would 
catch  them  and  eat  them.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  whiting  here  at  that  time.  They  have 
almost  totally  disappeared.  The  Horse-Mackerel  seems  to  be  the  enemy  of  all  kinds  of  fish.  There 

1  <>!•••  HUH*  thymiut.— According  to  Dr.  Forlin,  the  Horse-Mackerel  is  quite  abundant  in  the  Onlf  of  Saint  Law- 
rence, especially  in  the  bay  of  Chaleur  and  of  Gasp<5,  and  also  in  tho  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  and  Blancs  Sablou  Bay.  It 
is  taken  in  increasing  numbers  in  the  Gulf,  partly  by  spearing  and  partly  by  baiting.  For  this  latter  purpose  strong 
steel  hooks  are  used  tied  to  solid  lines  and  baited  with  herring.  This  (wiling  is  prosecuted  more  particularly  in  the 
Hay  of  Chaleur  and  oil  Caraqnette,  where  in  1863  over  one  hundred  wen-  r.iptun-d.  The  tishin^  in  quite  exciting, 
although  tiresome  and  requiring  a  good  deal  of  skill,  as  in  the  efforts  .. r  the  lishes  to  escape  they  pull  with  i such  violence 
:i*  to  endanger  the  lives  of  the  fishermen  by  dragging  them  overboard. — Canadian  Fishery  Heport  for  1863,  62. 

21  F 


322  NATUEAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

is  nothing  to  trouble  the  Horse-Mackerel  until  the  killer  comes,  and  then  they  know  it,  I  tell  you. 
Then  the  Horse-Mackerel  will  run!  Some  fishermen  say  that  they  have  seen  a  killer  poke  his  head 
out  of  the  water  with  a  Horse-Mackerel  in  his  mouth.  I  have  known  a  Horse-Mackerel  to  yield 
twenty-three  gallons  of  oil.  The  average  size  is  about  eight  feet  in  length."1 

101.   THE   LITTLE  TUNNY   OR  ALBICORE. 

This  fish,  Orcynus  alliteratus,  known  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  is  confounded  by  the  fisher- 
men with  other  similar  species,  as  the  "Bonito,"and  in  the  Mediterranean  by  the  names  "Tounina' 
(Trieste),  "  Carcane"  (Venice),  and  "Tauna"  (Nice),  has  a  geographical  range  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Bonito,  except  that  it  is  found  in  the  Pacific  on  the  east  coast  of  Japan,  and  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago. It  has  also  been  recorded  from  Cuba,  Brazil,  and  the  Bermudas.  This  active  species,  which 
attains  the  weight  of  from  thirty  to  forty  pounds,  first  made  its  appearance  in  our  waters  iu  1871, 
when  several  large  schools  were  observed  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  Buzzard's  Bay  and  the  Vineyard 
Sound.  Nearly  every  year  since,  they  have  been  seen  in  greater  or  less  numbers,  but,  as  they  are 
of  little  value  for  food,  no  effort  has  been  made  to  capture  them,  nor  are  they  often  brought  to  the 
markets.  This  species,  known  at  the  Bermudas  as  the  "Mackerel,"  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
markets  at  Hamilton  and  Saint  Georges. 

In  the  Mediterranean  its  flesh  is  considered  to  be  very  excellent.  My  own  experiments  with 
it  are  hardly  confirmatory  of  this  statement,  but  in  Southern  Europe  all  the  fishes  of  this  family 
are  very  highly  esteemed,  and  that  it  is  not  appreciated  with  us  is  perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that 
we  do  not  know  how  to  cook  them.  I  find  the  following  note  by  Professor  Baird :  "  Flesh,  when 
cooked,  dark  brown  all  around  the  backbone,  elsewhere  quite  dark,  precisely  like  horse-mackerel. 
Flesh  very  firm,  compact,  and  sweet." 

Stearns  records  its  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  he  has  observed  indi- 
vidual specimens  at  Pensacola  and  Key  West. 

The  habits  of  this  fish  have  not  been  specially  studied,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
they  correspond  closely  with  those  of  others  of  the  same  family. 

THE  CARANGOID  FISHES. 

The  members  of  the  family  Carangicke,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  mackerel  family,  are  dis- 
tinguished chiefly  by  the  form  of  the  mouth,  and  by  the  fact  that  they  have  uniformly  but  twenty- 
four  vertebras,  ten  abdominal  and  fourteen  caudal,  while  the  mackerel  have  uniformly  more,  both 
abdominal  and  caudal.  They  are  carnivorous  fishes,  abounding  everywhere  in  temperate  and 
tropical  seas.  On  our  own  eastern  coast  there  are  at  least  twenty-five  species,  all  of  them  eatable, 
but  none  of  them  of  much  importance  except  the  Pompanoes.  On  the  California  coast  there  are 
two  or  three  species  of  this  family,  of  small  commercial  importance. 

102.  THE  SILVER  MOON  FISHES. 
THE  BLUNT-NOSED  SHINER — SELENE  SETIPINNIS. 

This  fish,  known  on  some  parts  of  the  coast  as  the  "  Horse-fish,"  in  North  Carolina  as  the 
i'  Mooufish  "  or  "  Sunfish,"  and  in  Cuba  by  the  name  "  Jorobado,"  was  called  by  DeKay  "Blunt-nosed 
Shiner,"  and  since  this  name,  sometimes  varied  to  "Pug-nosed  Shiner,''  is  in  common  use  in  the 
New  York  market  and  in  Narragansett  Bay,  while  the  other  names  are  shared  by  other  species, 

1  HORSE-MACKEREL. — One  weighing  three  hundred  pounds  was  harpooned  at  Minot's  Ledge  August  10,  1859,  by 
a  seaman  on  the  United  States  steamer  "Granite."  Another,  nine  feet  in  length  and  weighing  six  hundred  and  four- 
teen pounds,  in  Murblehead  Bay  about  the  same  time. 


THE  BLUNT  NOSED  SHINER.  323 

similar  anil  dissimilar,  it  seems  the  most  suitable  for  general  adoption.  The  fish  is  found  every- 
where throughout  the  West  Indies,  an  well  as  in  Northern  Brazil  and  iu  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  southward  along  the  coast  to  Panama,  but  has  not 
been  found  in  Europe.  In  Eastern  Florida  it  is  not  very  unusual,  being  frequently  taken  in  the 
Lower  Saint  John's,  and  sometimes  driven  up  as  far  as  Jacksonville  by  easterly  storms.  Here  and 
in  the  Indian  River  it  is  known  as  the  "Moonflsh."  It  is  a  frequent  summer  visitor  all  along  the 
coa-st  as  far  north  as  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  where  it  has  n  peculiar  name,  the  people  there 
calling  it  the  "Hump-backed  Butterfish."  The  species  attains  the  length  of  ten  or  twelve  inches, 
and  is  esteemed  an  excellent  article  of  food.  Considerable  numbers  are  brought  yearly  to  New 
York,  but  elsewhere  it  rarely  appears  in  the  markets.  Young  from  three  inches  in  length 
upwards  are  found,  but  we  have  no  definite  knowledge  as  to  its  breeding  habits. 

THE  SILVKH  MOON-FISH — SELKNE  ARGENTEA. 

This  species  is  almost  certain  to  be  confused  by  fishermen  with  the  one  last  described,  which 
it  resembles  and  is  often  spoken  of  under  the  same  names.  It  occurs  abundantly  on  our  coast  as 
far  north  as  Wood's  Holl,  and  is  found  in  the  West  Indies,  in  Brazil,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
as  well  as  in  the  Pacific,  from  the  Gulf  of  California  to  Panama. 

The  young  of  the  Silver  Moon-fish  is  abundant  iu  onr  waters,  and  has  been  frequently  taken 
in  Massachusetts  Bay,  and,  in  one  or  two  instances,  as  far  north  as  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  Their 
bodies  are  so  thin  that  they  can  be  dried  iu  the  sun  without  the  use  of  any  preservatives,  without 
loss  of  form  and  color.  They  are,  consequently,  of  no  importance  for  food.  In  the  Chesapeake 
this  fish  is  often  called  by  the  names  "Horse-head"  and  "Look -down." 

103.  THE  CAVALLY,  THE  SCAD,  AND  THE  JTJBELS. 
THE  CAVALLY — CAEANX  HIPPOS. 

The  Cavally  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Eastern  Florida — the  "  Horse  Creyall6"  of  South  Caro- 
lina— occurs  abundantly  on  our  Southern  coast,  and  has  been  recorded  by  Professor  Poey  from 
Cuba  and  by  Cope  from  St.  Christopher  and  St.  Croix.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
West  Indies,  and  is  found  along  the  Pacific  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  California  to  Panama.  The 
species  was  originally  described  from  specimens  sent  from  South  Carolina  by  Garden  to  Linmeus. 
The  name  of  this  fish  is  usually  written  and  printed  "  Crevalhy'  but  the  form  in  common  use  among 
the  fishermen  of  the  South,  "Cavally,"  is  nearer  to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  names,  Carallia 
and  Caballa,  meaning  "  horse."  The  name  as  used  in  South  Carolina  is  a  curious  reduplication, 
being  a  combination  of  the  English  and  Spanish  names  for  "  horse."  It  should  be  carefully  remem- 
bered that  in  South  Carolina  the  name  Crevalle"  is  most  generally  applied  to  quite  another  fish,  the 
Pompano. 

The  Cavally,  as  it  seems  most  appropriate  to  call  Caranx  hippos,  though  in  individual  cases 
occurring  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod,  and  even,  in  one  instance,  at  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  is  not 
commonly  known  in  the  United  States  north  of  Florida.  Storer  remarks:  "This  fish  is  so- 
seldom  seen  in  the  waters  of  South  Carolina  that  we  are  unacquainted  with  its  habits."  I 
observed  a  specimen  in  the  Jacksonville  market  in  April,  1874.  Concerning  the  Cavally  of 
Southern  Florida,  which  is  either  this  or  a  closely  allied  species,  Mr.  H.  8.  Williams  writes: 

"In  the  Indian  lliver  this  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  larger  varieties.  Its  season  is  from  the  1st 
of  May  to  November.  It  ranges  in  weight  from  three  to  twenty  pounds,  being  larger  and  more 
numerous  to  the  southward  toward  the  Mosquito  Inlet.  The  south  end  of  Merritt's  Island  and 
the  inlets  opposite  old  Fort  Capron  seem  to  be  a  sort  of  headquarters  for  the  Cavalli.  When  iu 


324  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

pursuit  of  prey  they  are  very  ravenous  and  move  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning.  They  readily 
take  a  troll  either  with  bait  or  rag.  The  favorite  mode  of  capturing  them,  as  well  as  all  other 
large  fish  that  feed  in  shallow  water  or  near  the  shore,  is  with  a  rifle.  The  high,  rocky  shores 
afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  this  sport,  though  the  rapid  movements  of  the  fish  render 
them  very  difficult  targets." 

Mr.  Stearns  writes:  "The  Crevalle"  is  common  on  the  Gulf  coast.  In  West  Florida  it  appears 
in  May  and  remains  until  late  in  the  fall,  and  is  equally  abundant  in  the  bays  and  at  sea.  In  the 
bays  it  is  noticeable  from  the  manner  in  which  it  preys  upon  fish  smaller  than  itself,  the  Gulf 
menhaden  and  mullet  being  the  most  common  victims.  On  arrival  it  contains  spawn  which  it 
probably  deposits  in  the  salt-water  bayous,  for  in  the  fall  schools  of  young  are  seen  coining  out  of 
those  places  on  their  way  to  the  sea.  These  young  are  then  of  about  one  pound  weight,  appearing 
to  the  casual  observer  like  pompano,  and  I  am  told  that  they  equal  it  for  edible  purposes.  They 
are  caught  accidentally  by  seines  and  trolling-lines.  Large  ones  are  not  considered  choice  food,  the 
flesh  being  dark  and  almost  tasteless.  The  average  weight  is  twelve  pounds;  occasionally  they 
attain  the  size  of  twenty  pounds." 

Professor  Jordan  found  this  species  abundant  in  Lake  Pouchartrain. 

THE  GOGGLER— CARANX  CRUMENOPHTHALMUS. 

This  fish,  called  in  the  Bermudas,  where  it  is  of  some  importance  as  a  food-fish,  the  "Goggler," 
or  "  Goggle-eyed  Jack,"  and  in  Cuba  the  "Cicharra,"  occurs  in  the  West  Indies  and  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  north  to  the  Vineyard  Sound.  It  is  also  found  at  Panama  and 
in  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Red  Sea,  and  off  the  coast  of  Guinea,  while, 
as  has  been  remarked,  it  is  abundant  in  the  Bermudas.  Its  large,  protruding  eyes  are  very  notice- 
able features,  and  the  Bermuda  name  seems  appropriate  for  adoption,  since  the  fish  has  with  us 
never  received  a  distinctive  name.  In  form  it  somewhat  resembles  the  species  last  discussed,  with 
which  it  is  probably  often  confused. 

Stearns  speaks  of  a  fish,  common  at  Key  West,  which  is  known  as  the  "Horse-eyed  Jack,"  and 
this  may  prove  to  be  the  same  species. 

THE  JUREL — CARANX  PISQUETUS. 

TUis  fish,  known  about  Pensacola  as  the  "Jurel,"  "Cojinna,"  and  "Hard-tail";  along  the 
Florida  coast  as  "Jack-fish"  and  "Skipjack";  in  the  Bermudas  as  the  "Jack"  or  "Buffalo  Jack"; 
in  South  Carolina  as  the  "Horse  Crevalle"";  at  Fort  Macon  as  the  "Horse-Mackerel";  about  New 
York  and  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  as  the  "Yellow  Mackerel,"  is  found  in  the  Western  Atlantic 
•from  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  Hayti  to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  where  specimens  were  secured  by  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  in  1877.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  summer  visitants  of  the  West  Indian 
fauna  along  the  whole  coast  of  Southern  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  being  especially 
abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  one  of  the  commonest  fishes  in  the  Bermudas.  This  fish  is 
occasionally  brought  to  the  New  York  market,  but  is  of  no  special  importance  as  an  article  of  food 
•north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Concerning  its  habits  in  those  waters,  Mr.  Stearns  has  contributed 
•A  very  interesting  series  of  notes.  They  are  especially  entertaining,  since  nothing  has  previously 
ibeen  known  of  its  life-history : 

"It  is  extremely  abundant  everywhere  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi. 
At  Pensacola  it  is  one  of  the  important  fishes  of  trade,  and  is  highly  prized  for  food.  It  is  one  of 
the  class  of  migratory  fishes  of  this  coast,  like  the  pompano,  mullet,  Spanish  mackerel,  and  red- 
dish, having  certain  seasons  for  appearing  and  disappearing  on  the  coast,  and  also  has  habits  during 
these  seasons  that  are  peculiar  to  themselves  or  their  class.  It  appears  on  the  coast  in  April,  in 


THE  JU.REL  OH   HAHD-TAIL  325 

.small  schools  that  swim  iu  shoal  water  near  the  beach  during  pleasant  weather,  when  there  is  little 
or  no  surf,  in  eight  or  ten  feet  of  water,  and  iu  stormy  weather  some  little  distance  from  the  break- 
ers. Their  movement  is  from  I  lie  eastward  to  the  westward.  As  they  seldom  swim  at  the  surface, 
(heir  movements  can  be  watched  only  when  iu  shoal  water.  The  schools  'running'  iu  April  and 
first  of  May  are  usually  smaller  than  those  of  a  few  weeks  later,  but  the  individuals  of  the  ilrst  aw 
>i>mewhat  larger.  The  mass,  or  largest  'run,'  comes  in  May,  and  it  is  on  the  arrival  of  these  that 
schools  are  first  seen  coming  in  the  inlets. 

"  A  noticeable  peculiarity  of  the  Hard-tail  compared  with  some  other  common  migratory  fishes 
is  that  the  first  schools  do  not  stay  about  the  mouths  of  an  inlet  and  along  the  beach  weeks  before 
coming  inside  as  those  of  the  latter  do,  but  continue  their  westward  movement,  without  seeming 
to  stop  to  feed  or  play,  until  the  time  has  come  for  a  general  movement  towards  the  bays.  In  this 
way  they  must  be  distributed  along  the  coast,  with  no  unequal  accumulation  at  any  one  point. 
When  once  inside,  the  numerous  schools  break  up  into  smaller  ones  of  a  dozen  or  two  fish,  which 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Cay  during  the  summer.  On  their  arrival  the  larger  fish  contain 
spawn,  which  in  July  and  August  becomes  quite  full,  after  which  none  are  seen  but  the  young  fish 
of  about  ten  inches  in  length,  until  there  is  a  general  movement  towards  the  sea.  It  is  believed 
that  the  adult  fish  spawn  in  the  bays,  but  the  only  evidence  to  support  that  belief  is  that  they  come 
inside  with  spawn,  go  away  without  it,  and  that  very  young  fish  are  found  there.  In  October  and 
November  small  Hard-tails  are  caught  in  Santa  Rosa  Sound,  measuring  five  and  six  inches  in 
length. 

"The  smallest  of  the  spring  run  are  nine  or  ten  inches  long.  Adult  fish  measure  twelve,  four- 
teen, and  fifteen  inches  in  length,  very  rarely  more  than  the  last.  During  the  months  of  October 
and  November  Hard -tails  leave  the  bays,  formed  in  small  schools  and  swimming  below  the  surface 
iu  deep  water.  The  only  time  that  they  can  then  be  seen  is  when  they  cross  the  'bars'  at  the  inlet 
or  sandy  shoals  in  the  bay.  A  few  stragglers  remain  in  Peusacola  Bay  and  Santa  Rosa  Sound 
all  winter,  which  are  taken  now  and  then  with  hook  and  Hue.  1  have  found  them  in  abun- 
dance in  winter  on  the  South  Florida  coast,  where,  owing  to  less  variable  conditions  of  the  water, 
their  habits  are  decidedly  different.  The  Hard -tail  is  a  most  voracious  fish,  waging  active  war 
upon  the  schools  of  small  fish.  Its  movements  are  rapid,  and  sometimes  iu  its  eagerness  it  will 
jump  high  out  of  the  water.  It  has  its  enemies  also,  for  I  have  seen  whole  schools  driven  ashore 
by  sharks  and  porpoises;  a  great  many  are  destroyed  in  this  way.  Hard-tails  are  caught  for  the 
market  in  seines." 

THE  CUBA  JUREL — CABANX  PALLAX. 

The  occurrence  of  this  species  on  our  coast  was  first  announced  by  a  drawing  made  by  Mr.  J. 
H.  Richard  of  a  fish  taken  iu  South  Carolina.  Upon  this  drawing  Holbrook  founded  his  species,. 
G.  Bichardii.  Caranx  fallax  occurs  abundantly  throughout  the  West  Indies  and  along  the  Gulf 
coast  of  the  United  States,  and  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  stragglers  should  have 
found  their  way  to  Charleston.  According  to  Professor  Foey,  this  fish  has  been  prohibited  from 
sale  in  Cuba  from  time  immemorial,  and  with  good  reason,  since  many  disastrous  cases  of  sickness 
have  followed  its  use  as  food.  This  species  occurs,  according  to  Jordan,  from  the  Gulf  of  California 
to  Panama,  and  also  in  the  East  Indies. 

THE  ROCND  KOBIN — DECAPTEKUS  PUNCTATXJS. 

The  Round  Robin,  or,  as  it  is  called  at  Pensacola,  the  "  Cigar-fish,"  occurs  in  the  Bermudas, 
where  it  is  an  important  food-fish ;  it  occurs  also  in  the  West  Indies  and  along  the  coast  of  the 
United  States  north  as  far  as  Wood's  Holl. 


326  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

A  closely  related  species,  Decapterus  ntacarellus,  is  found  also  in  the  "West  Indies  and  along 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States.  According  to  Stearns,  individuals  of  this  species  are  rather 
rare  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf,  but  more  common  along  the  South  Florida  coast.  They  live 
in  shallow  water  and  in  harbors,  usually  moving  about  in  small  schools.  At  Key  West  they  are 
caught  in  seines,  and  are  eaten. 

THE  SCADS — TRAOHUBUS  SAURUS,  ETC: 

The  Scads,  known  in  England  as  the  "  Horse-Mackerels,"  appear  to  occur  in  all  temperate 
and  tropical  waters.  The  distribution  is  given  by  Giinther  as  follows  :  "From  the  coasts  of  the 
temperate  parts  of  Europe,  along  the  coasts  of  Africa,  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  into  the 
East  Indian  seas,  to  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand  and  West  America."  As  has  been  shown  by 
Liitken,  Steindachner,  and  Jordan  and  Gilbert,  three  distinct  species  are  confounded  by  Giinther 
under  the  name  Trachunis  trachurus. 

In  Europe  our  Scad  ranges  north  to  the  Trondhjem  Fjord,  latitude  65°,  and  is  said  to  occur 
as  far  south  as  Portugal.  On  the  coast  of  Holland  it  is  known  as  the  "  Marse  Banker,"  or  "Hors." 
It  is  interesting  to  American  ichthyologists,  since  the  similarity  of  its  habits  to  those  of  the  men- 
haden, so  important  in  our  waters,  caused  the  latter  fish  to  be  called  among  the  early  Dutch  colon- 
ists of  New  York  by  the  same  name.  European  writers  describe  the  Scads  as  occurring  upon  those 
coasts  in  schools  of  immense  numbers,  and  it  would  seem  that  although  their  manner  of  swimming 
resembles  that  of  the  menhaden,  in  their  other  habits  they  more  closely  resemble  our  own  blueflsh. 
They  are  considered  to  be  food-fishes  of  fair  quality,  and  attain  the  length  of  about  twelve  inches. 
They  are  supposed  to  spawn  about  the  same  time  as  the  mackerel.  Only  three  specimens  of  this 
species  have  ever  been  taken  in  the  United  States,  one  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  Southern  New 
England  in  1878,  and  subsequently  two  others  by  Jordan  and  Stearns,  at  Pensacola.  In  Califor- 
nia, according  to  Jordan,  the  allied  species  T.  picturatus  occurs  and  is  known  as  the  "  Horse- 
Mackerel."  He  continues  :  "It  reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot  and  a  weight  of  less  than  a  pound. 
It  ranges  from  Monterey  southward  to  Chili,  appearing  in  California  in  the  summer,  remaining  in 
the  spawning  season,  and  disappearing  before  December.  It  arrives  at  Santa  Barbara  in  July,  and 
at  Monterey  in  August.  In  late  summer  it  is  exceedingly  abundant.  It  forms  part  of  the  food  of 
larger  fishes,  and  great  numbers  are  salted  for  bait.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  held  in  low  esteem,  but 
whether  this  is  due  entirely  to  its  small  size  we  do  not  know.  It  is  identical  with  the  well-known 
Mediterranean  species." 

THE  THKEAD-FISH — BLEPHARIS  CRINITUS. 

This  fish,  also  known  as  the  "  Shoemaker-fish,"  is  found  along  our  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  as  also  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  tropical  America.  It  possesses  no  importance  in 
our  Atlantic  waters,  but  on  account  of  its  strange  shape  and  the  long  thread-like  appendages  to 
its  fins,  which  float  behind  it  to  the  distance  of  five  or  six  times  its  own  length,  it  is  often  brought 
to  the  markets  as  a  curiosity.  "It  is  not  found  in  California,"  writes  Jordan,  "but  in  Western 
Mexico  it  attains  the  length  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  is  brought  to  tho  markets  for  food." 

104.  THE   POMPANOS— TRACHYNOTUS   CAROLINUS,   ETC. 

There  are  four  species  of  Pompano  in  the  Western  Atlantic,  very  similar  to  each  other  in 
general  appearance,  but  easily  distinguished  by  differences  in  proportion  and  in  the  number  of 
fin-rays. 

The  commonest  and  by  far  the  most  important  species,  the  Carolina  Pompauo,  Trachynotus 
carolinu*,  has  the  height  of  the  body  contained  two  to  two  and  two-thirds  times  in  the  total  length; 
the  length  of  the  head  five  to  five  and  one-third  times;  one  of  the  caudal  lobes  four  times.  It  has 


OHARACTEHISTICS  OP  THE  POM  I'A  NOES.  327 

twenty-four  to  twenty-five  rays  in  the  second  dorsal,  while  the  anterior  rnys  of  the  dorsal  and 
anal  tins,  it'  laid  backward,  reach  to  the  middle  of  the  fin. 

The  Itound  Pompano  ( T.  oratun)  has  the  height  of  the  body  contained  two  to  two  and  one-third 
thins  in  the  total  length;  the  length  of  the  head  five  to  five  and  one-fourth  times;  one  of  the 
caudal  lobes  three  and  a  half  to  four  times.  In  the  second  dorsal  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty -one 
rays,  in  the  second  anal  from  sixteen  to  nineteen,  while  in  the  Carolina  Pompano  there  are  twenty- 
one  to  twenty  two. 

Tin-  African  Poinpauo  ( T.  goreen*in)  resembles  in  general  form  the  Round  Pompano,  though 
somewhat  more  elongate,  while  the  head  is  larger,  being  contained  four  and  a  half  times  in  the 
total  length.  The  anterior  rays  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  extend  beyond  the  middle  of  the  fin,  if  laid 
backward.  In  the  number  of  the  tin-rays  it  corresponds  most  closely  with  the  Bound  Pompauo. 

The  Banner  Pompano  (T.  glaucus)  has  a  somewhat  elongate  body  and  a  small  head.  It  is 
much  thinner  than  either  of  the  other  species.  Its  silvery  sides  are  marked  with  four  blackish 
vertical  streaks;  the  best  distinguishing  mark  is  in  the  length  of  the  first  rays  of  the  dorsal  and 
anal,  which  extend  back  nearly  to  the  tip  of  the  caudal  fin.  The  name  Pompano,  applied  in  this 
country  to  all  of  these  fishes,  is  a  Spanish  word,  one  of  the  meanings  of  which  is  "grape-leaf." 
This  name  is  applied  in  Western  Europe  to  a  very  different  fish. 

THE  COMMON  POMPANO — TEACHYNOTUS  CABOLINUS. 

The  Common  Pompano  or  Carolina  Pompano  occurs  in  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  waters 
of  the  United  States.  On  our  eastern  coast  it  ranges  north  to  Cape  Cod,  south  to  Jamaica,  east 
to  the  Bermudas,  and  west  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  least  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  In  the  Pacific  it  is  rare,  and  as  yet  known  only  from  the  Gulf  of  California,  where  it  has 
recently  been  observed  bj  Mr.  C.  H.  Gilbert. 

In  our  New  England  and  Middle  States  it  is  a  summer  visitor,  appearing  in  June  and  July, 
ami  departing  in  September.  Although  it  is  at  present  impossible  to  ascertain  the  lower  limit  of 
its  temperature  range,  it  is  probable  that  it  corresponds  very  nearly  to  that  indicated  by  a  harbor 
temperature  of  60°  to  65°  Fahrenheit. 

This  species  was  described  at  an  early  day  by  Linnasus  from  South  Carolina,  and  never  had 
been  observed  in  any  numbers  north  of  Cape  Hatteras  until  the  summer  of  1854,  when  Professor 
Baird  discovered  them  near  Great  Egg  Harbor.  In  his  "Report  on  the  Fishes  of  New  Jersey"  he 
states  that  he  had  seen  them  taken  by  thousands  in  the  sandy  coves  on  the  outer  beach  of  Beas- 
ley's  Point.  These,  however,  were  young  fish,  few  of  them  weighing  more  than  half  a  pound. 
In  1803  he  obtained  both  species  in  Southern  Massachusetts,  where  in  subsequent  years  they 
have  been  frequently  captured. 

"My  first  acquaintance  with  the  Pompauo  in  New  England,"  writes  Professor  Baird,  "was  in 
18C3,  during  a  residence  at  Wood's  Holl,  where  I  not  unfrequently  caught  young  ones  of  a  few 
inches  in  length.  I  was  more  fortunate  in  the  summer  of  1871,  which  I  also  spent  at  Wood's  Holl; 
then  the  Pompauo  was  taken  occasionally,  especially  in  Captain  Spindle's  pound,  and  I  received 
at  different  times  as  many  as  twenty  or  thirty,  weighing  about  one  and  one-half  or  two  pounds 
each.  Quite  a  number  were  caught  in  Buzzard's  Bay  and  Vineyard  Sound  in  1872." 

It  is  a  fair  question  whether  the  Poinpauo  has  recently  found  its  way  into  northern  waters,  or 
whether  its  presence  was  unknown  because  nobody  had  found  the  way  to  capture  it.  When 
Mitchill  wrote  on  the  fishes  of  New  York  in  1842  he  had  access  to  a  single  specimen  which  had 
been  taken  off  Sandy  Hook  about  the  year  1820. 

The  spawning  times  and  breeding  grounds  of  these  fishes  are  not  well  known.     Mr.  S.  C. 


328  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Clarke  states  that  in  the  Indian  River  they  spawn  in  March,  in  the  open  sea  near  New  Smyrna, 
Florida.  It  is  supposed  that  those  visiting  our  northern  coasts  breed  at  a  distance  from  the  shore. 
The  eggs,  like  those  of  the  mackerel,  being  lighter  than  the  water,  float  at  or  near  the  surface. 
The  Pompanoes  may,  however,  be  truly  migratory,  seeking  the  waters  near  the  equator  in  winter 
and  following  along  a  coastwise  migration,  north  and  south,  in  summer.  They  are  rapid,  power- 
ful swimmers;  their  food  consists  of  mollusks,  the  softer  kinds  of  crustaceans,  and  probably  the 
young  of  other  fishes.  S.  C.  Clarke  remarks  that  they  have  been  known  to  bite  at  a  clam  bait. 
Genio  Scott  remarks:  "It  is  mullet-mouthed;  never  takes  a  bait  except  by  mistake."  Their  teeth 
are  very  small  and  disappear  with  age.  As  seen  in  the  New  York  market  they  rarely  exceed  five 
or  six  pounds  in  weight.  I  quote  in  full  the  observations  of  Mr.  Stearns : 

"The  common  Pompano  is  abundant  on  the  Gulf  coast  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  Key 
West,  and,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  is  rare  beyond  this  western  limit  until  the  Yucatan  coast  is  reached, 
where  it  is  common.  It  is  considered  the  choicest  fish  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  has  great  com- 
mercial demand,  which  is  fully  supplied  but  a  few  weeks  in  the  year,  namely,  when  it  arrives  in 
spring.  The  Pompauo  is  a  migratory  fish  in  the  Pensacola  region,  but  I  think  its  habits  on  the 
South  Florida  coast  are  such  that  it  cannot  properly  be  so  classed. 

"At  Peusacola  it  comes  in  to  the  coast  in  spring  and  goes  away  from  it  in  fall,  while  in  South 
Florida  it  is  found  throughout  the  year.  In  the  former  section  it  appears  on  the  coast  in  March  in 
schools  varying  in  numbers  of  individuals  from  fifty  to  three  or  four  thousand,  which  continue  to 
'run'  until  the  latter  part  of  May,  when  it  is  supposed  that  they  are  all  inside.  Their  movement 
is  from  the  eastward,  and  they  swim  as  near  to  the  shore  as  the  state  of  the  water  will  permit,  very 
seldom  at  the  surface  so  as  to  ripple  or  break  the  water,  although  sometimes  while  playing  in  shoal 
water  they  will  jump  into  the  air. 

"Before  any  schools  enter  the  bays  certain  ones  will  remain  for  days,  or  even  weeks,  in  a 
neighborhood,  coming  to  the  beach  during  the  flood-tide  to  feed  on  the  shell-fish  that  abound  there 
and  returning  again  to  deeper  water  on  the  ebb-tide.  The  holes  or  gullies  in  the  sand  along  the 
beach  are  their  favorite  feeding-grounds  on  these  occasions.  Sharks  and  porpoises  pursue  the 
Pompano  incessantly,  doubtless  destroying  many.  The  largest  numbers  come  in  April,  and  some- 
times during  that  month  the  first  schools  are  seen  entering  the  inlets,  others  following  almost 
every  day,  until  about  June  1,  when  the  spring  run  is  said  to  be  over.  Every  year  they  appear  in 
this  way  at  Pensacola  and  adjoining  bays,  although  there  are  many  more  some  years  than  others. 
As  the  abundance  is  judged  by  the  quantity  caught  I  think  that  the  difference  may  lie  more  in 
the  number  of  fishing  days  (pleasant  ones)  than  in  the  real  numbers  of  fish  present.  The  sizes  of 
Pompano  that  make  up  these  schools  are  large  or  adult  fish  averaging  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
in  length,  and  small  fish  (probably  one  year  old)  averaging  eight  inches  in  length.  The  largest 
Pompano  that  I  have  seen  measured  nineteen  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and  weighed  six  and  a 
quarter  pounds,  the  extremely  large  fish  called  Pompano  of  two  or  three  times  that  size  probably 
being  another  species.  After  entering  the  bays  the  schools  of  Pompano  break  up  and  the  fish 
scatter  to  all  parts  where  the  water  is  salt  and  there  are  good  feeding  grounds.  Except  single 
individuals  that  are  taken  now  and  then,  nothing  is  seen  of  Pompano  until  late  in  the  fall,  when 
they  are  bound  seaward.  In  regard  to  its  spawning  habits  nothing  very  definite  has  been  learned. 
It  has  spawn  half  developed  when  it  arrives  and  has  none  when  it  leaves  the  bays.  Large  quan- 
tities of  the  fry  are  seen  in  the  bays  all  summer,  which  is  some  proof  of  its  spawning  inside.  In 
June,  1878,  I  caught  specimens  of  the  fry  varying  in  size  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  three 
inches  in  length.  Very  many  schools  of  these  sizes  were  also  observed  in  July  and  August  of  the 
same  and  following  years  of  1879-'80. 


HABITS  OF  THE  CAROLINA  POMPANO.  321) 

Schools  of  fry  go  to  sea  in  August  anil  September.  The  older  or  adult  lisli  leave  the 
coast  in  September  and  October  in  small  schools,  that  are  only  seen  and  caught  at  the  inlets  where 
they  happen  to  cross  shoals  or  follow  the  beach.  These  Pompauo  of  the  fall  are  very  fat  and  in 
every  way  superior  to  those  caught  in  the  spring.  As  before  mentioned,  the  Pompano  is  found  on 
the  South  Florida  coast  all  the  year.  The  sea-beach  from  Tauipa  Bay  to  Charlotte's  Harbor  seems 
tu  lie  its  favorite  feeding-ground  owing  to  the  quantity  of  shell-fish  that  occur  there.  It  does  not 
form  in  large  schools  as  in  the  Pensacola  region,  and  therefore  is  not  taken  in  such  large  quantities 
by  seine  fishermen. 

"Smacks  from  Mobile  and  Peusacola  sometimes  go  to  Tampa  Bay  for  them.  I  have  been  told 
that  Poinpano  are  caught  at  Key  West  in  considerable  quantities  by  hook  and  line,  and  I  have 
known  of  a  few  being  taken  in  that  manner  at  Pensacola.  It  feeds  entirely  upon  small  shell-fish, 
which  are  crushed  between  the  bones  of  its  pharyngeal  arch." 

THE  BOUND  POMPANO— TBACHYNOTUS  OVATUS. 

The  Round  Pompano,  in  the  South  sometimes  called  the  "Shore  Pompano,"  is  known  in  the 
Bermudas  by  the  name  "Alewite."  This  fish  is  very  often  confused  by  market-men  with  the  Caro- 
lina Pompano,  and  I  have  seen  them  sold  together  in  the  Charleston  market  under  the  same  name, 
just  as  I  have  seen  the  young  of  four  species  of  the  herring  family  sold  indiscriminately  in  New 
York. 

The  Bound  Pompano  is  cosmopolitan  in  its  distribution,  occurring  in  the  North  and  South 
Atlantic,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  young  have  been  obtained  in  the  harbor 
of  Vineyard  Haven,  Massachusetts,  and  at  Beaufort,  South  Carolina.  It  is  probable  that  the 
species  is  far  more  abundant  in  our  waters  than  we  now  suppose  it  to  be.  About  the  Bermudas 
they  are  sometimes  very  abundant,  and  in  1875  a  school  of  them,  numbering  six  or  seven  hundred, 
was  seined  on  the  south  shore  of  the  islands.  They  are  there  highly  esteemed  for  table  use. 

THE  AFRICAN  POMPANO— TKACHYNOTUS  GOREENSIS. 

This  species,  originally  described  Irom  the  Island  of  Goiea,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
was  observed  by  the  writer  at  the  Bermudas  in  187G,  and  in  1877  was  discovered  in  Florida.  It 
is  the  largest  of  the  Pompanos.  Two  or  three  specimens,  weighing  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds 
each,  have  been  sent  from  Florida  to  the  New  York  market.  One  of  these,  taken  at  Jupiter  Inlet, 
was  sent  by  Mr.  Blackford  to  the  National  Museum.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  it  is  not  unusual, 
being  known  at  Key  West  as  the  "  Permit." 

Stearns  remarks:  "This  fish  is  rather  common  along  the  lower  end  of  the  Florida  Peninsula, 
specimens  being  caught  quite  often  in  seines  at  Cedar  Keys,  and  at  the  mullet  fisheries  of  Sarasota 
and  Charlotte's  Harbor,  and  also  Key  West.  It  is  said  to  attain  a  considerable  size — fifteen  or 
twenty  pound  specimens  being  common.  It  is  not  a  choice  food-fish  when  so  large,  and  even 
smaller  ones  are  comparatively  dry  and  tasteless.  I  have  not  found  it  north  or  west  of  Cedar  Keys." 

THE  BANNER  POMPANO — TRACHYNOTUS  GLAUCUS. 

This  species  is  a  member  of  the  West  Indian  fauna,  and  occasionally  occurs  at  the  Bermuda*. 
Stearns  remarks  that  it  is  obtained  frequently  at  Pensacola  with  the  other  .species,  but  is  never 
very  common,  is  seen  only  in  the  spring,  and  is  not  valued  as  a  food-fish.  Professor  Jordan 
writes:  "Along  the  Carolina  and  Gulf  coasts  it  is  not  rare.  At  Pensacola  it  is  known  as  the 
'Gall-topsail  Pompauo,'  and  is  held  in  low  esteem."  An  allied  species,  Trachynotus  faxciatitx,  has 
lately  been  noticed  by  Jordan  and  Gilbert  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 


330  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

105.  THE  PILOT-FISH— NAUCRATES  DUCTOE. 

The  Pilot-fish,  though  of  little  or  no  economic  importance,  deserves  passing  mention,  since  it  is 
so  frequently  referred  to  in  literature.  It  is  occasionally  taken  on  our  coast.  Captain  Atwood 
mentions  a  specimen  which  was  taken  in  a  mackerel  net  in  Proviucetown  Harbor,  in  October, 
1858.  A  whale-ship  had  come  in  a  few  days  before,  and  he  supposes  that  the  Pilot-fish  had  fol- 
lowed it  into  the  harbor. 

"The  Pilot-fish  (N.  ductor)  is  a  truly  pelagic  fish,  known  in  all  tropical  and  temperate  seas. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  its  habit  of  keeping  company  with  ships  and  large  fish,  especially  sharks. 
It  is  the  Poinpilus  of  the  ancients,  who  describe  it  as  pointing  out  the  way  to  dubious  or  embar- 
rassed sailors,  and  as  announcing  the  vicinity  of  land  by  its  sudden  disappearance.  It  was  there- 
fore regarded  as  a  sacred  fish.  The  connection  between  the  shark  and  the  Pilot-fish  has  received 
various  interpretations,  some  observers  having,  perhaps,  added  more  sentiment  than  is  warranted 
by  the  actual  facts.  It  was  stated  that  the  shark  never  seized  the  Pilot-fish;  that  the  latter  was 
of  great  use  to  its  big  companion  in  conducting  it  and  showing  it  the  way  to  its  food.  Dr.  Meyer, 
in  his  'Reise  um  die  Erde,'  states:  'The  Pilot  swims  constantly  in  front  of  the  shark;  we  ourselves 
have  seen  three  instances  in  which  the  shark  was  led  by  the  Pilot.  When  the  shark  neared  the 
ship  the  Pilot  swam  close  to  the  snout,  or  near  one  of  the  pectoral  fins  of  the  animal.  Sometimes 
he  darted  rapidly  forwards  or  sidewards,  as  if  looking  for  something,  and  constantly  went  back 
again  to  the  shark.  When  we  threw  overboard  a  piece  of  bacon  fastened  on  a  great  hook,  the 
shark  was  about  twenty  paces  from  the  ship.  With  the  quickness  of  lightning  the  Pilot  came  up, 
smelt  at  the  dainty,  and  instantly  swam  back  again  to  the  shark,  swimming  many  times  round  his 
snout  and  spl.ishing  as  if  to  give  him  exact  information  as  to  the  bacon.  The  shark  now  began  to 
put  himself  in  motion,  the  Pilot  showing  him  the  way,  and  in  a  moment  he  was  fast  upon  the 
hook.1  Upon  a  later  occasion  we  observed  two  Pilots  in  sedulous  attendance  on  a  blue  shark 
which  we  caught  in  the  Chinese  Sea.  It  seems  probable  that  the  Pilot  feeds  on  the  shark's  excre- 
ments, keeps  his  company  for  that  purpose,  and  directs  his  operations  solely  from  this  selfish 
view.'  We  believe  that  Dr.  Meyer's  opinion,  as  expressed  in  his  last  words,  is  perfectly  correct. 
The  Pilot  obtains  a  great  part  of  his  food  directly  from  the  shark,  in  feeding  on  the  parasitic  crus- 
taceans with  which  sharks  and  other  large  fish  are  infested,  and  on  the  smaller  pieces  of  flesh 
which  are  left  unnoticed  by  the  shark  when  it  tears  its  prey.  The  Pilot,  also,  being  a  small  fish, 
obtains  greater  security  when  in  company  of  a  shark,  which  would  keep  at  a  distance  all  other 
fishes  of  prey  that  would  be  likely  to  prove  dangerous  to  the  Pilot.  Therefore,  in  accompanying 
the  shark,  the  Pilot  is  led  by  the  same  instinct  which  makes  it  follow  a  ship. 

"  With  regard  to  the  statement  that  the  Pilot  itself  is  never  attacked  by  the  shark,  all  observ- 
ers agree  as  to  its  truth ;  but  this  may  be  accounted  for  in  the  same  way  as  the  impunity  of  the 
swallow  from  the  hawk,  the  Pilot-fish  being  too  nimble  for  the  unwieldy  shark. 

"The  Pilot-fish  does  not  always  leave  the  vessels  on  their  approach  to  land.  In  summer, 
when  the  temperature  of  the  sea-water  is  several  degrees  above  the  average,  Pilots  will  follow 
ships  to  the  south  coast  of  England  into  the  harbor,  where  they  are  generally  speedily  caught. 
Pilot-fish  attain  a  length  of  twelve  inches  only.  When  very  young  their  appearance  differs  so 
nmch  from  the  mature  fish  that  they  have  been  described  as  a  distinct  genus,  Naitclerus.  This  fry 
is  exceedingly  common  in  the  open  ocean,  and  constantly  obtained  in  the  tow-net;  therefore  the 
Pilot-fish  retains  its  pelagic  habits  also  during  the  spawning  season,  and  some  of  the  spawn  found 
by  voyagers  floating  on  the  surface  is,  without  doubt,  derived  from  this  species."2 

'In  this  instance  one  may  entertain  reasonable  doubts  as  to  the  usefulness  of  the  Pilot  to  the  shark. 
'GOUTHER:  Study  of  Fishes,  p.  414. 


HABITS  OF  THE  PILOT-FISH.  331 

Tlu>  Pilot-fish  lias  been  observed  in  one  or  two  instances  about  New  York,  end  Las  also  been 
recorded  from  South  Carolina,  It  is,  however,  rare  in  the  Western  Atlantic,  and  our  museums  have 
vi-ry  l'c\v  specimens. 

106.  THE  AMBER-FISHES  AND  THE  LEATHER-JACKETS. 
THE  AMBER-FISH — SEEIOLA  OAROLINENSIS. 

Mr.  Silas  Steams  writes  concerning  the  habits  of  this  fish  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico: 
"The  Ainber-flsh  is  quite  common  off  the  West  Florida  coast,  occurring  in  from  ton  to  thirty 
tai horns  of  water  on  or  near  the  'snapper  banks'  throughout  the  year.  It  is  a  very  active  fish, 
s\\  imining  just  below  the  water's  surface,  preying  upon  schools  of  small  fish.  It  is  rather  shy  of 
ii  baited  hook,  and  but  few  are  caught  It  is  a  good  food  fish.  It  attains  a  size  of  forty  inches 
length  and  fifteen  pounds  weight.  Its  average  size  but  little  more  than  half  that."  It  is  also, 
according  to  Jordan,  rather  common  on  the  Carolina  coast,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "Jack-fish." 

THE  PENSACOLA  ROCK  SALMON — SEBIOLA  FALCATA. 

The  "Rock  Salmon"  of  Pensacola,  Seriola,  falcata,  is  recorded  by  Stearns  as  occasionally 
occurring  near  Pensacola  in  company  with  the  preceding  species,  which  it  resembles  in  habits.  It 
is  caught  with  hook  and  line  and  is  eaten;  in  his  opinion,  it  attains  a  larger  size  than  the  Amber- 
fish.  There  is  a  third  species  of  Amber-fish  of  which  the  National  Museum  has  received  a  single 
specimen  from  South  Florida.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  fish  described  by  Cuvier  under  the  name 
>•  finla  Lalandii.  The  same  species  is  sometimes  sent  to  the  New  Orleans  market,  where  an 
example  was  seen  by  Professor  Jordan. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  YELLOW-TAIL — SERIOLA  DORSALIS. 

i 

Another  closely  allied  species,  Seriola  dormlis,  occurs  on  the  coast  of  California,  where,  accord- 
ing to  Jordan,  it  is  known  under  the  names  "Yellow-tail,"  "White  Salmon,"  and  "Cavasiua." 

Of  the  "  Yellow-tail,"  Professor  Jordan  says :  "  It  reaches  n  length  of  four  to  five  feet,  and  a 
weight  of  thirty  to  forty  pounds,  and  individuals  of  less  than  fifteen  pounds  weight  are  rarely  seen. 
It  ranges  from  Cape  San  Lucas  northward  to  the  Santa  Barbara  and  Coronados  Islands,  where 
it  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  spawning  season,  arriving  in  July,  and  departing  in  early 
fall.  It  spawns  about  August  18.  It  is  caught  chiefly  by  trolling.  It  feeds  on  squid  and  such 
fish  as  the  anchovy  and  sardine.  As  a  fresh  fish  it  ranks  high,  although  large  individuals  are 
sometimes  coarse  and  tough.  When  salted  and  dried  it  is  inferior  to  none  on  the  coast,  ranking 
with  the  white-fish  and  barracuda." 

THE  BANDED  RUDDER-FISH — SKRIOLA  ZONATA. 

This  species  has  been  observed  as  far  north  as  Salein  and  Beverly,  Massachusetts.  Several 
specimens  have  been  taken  north  of  Cape  Cod  during  the  past  forty  years.  It  is  a  small  fish, 
rarely  exceeding  six  or  eight  inches  in  length,  conspicuous  by  reason  of  its  brilliant  and  beautiful 
colors,  and  good  to  eat,  though  rarely  saved  by  the  fishermen  who  accidentally  capture  it.  It  is 
culled  in  Southern  New  England  the  "Rudder-fish"  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  the  Rudder- 
fish  of  the  ocean,  Naucrates  ductor. 

THE  MEDREGAL — SERIOLA  FASCIATA. 

This  fish,  called  in  Cuba  the  "  Medregal"  and  in  Bermuda  the  "  Bonito",  has  been  observed  in 
South  Florida  and  along  the  coasts  of  the  Carolines.  It  is  apparently  exceedingly  rare  in  the 


332  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC.  ANIMALS. 

waters  of  the  United  States.    In  Bermuda  it  attains  a  length  of  two  feet  or  more,  and  is  highly 
esteemed  as  a  food-fish. 

THE  LEATHER-JACKET — OLIGOPLITES  SATJRUS. 

This  fish,  which  is  found  throughout  the  West  Indies  and  south  as  far  as  Bahia,  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  has  since  1875  been  several  times  observed  between 
Florida  and  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  It  is  known  to  fishermen  as  the  "Skipjack,"  sharing:  this 
name  with  a  number  of  other  scombroid  fishes  which  leap  from  the  water  as  they  pursue  their 
prey.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  graceful  fishes  in  our  waters,  but  at  present  is  of  no 
economic  importance,  its  flesh  being  hard  and  dry. 

THE  RUNNER — ELAGATIS  PINNULATUS. 

This  West  Indian  fish,  known  at  Key  West  as  "  Skipjack"  or  "Runner,"  and  at  Peusacolii  as 
"Yellow-tail"  or  "Shoemaker,"  is,  according  to  Stearns,  "abundant  on  the  western  and  southern 
coasts  of  Florida.  At  Pensacola  it  spawns  in  spring;  the  young  fish  are  seen  in  July  and  August. 
It  is  found  in  the  bays  and  along  the  sea-beaches,  seeming  to  prefer  clear,  salt  water,  swift  currents. 
and  sandy  bottoms.  It  usually  moves  in  small  schools  of  a  dozen  or  two  individuals.  It  feeds 
upon  small  fishes  and  crustaceans.  When  pursued  by  larger  fish  it  jumps  repeatedly  from  the 
water,  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  flying  fish,  only  its  flights  are  much  shorter  and 
oftener  repeated.  This  habit  has  given  it  the  names  of  'Skipjack'  and  'Runner'  at  Key  West, 
where  it  may  be  seen  at  almost  any  time.  It  is  sometimes  eaten  at  Key  West,  and  at  Havana  is 
quite  an  important  fish  in  the  markets,  being  also  exposed  for  sale  at  stands  on  the  streets,  cooked 
and  ready  for  use." 

107.  THE  DOLPHINS— CORYPHJENIP-2E. 

The  Dolphins  are  found  usually  in  mid-ocean,  where  they  feed  upon  other  pelagic  fishes,  such 
as  the  flying-fish.  They  are  strong,  rapid  swimmers,  and  are  widely  distributed  throughout  all 
temperate  and  tropical  waters.  The  name  Dolphin  is  wrongly  applied  to  them,  being  the  peculiar 
property  of  a  group  of  small  cetaceans.  They  are  often  caught  by  sailors  at  sea,  and  are  considered 
most  excellent  food.  It  is  an  almost  universal  custom  before  eating  them  to  test  the  flesh  by 
putting  a  piece  of  silver  into  the  vessel  in  which  they  have  been  cooked,  it  being  a  common  belief 
that  if  the  flesh  is  poisonous  the  silver  will  turn  dark.  Narratives  of  ocean  voyages  abound  in 
descriptions  of  the  beautiful  colors  of  the  Dolphin  and  the  brilliant  changes  of  hue  exhibited  by 
the  dying  fish.  There  are  in  the  Atlantic  two  species  of  Dolphins,  though  the  number  was, 
until  lately,  supposed  to  be  very  much  greater.  But  one  of  these,  Coryphcena  Mppurus,  is  definitely 
known  from  our  shores. 

The  young,  less  than  two  feet  in  length,  are  beautifully  marked  with  numerous  small  circular 
spots,  and  have,  until  lately,  been  considered  by  many  writers  to  belong  to  a  distinct  genus  and 
species.  Dolphins  are  abundant  also,  it  is  said,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

TEH    STROMATEOID    FISHES. 
108.  THE  RUDDER-FISH  FAMILY— STROMATEIDJE. 

The  family  StromateuUs  is  represented  on  the  east  coast  by  three  species,  two  of  which  are 
important  food-fishes,  and  in  our  Pacific  waters  by  one  species,  the  so-called  '•California  Pom- 
pano."  The  family  is  a  small  one,  and  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  warm  seas. 


mi    r.rm:i;  risn  OR  DOLLAI:  FISH. 
'I'm:   in  M  r.i:  risH— STBOMATEUS  TRIACANTHUS. 


333 


.*<(  V, 


The  ••  Mutter  -fish"  of  .Ma>vielmsetts  and  New  York,  sometimes  known  in  New  Jersey  as  the 
••  Harvest  tisli,''  in  .Maine  as  the  "Dollar-fish,"  about  Cape  Cod  as  the  "Sheepshead"  and  "Skip- 
jaek."  in  Connecticut  as  the  "Pumpkin-seed,"  and  at  Norfolk  as  the  "Star-fish,"  is  common 
between  Cape  <'"d  and  Cape  Henry.  It  lias  been  observed  south  to  South  Carolina  and  north  to 
Maine.  It  has  been  found  in  sonic  aluuidanee  along  the  north  side  of  Cape  Cod  in  nets  with 
bass  and  mackerel.  It  is  a  summer  visitor,  appearing;  in  our  waters  in  company  with  the  mackerel 
and  disappearing  about  the  same  time.  It  appears  to  breed  in  the  sounds  and  in  the  open  ocean 
in  .June  and  July,  and  the  young  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  July,  August,  and  September, 
s\vi  mining  about  in  company  with  certain  species  of  jelly-fish.  During  these  months  several  large 
speeies  of  jelly-fish,  or  sun-squalls,  are  found  abundantly  floating  about  in  waters  near  the  shore, 
and  each  one  of  these  is  almost  invariably  accompanied  by  ten  or  twelve,  or  more,  young  Butter- 
fishes,  which  seem  to  seek  shelter  under  their  disks,  and  which,  perhaps,  may  obtaiu  a  supply  of 
food  from  among  the  numerous  soft  bodied  invertebrates  which  are  constantly  becoming  attached 
to  the  floating  streamers  of  their  protectors.  The  young  fish,  thus  protected,  range  from  two  to 
two  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  I  have  seen  fifteen,  and  more,  sheltered  under  an  individual  of 
( 'i/nnea  arcticn  not  more  than  three  inches  in  diameter.  This  refuge  is  not  always  safe  for  the 
little  fishes,  for  they  sometimes  are  destroyed  by  the  tentacles  of  their  protector,  which  are  provided, 
as  every  one  knows,  with  powerful  lasso  cells.  "The  little  fish  seem  to  rise  at  the  approach  of 
danger  and  seek  refuge  among  the  lobes  of  the  actinostome.  They  are,  of  course,  thus  safe  from 
i  he  attacks  of  many  kinds  of  larger  fishes  which  prey  upon  them,  but  they  themselves  often  fall 
victims  to  the  stinging  power  of  the  jelly-fish  and  are  devoured.  The  habit  of  thus  seeking  shelter 
is  very  much  like  that  of  the  rudder-fish.  The  Butter-fish  attains  an  average  size  of  seven  or  eight 
inches  in  length,  and  is  very  often  taken  in  the  pounds.  The  fishermen  of  Noauk,  Connecticut,  tell 
me  that  often  a  barrelful  of  them  is  taken  in  one  haul  of  a  pound-net.  They  are  much  valued  for 
food  at  New  Bedford.  When  sent  to  New  York  they  command  a  good  price,  and  the  pouudmeu 
at  Lobsterville  sometimes  eat  them  and  consider  them  better  than  scup.  Their  flavor  is  excellent, 
resembling  that  of  the  mackerel,  though  less  oily ;  it  is  very  palatable  when  nicely  broiled.  At 
many  places,  for  instance,  Noank  and  Wood's  Holl,  they  are  thrown  away.  Storer  stated  that  they 
were  extensively  used  as  manure  in  certain  parts  of  Massachusetts.  No  observations  have  been 
made  upon  their  food,  though,  since  their  mouths  are  nearly  toothless,  it  seems  probable  that  they 
subsist,  for  the  most  part,  upon  minute  vertebrates.  These  fishes  are  remarkable  on  account  of 
their  brilliant,  iridescent  colors,  which,  in  freshly  caught  individuals,  are  as  beautiful  as  those  of 
a  dolphin. 

THE  HARVEST-FISH — STROMATEUS  ALEPIDOTUS. 

This  species  has  not  been  observed  north  of  New  York.  M  it  eh  ill  referred  to  it  in  his  work  on 
the  fishes  of  New  York,  published  in  1815,  saying  that  it  derived  its  common  name,  "  Harvest-fish," 
from  the  fact  that  it  usually  appeared  during  harvest  time.  DeKay,  too,  mentions  having  had 
several  specimens  in  his  possession.  It  is  somewhat  abundant  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake 
and  along  the  Southern  coast.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  it  is  rather  rare;  occasionally  it  is  taken 
in  seines  at  Pensacola.  Dr.  Giinther,  in  his  "Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  of  the  British  Museum,"  makes 
the  astounding  statement  that  he  has  seen  specimens  from  Lake  Champlain.  The  species  ranges 
south  to  Bahia,  Brazil.  It  is  not  commercially  valuable  except  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  where  it  is 
consumed  for  food  in  large  quantities,  its  market  name  being  "  Whiting." 


334  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  POMP  AND — STROMATETJS  SIMILLIMUS. 

The  California  Pompano,  Stromateus  simillimus,  is  thus  described  by  Professor  Jordan : 
"  This  species,  known  here  as  the  Pompano,  reaches  a  length  of  eight  inches  and  a  weight  of 
rather  less  than  half  a  pound.  It  occurs  along  the  entire  coast  of  California  and  Oregon,  being 
most  abundant  about  Santa  Barbara  and  Soquel,  and  is  not  known  from  farther  south  than  San 
Diego.  It  appears  in  schools  chiefly  in  the  summer  and  faJJ;  occasionally,  also,  during  the  winter, 
its  times  of  arrival  and  departure  being  quite  variable.  It  is  said  that  it  was  an  extremely  rare 
visitant  till  about  1870,  and  that  its  abundance  since  then  has  steadily  increased,  it  being  now 
often  found  in  greater  quantities  than  can  be  readily  sold.  It  feeds  on  worms,  small  Crustacea,  &c. 
Nothing  special  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  held  in  the  highest  repute, 
the  price  of  individual  fish  ranging  from  two  to  four  fora  'quarter.'  Its  flesh  is  fat,  rich,  and 
excellent." 

THE  BLACK  RUDDER-FISH — LIRUS  PERCIFORMIS. 

This  fish  is  also  called  by  the  fishermen  "Log-fish"  and  "Barrel-fish."  It  has  been  observed 
at  various  points  along  our  coast  from  New  Jersey  to  Nova  Scotia,  where  schools  of  them  were 
several  times  observed  off  Halifax  in  1877.  It  has  hitherto  been  considered  very  rare  north  of 
Cape  Cod.  I  cannot  doubt  that  it  will  be  hereafter  found  at  least  as  far  south  as  Cape  Hatteras 
and  probably  along  the  whole  length  of  our  Atlantic  coast.  The  habits  of  this  fish  are  peculiar  in 
the  extreme.  They  are  almost  always  found  in  the  vicinity  of  floating  barrels  and  spars,  some- 
times inside  of  the  barrels;  hence  the  fishermen  often  call  them  "Barrel-fish,"  though  the  most 
usual  name  is  "Rudder-fish."  They  are  occasionally  taken  in  lobster-pots.  When  cruising  in  the 
Fish  Commission  yacht  "Mollie,*'  off  Noman's  Land,  July  13, 1875,  we  observed  numerous  specimens 
swimming  under  floating  spars  and  planks.  Sometimes  as  many  as  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  were 
observed  under  a  single  spar,  a  cloud  of  shadowy  black  forms  being  plainly  visible  from  the  deck. 
We  went  out  to  them  in  a  row-boat  and  succeeded  in  taking  thirteen  of  them  in  the  course  of  a 
day.  After  the  first  thrusts  of  the  dip-net  they  grew  shy  and  sought  refuge  under  the  boat,  under 
which  they  would  sink  far  below  our  reach.  A  lull  of  a  few  moments  would  bring  them  back  to 
the  log  under  which  they  had  clustered  until  disturbed  again.  When  the  boat  was  rowed  away 
they  followed  in  a  close-swimming  school  until  we  gained  full  speed,  when  they  suddenly  turned,  as 
if  by  one  impulse,  and  swain  back  to  the  log  or  spar.  Once  they  followed  us  about  two  hundred 
yards  from  the  spar,  and  then  leaving  us  retreated  to  their  old  shelter,  reaching  it  some  time  before 
we  could  turn  the  boat  and  row  back  to  it.  I  had  before  this  supposed  them  to  be  quite  unusual, 
but  on  this  one  day  we  must  have  seen  two  hundred  or  two  hundred  and  fifty  at  the  lowest  com- 
putation. They  doubtless  have  gained  the  name  of  Rudder-fish  from  the  sailors  who  have  seen 
them  swimming  about  the  sterns  of  becalmed  vessels. 

When  the  Fish  Commission  steamer  has  been  dredging  off  Halifax,  I  have  several  times 
noticed  schools  of  them  hovering  around  her  sides.  They  doubtless  gather  around  the  logs  for  the 
purpose  of  feeding  upon  the  hydroids  and  minute  crustaceans  and  perhaps  mollusca  which 
accumulate  areund  them.  Their  stomachs  were  found  to  contain  amphipod  crustaceans,  hydroids, 
and  young  squids.  They  are  doubtless  to  some  degree  protected  by  the  spars  under  which  they 
congregate,  in  the  same  manner  as  their  kindred,  the  Butter-fish,  which  swim  under  the  disk  of  the 
jelly-fish.  Their  colors  undergo  considerable  change  from  time  to  time,  possibly  at  the  will  of 
the  fish. 

The  Rudder-fish  attains  the  length  of  ten  or  twelve  inches,  and  is  excellent  eating.  DeKay 
states  that  the  fishermen  of  New  York,  in  1842,  called  this  species  the  "  Snip-nosed  Mullet,"  but 
this  name  does  not  appear  to  have  become  permanent. 


II IK  DORY,  HKN  FISH,  AND  OPAH  FAMILIES.  335 

109.  THE  DORY,  HEN-FISH,  AND  OPAH  FAMILIES. 

Tin:  DORY  FAMILY — ZENID.E. 

The  fishes  of  this  family  air  found  iu  nil  temperate  and  tropical  seas.  The  Boar-fish  and  the 
John  Dory,  both  somewhat  ini]>ortant  sj>ecies  in  Great  Britain,  are  members  of  this  and  related 
families.  A  single  specimen,  recorded  by  Storer  and  Gill,  the  species  which  is  peculiar  to  America 
and  described  under  the  name  Zcnopxin  ocella-tita,  was  taken  oft'  Proviucetown.  • 

THE  HEN-FISH  FAMILY— BRAMID.S. 

The  only  member  of  this  family  of  interest  to  us  is  the  Drama  /.'/(/'/.called  "Pomfret"  in 
Bermuda,  where  a  few  individuals  were  observed  by  the  writer  in  1870.  In  1880  an  individual 
was  obtained  on  the  Grand  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  and  more  recently  the  species  has  been  found 
to  be  somewhat  abundant  on  the  coast  of  Washington  Territory  and  Vancouver's  Island.  This 
species  was  described  from  the  coast  of  South  America  under  the  name  Brama  chilenxix. 

THE  OPAH  FAMILY— LAMPRIDIDJE. 

This  family  is  represented  in  the  Atlantic  by  a  single  species,  Lampris  yuttatus,  a  pelagic  fish, 
which  appears  to  be  more  abundant  in  the  deep  waters  of  northern  seas  than  elsewhere.  It  has 
been  observed  at  many  points  upon  the  Norwegian  coast,  about  Iceland  and  Madeira,  as  well  as  iu 
the  Mediterranean,  but  is  of  unusual  occurrence  everywhere,  except  perhaps  about  Madeira.  On 
the  coast  of  England  it  is  one  of  the  great  rarities,  and  is  much  sought  for  by  collectors  on 
account  of  its  beauty.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  brilliantly  colored  fishes  known — "red 
and  green,  with  tints  of  purple  and  gold  dotted  over  with  silvery  round  spots.  Iris  of  the  eye  is 
scarlet,  and  fins  of  lively  red."  A  specimen  was  obtained  years  ago  near  Sable  Island,  Nova  Scolia, 
and  the  species  will  doubtless  be  found  still  nearer  our  shores.  It  is  said  that  no  young  speci- 
mens have  yet  been  seen.  The  species  attains  the  length  of  four  feet  and  more,  and  is  said  to  be 
very  excellent  for  eating. 

110.  THE  CUTLASS  FISH— TRICHIURUS  LEPTDRUS. 

This  fish  is  unfortunately  known  in  Eastern  Florida  and  at  Pensacola  as  the  "Sword-fish";  at 
New  Orleans,  iu  the  Saint  John's  River,  and  at  Brunswick,  Georgia,  it  is  known  as  the  "  Silver 
Kel,"  on  the  coast  of  Texas  as  "Sabre-fish,''  while  in  the  Indian  River  region  it  is  called  the 
"Skipjack."  No  one  of  these  names  is  particularly  applicable,  and  the  latter  being  preoccupied, 
it  would  seem  advantageous  to  use  iu  this  country  the  name  "Cutlass-fish,"  which  is  current  for 
the  same  species  in  the  British  West  Indies. 

Its  appearance  is  very  remarkable  on  account  of  its  long,  compressed  form  and  its  glistening 
silvery  color.  The  name  "Scabbard-fish,"  which  has  been  given  to  an  allied  species  in  Europe, 
would  be  very  proper  also  for  this  species,  for  in  shape  and  general  appearance  it  looks  very  like  the 
metallic  scabbard  of  the  sword.  It  attains  the  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  though  ordinarily  not 
exceeding  twenty-five  or  thirty  iuches.  This  species  is  found  iu  the  tropical  Atlantic,  on  the  coast 
of  Brazil,  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  West  Indies,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  north  to  Wood's  IIoll, 
Massachusetts,  where,  during  the  past  ten  years,  specimens  have  occasionally  been  taken.  In 
1S45  one  was  found  at  Wellfleet,  Massachusetts;  and  iu  the  Essex  Institute  is  a  specimen  which 
is  said  to  have  been  found  in  Salem  Harbor.  The  species  occurs  also  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  two 
>pecimens  having  been  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith  many  years  ago,  and  during  the  past 
decade  it  has  become  somewhat  abundant  in  Southern  England.  It  does  not,  however,  enter  the 
Mediterranean.  Some  writers  believe  the  allied  species,  Trichiurus  haumela,  found  iu  the  Indian 


336  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Ocean  and  Archipelago  and  in  various  parts  of  the  Pacific,  to  be  specifically  the  same.  The 
Cutlass-fish  is  abundant  in  the  Saint  John's  Eiver,  Florida,  in  the  Indian  River  region,  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Several  instances  were  related  to  nie  in  which  these  fish  had  thrown  themselves 
from  the  water  into  row-boats,  a  feat  which  might  be  very  easily  performed  by  a  lithe,  active 
species  like  the  Trichiurus.  A  small  one  fell  into  a  boat  crossing  the  mouth  of  the  Arlington 
River,  where  the  water  is  nearly  fresh.1 

Msftiy  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  taken  every  year  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's 
River,  at  Mayport.  Stearns  states  that  they  are  caught  in  the  deep  waters  of  the  bays  about 
Pensacola,  swimming  nearly  at  the  surface,  but  chiefly  with  hooks  and  lines  from  the  wharves. 
He  has  known  them  to  strike  at  the  oars  of  the  boat  and  at  the  end  of  the  ropes  that  trailed  in  the 
water.  At  Peusacola  they  reach  a  length  of  twenty  to  thirty  inches,  and  are  considered  good  food- 
fish.  Richard  Hill  states  that  at  Jamaica  this  species  is  much  esteemed,  and  is  fished  for  assidu- 
ously in  a  "hole,"  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  a  deep  portion  of  the  waters  off  Fort  Augusta.  This  is 
the  best  fishing  place  for  the  Cutlass-fish,  Trichiurus.  The  fishing  takes  place  before  day;  all 
lines  are  pulled  in  as  fast  as  they  are  thrown  out,  with  the  certainty  that  the  Cutlass  has  been 
hooked.  As  many  as  ninety  boats  have  been  counted  on  this  fishing  ground  at  day-break  during 
the  season.  All  carry  on  this  kind  of  uninterrupted  hauling  in  of  fish. 

A  closely  allied  species,  Lepidopus  caudatus,  is  the  "  Scabbard-fish"  of  Europe,  which  also  occurs 
in  the  Gulf  of  California.  In  New  Zealand  it  is  called  the  "  Frost-fish,"  and  is  considered  the  most 
delicious  food-fish  of  the  colony. 

111.  THE  SWORD-FISH  FAMILY— XIPHIID.E. 

Although  it  may  not  seem  desirable  at  present  to  accept  in  full  the  views  of  Dr.  Liitkeu 
regarding  the  specific  unity  of  the  Spear-fishes  and  the  Sail-fishes  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans, 
it  is  convenient  in  discussing  their  geographical  distribution  to  group  the  different  species  in  the 
manner  he  has  suggested. 

The  Sword-fish,  Xiphias  gladius,  ranges  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America  from  Jamiaca, 
latitude  18°  N.,  Cuba,  and  the  Bermudas,  to  Cape  Breton,  latitude  47°.  It  has  not  been  seen  at 
Greenland,  Iceland,  or  Spitzbergen,  but  occurs  according  to  Collet,  at  the  North  Cape,  latitude  71°. 
It  is  abundant  along  the  coasts  of  Western  Europe,  entering  the  Baltic  and  the  Mediterranean.  I  can 
find  no  record  of  the  species  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  south  of  the  Cape  Verdes,  though  Liitkeu, 
who  may  have  access  to  facts  unknown  to  me,  states  that  they  occnr  clear  down  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  South  Atlantic  in  mid-ocean,  west  coast  of  South  America  and  north  to  Southern 
California,  latitude  34°,  New  Zealand,  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean  off  Mauritius.  Good  authorities 
state  that  sperm-whales,  though  constantly  passing  Cape  Horn,  never  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Can  this  be  true  in  the  case  of  the  Sword-fish  f 

The  Sail-fish,  Histiophorus  gladius  (with  H.  americanus  and  H.  orientalis,  questionable  species, 
and  H.  pulchellm  and  H.  immaculatus,  young),  oiscurs  in  the  Red  Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, and  south  at  least  as  far  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  latitude  35°  S.;  in  the  Atlantic  on 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  latitude  30°  S.  to  the  equator,  and  north  to  Southern  New  England,  latitude 
42°  N. ;  in  the  Pacific  to  Southwestern  Japan,  latitude  30°  to  10°  N.  In  a  general  way  the  range 
may  be  said  to  be  in  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  between  latitude  30°  S.  and  40.  N.,  and  in  the 
western  parts  of  those  seas. 

The  Bill-fish  or  Spear-fish,  Tetrapturw  indicus  (with  various  related  forms,  which  may  or  may  not 
be  specifically  identical,  occurs  in  the  Western  Atlantic  from  the  West  Indies,  latitude  10°  to  20°  N., 


Kx-.il ir ii,  ex  aquis  mepe  in  cyiiibiiiii. —  I,IN\.I:I  s. 


i:  ANCK  OF  TilK  SI'KA  IM'IS!  1.  337 

to  Southern  Now  Kn^ljind.  latitude  12°  X.;  in  tin-  KaM.Yn  Atlantic,  from  Gibraltar,  latitude  4f)°  N., 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  latitude  30°  S.;  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  New 
Zealand,  latitude  40°  S.,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Chili  and  Peru.  I'M  a  general  way,  the  range  is 
between  latitude  40°  N.  and  latitude  40°  S. 

.  The  species  of  Tetrnplurux  which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  call  T.  albidux,  abundant  about 
Cuba,  is  not  very  unusual  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Now  England.  Several  are  taken  every  year 
by  the  Sword-fish  fishermen.  I  have  not  known  of  their  capture  along  the  Southern  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States.  AJ1  I  have  known  about  were  taken  between  Sandy  Hook  and  the 
eastern  part  of  George's  Banks. 

The  Mediterranean  Spear-fish,  Tetrapturus  belone,  appears  to  bo  a  land-locked  form,  never 
passing  west  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

NAMES  OP  THE  SWORD-FISH. — The  names  all  have  reference  to  its  most  prominent  feature, 
the  prolonged  snout.  The  "Sword-fish"  of  our  own  tongue,  the  "Zwaard-jis"  of  the  Hollander, 
the  Italian  "Sifio"  and  " Pesce-spada,"  the  Spaniard's  "Espada,"  "Espadartef  and  varied  by  "Pez 
de  spada"  in  Cuba,  and  the  French  "E*padon,"  "Dard,"  and  Epee  de  Mer?  are  simply  variations 
of  one  theme,  repetitious  of  the  "Oladius"  of  ancient  Italy,  and  "A'lp/u'as,"  the  name  by  which 
Aristotle,  the  father  of  zoology,  called  the  same  fish  twenty-three  hundred  years  ago.  The  French 
"Empereur,"  and  the  "Imperador"  and  "Ocean  King-fish"  of  the  Spanish  and  French  West  Indies, 
carry  out  the  same  idea;  the  Roman  emperor  was  always  represented  holding  a  drawn  sword  in 
his  hand.  The  Portuguese  names  are  "Agulha"  and  "Agulhao,1"  meaning  "  needle"  or  "  needle-fish." 

This  species  has  been  particularly  fortunate  in  escaping  the  numerous  redescriptions  to  which 
almost  all  widely  distributed  forms  have  been  subjected.  By  the  writers  of  antiquity  it  was  spoken 
of  tinder  its  Aristotelian  name,  and  in  the  tenth  edition  of  his  Systetna  Natnrre,  at  the  very 
inception  of  binomial  nomenclature,  Linnaeus  called  it  Xiphias  glatlius.  By  this  name  it  has  been 
known  ever  since,  and  only  one  additional  name  is  included  in  its  synonymy,  Xipliias  Itondeletii, 
Leach. 

*  The  Sword-fish  has  been  so  long  and  so  well  known  that  its  right  to  its  peculiar  name  has 
seldom  been  infringed  upon.  The  various  species  of  Tetrapturun  have  sometimes  shared  its  title, 
and  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  since  they  closely  resemble  Xipliias  gladim,  and  the  appellative 
has  frequently  been  applied  to  the  family  Xiphiida — the  Sword  fish  family — which  includes  them  all. 

The  name  "Bill-fish,"  usually  applied  to  the  Tetrapturus  albidus,  a  fish  of  the  Sword-fish  family 
often  taken  on  our  coast,  and  described  below,  is  objectionable,  since  it  is  in  many  districts  used  for 
the  various  species  of  Belonidte,  the  "gar-fishes"  or  "green-bones"  (Belone  truncata  and  others), 
which  are  members  of  the  same  fauna.  " Spear-fish"  is  a  much  better  name. 

The  "  Sail- fish ,"  Histiophorm  americanus,  is  called  by  sailors  in  the  south  the  "Boohoo"op 
"  Woohoo."  This  is  evidently  a  corrupted  form  of  "Guebncu,"  a  name,  apparently  of  Indian  origin, 
given  to  the  same  fish  in  Brazil.  It  is  possible  that  the  Tetrapturus  is  also  called  "Boohoo,"  since 
the  two  genera  are  not  sufficiently  unlike  to  impress  sailors  with  their  differences.  Bleeker  states 
that  in  Snmaha  the  Malays  call  the  related  species  H.  gladius  by  the  name  "  Joohoo"  (Juhu),  a 
curious  coincidence.  The  names  may  have  been  carried  from  the  Malay  Archipelago  to  South 
America,  orvice  versa,  by  neighbors. 

In  Cuba  the  Spear-fishes  are  called  "Aguja"  and  "  Aguja  de  PaJada";  the  Sail-fish,  "Aguja, 
Prieta"  or  "Aguja  Voladora";  Tetrapturus  albidus  is  specially  known  as  the  "Aguja  Blanco,," 
T.  albidus  as  the  "Agujade  Costa." 

In  the  West  Indies  and  Florida  the  scabbard-fish  or  silvery-  hair-tail,  Trichiurus  lepturut,  a 
form  allied  to  the  Xiphias,  though  not  resembling  it  closely  in  external  appearance,  is  often  called 
22  F 


338  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"  Sword-fish."  The  body  of  this  fish  is  shaped  like  the  blade  of  a  saber,  and  its  skin  has  a  bright 
metallic  luster  like  that  of  polished  steel;  hence  the  name. 

The  various  species  of  sticklebacks,  Qasterosteus  aculeatus  and  Pygosteus  pungitius,  are  known 
as  "Little  Sword-fish"  by  the  boys  of  Portland,  Maine,  and  vicinity.  The  spines,  damaging  in  the 
extreme  to  small  fingers  of  tyro  fish-gatherers,  give  reason  to  the  name. 

Sail-fish  appear  to  occur  throughout  the  tropical  and  souther.i  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
I nilian  Ocean.  Its  names,  wherever  it  may  be  found,  point  to  the  most  striking  characters.  In 
Marcgrave's  time  the  Portuguese  of  Brazil  called  it  "Bicuda,"  referring  to  its  snout,  and  Rochefort, 
in  his  "History  of  the  West  Indies,"  calls  it  "B6casse  de  Mer";  a  bccasse  being  a  long  snouted  bird 
like  a  woodcock  or  a  suipe,  while  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  the  Dutch  call  it  "Zee-snip"  or  "Sea- 
snipe."  The  Malays  of  Amboyna  called  it  the  "  Ikan-foyer"  or  Fan-fish,  in  allusion  to  the  fan  like 
movements  of  its  dorsal  fin,  while  those  of  Sumatra  called  it  "  Ikan-jegan"  or  "Sail-fish."  The 
French  "FoiKer"and  the  Dutch  "  Zeyl-fisch"  and  "  Bezaanfisch"  mean  the  same;  a  bezaan  being  the 
sail  upon  the  mizzen  mast  of  a  ship.  The  family  name  is  "Myl-meen,"  signifying  "Peacock-fish." 
The  names  "Boohoo"  and  "  Woohoo"  have  already  been  referred  to. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  AND  MOVEMENTS. — The  Sword-fish  was  known  to  Pliny,  who 
wrote:  "The  Sword-fish,  called  in  Greeke  Xiphias,  that  is  to  say  in  Latin  Gladius,  a  sword,  hath 
a  beake  or  bill  sharp  pointed,  wherewith  he  will  drive  through  the  sides  and  plankes  of  a  ship, 
and  bouge  them  so,  that  they  shall  sinke  withall.  The  experience  whereof  is  scene  in  the  ocean, 
neare  to  a  place  in  Mauritania  called  Gotta,  which  is  not  far  from  the  river  Lixos."1 

Many  other  classical  and  mediaeval  writers  made  curious  allusions  to  the  Sword-fish.  The 
summary  of  their  views  is  given  by  Bloch,  and  is  quoted  below.  This  summary  is  very  satisfactory 
though  the  skepticism  of  this  author  is  sometimes  a  little  excessive: 

"This  fish  is  found  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  but  is  rare  in  those  waters.  In  the  Med- 
iterranean, however,  it  is  very  abundant.  It  lives  for  the  most  part  in  the  Atlantic,  where  in 
winter  it  is  found  in  mid-ocean.  In  spring  it  appears  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  where  its  eggs  are 
deposited  on  the  bottom  in  great  numbers.  However,  according  to  what  I  have  been  told  by  the 
illustrious  Chevalier  Hamilton,  it  is  never  seen  in  that  region  more  than  three  or  four  feet  long. 
The  larger  ones,  often  weighing  four  or  five  hundred  pounds,  and  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  long,  are 
found  on  the  coast  of  Calabria,  where  they  appear  in  June  and  July.  Pliny  remarked  that  they 
often  exceed  the  dolphin  in  size.  .  .  . 

"Various  writers  have  spoken  of  the  'Emperor  of  the  Sea'  as  occurring  in  the  Baltic.  Olea- 
rius  and  Schelhammer  record  its  capture  near  Holstein  ;  Schoneveld  mentions  one  from  Mecklen- 
burg; Walbaum  one  from  the  vicinity  of  Liibeck;  Hanover  and  Klein  one  from  the  vicinity  of 
Danzig;  Hartmann  one  from  near  Pillau,  and  Wolf  another  taken  near  Kouigsberg. 

"One  mentioned  by  Schoneveld  as  taken  near  Mecklenburg  was  so  large  that  it  required  two 
strong  horses  to  draw  it  from  the  water.  The  body,  without  the  sword,  was  eleven  feet  long,  the 
sword  three.  The  eyes  were  as  large  as  hens'  eggs,  and  the  tail  was  two  feet  broad.  Of  four  seen 
by  Professor  Koelpiu  during  his  stay  at  Greifswald,  one  measured  more  than  three  and  one-half 
feet  in  circumference.  .  .  . 

"These  fish,  according  to  the  story  of  the  Chevalier  Hamilton,  always  appear  in  pairs  as  they 
approach  Messina,  a  female  and  a  male  together. 

"  This  fish  lives  upon  marine  plants  and  fish.  It  has  such  a  terrible  defensive  weapon  that 
other  voracious  fishes  do  not  dare  to  attack  it.  According  to  Aristotle,  it  is,  like  the  tunny,  tor- 
mented by  an  insect,  and  in  its  fury  leaps  out  of  the  sea  and  even  into  vessels.  According  to 

'  Holland's  Pliny, ii,  p.  428. 


IJLoril  ON   TIIK  s\voi;i>  FISH.  :;:;;» 

Statins  Miiller,  the  skin  is  phosphorescent  ;it  ni^lit.  Although  such  large  fishes  are  not  usually 
\\cll  flavored,  this  one  is  considered  palatable.  Pieces  of  the  belly  and  tin-  tail  arc  especially 
esteemed,  and  hence  they  an*  expensive.  The  tins  are  salted  and  sold  under  the  mime  '(alto'.  .  .  . 

".flElian  errs  in  sa\  in^  that  it  enters  fresh  water,  and  in  cataloguing  it  among  the  fishes  of  the 
Danube." 

ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  SWORD-FISH  IN  AMERICA  BY  EARLY  WRITERS. — The  ancient  city  of 
Siena,  secluded  and  almost  forgotten  among  the  hills  of  Northern  Italy,  should  have  a  peculiar 
interest  for  Americans.  Here  Christopher  Columbus  was  educated,  and  here,  in  the  height  of  his 
triumphs  as  a  discoverer,  he  chose  to  deposit  a  memento  of  his  first  voyage  across  the  seas.  His 
votive  offering  haugsover  the  portal  of  the  old  collegiate  church,  closed  for  many  years,  and  rarely 
visited  save  by  enterprising  American  tourists.  It  consists  of  the  helmet  and  armor  worn  by  the 
discoverer  when  he  first  planted  his  feet  on  New  World  earth,  his  weapons,  and  the  weapon  of  a 
warrior  killed  by  his  party  when  approaching  the  American  coast — the  sword  of  a  Sword-fish.1 

It  is  not  probable  that  Columbas,  or  some  of  his  crew,  seafaring  men  of  the  Mediterranean, 
had  never  seen  the  Sword-fish-  Still,  its  sword  was  treasured  up  by  them,  and  has  formed  for 
more  than  four  centuries  and  a  half  a  striking  feature  in  the  best  preserved  monument  of  the 
discoverer  of  America. 

The  earliest  allusion  in  literature  to  the  existence  of  the  Sword-fish  in  the  Western  Atlantic 
seems  to  occur  in  Josselyn's  "Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  New  England,"  printed  in  1674,  in  the 
following  passage: 

First  Voyage: — "The  Twentieth  day,  we  saw  a  great  number  of  Sea-bats,  or  Owles,  called 
al.-o  Hying  fish,  they  are  about  the  bigness  of  a  Whiting,  with  four  tinsel  wings,  with  which  they 
fly  as  long  as  they  are  wet,  when  pursued  by  other  fishes.  Here  likewise  we  saw  many  Grand 
pisces,  or  Herring-hogs,  hunting  the  scholes  of  Herrings,  in  the  afternoon  we  saw  a  great  fish 
called  the  Vehuella  or  Sword  fish,  having  a  long,  strong  and  sharp  finn  like  a  Sword-blade  on  the 
top  of  his  head,  with  which  he  pierced  our  Ship,  and  broke  it  off  with  striving  to  get  loose,  one  of 
our  Sailors  dived  and  brought  it  aboard." 

A  half  century  later  I  find  a  reference  in  Gatesby's  work.2 

Pennant,  though  aware  of  the  statement  made  by  Catesby,  refuses  the  species  a  place  in  his 
"List  of  the  Fishes  of  North  America,"3  supposing  him  to  refer  to  the  orca  or  high-fiuned  killer- 
whale:  "I  am  not  certain  whether  Catenby  does  not  mean  the  high-flnned  Cachalot  by  his  Sword- 
fish;  yet,  as  it  is  found  in  most  seas,  even  to  those  of  Ceylon  (Mr.  Sotur),  I  give  it  a  place  here." 

Catesby's  testimony  was  soon  confirmed  by  Dr.  Alexander  Garden.  This  enthusiastic  col- 
lector, through  whose  correspondence  with  Linnaeus  so  many  of  our  Southern  plants  and  animals 
were  first  brought  to  knowledge  and  named,  writes  to  John  Ellis,  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
March  25,  1755:  "I  have  sent  >ou  one  of  the  rostrums  of  a  fish  found  on  the  Florida  coast,  which 
1  take  to  be  a  species  of  the  Ziphius  rontr.  apice  ensiforme,  pinni*  ventralibus  nullis.4  I  have  been 
told  that  they  are  frequently  found  on  the  Carolina  coast,  though  I  have  never  seen  any  of  them, 
and  I  have  been  all  along  the  coast  to  the  Florida  shore."*  (Vol.  i,  p.  353.) 


1  For  this  fact,  which  I  <lo  not  remember'  to  have  ever  seen  on  record,  I  am  indebted  to  CoL  N.  D.  Wilkins,  of 
the  Detroit  Free  Press,  who  visiled  the  locality  in  1879. 

'HistoriaNaturalisCaroliuie,  &c.,  17:11. 

'Arctic  Zoology.  Hi,  1784,  p.  364. 

'The  name  by  which  this  fish  was  designated  in  the  earlier  editions  of  Linnaeus'*  writings. 

'A  Selection  of  the  Correspondence  of  Linnaeus  ami  other  Naturalists,  from  the  original  manuscripts.  By  Sir 
James  Edward  Smith,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  8.,  Ac.  president  of  tbi.  Linniean  Society.  In  two  volumes  London.  Printed 
for  Longman,  Hurst,  Rees,  Orme  and  Brown,  Paternoster  Row,  1891. 


340  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Another  allusion  occurs  in  a  communication  by  l>r.  S.  L.  Mitchill,  of  New  York,  to  the 
"American  Monthly  Magazine": 

"An  individual  of  this  species  was  taken  off  Sandy  HooN .  by  means  of  a  harpoon,  on  the 
19th  June,  1817.  The  next  day  it  was  brought  to  New  York  inaikct  and  cut  up  like  halibut  and 
sturgeon  for  food.  The  length  was  about  twelve  feet,  and  girth,  by  estimation,  five.  .  .  .  The 
stomach  contained  seven  or  eight  mackerel.  The  flesh  was  remarkably  firm;  it  was  purchased  at 
a  quarter  of  a  dollar  the  pound.  I  tasted  a  chop  of  it,  broiled,  and  found  it  savory  and  excellent. 
It  resembled  the  best  sturgeon,  without  its  strong  and  oily  flavor.  While  I  ate  it  I  thought  of 
veal  cutlet.  ...  I  have  been  informed  by  my  friend  John  Renny  that  a  Sword-fish  sixteen 
feet  long  was  exhibited  at  New  York  in  the  year  1791." ' 

DISTRIBUTION  IN  THE  EASTERN  ATLANTIC.— The  Sword-fish  is  abundant  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean2 even  as  far  east  as  Constantinople,  .^Elian  said  that  it  was  frequent  in  the  Black  Sea, 
entering  the  Danube.  Unfortunately,  this  is  neither  confirmed  nor  contradicted  by  any  later 
writer  whose  works  I  have  seen.  JSliau  says  that  this  species',  with  several  others,  is  frequently 
taken  in  the  Danube  at  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  spring.  This  is  so  contrary  to  the  known 
habits  of  the  fish  that  it  throws  discredit  on  the  whole  story,  for  the  present  at  least.  From  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  they  range  south  to  Cape  Town.  Berthelot  saw  great  numbers  of 
them  off  the  Canaries.  They  have  been  frequently  noticed  on  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  France. 
They  occur  sparingly  in  summer  in  the  British  waters,  even  to  the  Orkneys  and  the  Hebrides. 
They  occasionally  reach  Sweden  and  Norway,  where  Linnaeus  observed  them,  and,  according  to 
Liitken,  have  been  taken  on  the  coast  of  Finmark.  They  are  known  to  have  occurred  in  Danish 
waters  and  to  have  found  their  way  into  the  Baltic,  thus  gaining  a  place  in  the  fauna  of  Russia. 
A  number  of  instances  of  the  occurrence  of  Sword-fish  in  the  Baltic  have  been  recorded. 

DISTRIBUTION  ON  THE  COAST  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. — Allusion  has  been  made  to  the 
early  accounts  of  the  Sword-fish  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States  both  in  the  work  of  Catesby  and 
the  letters  of  Garden  to  Ellis  and  Linnaeus;  also,  to  Mitchill's  account  of  it  in  1818.  Though  it  is 
strange  that  this  very  conspicuous  species  was  not  recorded  more  frequently  by  early  American 
authors,  it  is  still  more  remarkable  that  its  right  to  a  place  in  the  fauna  of  the  Western  Atlantic 
was  either  denied  or  questioned,  as  late  as  1836,  by  such  well-informed  authors  as  Sir  John  Rich- 
ardson and  MM.  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes. 

Storer's  "  Report  on  the  Ichthyology  and  Herpetology  of  Massachusetts,"  published  in  1839, 
was  the  first  American  faunal  list,  after  Catesby's,  in  which  the  Sword-fish  was  mentioned  among 
the  American  fish. 

The  range  of  the  species  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America  can  now  be  defined  with  some 
accuracy.  Northward  and  eastward  these  fish  have  been  seen  as  far  as  Cape  Breton  and  Sable 
Island  Banks. 

Captain  Rowe  states  that  during  a  trip  to  George's  Banks  he  has  seen  them  off  Chebucto 
Head,  near  Halifax,  where  the  fishermen  claim  occasionally  to  have  taken  them  with  seines. 

Capt.  Daniel  O'Brien,  of  the  schooner  "Ossipee,"  took  five  Sword-fish  on  his  halibut  trawl,  in 
two  hundred  fathoms  of  water,  between  La  Have  and  Brown's  Banks,  in  August,  1877. 

Capt.  Jerome  B.  Smith,  of  the  schooner  "  Hattie  Lewis,"  of  Gloucester,  killed  a  Sword-fish  off 
Cape  Smoke,  near  Sidney,  Cape  Breton.3 

'American  Monthly  Magazine,  ii,  1818, p.  242. 
*  Rinso,  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes,  Gnichenot,  etc. 
'Capt  R.  H.  Bnlbert. 


1,-ANcr.  OF  S\VOI;D  risn  IN  \\KSTKKN  ATLANTIC.  341 

Mr.  .1.  Matthew  Jones,  of  Halifax.  Nova  Scotia,  writes,  in  1877:  "The  Sword-fish  is  by  no 
means  common  on  our  coast,  and  only  makes  its  appearance  at  intervals  in  our  harbors  and  bays. 
One  was  taken  in  l.stil  in  Hedfonl  Masin,  at  the  head  of  Halifax  Harbor.  September  0,  1866,  an 
individual  weighing  two  hundred  pounds  was  taken  in  a  net  at  Devil's  Island.  November  12, 
\  -•'•>'•.  i  lie  Rev.  J.  Ambrose  sent  me  a  sword,  three  feet  and  six  inches  long,  from  a  fish  taken  at 
Dover,  Nova  Scotia,  a  few  days  previously." 

On  the  coasts  of  Maine.  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island  they  abound  in  the  summer  mouths. 
Southward  they  aie  !.•<>  t'rei|iu>ntly  seen,  though  their  occurrence  off  New  York  is  not  unusual.  I 
have  never  known  one  to  be  taken  off  New  Jersey,  aud  in  our  southern  waters  they  do  not  appear 
to  remain.  Uhler  and  Lugger  vaguely  state  that  they  sometimes  enter  the  Chesapeake  Bay.1 
This  is  apparently  traditionary  evidence. 

Dr.  Yarrow  obtained  reliable  information  of  their  occasional  appearance  near  Cape  Lookout, 
North  Carolina.*  % 

Mr.  A.  W.  Simpson  states,  iu  a  letter  to  Professor  Baird,  that  Sword  fish  are  sometimes  seen 
at  >ea  off  Cape  Hatteras,  in  November  and  December,  in  large  quantities.  They  sometimes  find 
their  way  into  the  sounds. 

An  item  went  the  rounds  of  the  newspapers  in  1876  to  the  effect  that  a  Sword-fish  four  feet 
long  had  been  captured  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  near  Jacksonville.  After  personal  inquiry  in 
Jacksonville,  I  am  satisfied  that  this  was  simply  a  scabbard-fish  or  silvery  hair-tail  (Trichiurim 


Professor  Poey  states  that  the  fishermen  of  Cuba  sometimes  capture  the  Fez  de  Espada  when 
in  pursuit  of  Agujas  or  Spear-fishes.3  They  have  also  been  seen  in  Jamaica. 

Liitkeu  gives  instances  of  the  capture  of  young  Sword-fish  at  various  points  iu  the  open 
Atlantic,  as  follows: 

(1)  Latitude  32°  5(K  N.,  longitude  74°  19'  W.  (about  150  miles  southeast  of  Cape  Ilatteras). 

(2)  Latitude  23°  W.,  longitude  65°  W.  (about  500  miles  northeast  of  the  island  of  Antigua). 

(3)  Latitude  20°  N.,  longitude  31°  W.  (about  150  miles  northwest  of  Teneriffe,  and  250 
southwest  of  Madeira). 

(4)  On  the  equator,  longitude  29°  (about  500  miles  northeast  of  Cape  St.  Roque). 

(5)  Latitude  25°  4'  S.,  longitude  27°  26'  W.  (about  500  miles  south  of  the  island  of  Trinidad, 
South  Atlantic). 

OCCURRENCE  IN  THE  PACIFIC  AND  INDIAN  OCEANS.  —  We  have  no  record  of  their  occurrence 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  South  America,  but  the  species  is  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  same 
continent,  and  north  to  California. 

Professor  Jordan  writes  :  "  Occasionally  seen  about  Santa  Catalina  and  the  Coronados,  but 
never  taken,  the  fishermen  having  no  suitable  tackle.  One  seen  by  us  off  Santa  Monica,  iu  1880, 
about  eight  feet  in  length." 

Mr.  Willard  Nye,  of  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  kindly  communicates  the  following  notes: 
Captain  Dyer,  of  this  port,  says  that  Sword-fish  are  plentiful  off  the  Peruvian  coast,  a  number 
lu-inf,'  often  in  sight  at  one  time.  The  largest  he  ever  saw  was  one  caught  by  himself  about  150 
miles  from  the  shore,  and  which  he  estimates  to  have  weighed  900  to  1,000  pounds;  the  ship's 
crew  subsisted  on  it  for  several  days  and  then  salted  400  pounds. 

'  List  of  the  Fishes  of  Maryland.  By  P.  R.  UlUer  and  Otto  Lugger,  in  Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Fisheries  of 
Maryland,  January,  1876,  p.  90. 

«  Notes  on  the  Natural  History  of  Fort  Macon,  North  Carolina,  and  vicinity  (No.  3).  By  H.  C.  Yarrow,  in  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  1877,  p.  207. 

'  Synopsis  Piscinm  Cubensium,  Catalogo  razonado  de  los  Pecea  de  la  Isla  de  Cuba,  in  Bepertorio  flsico-natnral 
de  la  Isla  de  Cuba,  ii,  1868,  p.  379. 


342  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Captain  Allen  also  states  that  while  cruising  in  the  Pacific  for  whales  he  has  found  the 
Sword-fish  very  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Peru  and  Chili,  from  the  immediate  coast  300  miles 
out,  though  outside  of  that  limit  they  are  seldom  seen.  They  are  most  plenty  during  the  month 
of  January,  when  they  are  feeding  on  the  common  mackerel,  with  which  those  waters  at  that 
time  abound.  The  largest  he  ever  caught  weighed  about  600  pounds. 

Both  Captain  Allen  and  Captain  Dyer  have  made  several  voyages  as  masters  of  whaling 
ships,  and  are  perfectly  familiar  with  Sword-fish  on  our  coast ;  both  speak  of  seeing  plenty  of 
Bill-fish  in  the  Pacific,  but  they  never  had  taken  the  trouble  to  catch  them.  Giinther  mentions 
them  in  his  book  on  the  "  Fishes  of  the  South  Sea." 

In  1874  Dr.  Hector  discovered  a  sword-fish  snout  in  the  museum  at  Auckland,  New  Zealand, 
and  his  announcement  of  the  discovery  was  followed  by  the  publication  of  two  other  instances 
of  its  occurrence  in  this  region.1 

SWOKD-FISH  ENTERING  RIVERS. — Sword-fish  have  been  known  to  enter  the  rivers  of  Europe. 
We  have  no  record  of  such  a  habit  in  those  frequenting  our  waters.2 

JElian's  improbable  story  that  they  were  taken  in  the  Danube  in  winter  has  been  mentioned. 
Southey  and  others  relate  that  a  man  was  killed  while  bathing  in  the  Severn,  near  Worcester,  by 
one  of  these  fishes,  which  was  afterwards  caught. 

Couch  states  that  a  Sword-fish,  supposed  to  weigh  nearly  three  hundred  pounds,  was  caught 
in  the  river  Parret,  near  Bridge  water,  in  July,  1834.3 

According  to  De  la  Blanchere,  one  of  them  was  taken,  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  French 
Republic,  in  the  river  of  Vannes,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay.4 

In  the  great  hall  of  the  Rathhaus  in  the  city  of  Bremen  hangs  a  large  painting  of  a  Sword- 
fish  which  was  taken  in  the  river  Weser  by  some  Bremen  fishermen  some  time  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Underneath  it  is  painted  the  following  inscription : 

"ANNO.  1G96.    DEN.  18.  JULI.  1ST.  DIESER. 
PISOH.  BIN.  SCHWERTFISCH.  GENANNT.  TON.  DIESEE. 
STADT.  FISCHERN.  IN.  DER.  WESER.  GEFANGEN. 
TTND.  DEM.  20.  EJUSDEM.  ANHERO.  NAEHER. 
BREMEN.  GEBRACHT.  WORDEN.  SEINE.  GANZE. 
LENGTE.  WAR.  10.  FUSS.  DAS.  SCHWERT.  WAR. 
7£.  VIRTEL.  LANG.  UND.  3.  ZOLL.  BREIT." 

PERIODICAL  MOVEMENTS  OF  THR  SWORD-FISH — TIMES  OF  ARRIVAL  AND  DEPARTURE. — 
Before  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  the  movements  of  the  Sword-fish  and  their  causes,  it 

'HECTOR:  Trans.  New  Zealand  Inst.,  vii  (1874),  1875,  p.  246.  HCTTON  :  Ibid.,  viii  (1675),  1876,  p.  211. 
CHEESEMAN:  Ibid.,  p.  '219. 

"They  sometimes  approach  very  near  the  shore,  however,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  extract  from  a  Cape  Cod 
paper : 

"A  Su>ord-Ji#h  in  close  quarters. — Monday  afternoon,  while  Mr.  A.  McKenzie,  the  boat-builder  on  J.  S.  Atwood's 
wharf,  was  busily  at  work,  his  attention  wus  attracted  by  a  splashing  of  water  under  his  workshop,  as  if  a  score  of 
boys  were  swimming  and  making  all  the  noise  they  possibly  could  by  beating  the  water  with  their  feet  and  hands. 
After  this  had  been  kept  up  awhile  his  curiosity  became  excited,  and  upon  investigating  tho  cause  of  the  disturb- 
ance discovered  a  Sword-fish  among  tho  piles,  where,  in  his  attempts  to  escape,  he  had  become  bewildered  and 
imprisoned.  Quickly  getting  a  harpoon,  Mr.  McKeuzie  fastened  the  fish,  and  with  the  aid  of  bystanders  drew  it 
alive  upon  the  wharf,  where  it  was  visited  by  many  spectators,  uud  snbs'.'quently  dressed  and  sold.  It  measured  ten 
feet  from  the  end  of  its  sword  to  the  tip  of  the  tail — the  sword  itself  being  three  foot  hi  length.  It  is  the  first 
instance  known  of  one  of  these  fish  being  so  near  the  shore,  and  why  it  should  have  been  there  at  the  time  described 
is  not  easily  explained." — Provincetown  Advocate,  September  29,  1875. 

'History  of  British  Fishes,  ii,  p.  148. 

<Dictionnaire  Ge'ne'ral  des  Peches. 


,   MOYKMKNTS  OK  TIIK  SUOltD  FISH.  :\\:\ 

XMMII-.  de>iral>le  In  lirin;.'  tn^ciliiT  tin-  i;n-i>  uhi.-li    ha\e  lii-eii    learned.  1>\  enmiT^i'ioi,  \\nli  li-ln-r 
men  and  otherwise,  in  one  group.     Kaeh  man's  views  are  given  in  his  own  stylo,  and  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  his  own  words.    There  is  no  attempt  at  a  classification  of  the  facts.    This  will  be  made 
subsequently. 

An  old  sword-fish  fisherman  at  New  York  informed  Mr.  Blackford  that  the  season  opens  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Sandy  Hook  about  the  first  of  June  and  continues  along  the  coast  as  far  east  as 
Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nuutucket  Shoals  until  about  the  middle  of  September.  He  has  heard  of 
their  being  caught  as  far  cast  as  Gape  Sable.  At  the  first  cold  winds  of  September  they  disap- 
pear, They  are,  like  the  mackerel,  at  first  very  poor  and  lean,  but  as  the  season  advances  they 
grow  fatter. 

Mr.  John  H.  Thomson,  of  New  Bedford,  who  kindly  interviewed  some  of  the  local  fishermen, 
writes:  "The  Sword-fish  appear  on  our  coast,  south  of  Block  Island,  about  May  25  to  June  1. 
They  appear  to  come  from  the  southwest,  or  just  inside  the  track  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  They 
gradually  approach  the  Vineyard  Sound  and  vicinity  during  June,  and  until  July  10  or  15,  then 
appear  to  leave,  working  to  the  southeast,  and  are  to  be  found  to  the  southeast  of  Crab  Led  go 
about  the  middle  of  July.  This  school  is  composed  of  comparatively  small  fish,  averaging  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  gross,  or  about  one  hundred  pounds  without  head  and  tail,  ns  they 
are  delivered  in  th«?  market.  The  smallest  are  four  feet  long,  including  the  sword,  and  weigh  from 
thirty  to  forty  pounds;  the  largest  eight  and  a  half  feet  long,  with  sword,  and  weighing  three 
hundred  pounds  gross.  These  fish  are  of  a  light  plumbeous  hue,  darker  ou  the  back  and  white  on 
the  belly. 

"Of  late  years  another  school  has  appeared  southeast  of  Cape  Cod  and  George's  Banks  about 
the  1st  of  August.  These  fish  are  altogether  different,  being  much  larger,  weighing  from  three  to 
eight  hundred  pounds  gross,  and  are  entirely  black.  I  have  this  week  conversed  with  an  old  smack- 
man,  M.  C.  Tripp,  who  has  all  his  life  been  a  fisherman,  and  has  This  year  (1874)  captured  about 
ninety  fish,  and  his  opinion  is  that  they  are  not  the  same  school.  They  appear  to  bo  of  about  the 
same  abundance  in  average  years,  the  catch  depending  on  weather,  fogs,  etc.  They  come  and  leave 
in  a  general  school,  not  in  close  schools  like  other  fish,  but  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  whole  being  called  by  the  fishermen  the  'annual  school,'  though  it  cannot  strictly  be  so 
named." 

According  to  Mr.  Willard  Nye,  Sword-fish  appear  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  from  the  8th 
to  the  20th  of  June,  and  are  first  seen  southwest  of  Block  Island.  They  begin  to  leave  in  August, 
but  stray  ones  are  sometimes  seen  as  late  as  the  last  of  October.  The  usual  explanation  of  their 
movements  is  that  they  are  following  their  food — mackerel  and  menhaden — which  swann  our 
waters  in  the  season  named,  and  which  are  of  course  driven  off  by  the  approach  of  winter  and 
rough  weather. 

Capt.  B.  H.  Hurlbert  took  a  very  large  Sword-fish  on  George's  Banks,  in  November,  1875,  in 
a  snow-storm. 

The  first  Sword-fish  of  the  season  of  1875  was  taken  June  20,  southwest  of  Montauk  Point; 
its  weight  was  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  jwunds. 

One  taken  off  Nornan's  Land,  July  20,  1875,  weighed  when  dressed  one  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds,  and  measured  seven  feet.  A  cast  was  taken  (No.  360),  which  was  exhibited  in  the  Gov- 
ernment Building  at  Philadelphia. 

Capt.  Benjamin  Ashby,  of  Noank,  Connecticut,  tells  me  that  the  New  London  and  Noank 
vessels  leave  home  on  their  sword  fishing  cruise  about  the  6th  of  July.  Through  July  they  fish 
between  Block  Island  and  Nouiau's  Land ;  in  August  between  Noman's  Laud  and  the  South 


344  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Shoals  light-ship.  The  fish  "strike  in"  to  Block  Island  and  Moutauk  Point  every  year  about  the 
1st  of  July.  They  are  first  seen  twenty  to  twenty-five  miles  southeast  of  Montauk.  At  the  end 
of  August  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  South  Channel.  Captain  Ashby  never  saw  them  at  any 
time  so  abundant  as  August  15,  1859.  He  was  cruising  between  George's  Banks  and  the  South 
Shoals.  It  was  a  calm  day,  after  a  fog.  He  could  at  any  time  see  twenty-five  or  thirty  from  the 
mast-head.  They  turn  south  when  snow  comes. 

Capt.  George  H.  Martin,  of  East  Gloucester,  tells  me  that  the  Gloucester  vessels  employed  in 
this  fishery  expect  to  be  on  the  fishing  grounds  south  of  George's  Banks  by  the  10th  of  June. 
They  almost  always  find  the  fish  there  on  their  arrival,  following  the  schools  of  mackerel.  They 
"tend  on  soundings,"  like  the  mackerel.  The  first  Sword-fish  of  1877  was  taken  June  10;  the 
first  of  1878,  June  14. 

The  statements  already  quoted,  and  numerous  conversations  with  fishermen  not  here  recorded, 
lead  me  to  believe  that  Sword-fish  are  most  abundant  on  the  shoals  near  the  shore  and  on  the 
banks  during  the  months  of  July  and  August;  that  they  make  their  appearance  on  the  frequented 
cruising  grounds  between  Moutauk  Point  and  the  eastern  part  of  George's  Banks  some  time 
between  the  25th  of  May  and  the  20th  of  June,  and  that  they  remain  until  the  approach  of  cold 
weather  in  October  or  early  iu  November.  The  dates  of  the  capture  of  the  first  fish  on  the  cruis- 
ing ground  referred  to  are  recorded  for  three  years,  and  are  reasonably  reliable:  1875,  June  20; 
1877,  June  10;  1878,  June  14. 

South  of  the  cruising  ground  the  dates  of  arrival  and  departure  are  doubtless  farther  apart ; 
north  and  east  the  season  being  shorter.  There  are  no  means  of  obtaining  information,  since  the 
men  engaged  in  this  fishery  are  the  only  ones  likely  to  remember  the  dates  when  the  fish  are  seen. 

REASONS  OF  THE  COMING  OF  SWORD-FISH  UPON  OUR  COAST. — The  Sword-fish  comes  into 
our  waters  iu  pursuit  of  its  food.  At  least  this  is  the  most  probable  explanation  of  their  move- 
ments, since  the  duties  of  reproduction  appear  to  be  performed  elsewhere.  Like  the  tunny,  the 
blue-fish,  the  bouito,  and  the  squeteaguc,  they  pursue  and  prey  upon  the  schools  of  menhaden  and 
mackerel  which  are  so  abundant  in  the  summer  months.  "When  you  see  Sword-fish,  you  may 
know  that  mackerel  are  about,"  said  an  old  fisherman  to  me.  "  Where  you  see  the  fin-back  whale 
following  food,  there  you  find  Sword-fish,"  said  another.  The  Sword-fish  also  feeds  upon  squid, 
which  are  at  times  abundant  on  our  banks. 

TUB  INFLUENCE  OF  TEMPERATURE  UPON  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  SWORD-FISH.— To  what 

extent  this  fish  is  amenable  to  the  influences  of  temperature  is  an  unsolved  problem.  We  are 
met  at  the  outset  by  the  fact  that  they  are  frequently  taken  on  trawl-lines  which  are  set  at  the 
depth  of  one  hundred  fathoms  or  more,  on  the  off-shore  banks.  We  know  that  the  temperature  of 
the  water  at  those  localities  and  at  that  depth  is  sure  to  be  less  than  40°  Fahrenheit.  How  is  this 
fact  to  be  reconciled  with  the  known  habits  of  the  fish,  that  it  prefers  the  warmest  weather  of 
summer  and  swims  at  the  surface  in  water  of  temperature  ranging  from  55°  to  70°,  sinking  when 
cool  winds  blow?  The  case  seemed  clear  enough  until  this  inconvenient  discovery  was  made,  that 
Sword-fish  are  taken  on  bottom  trawl-linos.  In  other  respects  their  habits  agree  closely  with 
those  of  the  mackerel  tribe,  all  the  members  of  which  seem  sensitive  to  slight  changes  in  tempera- 
ture, and  which,  as  a  rule,  prefer  temperature  iu  the  neighborhood  of  50°  or  more. 

There  is  one  theory  by  which  this  difficulty  may  be  avoided.  We  may  suppose  that  the 
Sword-fish  take  the  hooks  on  their  way  down  to  the  bottom ;  that  in  their  struggles  they  get 
entangled  in  the  line  and  hooks,  and  when  exhausted  sink  to  the  bottom.  This  is  not  improbable. 
A  conversation  with  some  nshermtiu  who  have  caught  them  in  this  way  develops  the  fact  that  the 
fish  are  usually  much  tangled  in  the  Hue,  and  are  nearly  lifeless  when  they  are  brought  to  the 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  SWORD-FISH  TO  TEMPERATURE.  345 

surface.  A  continuation  is  found  in  the  observations  of  Captain  Baker,  of  the  schooner  "  Peter 
D.  Smith,"  of  Gloucester,  who  tells  me  that  they  often  are  taken  on  the  hnud-lines  of  the  cod-fisher- 
men on  George's  Hanks.  His  observations  lead  him  to  believe  that  they  only  take  the  hook  when 
the  tide  is  running  very  swiftly  and  the  lines  are  trailing  out  in  the  tideway  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  bottom,  and  that  the  Sword-iish  strike  for  the  bottom  as  soon  as  they  are 
hooked.  This  theory  is  not  improbable,  as  I  have  already  remarked,  but  I  do  not  at  present 
advocate  it  very  strongly.  I  want  more  facts  before  making  up  my  own  mind.  At  present  the 
relation  of  the  Sword-fish  to  temperature  must  be  left  without  being  understood. 

The  appearance  of  the  fish  at  the  surface  depends  apparently  upon  temperature.  They  are 
seen  only  upon  quiet  summer  days,  in  the  morning  before  ten  or  eleven  o'clock,  and  in  the  after- 
noon about  four  o'clock.  Old  fishermen  say  that  they  rise  when  the  mackerel  rise,  and  when  the 
mackerel  go  down  they  go  down  also. 

PROBABLE  WINTER  HABITAT  OF  THE  SWORD-PISH. — Regarding  the  winter  abode  of  the 
Sword-fish  conjecture  is  useless.  I  have  already  discussed  this  question  at  length  with  reference 
to  the  menhaden  and  mackerel.  With  the  Sword-fish  the  conditions  are  very  different.  The 
former  are  known  to  spawn  in  our  waters,  and  the  schools  of  young  ones  follow  the  old  ones  in 
toward  the  shores.  The  latter  do  not  spawn  in  our  waters.  We  cannot  well  believe  that  they 
hibernate,  nor  is  the  hypothesis  of  a  sojourn  in  the  middle  strata  of  mid-ocean  exactly  tenable. 
Perhaps  they  migrate  to  some  distant  region,  where  they  spawn.  But  then  the  spawning  time  of 
this  species  in  the  Mediterranean,  as  is  related  in  a  subsequent  paragraph,  appears  to  occur  in 
the  summer  mouths,  at  the  very  time  when  Sword-fish  are  most  abundant  in  our  own  waters, 
apparently  feeling  no  responsibility  for  the  perpetuation  of  their  species. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  SWORD-FISHES. — A  Sword-fish  when  swimming  near  the  surface 
usually  allows  its  dorsal  fin  and  the  upper  lobe  of  its  caudal  fin  to  be  visible,  projecting  out  of  the 
water  several  inches.  It  is  this  habit  which  enables  the  fisherman  to  detect  the  presence  of  the 
fish.  It  swims  slowly  along,  and  the  fishing  schooner  with  a  light  breeze  finds  no  difficulty  in 
overtaking  it.  When  excited  its  motions  are  very  rapid  and  nervous.  Sword-fish  are  sometimes 
seen  to  leap  entirely  out  of  the  water.  Early  writers  attributed  this  habit  to  the  tormenting  pres- 
ence of  parasites,  but  this  theory  seems  hardly  necessary,  knowing  what  we  do  of  its  violent 
exertions  at  other  times.  The  pointed  head,  the  fins  of  the  back  and  abdomen  snugly  fitting  into 
grooves,  the  absence  of  ventrals,  the  long,  lithe,  muscular  body,  sloping  slowly  to  the  tail,  fit  it 
for  the  most  rapid  and  forcible  movement  through  the  water.  Prof.  Richard  Owen,  testifying  in 
an  English  court  in  regard  to  its  power,  said : 

"It  strikes  with  the  accumulated  force  of  fifteen  double-handed  hammers.  Its  velocity  is 
equal  to  that  of  a  swivel-shot,  and  is  as  dangerous  in  its  effects  as  a  heavy  artillery  projectile." 

Many  very  curious  instances  are  on  record  of  the  encounters  of  this  fish  with  other  fishes,  or 
of  their  attacks  upon  ships.  What  can  be  the  inducement  for  it  to  attack  objects  so  much  larger 
than  itself  it  is  hard  to  surmise.  Many  are  familiar  with  the  couplet  from  Oppiau: 

Nature  her  bounty  to  his  mouth  confined, 
Gave  him  a  sword,  but  left  unarmed  his  mind. 

It  surely  seems  as  if  a  temporary  insanity  sometimes  takes  possession  of  the  fish.  It  is  not 
strange  that,  when  harpooned,  it  should  retaliate  by  attacking  its  assailant.  An  old  sword-fish 
fisherman  told  Mr.  Blacktbrd  that  his  vessel  had  been  struck  twenty  times.  There  are,  however, 
many  instances  of  entirely  unprovoked  assault  on  vessels  at  sea.  Many  of  these  are  recounted  in 
a  later  portion  of  this  memoir.  Their  movements  when  feeding  are  discussed  below,  as  well  as 
their  alleged  peculiarities  of  movement  during  the  breeding  season. 


346  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

It  is  the  universal  testimony  of  our  fishermen  that  two  are  never  seen  swimming  close 
together.  Captain  Ashby  says  that  they  are  always  distant  from  each  other  at  least  thirty  or 
forty  feet. 

MAXIMUM  AND  AVERAGE  SIZE  OF  AMERICAN  SWORD-PISH. — The  only  individual  of  which 
we  have  the  exact  measurements  was  taken  off  Seaconnet,  Ehode  Island,  July  23, 1874.  This  was 
seven  feet  seven  inches  long,  weighing  113  pounds.  Another,  taken  off  Neman's  Land,  July  20, 
1875,  and  cast  in  plaster  for  the  collection  of  the  National  Museum,  weighed  120  pounds,  and  meas- 
ured about  seven  feet.  Another,  taken  off  Portland,  August  15, 1878,  was  3,999  millimeters  long, 
and  weighed  about  600  pounds.  Many  of  these  fish  doubtless  attain  the  weight  of  400  and  500 
pounds,  and  some,  perhaps,  grow  to  600;  but  after  this  limit  is  reached,  I  am  inclined  to  believe 
larger  fish  are  exceptional.  Newspapers  are  fond  of  recording  the  occurrence  of  giant  fish,  weigh- 
ing 1,500  pounds  and  upwards,  and  old  sailors  will  in  good  faith  describe  the  enormous  fish  which 
they  saw  at  sea,  but  could  not  capture;  but  one  well-authenticated  instance  of  accurate  weighing- 
is  much  more  valuable.  The  largest  one  ever  taken  by  Capt.  Benjamin  Ashby,  for  twenty  years  a 
sword-fish  fisherman,  was  killed  on  the  shoals  back  of  Edgartown,  Massachusetts.  When  salted  it 
weighed  639  pounds.  Its  live  weight  must  have  been  as  much  as  750  or  800.  Its  sword  measured 
nearly  six  feet.  This  was  an  extraordinary  fish  among  the  three  hundred  or  more  taken  by 
Captain  Ashby  in  his  long  experience.  He  considers  the  average  size  to  be  about  250  pounds 
dressed,  or  325  alive.  Captain  Martin,  of  Gloucester,  estimates  the  average  size  at  300  to  400 
pounds.  The  largest  known  to  Captain  Michaux  weighed  625.  The  average  about  Block  Island 
he  considers  to  be  200  pounds. 

There  are  other  stories  of  large  fish.  Capt.  E.  H.  Hurlbert,  of  Gloucester,  killed  one  on 
George's  Banks,  in  September,  1876,  which  weighed  when  dressed  480  pounds.  Capt.  John  Eowe, 
of  the  same  port,  salted  one  which  filled  two  and  one-half  barrels.  This  probably  weighed  600 
pounds  when  alive.  I  have  been  told  that  a  Sword-fish  loses  one-third  of  its  weight  in  dressing, 
but  I  should  think  that  one-fourth  would  be  nearer  to  the  truth.  Captain  Baker,  of  the  schooner 
"Peter  D.  Smith,"  of  Gloucester,  assures  me  that  he  killed,  in  the  summer  of  1874,  off  Portland, 
a  Sword-fish  which  weighed  750  pounds. 

Mitchill  and  DeKay  state  that  in  1791  a  Sword-fish  sixteen  feet  in  length  was  exhibited  in 
New  York.  It  is  questionable  whether  they  often  exceed  this  measurement.  My  own  observa- 
tions have  been  made  on  specimens  from  seven  to  twelve  feet  long.  A  stuffed  specimen  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum  measures  about  ten  feet,  and  this  seems  to  be  very  nearly  the 
average  size. 

MINIMUM  SIZE  OF  AMERICAN  SWORD-FISH. — The  size  of  the  smallest  Sword-fishes  taken  on 
our  coast  is  a  subject  of  much  deeper  interest,  for  it  throws  light  on  the  time  and  place  of  breed- 
ing. There  is  some  difference  of  testimony  regarding  the  average  size,  but  all  fishermen  with 
whom  I  have  talked  agree  that  very  small  ones  do  not  find  their  way  into  our  waters.  I  have  col- 
lected several  instances  from  the  experiences  of  men  long  wonted  to  this  fishery. 

Capt.  John  Eowe  has  seen  one  which  did  not  weigh  more  than  75  pounds  when  taken  out  of  the 
water. 

Capt.  1?.  H.  Hurlbert  killed,  near  Block  Island,  in  July,  1877,  one  which  weighed  50  pounds, 
and  measured  about  two  feet  without  its  sword. 

Captain  Ashby's  smallest  weighed  about  25  pounds  when  dressed;  this  he  killed  off  Neman's 
Land.  He  never  killed  another  which  weighed  less  than  100.  He  tells  me  that  a  Bridgeport  smack 
had  one  weighing  16  pounds  (or  probably  24  when  alive),  and  measuring  eighteen  inches  without 
its  sword. 


YOUNG  SWoiM)  FISH  IN  THE  WESTERN  ATLANTIC.  347 

In  August,  1878,  a  small  specimen  <>t'  the  mackerel  shark,  Lamna  cornubica,  wa«  captured  at 
the  month  of  (Mom-ester  Harbor.  In  its  nostril  was  sticking  the  sword,  about  three  inches  long, 
of  n  young  Sword-fish.  \Yhen  this  was  pulled  out  the  blood  flowed  freely,  indicating  that  the 
wound  was  recent.  The  fish  to  which  this  sword  belonged  cannot  have  exceeded  ten  or  twelve 
inches  iii  length,  \\liether  the  small  Sword-fish  met  with  its  misfortune  in  our  waters,  or  whether 
the  shark  brought  this  trophy  from  beyond  the  sea,  is  a  question  I  cannot  answer. 

Milken  speaks  of  a  very  young  individual  taken  in  the  Atlantic,  latitude  32°  50'  N.,  longitude 
74°  19'  W.  This  must  be  about  150  miles  southeast  of  Cape  Hatteras. 

SIZE  IN  THE  MEDITERRANEAN.— In  the  Mediterranean,  near  Sicily  and  Genoa,  young  fish, 
ranging  in  weight  from  half  a  pound  to  twelve  pounds,  are  said  to  be  abundant  between  November 
and  March. 

Aliout  La  Ciotat  and  Martigues,  in  the  south  of  France,  many  are  taken  too  small  to  injure 
the  fishing  nets,  and  very  rarely  reaching  the  weight  of  100  pounds. 

From  the  statements  of  Bloch  and  later  writers  it  appears  that  large  Sword-fish  also  are 
abundant  in  the  Mediterranean.  Late  Italian  fishery  reports  state  that  the  average  weight  of 
those  taken  on  the  coast  of  Italy  is  50  kilograms  (110  pounds). 

Of  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal  Steindachner  remarks:  "  More  abundant  on  the  southern 
coasts  of  Spain  than  on  the  northern,  western,  and  eastern  sides  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  We 
saw  quite  large  examples  in  the  fish-markets  at  Gibraltar,  Cadiz,  Lisbon,  La  Coruna,  and  Barcelona, 
and  at  Santa  Cruz,  Teneriffe.  The  largest  of  three  specimens  in  my  possession  is  forty  three 
inches  long,  another  twenty-four  inches." ' 

RATE  OP  GROWTH. — Little  is  known  about  the  rate  of  growth.  The  young  fish  taken  in 
winter  in  the  Mediterranean,  ranging  in  weight  from  half  a  pound  to  twelve  pounds,  are  thought 
to  have  been  hatched  during  the  previous  summer.  Those  of  a  larger  size,  ranging  from  twenty- 
four  to  sixty  pounds,  taken  on  the  New  England  coast  in  the  summer,  may  perhaps  be  the  young 
of  the  previous  year.  Beyond  this,  even  conjecture  is  fruitless.  As  in  other  species,  the  rate  of 
growth  depends  directly  upon  the  quantity  of  food  consumed.  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  a  summer 
passed  in  feasting  among  the  crowding  schools  of  menhaden  and  mackerel  in  our  waters  would 
bring  about  a  considerable  increase  in  weight.  That  this  is  the  case  is  clearly  shown  by  the 
testimony  of  the  fishermen,  who  say  that  in  the  spring  Sword-fish  are  thin,  growing  fatter  and 
heavier  as  the  season  goes  on. 

Dr.  Liitken  and  Dr.  Giinther  have  lately  made  some  exceedingly  interesting  observations 
upon  the  young  of  the  Sword-fish  and  of  the  Spear-fish  and  Sail-fish. 

Dr.  Giinther's  studies  were  made  upon   very  small   specimens  of    undetermined  species, 
belonging  to  either  Tetrapturus,  HMiophorus,  or  both.     In  his  latest  work,  "The  Study  of  Fishes,"  • 
he  summarizes  the  facts  observed  by  him  a-s  follows: 

"The  Sword-fishes  with  ventral  fins  (HistiopJioni*)  belong  to  the  Teleosteans  of  the  largest 
size.  In  young  individuals,  nine  millimeters  long,  both  jaws  are  produced  and  armed  with  pointed 
teeth,  the  supraorbital  margin  is  ciliated,  the  parietal  and  preoperculum  are  prolonged  into  long 
spines,  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  a  long  fringe,  and  the  ventrals  make  their  appearance  as  a  pair 
of  short  buds.  When  fourteen  millimeters  long  the  young  fish  has  still  the  same  armature  of  the 
head,  but  the  dorsal  fin  has  become  much  higher,  and  the  ventral  filaments  have  grown  to  a  great 
length.  At  the  next  stage,  when  the  fish  has  attained  to  a  length  of  sixty  millimeters,  the  upper 
jaw  is  considerably  prolonged  beyond  the  lower,  losing  its  teeth,  the  spines  of  the  head  are 
shortened,  and  the  fins  assume  nearly  the  shape  which  they  retain  in  mature  individuals. 

>8itzungHb.  <1.  k.  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.,  Weio,  1 068,  p.  396. 


348  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"Young  Sword-fishes  without  ventral  fins  (Xiphias)  undergo  similar  changes,  and,  besides, 
their  skiu  is  covered  with  small,  rough  excrescences,  longitudinally  arranged,  which  continue  to  be 
visible  after  the  young  fish  has  attained  the  form  of  the  mature  in  other  respects." 

Dr.  Liitken's  description  of  the  young  Sword-fishes  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  contribution  to 
knowledge. 

I  have  collected  together,  in  the  plates  which  accompany  this  paper,  the  various  published 
figures  of  young  Sword-fishes,  and  have  had  them  redrawn  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  uniform 
scale. 

Of  the  Sword-fish,  Xiphias  gladius,  two  figures  are  given.  Oue,  taken  from  Liitken's  "Spolia 
Atlantiea,"  is  thirty -seven  millimeters  long;  the  other  is  a  reproduction  of  the  often-copied  figure  in 
Cuvier  and  Valenciennes'  "Histoire  Naturelle  des  Poissons,"  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long. 
Liitkeu  had  a  similar  specimen,  ten  millimeters  long,  but  it  was  too  poorly  preserved  to  be  figured. 

Of  the  various  species  of  Tetrapturus  and  Histiophorus,  six  figures  are  given.  The  smallest 
is  that  from  "Spolia  Atlantiea,"  and  is  of  a  fish  five  and  one-half  millimeters  long.  Liitkeu 
remarks  that  he  has  a  series  from  five  and  one-half  to  twelve  millimeters  long  which  differ 
very  little  from  each  other.  The  next  in  size  is  copied  from  Giinther,  and  is  probably  about  ten 
millimeters  long;  the  third,  also  from  Giinther,  is  fourteen  millimeters  long.  Liitken  has  another 
link  in  the  series,  a  specimen  twenty-one  millimeters  long,  which  he  has  not  figured.  The  fourth 
stage  is  from  Giinther,  a  specimen  sixty  millimeters  long ;  the  fifth,  from  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes, 
their  Histiophorus  pulcMlus,  about  four  hundred  and  ten  millimeters  long;  the  sixth,  from  Eiippell, 
a  copy  of  his  figure  of  H.  immaculatus,  said  to  be  about  eighteen  hundred  millimeters  long. 
These  illustrations  show  the  development  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner. 

ABUNDANCE  AT  PRESENT. — For  many  years  from  three  to  six  thousand  of  these  fish  have 
been  taken  annually  on  the  New  England  coast.  It  is  not  unusual  for  twenty-five  or  more  to 
be  seen  in  the  course  of  a  single  day's  cruising,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  this  are  visible  from 
the  mast-head  at  one  time.  Captain  Ashby  saw  twenty  at  one  time,  in  August,  1839,  between 
George's  Banks  and  the  South  Shoals.  One  Gloucester  schooner,  the  "  Midnight,"  Capt.  Alfred 
Wixon,  took  fourteen  in  one  day  on  George's  Banks,  in  1877. 

Capt.  John  Bowe  obtained  twenty  barrels,  or  four  thousand  pounds,  of  salt  fish  on  one  trip  to 
George's  Banks;  this  amount  represents  twenty  fish  or  more. 

Captain  Ashby  has  killed  one  hundred  and  eight  Sword-fish  in  one  year;  Capt.  M.  C.  Tripp 
killed  about  ninety  in  1874. 

Such  instances  as  these  indicate  in  a  general  way  the  abundance  of  the  Sword-fish.  A  vessel 
cruising  within  fifty  miles  of  our  coast,  between  Cape  May  and  Cape  Sable,  during  the  months 
of  June,  July,  August,  and  September,  cannot  fail,  on  a  favorable  day,  to  come  in  sight  of  several 
of  them.  Mr.  Earll  states  that  the  fishermen  of  Portland  never  knew  them  more  abundant  than 
in  1879.  This  is  probably,  in  part,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fishery  there  is  of  very  recent  origin. 

ABUNDANCE  IN  THE  PAST  AND  PROBABILITY  OF  FUTURE  DECREASE. — There  is  no  evidence 
of  any  change  in  their  abundance,  either  increase  or  decrease.  Fishermen  agree  that  they  are  as 
plenty  as  ever,  nor  can  any  change  be  anticipated.  The  present  mode  of  fishing  does  not  destroy 
them  in  any  considerable  numbers,  each  individual  fish  being  the  object  of  special  pursuit.  The 
solitary  habits  of  the  species  will  always  protect  them  from  wholesale  capture,  so  destructive  to 
schooling  fish.  Even  if  this  were  not  the  case,  the  evidence  proves  that  spawning  Sword-fish  do 
not  frequent  our  waters.  When  a  female  shad  is  killed,  thousands  of  possible  young  die  also, 
The  Sword-fish  taken  by  our  fishermen  carry  no  such  precious  burden. 

EFFECTS  OF  OVERFISHINO  IN  THE  MEDITERRANEAN. — A  very  difl'erent  tale  was  once  told  of 


PRESENT  ABUNDANCE  OF  SWORD-FISH.  349 

the  winter  fishery  in  the  Mediterranean.  Mennier  quotes  this  testimony  by  Spallanzani:  "I  took 
part  many  times  in  this  fishery,  and  I  dare  not  tell  how  many  young  fish  are  its  victims;  being  of 
no  value  they  are  thrown  back  into  the  sea,  mutilated  or  already  dead  from  the  rubbing  of  the  net- 
meshes.  I  write  denouncing  this  destructive  method,  and  I  urge  forcibly  the  harm  which  results 
from  it.  They  tell  me  it  is  true  that  there  is  a  law  of  Genoa  which  forbids  its  use,  or  rather  its 
abuse,  but  this  does  not  do  away  with  the  fact  that  each  year  there  sail  from  the  Gulf  of  Spezzia 
three  or  four  pairs  of  fishiug  boats  which  go  to  the  sea  to  curry  on  this  fishing.  Still  more,  the 
governor  of  the  place,  who  should  carry  out  this  law,  is  the  first  to  favor,  by  means  of  a  gift  of 
silver^  the  abuse  which  it  is  intended  to  prevent." 

This,  however,  was  a  century  ago.  I  have  met  with  no  complaints  of  decrease  in  the  works  of 
litter  writers,  though  in  Targioui-Tozzetti's  report,  published  in  1880,  it  is  stated  that  there  is  much 
opposition  to  the  capture  of  small  fish. 

NATUBE  OF  FOOD. — Dr.  Fleming  found  the  remains  of  Sepias  in  its  stomach,  and  also  small 
li-hfs.  Oppian  stated  that  it  eagerly  devours  the  Hippnrin  (probably  Coryphana). 

A  specimen  taken  off  Seaconnet,  July  22,  1875,  had  in  its  stomach  the  remains  of  small  fish, 
perhaps  strtinititriix  triacanthus,  and  jaws  of  a  squid,  perhaps  Loligo  Pealii. 

Their  food  in  the  Western  Atlantic  consists  for  the  most  part  of  the  common  schooling  species 
of  fishes. 

They  feed  on  menhaden,  mackerel,  bonitoes,  bluefish,  and  other  species  which  swim  in  close 
schools.  Their  habits  of  feeding  have  often  been  described  to  me  by  old  fishermen.  They  are  said 
to  rise  beneath  the  school  of  small  fish,  striking  to  the  right  and  left  with  their  swords  until  they 
have  killed  a  number,  which  they  then  proceed  to  devour.  Menhaden  have  been  seen  floating  at 
the  surface  which  have  been  cut  nearly  in  twain  by  a  blow  of  a  sword.  Mr.  John  H.  Thomson 
remarks  that  he  has  seen  them  apparently  throw  the  fish  in  the  air,  catching  them  on  the  fall. 

Capt  Benjamin  Ashby  says  that  they  feed  on  mackerel,  herring,  whiting,  and  menhaden.  He 
has  found  half  a  bucketful  of  small  fish  of  these  kinds  in  the  stomach  of  one  Sword-fish.  He  has 
seen  them  in  the  act  of  feeding.  They  rise  perpendicularly  out  of  the  water  until  the  sword  and 
two-thirds  of  the  remainder  of  the  body  are  exposed  to  view.  He  has  seen  a  school  of  herring 
crowding  together  at  the  surface  on  George's  Banks  as  closely  as  they  could  be  packed.  A  Sword- 
fish  came  up  through  the  dense  mass  and  fell  flat  over  on  its  side,  striking  many  fish  with  the 
sides  of  its  sword.  He  has  at  one  time  picked  up  as  much  as  a  bushel  of  herrings  thus  killed  by  a 
Sword-fish  on  George's  Banks. 

REPRODUCTION. — But  little  is  known  regarding  their  time  and  place  of  breeding.  They  are 
said  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  large  quantities  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  and  European  writers  give 
their  spawning  time  as  occurring  the  latter  part  of  spring  and  the  beginning  of  summer.  In  the 
Mediterranean  they  occur  of  all  sizes  from  four  hundred  pounds  down,  and  the  young  are  so 
plentiful  as  to  become  a  common  article  of  food.  Except  in  this  region  the  young  are  never  taken :  on 
our  own  coast,  plentiful  as  they  are,  they  are  never  seen  less  than  three  feet,  and  are  usually  much 
larger.  M.  Raynaud,  who  brought  to  Onvier  a  specimen  of  Histiopkorus  four  inches  long,  taken  iti 
January,  1829,  in  the  Atlantic,  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  France,  reported  that  there 
were  good  numbers  of  young  Sail-fish  in  the  place  where  this  was  taken.1 

Old  fishermen  who  have  taken  and  dressed  them  by  the  hundred  assure  me  that  they  have 
never  seen  traces  of  spawn  in  them.  The  absence  of  young  fish  and  spawning  females  on  the 
coast  of  North  America  would  indicate  that  they  do  not  breed  with  us.  Judging  from  the  locations 
where  young  fish  have  been  taken,  it  seems  probable  that  they  breed  in  the  open  ocean. 

1  CUVIKR  &.  VALBNCIKNNKS:  Hint.  N»t.  Poise.,  viii,  p.  305. 


350  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Meunier,1  quoting  Spallanzani,  states  that  the  Sword-fish  does  not  approach  the  coast  of 
Sicily  except  in  the  season  of  reproduction ;  the  males  are  then  seen  pursuing  the  females.  It  is  a 
good  time  to  capture  them,  for  when  the  female  has  been  taken  the  male  lingers  near  and  is  easily 
approached.  The  fish  are  abundant  in  the  Straits  of  Messina  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the 
middle  of  September;  early  in  the  season  they  hug  the  Oalabrian  shore,  approaching  from  the 
north  ;  after  the  end  of  June  they  are  most  abundant  on  the  Sicilian  shore,  approaching  from  the 
south. 

From  other  circumstances,  it  seems  certain  that  there  are  spawning  grounds  in  the  sea  near 
Sicily  and  Genoa,  for  from  November  to  the  1st  of  March  young  ones  are  taken  in  the  Straits  of 
Messina,  ranging  in  weight  from  half  a  pound  to  twelve  pounds. 

ABSENCE  OF  ORDINARY  HABITS  OF  BREEDING  SEASON  AMONG  OUR  SWORD-FISH.— In  the 
Mediterranean,  sis  has  been  already  stated,  the  very  young  fish  are  found  from  November  to  March, 
and  here  from  July  to  the  middle  of  September  the  male  fish  are  seen  pursuing  the  female  over 
the  shoals,  and  at  this  time  the  males  are  easily  taken.  Old  sword-fish  fishermen.  Captain  Ashby 
and  Captain  Kirby,  assure  me  that  on  our  coast,  out  of  thousands  of  specimens  they  have  taken, 
they  have  never  seen  one  containing  eggs.  I  have  myself  dissected  several  males,  none  of  which 
were  near  breeding  time.  In  the  European  waters  they  are  said  often  to  be  seen  swimming  in 
pairs,  male  and  female.  Many  sentimental  stories  were  current,  especially  among  the  older  writers, 
concerning  the  conjugal  affection  and  unselfish  devotion  of  the  Sword-fish,  but  these  seem  to  have 
originated  in  the  imaginative  brain  of  the  naturalist  rather  than  in  his  perceptive  faculties.  It  is 
said  that  when  the  female  fish  is  taken  the  male  seems  devoid  of  fear,  approaches  the  boat,  and 
allows  himself  easily  to  be  taken ;  but,  if  this  be  true,  it  appears  to  be  the  case  only  in  the  height 
of  the  breeding  season,  and  is  easily  understood.  I  cannot  learn  that  two  Sword-fish  have  ever 
been  seen  associated  together  in  our  waters,  though  I  have  made  frequent  and  diligent  inquiry. 

There  is  no  inherent  improbability,  however,  in  this  story  regarding  the  Sword-fish  in  Europe, 
for  the  same  thing  is  stated  by  Professor  Poey  as  the  result  of  his  studies  upon  the  habits  of 
Tetrapturus. 

A  curious  fancy  was  prevalent  in  former  days  regarding  an  anatomical  character  of  the  Sword- 
fish.  In  an  article  by  Mr.  Dale  in  "Philosophical  Transactions"  (abridged  edition,  ii,  p.  835),  he 
remarks:  "  I  cannot  concede  it  to  be  consonant  to  that  Care  and  Industry  of  Nature,  in  providing 
convenient  Receptacles  for  preserving  the  Foetus;  neither  is  it  agreeable  to  Reason  to  believe,  that 
when  Nature  had  provided  an  Uterus  in  all  Animals,  not  only  the  Viviparous,  and  such  as  only 
cherish  the  Embryo  in  Utero,  but  in  the  Oviparous  also  and  Insects,  the  Eel  and  the  Xiphia,  or 
Sword-fish,  should  be  the  only  Animals  without  it." 

ENEMIES  AND  FATALITIES:  PUGNACITY.— The  pugnacity  of  the  Sword-fish  has  become  a 
by-word.  Without  any  special  effort  on  my  part  the  following  instances  of  their  attacks  upon 
vessels  have  in  the  last  six  years  found  their  way  into  the  pigeon-hole  labeled  "  Sword-fish." 

JSelian  says  (b.  xxxii,  c.  6)  that  the  Sword-fish  has  a  sharp-pointed  snout,  with  which  it  is 
able  to  pierce  the  sides  of  a  ship  and  send  it  to  the  bottom,  instances  of  which  have  been  known 
near  a  place  in  Mauritania  known  as  Cotte,  not  far  from  the  river  Lixus,  on  the  African  side  of  the 
Mediterranean.  He  describes  the  sword  as  like  the  beak  of  the  ship  known  as  the  trireme,  which 
was  rowed  with  three  banks  of  oars. 

One  of  the  earliest  accounts  is  that  given  in  the  second  part  of  vol.  i,  lib.  ii,  p.  89,  1615,  of 
"Purchas  his  Pilgriraes": 

"The  sixth  Circura- Navigation,  by  William  Cornelisou  Schovten  of  Home;  who  Sovthwards 

'Lea  Grandee  Pechea,  p.  142. 


BRKKIUNO  HABITS  OF  SWORD  -FISH.  351 

from  tin;  Straights  of  Magelan  in  Tierra-Delfvogo,  fovnd  and  discovered  a  new  passage  through 
tin'  jjn-.it  Suvtli  SIM,  and  that  way  sailed  rovnd  about  the  World,"  etc. 

Off  the  rou.-l  of  Sierra  Leoue: 

••The  lift  of  October  we  were  vnder  foure  degrees  seueu  and  tweutie  minutes,  the  same  day 
about-noonr,  thriv  was  such  a  uoyse  in  the  Bough  of  our  Shippe,  that  the  master,  being  behind  in 
tin-  (l.illn  ir.  thought  that  one  of  the  men  had  fallen  out  of  the  Fore-ship,  or  from  the  Boe-sprit 
into  tin-  sea,  but  as  hee  looked  out  over  the  side  of  the  Ship  bee  saw  the  Sea  all  red,  as  if  great 
store  of  bloud  had  beene  powred  into  it,  whereat  hee  woudred,  knowing  not  what  it  meant,  but 
afterward  hee  found,  that  a  great  Fish  or  a  Sea  monster  having  a  borne  had  therewith  stricken 
against  the  ship  with  most  great  strength.  For  when  we  were  in  Porto  Desire  where  we  set  the 
Ship  on  the  Strand  to  make  it  cleane,  about  seven  foot  under  water,  before  in  the  Ship,  wee  found 
a  Home  Mil-king  in  the  Ship,  much  like  for  thicknesse  and  fashion  to  a  common  Elephants  tooth, 
not  hollow,  but  lull,  very  strong  hard  Bone,  which  had  entered  into  three  Plaukes  of  the  Ship, 
that  is  two  thicke  Plankes  of  greeue  and  one  of  Okeu  wood,  and  so  into  a  Rib,  where  it  turned 
upward,  to  our  great  good  fortune,  for  if  it  had  entered  between  the  Kibbes,  it  would  happily  have 
made  a  greater  Hole  and  have  brought  both  Ship  and  men  in  danger  to  be  lost.  It  strucke  at 
least  halfe  a  foote  deepe  into  the  Ship  and  about  half  a  foote  without,  where,  with  great  force  it 
\s  as  broken  off,  by  reason  whereof  the  great  monster  bled  so  much." 

More  than  a  century  later  C.  Mortimer,  M.  D.,  records  this  experience : 

•-.Mr.  Baukley  showed  me  the  Horn  of  a  Fish  that  had  penetrated  above  8  inches  into  the 
Timber  of  a  Ship  and  gave  me  the  following  Relation  of  it:  'His  MAJESTY'S  Ship  Leopard,  having 
been  at  the  Went  Indies  and  on  the  Coast  of  Guiney,  was  ordered  by  Warrant  from  the  Honourable 
Xncy -Board,  dated  Aug.  18,  1721,  to  be  cleaned  and  refitted  at  Portsmout  for  Channel-Service: 
Pursuant  thereto,  she  was  put  into  the  great  Stone-dock;  and,  in  stripping  off  her  Sheathing,  the 
Shipwrights  found  something  that  was  uncommon  in  her  Bottom,  about  8  Feet  from  her  Keel,  just 
before  the  Fore  Mast ;  which  they  searching  into,  found  the  Bone  or  Part  of  the  Horn  of  a  Fish  of 
the  Figure  here  described;  the  Outside  Rough  not  unlike  Seal- Skin;  and  the  End,  where  it  was 
broken  off  shewed  itself  like  coarse  Ivory.  The  Fish  is  supposed  to  have  followed  the  Ship,  when 
under  Sail, because  the  Sharp  End  of  the  Horn  pointed  toward  the  Bow:  It  penetrated  with  that 
Swiftness  or  Strength  that  it  went  through  the  Sheathing  1  Inch  thick,  the  Plank  3  Inches  thick, 
and  into  the  Timber,  4J  inches.'"1 

Don  Joseph  Cornide,  in  his  "  Ensayo  de  una  Historia  de  los  Peces  de  la  Costa  de  Galicia," 
1787: 

"This  fish  is  taken  in  the  seas  of  Qalicia,  where  it  is  more  common  toward  the  Rio  de  Vigo, 
where  it  is  well  known  that  the  'Balandia'  (a  small  fishing  vessel),  of  S.  M.  le  Ardilla,  was  pierced  in 
its  side  and  sunk  by  the  arm  of  one  of  these  fishes,  which  is  preserved  in  the  Royal  Cabinet  of 
Natural  History." 

The  following  statement  is  from  the  note  book  of  Professor  Baird : 

In  1871  the  little  yacht  "Redhot,"  of  New  Bedford,  was  out  sword-fish  fishing,  and  a  Sword-fish 
had  been  hauled  in  to  be  lanced,  and  it  attacked  the  vessel  and  pierced  the  side  so  as  (o  sink  the 
\  i-isel.  She  was  repaired  and  used  in  the  service  of  the  Commission  at  Wood's  Holl. 

Couch  quotes  the  personal  statement  of  a  gentleman,  who  says: 

"We  have  had  the  pleasure  of  inspecting  a  piece  of  wood  cut  out  of  one  of  the  fore  plauks  of 
a  vessel  (the  '  Priscilla,'  from  Pemambuco)  through  which  was  struck  about  eighteen  inches  of 

'An  account  of  the  bom  of  a  Fish  struck  several  luches  into  the  aide  of  a  Ship,  by  C.  Mortiu  er,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  8. 
Philos.  Trans.,  xl,  No.  4*51,  p.<*>2,  1741.  Abr.  ed.,  ix,  p.  7^. 


352  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  bony  weapon  of  the  Sword-fish.  The  force  with  which  it  must  have  been  driven  in  affords  a 
striking  exemplification  of  the  power  and  ferocity  of  the  fish.  The 'Priscilla' is  quite  a  new 
vessel.  Captain  Taylor,  her  commander,  states  that  when  near  the  A/ores,  as  he  was  walking  the 
quarter-deck  at  night,  a  shock  was  felt  which  brought  all  hands  from  below,  under  the  impression 
that  the  ship  had  touched  upon  some  rock.  This  was,  no  doubt,  when  the  occurrence  took  p"lace." 

The  New  York  Herald  of  May  11,  1871,  states: 

"The  English  ship 'Queensberry' has  been  struck  by  a  Sword  fish,  which  penetrated  to  a 
depth  of  thirty  inches,  causing  a  leak  which  necessitated  the  discharge  of  the  cargo." 

The  "London  Daily  News  of  December"  11,  1868,  contained  the  following  paragraph,  which 
emanated,  I  suspect,  from  the  pen  of  Prof.  R.  A.  Proctor : 

'.'Last  Wednesday  the  court  of  common  pleas — rather  a  strange  place,  by  the  by,  for  inquiring 
into  the  natural  history  of  fishes — was  engaged  for  several  hours  in  trying  to  determine  under 
what  circumstances  a  Sword-fish  might  be  able  to  escape  scot-free  after  thrusting  his  snout  into 
the  side  of  a  ship.  The  gallant  ship ' Dreadnought,'  thoroughly  repaired  and  classed  Al  at  Lloyd's, 
had  been  insured  for  £3,000  against  all  the  risks  of  the  seas.  She  sailed  ou  March  10,  1864,  from 
Colombo,  for  London.  Three  days  later  the  crew,  while  fishing,  hooked  a  Sword-fish.  Xiphias, 
however,  broke  the  line,  and  a  few  moments  after  leaped  half  out  of  the  water,  with  the  object,  it 
should  seem,  of  taking  a  look  at  his  persecutor,  the  '  Dreadnought.'  Probably  he  satisfied  himself 
that  the  enemy  was  some  abnormally  large  cetacean,  which  it  was  his  natural  duty  to  attack  forth- 
with. Be  this  as  it  may,  the  attack  was  made,  and  at  four  o'clock  the  next  morning  the  captain  was 
awakened  with  the  unwelcome  intelligence  that  the  ship  had  sprung  a  leak.  She  was  taken  back 
to  Colombo,  and  thence  to  Cochin,  where  she  was  hove  down.  Near  the  keel  was  found  a  round 
hole,  an  inch  in  diameter,  running  completely  through  the  copper  sheathing  and  planking. 

"As  attacks  by  Sword-fish  are  included  among  sea-risks,  the  insurance  company  was  willing 
to  pay  the  damages  claimed  by  the  owners  of  the  ship  if  only  it  could  be  proved  that  the  hole  had 
really  been  made  by  a  Sword-fish.  No  instance  had  ever  been  recorded  in  which  a  Sword-fish  had 
been  able  to  withdraw  his  sword  after  attacking  a  ship.  A  defense  was  founded  on  the  possibility 
that  the  hole  had  been  made  in  some  other  way.  Professor  Owen  and  Mr.  Frank  Bucklaud  gave 
their  evidence,  but  neither  of  them  could  state  quite  positively  whether  a  Sword-fish  which  had 
passed  its  beak  through  three  inches  of  stout  planking  could  withdraw  without  the  loss  of  its 
sword.  Mr.  Buckland  said  that  fish  have  no  power  of  'backing,'  and  expressed  his  belief  that  he 
could  hold  a  Sword-fish  by  the  beak;  but  then  he  admitted  that  the  fish  had  considerable  lateral 
power,  and  might  so '  wriggle  its  sword  out  of  the  hole.'  And  so  the  insurance  company  will  have 
to  pay  nearly  £600  because  an  ill-tempered  fish  objected  to  be  hooked,  and  took  it  srevenge  by 
running  full  tilt  against  copper  sheathing  and  oak  planking." 

"The  Gloucester  schooner '  Wyoming,'  on  a  last  trip  to  George's  Banks,"  records  the '  New  York 
World'  of  August  31, 1875,  "  was  attacked  by  a  Sword-fish  in  the  night-time.  He  assailed  the  vessel 
with  great  force,  and  succeeded  in  putting  his  sword  through  one  of  her  planks  some  two  feet,  and, 
after  making  fearful  struggles  to  extricate  himself,  broke  his  sword  off,  leaving  it  hard  and  fast  in 
the  plank,  and  made  a  speedy  departure.  Fortunate  was  it  that  he  did  not  succeed  in  drawing 
out  his  sword,  as  the  aperture  would  undoubtedly  have  made  a  leak  sufficient  to  sink  the  vessel. 
As  it  was,  she  leaked  badly,  requiring  pretty  lively  pumping  to  keep  her  free." 

Another  instance  of  a  similar  nature  is  this,  which  was  recorded  in  the  "  Liverpool  Mercury  " 
about  the  year  187H : 

"Mr.  J.  J.  Harwood,  master  of  the  British  brigautine  '  Fortunate,'  in  dock  at  Liverpool,  reports 
that  whilst  on  his  passage  from  the  Rio  Grande,  when  in  latitude  20°  12'  north  and  longitude  47° 


DKSTKn  TIYKNKSS  OF    TI1K  S\VOHI>-FISH.  353 

'.»'  west,  this  ship  was  struck  liy  a  large  tisli,  which  made  the  vessel  shake  very  much.  Thinking  the 
ship  had  been  merch  struck  by  the  tail  of  some  sea-monster,  he  took  no  further  notice  of  the 
mattci •;  but,  alter  discharging  cargo  at  Huncoru,  and  coming  into  the  Canada  half-tide  dock,  he 
found  one  of  the  plank  ends  in  the  stern  split,  and  on  closer  examination  he  discovered  that  a 
Sword-tisli  |i:id  driven  his  sword  completely  through  the  plank,  four  inches  in  thickness,  leaving 
the  point  of  the  sword  nearly  eight  inches  through  the  plank.  The  fish  in  its  struggle  broke  the 
sword  off  level  with  the  outside  of  the  vessel,  and  by  its  attack  upon  the  ship  lost  nearly  afoot 
length  of  the  very  dangerous  weapon  with  which  it  was  armed.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  some- 
what singular  occurrence  took  place  when  the  vessel  was  struck  as  Captain  Harwood  describes." 
In  "Forest  and  Stream"  of  June  24,  1875,  was  recorded  the  following  incident: 
"On  Wednesday  of  last  week  a  Sword-fish  attacked  the  fishing-boat  of  Capt.  D.  D.  Thurlow 
while  he  was  hauling  mackerel-nets  off  Fire  Island,  thrust  its  sword  clear  through  the  bottom,  and 
stuck  fast,  while  the  fishermen  took  several  half-hitches  around  its  body  and  so  secured  it.  It  was 
afterwards  brought  to  Fulton  Market,  and  found  to  weigh  three  hundred  and  ninety  pounds.  Its 
sword  measured  three  feet  and  seven  inches,  and  its  entire  length  was  over  eleven  feet.  The 
stuffed  skin  will  adorn  the  Central  Park  Musuom." 

In  the  "Landmark,"  of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  February,  1876,  was  mentioned  a  similar  occurrence: 
"The  brig  'P.  M.  Tinker,'  Captain  Bernard,  previously  mentioned  as  having  arrived  here  from 
Richmond,  leaking,  for  repairs,  has  been  hauled  up  on  the  ways  at  Graves'  ship-yard.  On  exami- 
nation it  was  discovered  that  the  leak  was  caused  by  a  Sword  fish,  the  sword  being  found  broken 
off  forward  the  bands,  about  sixteen  feet  abaft  the  forefoot.  The  fish,  in  striking  the  vessel,  must 
have  come  with  great  force,  as  the  sword  penetrated  the  copper  sheathing,  a  four-inch  birch 
plank,  and  through  the  timbers  about  six  inches — in  all  about  (en  inches.  It  occurred  on  the 
morning  of  the  23d  of  December,  when  the  brig  was  eighteen  days  out  from  Rio,  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Cape  Saint  Roque.  She  was  pumped  about  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  found 
free  of  water.  About  six  o'clock  the  same  morning  she  was  again  pumped,  when  water  was 
obtained,  and  on  examination  it  was  found  that  she  had  made  ten  inches  of  water.  The  men  were 
kept  steady  at  the  pumps  until  her  arrival  at  llichmond,  and  while  there,  and  on  her  trip  here," 
Mr.  Willard  Nye,  of  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  sends  the  following  note : 
"A  few  years  ago  Captain  Dyer,  of  New  Bedford,  struck  a  Sword-fish,  from  a  thirty-foot  boat, 
forty  miles  southwest  of  Noman's  Land,  threw  overboard  the  keg,  tacked,  and  stood  by  to  the 
windward  of  it.  When  nearly  abreast  of  it  the  man  at  the  mast-head  called  out,  « Why,  here  he  is, 
right  alongside.'  The  fish  was  then  about. ten  feet  from  the  boat,  and  swimming  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, but  when  he  got  where  he  could  see  the  splash  of  water  around  the  bow  he  turned  and  struck 
the  boat  about  two  feet  from  the  stern  and  just  below  the  water-line.  The  sword  went  through  the 
planking,  which  was  of  cedar  an  inch  and  three-quarters  thick,  into  a  lot  of  loose  iron  ballast, 
In-caking  off  short  at  the  fish's  head.  A  number  of  boats,  large  and  small,  have  been  'stove'  by 
Sword-fish  on  our  coast,  but  always  after  the  fish  had  been  struck." 

A  nameless  writer  in  "  Harper's  Weekly,"  October  25, 1879,  narrates  these  instances,  for  which 
I  am  unable  to  give  the  original  authority: 

••  In  a  calm  day  in  the  summer  of  1832,  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  a  pilot  was  rowing  his 
little  skiff  leisurely  along,  when  he  was  suddenly  roused  from  his  seat  by  a  thrust  from  below  by  a 
Sword  fish,  who  drove  his  sharp  instrument  more  than  three  feet  up  through  the  bottom.  With  rare 
presence  of  mind,  with  the  butt  of  an  oar  he  broke  it  off  level  with  the  floor  before  the  fish  had 
time  to  withdraw  it.  Fortunately,  the  thrust  was  not  directly  upward.  Had  it  been  so,  the  frail 
boat  would  have  been  destroyed. 
23  P 


354  NATUKAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"A  Boston  ship  hauled  up  on  the  ways  for  repair,  a  few  years1  since,  presented  the  shank  of  a 
Sword-fish's  dagger,  which  had  been  driven  considerably  far  into  the  solid  oak  plank.  A  more 
curious  aft'air  was  brought  to  light  in  1725  in  overhauling  His  Majesty's  ship  'Leopard,'  from  the 
coast  of  Africa.  The  sword  of  this  marine  spearsmau  had  pierced  the  sheathing  one  inch,  next  it 
went  through  a  throe-inch  plank,  and  beyond  that  three  inches  and  a  half  into  the  firm  timber. 
It  was  the  opinion  of  the  mechanics  that  it  would  have  required  nine  strokes  of  a  hammer  weigh- 
ing twenty-five  pounds  to  drive  an  iron  bolt  of  the  same  dimensions  to  the  same  depth  in  the  hull. 
Yet  the  fish  drove  it  at  a  single  thrust. 

"On  the  return  of  the  whale-ship  'Fortune'  to  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  iu  1827,  the  stump 
of  a  sword  blade  of  this  fish  was  noticed  projecting  like  a  cog  outside,  which,  on  being  traced,  had 
been  driven  through  the  copper  sheathing,  an  inch  board  undersheathing,  a  three-inch  plank  of 
hard  wood,  the  solid  white-oak  timber  twelve  inches  thick,  then  through  another  two  and  a  half 
inch  hard-oak  ceiling,  and  lastly  penetrated  the  head  of  an  oil-cask,  where  it  stuck,  not  a  drop  of 
the  oil  having  escaped." 

Such  instances  could  be  found  by  the  score,  if  one  had  the  time  and  patience  to  search.  The 
thing  happens  many  times  a  year,  and  nearly  as  often  affords  a  text  for  some  paragrapher  or  local 
editor.  , 

ENEMIES. — Such  a  large  animal  as  the  Sword-fish  can  have  but  few  antagonists  whose  attacks 
would  be  disastrous.  The  tunny  or  horse-mackerel,  Orcynus  thynnus,  other  Sword-fishes,  and 
sharks  are  its  only  peers  in  size,  and  of  these  the  sharks  are  probably  its  worst  foes. 

Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood  exhibited  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  December  7,  1864, 
the  lower  jaw  of  a  large  shark,  taken  at  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  in  whose  stomach  nearly 
the  whole  of  a  large  Sword-fish  was  found.  Some  ten  or  twelve  wounds  were  noticed  in  the  skin 
of  the  shark,  giving  an  idea  of  the  conflict.  The  shark  was  doubtless  Galeocerdo  tigrinus. 

Couch  was  told  by  a  sailor  that  he  had  watched  with  interest  the  anxious  motions  of  one  as  it 
was  followed  closely  and  rapidly  in  all  its  turnings  by  a  blue  shark.  Twice  did  it  leap  above  the 
surface  to  escape  the  near  approach  of  its  pursuer,  but  with  what  success  at  last  the  observer  had 
no  opportunity  of  knowing. 

Mr.  John  H.  Thomson  states  that  the  Bill-fish  (probably  Tetrapturus  albidus)  is  their  especial 
enemy.  Bill  fish,  six  to  twelve  feet  long,  appear  about  the  last  of  the  season,  and  their  appear- 
ance is  a  signal  that  the  Sword-fish  are  about  leaving. 

INVERTEBRATE  PARASITES  OF  THE  SWORD-FISH. — Aristotle  thus  explains  the  leaping  move- 
ments of  the  fish :  "The  tunny  and  the  Xiphias  suffer  from  the  oestrus  at  the  rising  of  the  dog  star, 
for  both  these  fish  at  this  season  have  beneath  their  fins  a  little  worm  which  is  called  oastrus, 
which  resembles  a  scorpion,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a  spider;  they  sutfer  so  much  from  this 
torment  that  the  Xiphias  leaps  out  of  the  sea  as  high  as  the  dolphin,  and  in  this  manner  fre- 
quently falls  ui)on  our  ships." 

This  description  of  the  parasite  is  somewhat  vague;  yet  it  is  evident  that  allusion  is  made  to 
one  of  the  Lerneans  or  gill-lice,  little  crustaceans  remotely  resembling  crabs  and  lobsters,  which 
attach  themselves  to  the  gills  and  skin  of  many  kinds  of  fishes,  sucking  the  blood  from  their  veins, 
and  often  causing  death;  dreadful  to  their  victims  as  was  their  namesake,  the  fabled  Leruean 
Hydra,  to  the  Argives  of  old,  and  not  to  be  destroyed  by  any  piscine  Hercules  and  lolaus. 

In  one  of  the  early  volumes  of  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  is  an  account  by  S.  Paulo 
Boccoue  of  "an  extraordinary  Sanguisuga,  or  Leech,  found  sometimes  sticking  fast  in  the  Fish 
called  Xiphia»  or  Sword-fish,"  It  is  described  as  "about  four  Inches  long,  the  Belly  of  it  white, 
cartilaginous  and  transparent,  without  Eyes  or  Head,  but  instead  of  a  Head  it  had  a  hollow  Snout, 


PARASITES  OF  THE  SWORD  FISH.  355 

encompass^!  with  a  very  hard  Membrane;  which  Snout  it  thrusts  whole  into  the  Body  of  tho 
Fish,  as  strongly  as  an  Anyre  is  wound  into  a  piece  of  Wood,  and  fills  it  full  of  Blood  into  the 
very  Oriiice."  Hi-  names  it  "Z/irudo"  or  ".dew*  cauda  utrinque pcnnata." ' 

A  specimen  taken  oil'  Seaconnct,  July  22,  1875,  had  fluke-worms  in  the  external  coat  of  the 
stomach  and  in  the  air-bladder. 

The  Sword -tish  is  infested  by  many  species  of  invertebrate  parasites.  Some  hang  on  the  gills, 
others  fasten  themselves  to  different  parts  of  the  alimentary  canal — the  esophagus,  the  stomach, 
and  the  intestines;  ami  others  still  bore  into  the  flesh.  Several  species,  as  might  be  expected 
from  the  size  of  the  flsh,  are  among  the  giants  of  their  races.  All  undoubtedly  cause  more  or 
less  pain  to  their  host,  but  especially  those  which  attach  themselves  to  the  gills,  disturbing  their 
action  and  destroying  their  substance. 

The  parasites  of  the  Sword-fish,  for  convenience,  may  be  classified  in  two  groups,  the  worm- 
like  para>ites  (Hflininthes)  and  the  crustacean  parasites. 

FISH-PAUASITES — THE  SUCKERS  OB  REMORA8.— Several  species  of  "stay-ships"  or  "remoraa" 
occur  on  our  coast.  The  ordinary  kinds,  such  as  Echeneis  naucrates,  the  one  with  a  black  stripe 
down  its  side,  and  white  corners  to  its  caudal  fin,  appears  to  choose  companionship  with  the 
sharks,  while  the  oceanic  species,  Remora  squalipela,  is  most  often  found  clinging  to  ships. 

A  third  secies,  Remora  brachyptera,  is  the  particular  parasite  of  the  Sword-fish.  I  have 
several  times  identified  specimens  found  attached  to  the  fish,  and  have  never  known  this  species 
to  be  found  on  any  other  member  of  the  family.  It  has  never  come  to  us,  moreover,  from  locality 
and  season  which  would  be  inconsistent  with  a  theory  that  it  had  been  brought  near  shore  by  a 
Sword-fish. 

Still  another,  Rhombochirus  osteochir,  seems  equally  inseparable  from  Tetrapturus  albidus. 
This  fact  is  known  to  the  Cuban  fishermen,  who  call  it  by  the  name  Pega  de  las  Agujas — the 
parasite  of  the  Spear-fish. 

Perhaps  the  two  species  are  not  so  steadiest  in  their  likings  that  they  will  not  change  from 
Xiphias  to  Tetrapturus.  My  friend  Professor  Giglioli,  of  Florence,  who  speaks  of  R.  brachyptera 
as  a  fish  new  to  the  Mediterranean,  obtained  from  Taranto  a  specimen  said  to  have  been  taken 
from  the  gills  (operenlumf)  of  Tetrapturus  belone. 

These  parasites  probably  prefer  to  cling  with  their  curious  suckers  to  the  hard  exterior  surface 
of  the  opercular  flap  of  the  Sword-fish. 

SWORD-FISH  AS  AN  ARTICLE  OP  FOOD. — "  The  small  Sword-fish  is  very  good  meat,"  remarked 
Josselyn,  in  writing  of  the  fishes  of  New  England  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Since  Jossclyn 
probably  never  saw  a  young  Sword-fish,  unless  at  some  time  he  had  visited  the  Mediterranean, 
it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  his  information  was  derived  from  some  Italian  writer. 

It  is,  however,  a  fact  that  the  flesh  of  the  Sword-fish,  though  somewhat  oily,  is  a  very  accept- 
able article  of  food.  Its  texture  is  coarse;  the  thick,  fleshy,  muscular  layers  cause  it  to  resemble 
that  of  the  halibut  in  consistency.  Its  flavor  is  by  many  considered  fine,  and  is  not  unlike  that  of 
the  bluefish.  Its  color  is  gray.  The  meat  of  the  young  flsh  is  highly  prized  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  said  to  be  perfectly  white,  compact,  and  of  delicate  flavor.1  Sword-fish  are  usually  cut  up 
into  steaks,  thick  slices  across  the  body,  and  may  be  broiled  or  boiled. 


'Philosophical  Transactions,  Vol.  U,p.  821. 

8Thc  flesh,  which  is  much  esteemed  by  the  bettor  classes  at  Palermo,  is  dressed  in  almost  as  many  modes  as  that 
of  the  tunny,  and  fetches  a  higher  price.  During  our  sojourn  there  it  was  as  two  to  one,  the  price  of  the  first 
averaging  fonrpence  per  robolo,  while  the  poro/iai  of  the  latter  were  disposed  of  at  twopence  or  twopence-half- 
penny. The  fiber  is  invitingly  white,  and  the  round  segments  look,  as  they  lie  in  rows  along  the  stalls,  like  so  many 
fillets  of  veal.  Four  to  six  feet  is  the  usual  run  of  those  taken  off  the  Trinserian  coast  and  displayed  in  the  fish- 
inarkets  of  Sicily.— BADHAM. 


356  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Considerable  quantities  of  Sword-fish  are  annually  salted  in  barrels  in  Portland,  Gloucester, 
Boston,  New  Bedford,  and  New  London.  Sword-fish  pickled  in  brine  is  in  considerable  demand 
in  certain  sections  of  the  country,  and  particularly  in  Lower  Connecticut  Valley,  where  a  barrel 
may  be  found  in  almost  every  grocery  store.  By  many  persons  it  is  considered  much  more 
palatable  than  salted  mackerel. 

THE  SAIL-FISH— HISTIOPHOEUS  AMERICANTJS. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  American  species  of  Histiophorus  has  never  been  studied  by  an 
ichthyologist,  and  no  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to  describe  it  or  to  compare  it  carefully  with 
the  similar  species  occurring  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  identity  of  the  two  has  been  assumed 
by  Dr.  Gunther,1  but  since  no  American  specimens  have  ever  been  seen  by  this  authority,  I  hesi- 
tate for  the  present  to  follow  his  lead. 

The  history  of  the  Sail-fish  in  ichthyological  literature  is  as  follows: 

The  first  allusion  to  the  genus  occurs  in  Piso's  "Historia  Naturalis  Brasilia?,"  printed  at 
Amsterdam  in  1648.  In  this  book*  may  be  found  an  identifiable  though  rough  figure  of  the 
American  species,  accompanied  by  a  few  lines  of  description,  which,  though  good,  when  the  fact 
that  they  were  written  in  the  seventeenth  century  is  brought  to  mind,  are  of  no  value  for  critical 
comparison.  • 

The  name  given  to  the  Brazilian  Sail-fish  by  Marcgrave,  the  talented  young  German  who 
described  the  fishes  in  the  book  referred  to,  and  who  afterward  sacrificed  his  life  in  exploring  the 
unknown  fields  of  American  zoology,  was  Guebucu  brasiliensibm.  The  use  of  the  name  Guebucu  is 
interesting,  since  it  gives  a  clew  to  the  derivation  of  the  name  ''Boohoo,"  by  which  this  fish,  and 
probably  the  Spear-fishes,  are  known  to  English-speaking  sailors  in  the  tropical  Atlantic. 

Sail-fishes  were  observed  in  the  East  Indies  by  Renard  and  Valentijn,  explorers  of  that  region 
from  1680  to  1720,  and  by  other  eastern  voyagers.  No  species  of  the  genus  was,  however,  sys- 
tematically described  until  1786,  when  a  stuffed  specimen  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  eight  feet  long, 
was  taken  to  London,  where  it  still  remains  in  the  collections  of  the  British  Museum.  From  this 
specimen  M.  Broussonet  prepared  a  description,  giving  it  the  name  Scomber  gladiws,  rightly 
regarding  it  as  a  species  allied  to  the  mackerel. 

In  1803  Lac6pe<le  established  the  genus  Histiophorus  for  the  reception  of  this  species.    . 

When  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes  published  the  eighth  volume  of  their  Natural  History  of 
Fishes,  they  ignored  the  name  gladius,  which  had  been  given  to  the  East  Indian  fish  by  Brous- 
sonet, redescribing  it  under  the  name  Histiophorus  indicus.  At  the  same  time  they  founded 
another  species  upon  the  figure  in  Piso's  Natural  History  of  Brazil,  already  mentioned.  This  they 
•called  Histiophorus  americanus. 

'Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  in  the  British  Museum,  ii,  1860,  p.  513. 

*  1648.    Piso  and  MARCGRAVE  : 

Historia  Naturalis  |  lirasilim,  |  Auepicio  et  Beneficio  |  Illnstrisa.  |  Manritii   Com.  Nassau  |  illius  Provincira  et 
Maris  snmmi  Profacti  Adornata:  |  In  qua  |  Non  tan  turn  Plants)  et  Aninialia,  Bed  et  In-  ]  digenarum  morbi,  ingenia  et 
mores  describuntnr  et  |  Iconibns  qnngentns  illustrantnr  |    (Elaborate  engraved  title-page,  upon  which  the  preceding 
inscription  is  inserted  upon  a  scroll,  the  following  upon  a  shell.)    Lvgdvn  Batauorum,  |  Apud  Franciscum  Hackium,  | 
et  |  Amstelodami,  |  Apnd  Lud.  Elzevirium.    1648.  |  1  pp.  (13),  122,  (2),  (8),  293,  (7). 

.Second  title. 

Qnilielmi  Pisonis,  M.  D.  |  Lugduno-Batavi,  |  de  Medicina  Brasiliensi  |  Libri  Quatuor:  [  I.  Do  Aere,  Aquis  <& 
Locis  |  II.  De  Morbia  Endemiis.  |  III.  Venenatis  &  Antidotis.  |  IV.  De  Facultatibus  Simplicium  |  et  Georgi  Marc- 
gravi  de  Liebgtad,  |  Misnici  German!,  |  Histories  Rerum  Natural  nun  |  Brasilia)  |  Libri  octo:  |  Quorum  |  TITS  priores 
agunt  de  Plantis.  |  Quart  us  de  Piscibns.  |  Qnintns  de  Avibiis.  |  Sextns  de  Quadropedibus  &  Serpentibns.  |  Septimus  de 
Insectis.  |  Octavas  de  Ipsa  Regione,  &  Illius  Incolis.  |  Cum  j  Appeudice  de  Tapuyis,  et  Chilensibus.  |  loanues  de 
Lict,  |  Antwerpianns,  |  In  ordinem  digessit  &  Annotation™  addidit,  &  varies  ab  Anctore  |  Omigsa  snpplevit  & 
Unotravit. 


THE  SA1L-FISH.  357 

In  a  paper  printed  in  1833,  Dr.  Nardo,  of  Venice,  proposed  the  establishment  of  a  new  genus 
allied  to  Tttnipturus  and  Xiphiax,  to  be  called  Skeponopodu*.  In  this  he  included  the  fish  described 
by  Marcgravo  under  the  name  Skeponopodtix  guebucu,  and  also  a  form  observed  by  him  in  the 
Adriatic  in  1SL'!),  which  he  called  S.  typus.  I  ain  not  aware  that  ichthyologists  have  yet  learned 
what  t'uis  may  have  Ueen.1 

From  the  time  of  Marcgrave  until  1872  it  does  not  appear  that  any  zoologist  had  any  oppor- 
tunity to  study  a  Sail-fish  from  America,  or  even  from  the  Atlantic;  yet  in  Giinther's  "Catalogue" 
the  name  H.  americanus  is  discarded  and  the  species  of  America  is  assumed  to  be  identical  with 
that  of  the  Indian  Ocean.* 

Giinther  restores  Lac6pede's  name,  H.  gladiux,  for  the  Indian  species.  Possibly,  indeed 
probably,  this  name  will  be  found  to  include  the  Sail-fish  of  our  own  coast.  At  present,  however, 
it  seems  desirable  to  retain  a  separate  name.  To  unite  species  from  widely  distant  localities 
without  ever  having  seen  them  is  very  disastrous  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  problems  of 
geographical  distribution. 

The  materials  in  the  National  Museum  consist  of  a  skeleton  and  a  painted  plaster  cast  of  the 
specimen  taken  near  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1872,  and  a  drawing  made  of  the  same,  while  fresh, 
by  Mr.  J.  H.  Blake. 

The  occurrence  of  the  Sail-fish  is,  as  has  been  already  stated,  very  unusual.  Marcgrave  saw 
it  in  Brazil  as  early  as  1G48.  Sagra  and  Poey  mention  that  it  has  been  seen  about  Cuba,  and 
Schomburg  includes  it  in  his  Barbados  list.  The  specimen  in  the  United  States  National  Museum 
was  taken  off  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  August,  1872,  and  given  to  Professor  Baird  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Powell,  of  Newport.  No  others  were  observed  in  our  waters  until  March,  1878,  when,  according 
to  Mr.  Neyle  Habershain,  of  Savannah,  Georgia,  two  were  taken  by  a  vessel  between  Savannah 
and  Indian  River,  Florida,  and  were  brought  to  Savannah,  where  they  attracted  much  attention 
in  the  market.  In  1873,  according  to  Mr.  E.  G.  Blackford,  a  specimen  in  a  very  mutilated  condi- 
tion was  brought  from  Key  West  to  New  York  City. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  SAIL-FISHES. — No  observations  have  been  made  in  this  country,  and  recourse 
must  be  had  to  the  statements  of  observers  in  the  other  hemisphere. 

In  the  life  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  there  is  the  following  account  from  Singapore,  under  date  of 
November  30,  1822: 

"The  only  amusing  discovery  we  have  recently  made  is  that  of  a  sailing  fish,  called  by  the 
natives  Ikan  layer,  of  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  which  hoists  a  mainsail,  and  often  sails  in  the 
manner  of  a  native  boat,  and  with  considerable  swiftness.  I  have  sent  a  set  of  the  sails  home,  as 
they  are  beautifully  cut  and  form  a  model  for  a  fast-sailing  boat.  When  a  school  of  these  are 
under  sail  together  they  are  frequently  mistaken  for  a  fleet  of  native  boats." 

The  fish  referred  to  is  in  all  likelihood  Histiopliorus  gladius,  a  species  very  closely  related  to, 
if  not  identical  with,  our  own. 

THE  SPEAE-FISH — TETRAPTURUS  ALBIDUS. 

This  species  appears  to  be  limited  to  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  not  noticed  by 
Liunajus,  or  indeed  by  any  of  the  binomial  writers  before  Schneider.  In  his  posthumous  edition 
of  the  writings  of  Bloch,  the  latter  has  made  reference  to  a  figure  and  description  in  Duhamel, 
and  has  given  to  a  fish,  which  he  figures  in  Plate  XXI  of  this  work,  the  maine  Xiphias  imperator. 

1  Irit,  1833,  Heft  iv,  pp.  415-419. 

•  The  specimens  in  the  British  Museum  are  catalogued  as  follows:  a.  Eight  feet  long ;  stuffed.  Indian  Ocean. 
Type  of  the  species,  b.  Seven  feet  long ;  stuffed.  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  c.  Dorsal  fin.  N.  8.  Wales  (T).  Presented 
by  Dr.  6.  Bennett,  d.  Snout ;  dried. 


358  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

This  name  was  rejected  by  Cuvier  (Eegne  Animal,  I.  c.),  and  has  not  been  recognized  by  later 
writers.  It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  Schneider  lias,  perhaps  unintentionally,  yet  quite  intelli- 
gibly, expressed  the  principal  differential  characters  of  Tetrapturus.  By  "dorso  scabro"  he  covers 
the  question  of  the  scales;  by  "carina  caudali  nulla"  he  refers  to  the  absence  of  the  single  caudal 
cariua  of  Xiphias,  while  by  figure  and  by  implication  in  his  description  he  admits  the  presence  of 
ventral  fins.  His  figure,  though  bad,  is  as  good  as  most  of  the  old  figures  of  Xiphias — that  in 
Lac^pede,  for  example. 

T.  imperator  is  said  to  attain  the  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  the  weight  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds.  It  has  been  taken  in  the  Straits  of  Messina  with  the  harpoon,  but  according  to 
Eafiuesque  is  very  rarely  seen  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  and  then  only  in  autumn,  when  it  is  follow- 
ing the  dolphin  and  flying-fish,  upon  which  it  feeds.  It  is  ordinarily  seen  in  pairs,  male  and 
female  together,  and  they  are  taken  often  in  the  nets  together.  Its  flesh  is  white,  but  not  partic- 
ularly well  flavored.  At  Messina  it  is  called  "Aguglia  imperiale"  (Cuvier  and  Valenciennes). 

Two  species  have  been  described  by  Poey  from  Cuba,  one  of  which,  T.  albidus,  is  not  uncom- 
mon on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  Liitken  is  disposed  to  consider  them  both  iden- 
tical with  the  T.  indicus  type,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  there  is  as  much  reason  for  doing  this  as  for 
throwing  together  the  Sail-fishes  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans,  as  has  been  persistently  done 
by  all  writers  on  ichthyology. 

Many  individuals  are  taken  every  year  by  the  sword-fish  fishermen  of  New  England,  and  they 
also  frequently  find  their  way  into  the  pounds  along  the  coast. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  SPEAE-FISHES. — The  Spear-fish  in  our  waters  is  said  by  the  fishermen  to 
resemble  the  Sword-fish  in  its  movements  and  manner  of  feeding.  Professor  Poey  narrates  that 
both  the  Cuban  species  swim  at  a  depth  of  one  hundred  fathoms,  and  they  journey  in  pairs, 
shaping  their  course  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  females  being  full  of  eggs.  Only  adults  are 
taken.  It  is  not  known  whence  they  come,  or  where  they  breed,  or  how  the  young  return.  It  is 
not  even  known  whether  the  adult  fishes  return  by  the  same  route.  When  the  fish  has  swallowed 
the  hook  it  rises  to  the  surface,  making  prodigious  leaps  and  plunges.  At  last  it  is  dragged  to 
the  boat,  secured  with  a  boat-hook,  and  beaten  to  death  before  it  is  hauled  on  board.  Such  fishing 
is  not  without  danger,  for  the  Spear-fish  sometimes  rushes  upon  the  boat,  drowning  the  fisherman, 
or  wounding  him  with  its  terrible  weapon.  The  fish  becomes  furious  at  the  appearance  of  sharks, 
•which  are  its  natural  enemies.  They  engage  in  violent  combats,  and  when  the  Spear-fish  is 
attached  to  the  fisherman's  line  it  often  receives  frightful  wounds  from  these  adversaries. 

In  "Land  and  Water"  for  August  31,  1872,  Col.  Nicholas  Pike,  author  of  "Subtropical  Ram- 
bles," at  that  time  United  States  consnl  at  Mauritius,  describes  the  habits  of  a  species  of  Tetrapturus 
occurring  in  that  vicinity.  He  states  that  they  have  the  habit  of  resting  quietly  on  the  surface  in 
calm  weather,  with  their  dorsals  expanded  and  acting  as  sails.  They  are  taken  in  deep  water  with 
hook  and  line,  or  speared  when  near  the  surface,  like  Sword-fish.  When  hooked  or  speared  they 
make  for  the  boats,  taking  tremendous  leaps  in  the  air,  and  if  care  is  not  taken  they  will  jump  into 
the  boats,  to  the  great  consternation  of  the  fishermen,  or  else  pierce  the  boats  with  their  bills. 
The  fish  is  highly  esteemed  in  the  Mauritius,  the  flesh  being  of  a  salmon-color  near  the  vertebrae; 
lower  down  it  is  red  and  like  coarse  beef.  The  species  attains  a  large  size,  one  having  been  seen 
measuring  twenty-six  feet. 

PUGNACITY  OP  THE  SPEAB-FISH. — The  Spear-fish  strikes  vessels  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Sword-fish.  I  am  indebted  to  Capt.  William  Spicer,  of  Noank,  Connecticut,  for  this  note: 

"Mr.  William  Taylor,  of  Mystic,  a  man  seventy-six  years  old,  who  was  in  the  smack  'Ever- 
green,' Capt.  John  Appleman,  tells  me  that  they  started  from  Mystic,  October  3, 1832,  on  a  fishing 


TOE  SPEAR-FISH.  359 

voyage  to  Key  West,  in  company  with  the  smack  'Morning  Star,'  Captain  Rowland.  On  the  12th 
they  were  oft'  ('ape.  Hatteras,  the  wind  blowing  heavily  from  the  northeast,  and  the  smack  under 
double  reefed  sails.  At  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening  they  were  struck  by  a  'Woho'  (wo),  which 
shocked  the  vessel  all  over.  The  smack  was  leaking  badly,  and  they  made  a  signal  to  the 
•Morning  Star'  to  keep  close  by  them.  The  next  morning  they  found  the  leak,  and  both  smacks 
kept  oft'  to  Charleston.  On  arrival  they  took  out  the  ballast,  hove  her  out,  and  found  that  the 
sword  had  gone  through  the  planking,  timber,  and  ceiling.  The  plank  was  two  inches  thick,  the 
timber  five  inches,  and  the  ceiling  one  and  a  half  inches  white  oak.  The  sword  projected  two 
inches  through  the  ceiling,  on  the  inside  of  the  'after- run.'1  It  struck  close  by  a  butt  on  the 
outside,  which  caused  the  leak.  They  took  out  and  replaced  a  piece  of  the  plank,  and  proceeded 
on  their  voyage." 

J.  Matthew  Jones,  esq.,  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in  his  delightful  little  book  "The  Naturalist 
in  Bermuda,"  records  the  case  of  the  Bermudian  schooner  "Earl  Dundonald,"  arrived  in  the 
port  of  Hamilton,  which  waa  pierced  by  one  of  these  formidable  fish  off  the  coast  of  British 
Guiana. 

In  the  museum  of  Charleston  College,  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  is  preserved  a  fragment  of 
the  snout  of  a  Spear-fish,  apparently  Tetrapturus  albidus.  By  the  kindness  of  the  curator,  Dr. 
G.  E.  Manigault,  I  was  allowed  to  examine  it  and  copy  the  label,  which  reads  as  follows:  "The 
brig  'Amsterdam,'  bound  to  Charleston,  owned  by  F.  C.  Bray,  was  struck  iu  the  Gulf  Stream  by 
a  monster  or  Sword-fish,  which  caused  the  vessel  to  leak  considerably.  By  great  exertion  she  was 
kept  free,  and  gained  the  port  in  safety." 

Messrs.  Foster,  Waterman  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  presented  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,  in  1869,  a  plank  of  Southern  pine,  from  the  side  of  the  ship  "Pocahontas,"  owned  by 
them,  perforated  by  and  containing  a  portion  of  the  sword  of  a  "Sword-fish,"  probably  a  species  of 
Histiophorus.* 

'A  bold  under  the  cabin. 
•Proo.  Boat.  Soc.  Nat.  Hut,  xiii,  1869,p.  64. 


360  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


M.— THE    TILE-FISH    FAMILY,    AND    OTHERS. 

112.  THE  TILE-FISH  FAMHY-LATILIDJE. 

This  family,  which  has  some  relations  both  with  the  perch-like  fishes  and  with  those  of  the 
mackerel  tribe,  although  until  within  a  few  years  not  known  to  occur  within  the  territory  of  the 
United  States,  is  now  coming  into  considerable  prominence,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  some  of  its  members  will  yet  grow  into  such  favor  and  be  found  so  abundant  as  to  rank 
among  the  important  food-fishes  of  the  United  States.  The  most  important  is  the  Tile-fish, 
Loplwlatilw  chamceleonticeps,  a  form  discovered  on  a  hitherto  unexplored  ground,  eighty  miles 
southeast  of  Neman's  Land,  Massachusetts,  in  1879,  and  in  1880  demonstrated  by  the  explorations 
of  the  Fish  Commission  to  be  exceedingly  abundant  everywhere  on  the  coast  of  Southern  New 
England,  at  a  depth  of  eighty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms.  This  fish,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
brilliantly  colored  species  known  outside  the  tropics,  is  very  remarkable  by  reasen  of  the  presence 
of  a  soft  dorsal  fin,  resembling  that  of  the  salmon,  which  is  placed  upon  the  neck  in  advance  of 
the  regular  dorsal  fin,  instead  of  behind  it,  as  in  the  salmon  family.  Numerous  specimens  have 
been  obtained,  varying  from  ten  to  fifty  pounds,  and,  although  there  has  been  no  opportunity  to 
study  the  breeding  habits,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  resident  in  our  waters  in 
precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  codfish.  Its  abundance  is  very  great.  Captain  Kirby,  of 
Gloucester,  who  was  the  first  to  obtain  specimens  of  this  fish,  caught  in  a  few  hours  several  hundred, 
which  he  salted  down  like  codfish.  In  September,  1880,  a  small  boat,  sent  out  from  the  Fish  Com- 
mission steamer  while  it  was  dredging  upon  the  "  Tile-fish  Ground,"  caught  twelve  large  individuals 
on  one  short  line,  the  aggregate  weight  of  which  cannot  have  been  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds.  They  were  tasted  at  the  ward-room  table  and  the  flesh  was  found  to  be  fine-grained  and 
delicate  in  flavor,  resembling  in  some  respects  that  of  the  cod,  in  others,  that  of  the  striped  bass. 

The  habits  and  food  of  this  fish  are  probably  very  similar  to  those  of  the  codfish,  and  the 
ground  upon  which  they  are  taken  has  been  ascertained  to  be  very  richly  supplied  with  all  the 
forms  of  small  marine  life  which  occur  on  the  best  cod  banks.  In  time  these  fish  cannot  fail  to  be 
the  object  of  a  popular  demand,  and  the  proximity  of  the  grounds  they  inhabit  to  several  large 
cities  will  greatly  enhance  the  importance  of  the  Tile-fish. 

In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  there  is  a  related  species  which  has  as  yet  no  popular  name,  but  which 
has  been  described  under  the  binomial  Caulolatilus  microps,  and  which  is  occasionally  taken  on 
the  snapper  banks.  This  was  first  observed  by  Mr.  Silas  Stearns,  who  sent  specimens  to  the 
National  Museum.  As  yet  only  five  specimens  have  been  brought  into  Pensacola,  all  in  March 
and  April,  1879,  these  having  been  taken  with  hook  and  line  in  thirty-five  fathoms  of  water  off 
Pensacola.  These  fish  range  in  weight  from  six  to  ten  pounds.  It  is  not  yet  known  whether  they 
are  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  of  commercial  importance,  though  there  can  be  no  question 
regarding  their  edibility. 

Another  species,  Caulolatilits  chrysops  (C.  &  V.)  Gill,  occurs  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  while  other  related  forms  are  known  in  China  and  Japan  and  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America. 


mi;  TILE-FISHES.  361 

"lu  California,"  writes  Pr  fessor  Jordan,  "  there  is  a  species,  CauMatihtu  anomalus  (Cooper), 
Gill,  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  ami  of  some  prominence  as  a  food-fish,  and  known 
as  the  'White  tisli'  or  •  Illaiiquillo.'  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  thirty  inches  and  a  weight  of 
ten  or  titteen  ]ioiinds,  though  its  average  weight  is  four  or  five  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Monterey 
southward  to  Mexico,  being  very  abundant  about  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands.  It  lives  about  rocks 
in  water  of  considerable  depth  and  takes  the  hook  freely.  Its  food  consists  of  crustaceans  and 
lishcs;  it  is  considered  to  be  a  fish  of  fair  but  not  excellent  quality  when  fresh.  When  salted  and 
dried  it  is  graded  as  tirst  quality  with  tlio  barracuda  aiid  the  yellow-tail.  South  of  Point 
<  'oncepcion  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  food-tisb.es,  but  is  rarely  sent  to  the  market  of  San 
Francisco." 

An  allied  iorm  is  Bathymastcr  nlgnatus  Cope,  the  "Honchil,"  found  in  deep  water  from  Puget 
Sound  northward. 

113.  THE  RED  MULLET  FAMILY—  MULLID-iE. 

'1  his  family  is  represented  in  our  waters  by  a  single  species,  Upeneiw  flavovittatus,  which 
has  been  observed  in  two  or  three  instances  on  the  coast  of  Southern  New  England,  and  is  doubt- 
less an  estruy  from  the  West  Indies.  It  has  not  yet  been  brought  to  light  on  the  Gulf  coast  of 
the  United  States.  A  closely  related  species  is  the  Mullet  or  Surmullet  of  Europe,  the  Mullus  of 
the  ancieut  Itomans,  highly  prized  by  them.  This  fish  was  brought  living  into  the  banquet-hall 
that  the  guests  might  admire  the  brilliant  changes  of  color  exhibited  iu  its  expiring  struggles. 

Another  species  of  this  family  is  occasionally  taken  at  Peusacola,  but  is  not  sufficiently  abun- 
dant to  possess  any  considerable  economic  importance. 

114.  THE  ICOSTEUS  FAMILY. 

This  family  consists  of  two  small  fishes,  peculiar  to  our  California  coast,  which  live  iu 
considerable  depths  of  water:  Icichthys  Lockingtoni  J.  &  G.,  only  one  specimen  of  which  is  known; 
and  Icosteus  ccnigmaticus  Lockington,  likewise  rarely  taken,  and  only  iu  deep  water. 

In  the  last  two  species  the  skeleton  is  scarcely  ossified,  and  the  body  is  as  limp  as  a  rag. 

115.  THE  BERYX  FAMILY— BERYCID.E. 

Of  this  family,  which  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  and 
which  has  many  representatives  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  ocean,  only  one  species  here  appropriate 
to  be  mentioned  occurs  upon  our  coast,  viz,  the  Bermuda  "  Squirrel-fish,"  Holocentrum  pentacan- 
tltimt.  This  fish  ranges  south  to  Brazil,  east  to  the  Bermudas,  and  is  very  abundant  in  the  West 
Indies.  Professor  Gill  has  recorded  the  capture  of  a  specimen  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1873. 
It  is  abundant  on  the  Florida  coast  south  of  Cedar  Keys,  a  few  being  found,  as  stragglers,  north 
and  west  of  that  liuiir.  It  is  caught  with  hook  and  line  in  all  the  channels  and  on  the  reefs. 
Stearns  obtained  several  specimens  at  Pensacola  Bay  in  187G  and  iu  1882.  He  testifies  that  he  has 
eaten  them  frequently  and  that  they  are  as  good  a  pan-fish  as  any  on  the  coast.  They  attain  a 
length  of  twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  About  the  Bermudas  they  are  very  abundant,  and  are  conspicuous 
on  account  of  their  brilliant  red  hue  and  their  habit  of  skulking  in  holes  about  the  reefs.  They 
feed  upon  small  fishes  and  breed  abundantly,  apparently  spawning  in  the  summer  season.  At 
Cuba  this  fish  is  called  the  "  Matajuelo." 


362  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


N.— THE     DRUM     FAMILY. 

The  family  Scicenidm  is  distributed  along  the  coasts  of  temperate  and  tropical  countries  the 
•world  over,  though  most  abundant  in  the  Western  Atlantic,  the  Eastern  Pacific,  and  Indian 
Oceans,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Many  of  the  species  are  most  abundant  about  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  and  there  are  several  species,  such  as  the  fresh- water  Drum,  Haploidonotus  grunniens, 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  which  are  found  only  in  fresh  water.  In  general  form  many  of  the 
members  of  this  family  are  not  unlike  the  salmon,  and  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  this  fish. 
They  are,  however,  true  spiny-rayed  fishes.  The  Drum  and  its  congeners  may  be  distinguished 
from  all  others  by  the  presence  of  the  comparatively  short,  spiny  dorsal  fin,  and  a  very  long, 
soft-rayed  fin  upon  the  posterior  portion  of  the  back. 

Many  of  them  are  ground-loving  species,  and  are  provided  with  barbels  by  which  they  feel 
their  way  over  the  bottom,  and  with  strong,  pavement-like  teeth  for  crushing  shell-fish  and  strong 
shelled  crustaceans.  To  this  group  belong  the  fresh-water  Drum,  the  King-fish,  and  others. 

Another  group,  typified  by  the  Squeteagues,  are  without  the  barbels  and  possess  long,  sharp 
teeth,  being  surface  feeders,  rapid  swimmers,  and  voracious. 

The  Red  Drum  of  our  coast,  Scicena  ocellata,  resembles  in  some  respects  both  of  these  groups. 
Nearly  all  the  members  of  this  family  have  the  power  of  uttering  loud  sounds.  This,  as  has  been 
demonstrated  by  M.  Dufoss6,  is  accomplished  through  a  peculiar  structure  of  the  air-bladder. 

116.  THE  SQUETEAGUE— CYNOSCION  EEGALE. 

NAMES. — This  well-known  fish  is  one  of  those  which  bear  a  great  variety  of  names.  About  Uape 
Cod  they  are  called  "Drummers";  about  Buzzard's  Bay  and  in  the  vicinity  the  largest  are  known 
as  "Yellow- fins";  in  New  York  and  in  New  Jersey,  "Weak-fish";  from  Southern  New  Jersey  to 
Virginia,  "Blnefish."  The  name  "Squeteague"  is  of  Indian  origin,  and  "Squit,"  "  Succoteague," 
"Squitee,"  and  "Chick wit"  are  doubtless  variations  of  this  name  in  different  ancient  and  modern 
dialects.  In  the  Southern  Atlantic  States  it  is  called  "Grey  Trout,"  "Sun  Trout,"  and  "Shad 
Trout,"  and  with  the  other  members  of  the  genus  is  spoken  of  under  the  name  "Sea  Trout"  and 
"  Salt-water  Trout,"  though,  of  course,  distinct  from  the  "trout"  of  the  fresh  waters  of  the  South, 
the  large-mouth  Black  Bass.  The  name  "Squeteague,"  since  it  is  the  aboriginal  Indian  name, 
seems  most  characteristic,  and  is  well  worthy  of  being  permanently  retained. 

ABUNDANCE. — The  Squeteague  is  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Eastern 
Florida,  where  I  observed  it  sparingly  in  1878.  Its  extreme  southern  distribution  has  not  yet  been 
indicated.  Some  writers  have  claimed  that  it  occurs  at  New  Orleans,  but  Mr.  Stearns  did  not 
succeed  in  finding  it  in  the  Gulf,  and  Professor  Jordan  writes  that  it  is  certainly  not  found  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  unless  as  a  stray. 

The  Squeteague  is  abundant  throughout  the  above  range,  except  in  the  regions  where  its 
productiveness  is  interfered  with  by  the  bluefish.  In  Massachusetts  Bay,  according  to  Dr.  Storer, 
it  is  very  rare,  but  scattering  individuals  have  been  found  as  far  north  as  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The 
early  annals  of  New  England  make  frequent  mention  of  this  fish  and  of  its  variations  in  number 
with  that  of  the  bluetish.  Thus,  according  to  Dr.  Storer,  it  was  very  abundant  in  the  Vineyard 
Sound  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  but  gradually  became  more  scarce,  until  about 


ABUNDANCE  OF  THE  SQUETEAGUE.  363 

1870,  when  it  was  no  longer  to  bo  met  with,  and  for  several  years  it  was  entirely  unknown  in  these 
waters;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  fishermen  of  many  years'  experience  were  totally  unacquainted 
with  its  ehanicteristies.  In  1807  or  18G8,  however,  scattering  individuals  were  taken  on  the  south 
coast  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  1870  they  were  quite  a  I  mm  lam  and  have  since  held  their  own.' 

This  variation  in  their  numbers  is  ascribed  by  writers  generally  to  the  action  of  the  bluetish, 
wliieli,  by  its  constant  attacks,  is  supposed  to  influence  their  abundance.  Some  cause  or  other 
produced  a  similar  influence  upon  the  bluefish,  which  became  scarce  in  turn;  thus  the  Squeteague 
was  rnabled  to  recover  its  ground,  and  to  resume  its  place  in  the  food  economy  of  the  coast.  To 
what  extent  this  disappearance  or  reappearance  of  the  Squeteaj;ue  is  actually  connected  with  that 
of  the  bluetish,  it  is  impossible  at  present  to  state.  It  is  quite  likely  ihat  other  causes,  at  least, 
are  concerned,  with  which  we  are  now  unacquainted. 

\\  e  have  intimations,  in  the  writings  of  the  early  historians  of  New  England,  of  the  disap- 
pearances and  returns  of  the  Weak-fish,  like  those  referred  to  in  the  present  century. 

The  Squeteague,  as  well  as  the  bluetish,  varies  in  size  with  the  locality.  While  on  the  coast  of 
New  Jersey  they  do  not  average  much  over  one  pound,  they  are  stated  to  occasionally  attain  the 
weight  of  from  six  to  ten  pounds,  and  have  even  been  known  to  weigh  thirty. 

Although  essentially  a  coast  and  still-water  lish.  they  occasionally  run  up  tidal  waters,  and 
are  thought  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  to  prefer  the  vicinity  of  the  mouths  of  fresh-water  streams, 
where  they  can  find  a  mixture  of  fresh  water.  In  the  vicinity  of  Beasley's  Point,  where  at  times, 
in  consequence  of  drought,  there  is  more  fresh  water  brought  down  into  Egg  Harbor  than  usual, 
they  are  known  to  move  to  a  considerable  distance  up  towards  the  headwaters,  and  to  leave,  to  a 
great  measure,  their  ordinary  grounds  more  seaward. 

The  Squeteague  in  the  South  is  a  resident  fish,  although  said  by  Holbrook  to  be  most  abun- 

'A  GREAT  CATCH  OF  FISH -WHAT  THREE  STEAM  SMACKS  CAUGHT  OFF   KOCKAWAY.— A  groat  Catch  of  Weak-fish 

was  made  yesterday  about  two  miles  off  Rockaway  Beach,  by  the  s  earn  smacks  "  E.  T.  De  Blois,"  Capt.  J.  A.  Krone; 
'•  Leonard  Brightman,"  Capr.  Elijah  Powers,  and  "  J.  W.  Hawkins,"  Capt.  J.  W.  Hawkins.  These  smacks  are  engaged 
iu  the  menlmdeu  or  "moss-bunker"  fishery  for  the  oil-renilerimj  and  fish-scrap  works  on  Barren  Island,  and  were 
cruising  off  Rockaway  yesterday  in  search  of  schools.  About  noon  a  vas  school  of  what  the  fishermen  supposed  at 
first  to  be  menhaden  was  discovered  stretching  along  the  coast  for  miles.  To  borrow  their  language,  "The  water  was 
red  with  tin-  fish,  but  they  didu'i  break  the  surface  as  menhaden  always  do."  The  boats  weru  lowend,  the  seines 
spread,  anil  then  it  was  discovered  that  the  school  was  of  Weak-fish  and  not  n:euhadi  n.  "  I  have  been  in  the  business 
for  twenty  years,"  said  the  n  ate  of  the  Brightman,  "and  I  never  saw  anything  like  it  before."  Tin-  fish  varied  in 
length  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  feet,  and  in  weight  from  three  to  seven  pounds.  The  "De  Blois"  took  over  200 
barrels,  th--  "Hawkins"  150  barrels,  and  the  "  Brightman"  SCO  barrels.  The  rut  ire  catch  was  estimated  at  somcthiug 
over  200,000  pounds,  which,  at  the  ordinary  market  price  for  Weak-fish — a  vcn  cents  a  pound— would  amount  to 
$14,000.  lint,  of  coarse,  the  market  price  could  not  be  maintained  in  the  presence  of  such  a  catch  as  this,  and  it  was 
said  ye.turday  afternoon  that  a  strong  effort  was  being  made  by  the  wholesale  fish-dealers  of  Fulton  Market  to  prevent 
the  greater  part  of  tho  fish  from  being  put  on  sale.  The  captaiu  of  the  "Hawkins,"  which  landed  nt  Pier  No.  22 
East  River,  foot  of  Fulton  street,  obtained  a  promise  from  a  Fulton  Market  dealer  to  take  part  of  his  catch,  and  then 
made  ..venures  to  Mr.  Eugene  G.  Blackford,  of  E.  G.  Blackford  &  Co..  Beekman  street,  to  sell  the  remainder.  At 
soon,  however,  as  the  Fulton  Market  dealer  learned  of  the  offer  to  Mr.  Blackford,  he  refused  to  take  any  of  the  fish. 
The  captain  of  the  "Brightman,"  however,  had  better  luck.  H.  -M.  Rogers  &.  Co.,  of  No.  11  Fulton  Market,  engaged 
to  take  his  entire  catch  of  350  barrels,  au«l  immediately  put  two  men  in  charge  of  tbe  boat.  The  "De  Blois"  meanwhile 
had  made  fast  against  the  bulkhead  at  the  foot  of  Beckmau  street,  and  i  aptain  Keeno  failing  to  come  to  terms  with 
the  Fulton  Market  dealers,  engaged  P.  Owens,  of  No.  104  South  street,  who  manages  the  peddling  trade  for  the  Fulton 
Market  dealers,  to  dispose  of  his  fish.  A  crowd  speedily  gathered  about  the  boat,  and  the  fish  sold  almost  as  fast  as 
they  could  be  handled  at  twenty-five  cents  a  pair.  The  pressure  of  the  crowd  became  so  great  at  one  time  that  polite 
assistance  was  invoked,  and  Officer  William  Brown,  of  the  steamboat  squad,  was  detailed  to  stay  on  the  boat.  While 
Owen  was  selling  the  fish  at  twenty-five  cents  a  pair,  an  attempt  to  break  the  price  was  made  by  two  well-known 
"longshore "characters,  Jack  Sullivan,  the  shark-catcher,  aud  T.  Long,  alitu  "Blindy,"  who  bought  one  thousand 
pounds  of  the  fish  at  one  cent  per  pound,  and  stood  on  the  street  retailing  them  at  twenty  cents  per  pair. 

Fish-dealers  say  that  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  selling  all  the  fish  this  morning  at  from  one  to  three  cents  per 
pound.  Friday  morning,  they  say,  is  tke  best  iu  tho  week  for  the  sale  of  fish.  Tons  of  ice  were  cracked  last  evening 
and  pnt  on  the  fish  to  keep  them  fresh  until  to-day.— .Vew  York  Time*,  1881. 


364  NATURAL    HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

daut  and  largest  in  the  autumnal  months,  when,  in  his  opinion,  they  come  from  the  north.  It  is 
not  satisfactorily  ascertained,  however,  whether  these  fishes,  leaving  the  northern  coast  during 
winter  time,  migrate  southward  or  move  towards  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  They 
return  to  the  coast  of  the  Middle  and  Northern  States  early  in  the  spring,  the  first  being  taken 
in  May,  and  are  most  abundant  from  June  to  September. 

They  are  common  in  summer  in  Eastern  markets,  but  do  not  bring  high  prices,  the  flesh  bein^f 
soft  and  flabby,  and  of  little  value  except  when  fresh  from  the  water. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Commission  of  Inquiry  into  the  Fishes  of  Narragausett  Bay, 
the  Squeteague  was  ten  times  as  abundant  in  1870  as  in  1809,  and  was  first  noticed  there,  alter  a 
long  absence,  about  1866.  It  is  said  that  when  they  appear  off  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  about  the 
middle  of  June,  they  are  found  to  be  filled  with  spawn,  but  this  statement  requires  confirmation. 
Thousands  of  individuals  have  been  examined  by  the  Fish  Commission  naturalists  at  different 
times  in  the  summer,  and  it  is  but  rare  that  traces  of  spawn  have  been  found.  The  precise  period 
of  spawning  along  the  coast  and  the  localities  where  the  eggs  are  laid,  as  well  as  the  habits  of  the 
fish  during  that  period,  are  but  little  known,  and  are  well  worthy  of  careful  investigation. 

At  Beasley's  Point,  the  young  fish  of  the  year  have  in  August  attained  a  length  of  about 
four  inches,  and  differ  from  the  adults  in  lacking  entirely  the  characteristic  spots,  these  being 
replaced  by  broad,  vertical  bauds,  which,  together  with  their  more  compressed  form,  render  their 
appearance  very  unlike  that  of  the  adult. 

The  sport  of  catching  the  Squeteague  is  very  great,  and  is  highly  enjoyed  by  our  coast  fisher- 
men on  account  of  the  great  number  that  can  be  taken  in  a  very  short  time.  They  usually  move 
about  in  schools  of  greater  or  less  size,  swimming  near  to  the  surface,  and  requiring  a  line  but 
little  leaded.  They  take  almost  any  kind  of  bait,  especially  clams,  soft  crabs,  or  pieces  of  fish. 
They  bite  with  a  snap,  rarely  condescending  to  nibble,  and  in  consequence  of  the  extreme  tender- 
ness of  the  mouth  it  requires  constant  vigilance  to  fasten  them,  and  great  care  to  haul  them 
successfully  out  of  the  water. 

During  the  flood  tide  they  occupy  the  channel-ways  of  the  bays,  and  during  the  ebb  they 
generally  settle  down  in  some  deep  hole,  where  they  remain  until  the  next  flood  brings  them  out 
again. 

In  the  night  the  Squeteague  run  up  the  creeks  in  the  salt  meadows,  where  they  are  sometimes 
taken  in  great  numbers  by  interposing  between  them  and  the  sea,  just  before  the  period  of  high 
water.  This  experiment  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  one,  however,  on  the  New  Jersey  coast,  in 
consequence  of  the  great  abundance  of  crabs  that  accompany  the  fish :  the  smalli  r  fish  become 
entangled  in  the  meshes  of  the  nets,  thus  inviting  the  attack  of  the  crabs,  which  cut  the  nets  to 
pieces,  sometimes  ruining  them  altogether  in  the  course  of  a  single  night.  When  taken,  the 
Squeteague  makes  a  peculiar  croaking,  audible  at  a  considerable  distance;  and  it  is  said  that  this 
is  not  uufrequeutly  heard  from  a  boat  when  passing  over  a  school  of  them  in  the  water  beneath. 

In  the  North,  as  has  been  .already  stated,  this  species  is  but  little  esteemed,  but  in  the  South 
it  ranks  very  high.  In  the  Chesapeake  they  usually  average  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  pounds 
in  weight,  though  they  sometimes  attain  the  weight  of  twelve  pounds.  They  make  their  appear- 
ance about  the  1st  of  May  and  remain  until  cold  weather.  They  are  very  abundant,  and  immense 
quantities  of  them  are  salted  for  winter  use. 

The  Sea  Trout,  or  Deep  water  Trout,  of  Charleston,  described  by  Holbrook  under  the  name 
Otolitlius  thalasainug,  is  without  much  question  identical  with  the  Northern  Squeteague,  although 
that  author  states  that  it  differs  from  this  fish  entirely  in  its  habits,  since  it  is  only  found  in  the 


THE  CHAKLKSTON  SQUETEAGUE.  365 

ocean  and  deep  water,  and  never  approach."*  the  bays  and  inlets  along  the  coast,  while  it  is  a 
larger  animal. 

The  lew  specimens  which  he  had  seen  were  taken  off  Charleston  Bar,  at  about  twenty  miles 
from  land  and  in  about  fifteen  or  twenty  fathoms  of  water.  The  very  peculiarities  which  he  men- 
tioned are  characteristic  of  the  adult  Squeteague. 

117.  THE  SPOTTED  SQUETEAGUE— CYNOSCION  MACULATUM. 

Associated  with  the  Squeteague  in  the  waters  off  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Virginia  is  a  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  but  somewhat  different,  being  char- 
acterized by  the  presence  of  well-defined  dark  sj>ot«.  It  becomes  more  abundant  as  we  proceed 
southward,  until  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  where  it  is  one  of  the  most  abundant 
food-fishes.  Owing  to  its  shape  and  the  presence  of  well-marked  spots  on  the  sides  it  is  usually 
known  on  the  Southern  coast  as  the  "Salmon"  or  "Spotted  Trout,"  and  there  are  not  wanting 
sportsmen  in  the  Southern  States  who  maintain  with  dogmatic  earnestness  the  existence  of  the 
true  Salmon  Trout  in  the  waters  of  their  coast.  This  fish  is  of  course  in  every  respect  very  unlike 
a  trout,  and  the  name  "Spotted  Squeteague"  has  been  proposed  for  it.  It  is  difficult,  however, 
to  bring  about  a  change  in  a  name  which  has  been  in  use  for  several  generations,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  name  "Sea  Trout"  will  always  be  used.  Genio  Scott  proposed  the  name 
"  Spotted  Silver-sides,"  which  is  not  particularly  appropriate,  and  which  no  one  but  himself  has 
ever  used. 

The  history  of  American  fishes  contains  very  little  respecting  the  habits  of  this  species, 
although  it  is  so  important  an  element  of  food  to  the.  inhabitants  of  the  Southern  coast.  We  have, 
however,  been  favored  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Yarrow  with  notes  made  at  Fort  Macon,  North  Carolina,  in 
which  many  of  the  deficiencies  in  our  information  are  supplied.  According  to  his  account,  the 
Spotted  Trout  is  not  found  in  that  locality  during  the  winter,  or  only  in  small  numbers,  making 
its  first  appearance  in  February  on  its  way  from  the  south,  and  attaining  its  greatest  abundance 
about  the  middle  of  April. 

Little  is  known  of  its  rate  of  growth,  although,  according  to  some  observers,  this  increase 
amounts  to  about  six  inches  per  annum ;  so  that  a  fish  of  average  size,  or  eighteen  inches,  may  be 
considered  as  three  years  old.  There  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  sexes  as  to  rate  of  growth 
or  general  appearance,  excepting  in  the  fuller  belly  of  the  female. 

Dr.  Yarrow  states  that  they  come  from  the  south  in  the  spring  and  pass  through  the  inlets 
on  the  flood  tide,  the  date  of  their  first  appearance  varying  with  that  of  the  opening  of  spring. 
They  remain  in  the  vicinity  of  the  inlets  and  sounds  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  nntil  about 
May,  when  they  gradually  proceed  northward,  extending  their  jpnrney  as  far  as  the  shores  of  Long 
Island,  where  a  few  only  are  taken,  although,  perhaps,  their  number  may  be  considerable.  They 
reappear  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  in  September,  and  thence  proceed  south,  following  the 
same  course  as  that  by  which  they  came,  but  leaving  on  the  ebb  instead  of  the  flood  tide.  They 
are  found  in  the  winter  as  far  south  as  Saint  Augustine,  and  possibly  below  this  point,  although 
we  have  no  positive  assurance  of  this  fact. 

At  present  they  are  thought  to  be  more  abundant  than  any  other  fish  on  the  Carolina  coast, 
with  the  exception  of  the  mullet,  having  increased  in  numbers  very  largely  (at  least  twofold) 
within  the  last  ten  years,  possibly  in  consequence  of  the  intermission  of  capture  during  the  war. 
The  average  length  is  about  eighteen  inches,  with  a  weight  of  two  pounds,  although  they  are  not 
unfrequently  found  three  feet  in  length  and  ten  pounds'  weight.  They  are  often  found  outside  of 


306  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  beach  in  great  numbers  in  January,  coming  in  to  the  shore  when  the  water  is  warm,  about 
February,  as  stated.  School  follows  school  at  intervals  of  about  four  or  five  days,  when  they  seem 
to  go  northward  and  to  be  absent  from  the  Southern  coast  for  several  months.  On  their  return 
in  September,  after  a  short  stay,  they  gradually  leave  the  coast  until  they  finally  disappear  for  the 
season.  Their  return  season  by  season  is  very  regular  and  definite,  being  relied  upon  with  much 
confidence.  The  successive  "runs"  do  not  seem  to  be  classified  in  any  particular  way,  large  and 
small  fish  of  both  sexes  coming  in  together.  The  colder  the  weather  the  less  tendency  they  appear 
to  exhibit  to  come  towards  the  shore. 

At  their  first  appearance  in  the  spring  the  spawn  is  not  appreciable,  nor,  according  to  Dr. 
Yarrow,  do  they  have  any  development  of  the  ovaries  during  their  stay  on  that  coast;  and  he 
is  under  the  impression  that  they  breed  during  their  autumnal  and  winter  stay  farther  south. 
This,  however,  is  scarcely  probable,  it  being  more  likely  that  their  spawning  ground  is  more  to 
the  north,  perhaps  off  the  coast  of  Virginia. 

They  are  said  never  to  take  the  hook,  and  to  be  captured  entirely  by  nets.  Their  presence  is 
generally  made  known  by  the  schools  of  porpoises  which  follow  and  feed  upon  them.  Swimming 
low  in  the  water,  they  make  no  ripple  on  the  surface,  as  is  the  case  with  mullets.  The  time  of  their 
capture  is  usually  on  the  young  flood,  as  in  their  movements  along  the  shore  they  come  in  on  the 
rising  tide  and  depart  on  the  ebb. 

Like  their  representatives  in  the  north,  these  fishes  are  fond  of  penetrating,  for  a  short  distance 
at  least,  into  the  mouths  of  rivers,  remaining,  however,  only  about  a  week ;  this,  according  to  Dr. 
Yarrow,  is  their  habit  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  before  leaving  for  the  North. 

They  prefer  sandy  and  grassy  bottoms,  and  are  particularly  fond  of  shallow  water,  four  or  five 
feet  deep,  especially  in  still  water  and  eddies.  Their  favorite  food  is  small  mullet  and  other  dimin- 
utive fish,  as  well  as  still  more  largely  shrimps  and  small  crustaceans ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  are  eaten  voraciously  by  Weak-fish,  bluefish,  Drum,  porpoises,  etc. 

As  already  stated,  this  fish  is  seldom  if  ever  taken  with  the  hook,  at  least  for  purposes  of  the 
market,  nets  being  generally  employed,  some  few  being  occasionally  speared.  They  are  taken  in 
seines,  usually  having  a  mesh  of  about  one  and  one-half  inches,  made  of  No.  8  cotton  twine,  about 
one  hundred  yards  long  arid  ten  feet  deep.  When  the  fish  first  begin  to  make  their  appearance 
the  fishermen  establish  themselves  in  their  bosits,  just  outside  the  surf,  and  watch  along  the  crest 
of  the  breakers.  When  the  fish  are  seen  the  net  is  paid  out  from  the  stern  of  the  boat,  one  man 
leaping  overboard  with  a  rope  attached  to  one  end  of  the  net,  while  a  man  in  the  boat  pulls  rapidly 
around  the  school  so  as  to  inclose  it.  The  net  is  then  drawn  carefully  to  the  shore.  The  average 
catch  of  two  men  for  a  day  may  be  set  at  about  three  hundred  pounds,  although  a  much  greater 
amount  than  this  could  be  taken  if  desirable. 

They  are  used  when  fresh,  and  sent  up  into  the  small  towns  in  the  interior  in  large  numbers. 
The  flesh  is  of  an  excellent  quality,  much  superior  to  that  of  the  Weak-fish,  being  firm,  white,  and 
flaky,  and  will  keep  well  for  three  or  four  days,  unless  the  weather  be  too  warm.  It  is  sometimes 
salted  down  for  home  use  by  the  inhabitants  along  the  coast,  and  much  esteemed.  Dr.  Yarrow 
estimates  that  about  two  hundred  barrels  were  salted  during  the  season  of  1871  by  the  fishermen 
in  his  vicinity.  The  fish  bring  about  $3  per  hundred  at  wholesale,  and  $5  at  retail,  this  being  equal 
to  the  average  for  the  last  ten  years. 

Mr.  Silas  Stearns  has  recently  prepared  the  following  notes  regarding  the  habits  of  the 
Spotted  Squeteague  as  observed  by  him  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico: 

"The  Spotted  Trout  is  abundant  from  Key  West  to  Mexico.  In  the  Pensacola  region  it  is 
present  all  the  year,  although  most  abundant  in  summer.  It  prefers  to  remain  in  shoal  waters 


Till:  si'OTTKD  S<kH   LMAGUE.  3(J7 

on  pi-assy  bottom,  where  it  limls  small  tish  and  sliritnps  in  abundance  for  food.  It  breeds  in  inside 
waters  in  .Inly  <>r  August.  Quantities  of  the  fry  aro  seen  in  August  and  September.  They  do  not 
often  form  in  schools  in  the  bays,  but  in  some  places  are  so  plentiful  that  it  is  not  unusual  to  eaten 
ii\  e  or  eight  banvN  :it  one  drag  of  a  seine.  Oue  man  fishing  with  hook  and  line  sometimes  catches 
one  hundred  in  less  than  n  day.  The  Trout  is  an  excellent  food  fish,  and  of  considerable  importance 
to  the  tish  trade.  The  demand  for  it  would  be  much  greater  if  it  was  not  so  hard  to  preserve  in 
this  climate." 

118.  THE  SILVER  SQUETEAGUE— CYNOSCION  NOTHUM. 

The  Silver  Squeteague,  Cynoscion  nothum,  called  at  Charleston  the  "  Bastard  Trout,"  while 
resembling  in  shape  the  two  species  already  described,  is  easily  distinguished  from  them,  being  of 
an  uniform  silvery  hue,  the  back  being  slightly  darker  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 

One  or  two  individuals  have  been  taken  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  it  has  rarely  been  observed  north 
of  South  Carolina,  whence  Holbrook obtained  the  specimens  from  which  the  original  description  was 
made.  I  have  obtained  one  or  two  individuals  from  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  River,  where 
they  are  not  distinguished  by  the  fishermen  from  the  Shad  Trout,  or  Northern  Squeteague.  In  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  according  to  Stearns,  it  is  common  in  compauy  with  the  Spotted  Squeteague,  and, 
a^  far  as  has  been  observed,  its  habits  are  similar.  It  is,  however,  according  to  Jordan,  less  abun- 
dant,  and  is  not  to  be  found  at  all  seasons.  It  is  most  abundant  in  September  and  October,  but  no 
spawning  fish  or  young  have  been  seen.  The  "  White  Trout,"  as  it  is  called  in  Peusacola,  is 
is  caught  with  hook  and  line  in  company  with  the  Spotted  Trout. 

119.  THE  DRUM— POGONIAS  CHEOMI8. 

Next  to  the  sword-fish,  tunny,  Jew-fish,  and  halibut,  the  Drum  is  perhaps  the  largest  of  the 
food-fishes  of  our  coast.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  the  Southern  Atlantic 
States,  though  nearly  every  summer  a  few  specimens  appear  on  the  south  coast  of  New  England. 
In  one  or  two  instances  individuals  have  been  observed  as  far  north  as  Provincetown,  Massa- 
chusetts. In  the  Gulf  it  is  common  everywhere,  even  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Texas; 
how  much  farther  south  it  goes  there  is  at  present  no  means  of  determining.  Ichthyologists 
formerly  supposed  that  there  were  two  species,  one  of  which,  of  small  size  and  conspicuously 
banded  with  brown  and  white,  was  called  the  "Banded  Drum,"  r.fasciatus,  or  "Little  Drum." 
This  is  now  well  known  to  be  the  young  of  the  P.  chromis.  It  seems  curious  that  the  changes 
of  color  in  relation  to  age,  although  known  to  Cuvier  forty  years  ago,  should  have  been  over- 
looked by  American  naturalists,  and  that  the  species  P.fasciatus  should  have  stood  as  valid  until 
1873. 

My  own  observations  upon  the  Drum  have  been  made  chiefly  in  Florida.  Specimens  of 
ten  and  fifteen  inches  are  abundant  in  the  Lower  Saint  John,  and  are  frequently  taken  at  Jack- 
sonville, even  as  high  up  the  river  as  Doctor's  Lake.  Large  ones  are  seldom  known  to  pass  the 
bar  at  Mayport.  The  young  are  very  dissimilar  to  the  adult  fish,  though  the  fishermen  recognize 
tin- actual  relations.  In  this  respect  they  are  more  discriminating  than  the  ichthyologist  Hol- 
brook, who  described  them  as  distinct  species.  The  adult  is  known  as  the  "Black  Drum,"  the 
young  as  the  "Striped  Drum."  lu  addition  to  the  marked  differences  in  color,  the  young  has  a 
much  more  shapely  body  than  the  adult,  much  higher  in  proportion  to  its  length.  The  full-grown 
fish  sometimes  weigh  eighty  pounds,  though  the  average  is  perhaps  not  more  than  one-quarter  as 
large.  They  are  sluggish  swimmers,  and  are  especially  adapted  to  life  on  the  bottom,  where  their 


368  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

long,  sensitive  barbels  aid  tbem  in  their  searcb  for  buried  treasures  of  food.  They  feed  upon  all 
bottom-dwelling  invertebrates.  Their  teeth  are  extremely  heavy  and  pavement-like;  their  jaws 
arc  provided  with  vciy  powerful  muscles,  by  means  of  which  they  can  crush  with  great  ease  the 
shells  of  the  most  strongly  protected  invertebrates. 

It  is  claimed  by  oyster-planters  that  the  Drum  is  very  destructive '  to  the  oyster-beds.  Mr. 
Stearns  writes :  "  Oysters  are  their  favorite  food  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  they  destroyed  a  great 
many  at  Apalachicola,  Saint  Andrew's,  Mobile,  and  Galveston  Bays.  The  Mobile  oyster-planters 
attribute  the  bulk  of  their  losses  to  Drums.  At  Peusacola  I  have  known  a  boat-load  of  oysters, 
fifty  barrels,  that  were  thrown  overboard  to  be  preserved,  to  be  entirely  consumed  in  eight  or  ten 
days  by  them,  leaving  but  a  heap  of  broken  shells." 

While  it  is  probable  that  the  Drum  feeds  upon  oysters  as  well  as  upon  crabs  or  shrimps,  it  is 
probable  that  the  extent  of  their  destructiveness  has  been  somewhat  exaggerated ;  for  instance, 
it  was  claimed  a  few  years  ago  that  oysters  in  New  York  Bay  to  the  value  of  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  dollars  were  destroyed  by  Drums.  This  seems  quite  unlikely,  since  the  Drum  is  by  no 
means  a  common  fish  so  far  north  as  New  York. 

The  name  "  Drum,"  as  every  one  knows,  alludes  to  the  loud  drumming  noise  which  is  heard, 
especially  in  the  breeding  season,  and  is  doubtless  the  signal  by  which  the  fish  call  to  their  mates. 
This  habit  of  drumming  is  shared  by  many  fishes  of  this  family,  but  appears  to  be  most  highly 
developed  in  the  Drum,  and  in  a  European  species  known  as  the  Maigre,  Scicena  aquila.  M. 
Dnfosse  has  investigated  very  thoroughly  the  physiological  causes  of  these  sounds,  which  appear 
to  depend  largely  upon  the  action  of  the  air-bladder. 

Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke  has  made  some  interestiug  communications  regarding  their  breeding  habits. 
The  male  is  the  larger,  and  is  more  brightly  colored,  particularly  at  the  breeding  season.  The 
male  drums  very  loud,  the  female  in  a  softer  tone.  Fish  under  twenty  pounds  in  weight  do  not 
breed.  About  the  Halifax  Inlet,  Southern  Florida,  they  spawn  in  March  in  the  salt-water  rivers. 
The  ova  sink  to  the  bottom.  They  are  as  large  as  B-shot,  dark  brown  in  color,  and  are  often 
seen  to  run  from  the  parent  fish  when  it  is  captured.  In  a  large  fish  the  roe  sometimes  weighs  six 
or  seven  pounds.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  according  to  Silas  Stearns,  they 
spawn  in  April  and  May  in  inside  waters. 

The  northern  limit  of  the  species  appears  to  be  defined  by  Cape  Cod.  In  1873  Mr.  James  H. 
Blake  captured  one  at  Provincetown.  Another,  of  twenty-five  pounds'  weight,  was  secured  by 
Vinal  Edwards  for  the  Fish  Commission  from  Rogers'  Pound,  Quissett,  Massachusetts,  July,  1874; 
another  large  individual,  of  sixty  pounds'  weight,  was  taken  near  Noank,  Connecticut,  July  10, 
1874,  the  third  instance  of  its  capture  known  to  the  fishermen  of  that  vicinity. 

Schoepf,  writing  about  the  year  178G,  says  that  they  were  at  that  time  very  rare  about  New 
York,  though  he  had  occasionally  seen  them  at  the  city  market,  where  they  met  with  sale,  though 
their  flesh  was  none  of  the  hardest. 

The  Drums  captured  north  of  Sandy  Hook  have  been,  so  lar  as  I  can  learn,  large  adult  fish 
Professor  Bainl  found  the  young  fish  of  this  species  very  abundant  in  August  in  the  small  bays 
along  the  shores  of  Beasley's  Point,  New  Jersey,  though  few  were  seen  in  the  rivers. 

North  of  Maryland  the  fish  is  of  little  economical  importance.  In  the  Chesapeake  region, 
according  to  Uliler  and  Lugger,2  its  flesh  is  much  esteemed,  and  its  roe  is  a  great  delicacy;  consid- 
erable numbers  are  brought  to*  the  Baltimore  markets  in  spring  and  fall. 


1  New  York  fishermen  say  that  a  school  of  these  fish  destroyed  seven  thousand  barrels  of  oysters  in  Prince's  Bay 
in  two  days  some  years  ago. — FRKD.  MATHER,  Chicago  Field,  September  13,  1879,  p.  67. 
"Rep.  Com.  Fish.  Maryland,  reference  76,  p.  99. 


USES  OF  THE  DRUM.  369 

In  the  Carolina*.  according  to  :i  statement  of  a  correspondent,  the  roe  is  considered  very 
deli.  ions,  and  it  is  customary  for  the  residents  of  the  coast  to  salt  and  dry  them  and  send  them 
"up  country"  to  their  friends  as  a  very  acceptable  present. 

They  are  sometimes  caught  in  seines  in  great  numbers  and  retained  living  in  the  seines  until 
disposed  of.  Their  flesh  is  coarse,  but  tender,  and  it  is  thought  to  compare  favorably  with  any  of 
the  salt-water  fish  «f  the  region.  Drum-flshing  with  hook  and  line  is  one  of  the  most  exciting 
exploits  of  the  sportsmen  of  this  region.  In  the  Nassau  River  large  Drum  are  taken  with  hook  and 
line  in  the  spring,  and  are  sold  at  Fernandina. 

The  young  Drum  are  often  taken  in  seines  in  the  Saint  John's  River  and  sold  in  the  Jackson- 
ville market,  and  are  excellent  pan-fish,  as  my  own  experience  testifies.  The  large  fish  are  often 
eaten,  but  are  not  so  much  sought  after;  perhaps  the  cause  of  this  is  that  they  are  liable  to  be 
infested  by  parasitic  worms.  A  Drum  of  sixty  pounds,  taken  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts, 
1864,  was  completely  riddled  by  nematode  worms,  neatly  encysted  among  the  layers  of  muscle. 
Some  of  them  were  two  feet  long,  with  heads  larger  than  large  buck-shot. 

In  the  Indian  River,  according  to  Mr.  Clarke,  Drum  are  caught  with  hooks  and  crab  bait,  and 
with  cast-nets.  In  summer  they  are  caught  in  the  open  ocean;  in  the  winter,  in  the  bays  and 
inlets.  Four  or  five  a  day  is  considered  good  fishing  luck.  Tides  do  not  affect  the  fishing.  Their 
flesh  is  not  greatly  esteemed.  They  are  sometimes  salted,  but  are  chiefly  used  for  compost.  "In 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,"  says  Stearns,  "  the  Drum  is  often  caught  in  seines  and  gill-nets,  but  is  very 
rarely  eaten,  as  the  flesh  is  dry  and  tasteless.  It  attains  a  large  size;  specimens  weighing  thirty- 
five  or  forty  pounds  are  taken." 

The  scales  of  the  Drum  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  sprays  of  flowers  and 
other  articles  of  fancy  work  which  are  sold,  especially  in  Florida,  under  the  name  of  "fish-scale 
jewelry."  They  are  large  and  silvery,  and  so  hard  that  it  is  necessary  to  remove  them  from  the 
fish  with  an  axe  or  hatchet. 

The  Drum  is  interesting  to  the  fishery  economists  less  on  account  of  any  intrinsic  value  in 
itself,  than  because  of  its  destructive  influence  upon  the  oyster-beds.  Concerning  its  relation  to 
the  oyster-culturist,  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  the  words  of  Mr.  Ernest  Ingoisoll:  "Knowing 
the  carnivorous  propensity  of  the  fish,  one  can  easily  imagine  how  an  inroad  of  such  a  host  must 
aflect  an  oyster-ground.  They  do  not  seem  to  make  any  trouble,  however,  north  of  New  York  City, 
and  rarely  along  the  south  side  of  Long  Island.  At  Staten  Island  and  Keyport  they  come  in  every 
few  years  and  devastate  tkousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  property.  Such  a  memorable  visitation 
happened  about  1850,  in  July.  The  following  summer  the  planters  in  Prince's  Bay,  fearing  a  repe- 
tition of  the  onslaught,  anchored  shingles  and  pieces  of  waste  tin  on  their  beds,  scattering  them 
at  short  intervals,  in  the  hope  that  their  dancing,  glittering  surfaces  might  act  as  'scare-crows'  to 
frighten  the  fish  away.  Whether  as  an  effect  of  this,  or  because  of  a  general  absence,  no  more 
Drums  appeared.  In  New  York  Bay,  off  Caven  Point,  where  the  old  '  Black  Tom  Reef  is  now 
converted  into  an  island,  one  planter  of  Keyport  lost  his  whole  summerte  work — material  and 
labor — in  a  single  September  week,  through  an  attack  by  Drums.  A  City  Island  planter  reported 
to  me  a  loss  of  $10,000  in  one  season  a  few  years  ago;  but  the  East  River  is  about  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Drums,  at  least  as  a  nuisance  to  oyster-culture,  so  far  as  I  can  learn.  The  vexation  of 
it  is,  too,  that  the  Drum  does  not  seem  to  eat  half  of  what  he  destroys;  but,  on  the  contrary,  a 
great  school  of  them  will  go  over  a  bed,  wantonly  crushing  hundreds  of  oysters  and  dropping  them 
nntasted,  but  in  fragments,  on  the  bottom."1 

1  The  great  schools  in  which  these  fish  go  are  illustrated  by  the  following  records  from  contemporary  newspapers: 
On  Monday  last  John  Earle  and  sons  caught,  at  one  draught,  in  Bristol  Ferry,  719  Drum-fish,  weighing  upwards 
of  fifty  pounds  each.  Niles'  Weekly  Begitter,  July,  1833,  also  says :  "  Some  days  ago  a  haul  was  made  in  Great  Egg 

24  F 


370  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

120.  THE  FRESH-WATER  DRUM— HAPLOIDONOTUS  GRUNNIENS. 
By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

This  species  is  in  the  Great  Lakes  always  known  by  the  name  of  Sheepshead.  In  the  Ohio 
River  it  is  usually  called  "White  Perch"  or  "Gray  Perch,"  often  simply  "Perch."  In  the  lakes 
of  Northern  Indiana  it  is  called  "Crocus,"  evidently  a  corruption  of  "Croaker."  In  the  South- 
ern States  the  name  "Drum"  predominates;  that  of  "Thunder-pumper,"  also  used  for  the  bittern, 
Botaurus  lentiginosus,  is  heard  along  the  Mississippi  River.  Southwestward,  in  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Arkansas,  it  is  always  known  as  the  "Gaspergou."  These  names,  "Croaker,"  "Drum,'' 
"Thunder-pumper,"  etc.,  refer  to  the  croaking  or  grunting  noise  made  by  this  species  in  common 
witli  most  Sciaeuoids.  This  noise  is  thought  to  be  made  in  the  air-bladder  by  forcing  the  air  from 
one  compartment  to  another.  Another  name  used  in  the  southwest  is  "Jewel-head." 

This  Drum  is  very  abundant  in  all  large  bodies  of  water  throughout  the  Western  States,  from 
the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Rio  Grande.  It  seldom  enters  small  streams.  It  feeds  largely  upon  crus- 
taceans and  mollusks,  but  sometimes  swallows  other  fishes.  It  is  rather  a  bottom  fish  than 
otherwise.  Its  value  as  a  food-fish  depends  on  the  water  and  food,  and,  unlike  most  fishes,  its 
quality  seems  to  improve  to  the  southward.  Although  from  its  size  and  abundance  it  becomes  an 
important  market  fish,  it  cannot  at  best  be  considered  one  of  high  quality.  Its  flesh  is  tough  and 
coarse  in  fiber,  and  often  of  a  disagreeable  shark-like  odor,  particularly  in  the  Great  Lakes,  where 
it  is  never  eaten.  The  flesh  of  partly  grown  specimens  is  better  than  that  of  the  adult. 

This  fish  reaches  a  length  of  four  feet  and  a  weight  of  forty  to  sixty  pounds.  Those  usually 
seen  in  market  are  much  smaller. 

Nothing  special  is  recorded  concerning  its  breeding  habits.  It  is  apparently  not  at  all 
migratory. 

This  species  in  the  Lakes  often  contains  numerous  parasitic  worms. 

121.  THE  SPOT,  OR  LAFAYETTE— LIOSTOMUS  XANTHURUS. 

The  Lafayette,  or  "  Spot,"  Liostomus  xanthurus,  is  found  along  our  coast  from  New  York  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  known  in  New  York  and  elsewhere  as  the  "  Spot,"  on  the  coast  of  New 
Jersey  as  the  "Goody"  and  sometimes  as  the  "Cape  May  Goody,"  in  the  Chesapeake  region  also 
as  the  "  Spot"  and  the  "  Roach,"  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  as  the  "  Chub,"  in  the  Saint  John's 
River,  Florida,  as  the  "  Masooka" — this  name  being  probably  a  corruption  of  a  Portuguese  name, 
"Bezuga" — and  at  Pensacola  as  the  "Spot"  and  "  Ghopa  blanca.''  The  name  "Lafayette"  was 
formerly  used  for  this  fish  in  New  York,  though  seldom  heard  at  the  present  day. 

Although  they  sometimes  enter  the  large  fresh  waters  of  the  South  (such  as  the  Saint  John's, 
which  they  ascend  as  far  as  Jacksonville),  Giinther  is  by  no  means  justified  in  his  remarkable 
statement  that  this  is  "a  fresh-water  fish  inhabiting  the  rivers  of  North  America." 

Like  the  other  bottom-feeding  members  of  this  family,  their  food  consists  chiefly  of  the  smaller 
inollusks  and  crustaceans.  Little  is  known  about  their  breeding  habits  in  the  North.  Mr.  S.  C. 
Clarke  states  that  at  New  Smyrna,  Florida,  they  spawn  in  the  bays  and  inlets  in  November  and 
December,  while  Stearns  remarks  that  they  spawn  in  the  lower  bays  and  inlets  about  Pensacola 

Harbor  Bay,  near  Bcasley's  Point,  Cape  May,  at  which  218  Drum-fish  were  caught,  their  entire  weight  being  from 
8,000  to  9,000  pounds.     This  is  said  to  bo  the  largest  haul  of  that  deseription  of  lish  ever  made  in  that  bay." 

Another  still  larger,  noticed  an  a  great  haul  of  Dniin-lish:  "On  Wednesday,  Juno  5,  1804,"  says  the  postmaster  of 
Oyster  Ponds,  Long  Island,  "one  seine  drew  on  shore  at  this  place  at  a  single  haul  12,250  fish,  the  average  weight  of 
which  was  found  to  be  thirty -three  pounds,  making  in  the  aggregate  202  tons  250  pounds.  This  undoubtedly  is  the 
greatest  haul  of  this  kind  ever  known  in  this  country.  A  hundred  witnesses  are  ready  to  attest  tbo  truth  of  the 
abovo  statement.  They  are  used  for  manure."  (The  fish,  I  suppose,  and  not  the  Witnesses. — INGEKSOLL.) 


THE  SPJT  OR  LAFAYETTE.  371 

laic  in  tin-  fall,  while,  tin;  young  of  all  sizes  are  very  abundant  in  the  spring.    Concerning  this 
species  Professor  liainl  writes: 

"Of  tli«-  smaller  pan-lish  of  onr  coast,  in  excellence  of  flavor  none  is  considered  superior  to 
thai  known  as  tin-  -Lafayette.'  Its  precise  eastern  range  is  not  well  ascertained,  although  it  is 
occasionally  taken  in  great  numbers  oft'  Long  Island  and  the  coast  of  New  Jersey.  It  is  most 
plentiful  oft'  the  coast  of  Virginia.  The  name  of  Lafayette  was  given  to  it  by  the  New  York  fisher- 
men in  consequence  of  one  of  its  periodical  reappearances  in  large  numbers  in  that  region  having 
been  coincident  with  the  arrival  of  Lafayette  in  this  country  in  1834.  It  had  been  known  before 
that  time,  but  only  in  scattering  numbers. 

"According  to  Dr.  Holbrook,  it  is  not  much  esteemed  for  food  at  Charleston,  owing  to  a  want 
of  flavor.  In  the  case  of  this  species,  as  in  many  others,  it  is  probable  that  the  colder  waters  of 
the  North  impart  a  superior  flavor  and  excellence  to  the  flesh.  This  is  well  known  to  be  the  case 
witli  the  sheepshead,  as  well  as  many  other  8j>ccies. 

"At  Beasley's  Point,  New  Jersey,  where  I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  its  habits,  it 
makes  its  appearance  in  large  numbers  in  August,  the  first  school  being  composed  of  small  fish, 
larger  ones  following  them.  A  short  time  later  they  ascend  the  creeks  in  great  numbers  and  are 
taken  there  in  company  with  the  white  perch.  Their  usual  size  in  New  Jersey  is  about  six  inches, 
although  occasionally  measuring  ten  inches.  They  do  not  make  their  appearance  in  the  New  York 
markets  in  any  abundance  until  towards  the  1st  of  September,  and  remain  until  the  end  of  October, 
when  they  disappear.  I  did  not  succeed  in  finding  any  very  young  fish,  and  am  unable  to  state 
whether  they  actually  spawn  on  the  New  Jersey  coast,  or  whether  the  supply  found  there  and 
farther  north  consists  of  a  Tun'  from  the  more  southern  waters  of  fish  migrating  northward, 
perhaps  to  escape  the  increased  heat  of  the  southern  coast." 

The  Spot  is  abundant  at  Mayport,  Florida,  in  spring  and  summer.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
according  to  Stearns,  it  is  present  in  the  bays  all  the  year,  living  in  shoal  water,  feeding  upon  the 
bottom  upon  small  invertebrate  animals,  and  taken  with  hook  and  Hue  and  seine.  It  is  extremely 
abundant,  and  is  considered  a  good  food-fish. 

There  is  a  rare  species  which  has  been  recorded  only  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and 
Saint  George's  Island,  Texas,  known  by  naturalists  under  the  name  Stelliferwi  lanceolatus.    It  is 
found  in  deep  water,  and  is  not  sufficiently  abundant  to  have  acquired  a  common  name. 
122.  THE  BED  FISH,   OR  BASS  OF  THE  SOUTH— SCLENA  OCELLATA. 

The  following  biography  of  the  Bed  Drum.  Scitena  ocellata,  is  quoted  in  full  from  the  text  pre- 
pared by  the  writer  for  the  illustrated  work  on  "The  Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States,"  recently 
published  by  Charles  Scribuer's  Sons,  of  New  York: 

The  Southern  Ked  Fish  is  among  the  important  species  upon  the  coast  of  the  United  States 
from  the  Chesapeake  to  the  Mexican  boundary.  Abundant  as  it  is  in  the  Caroliuas,  in  Florida, 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  limits  of  its  range  appear  to  be  very  sharply  defined,  there  being 
little  tendency  on  the  part  of  individuals  to  stray  away  from  their  wonted  pastures.  Although 
the  species  is  often  found  in  the  Chesapeake,  I  am  unable  to  find  any  record  of  its  capture  north  of 
(  ape  Charles.  Mitchill  and  DeKay  refer  to  it  in  their  treatise  on  the  fishes  of  New  York,  but  their 
descriptions  are  based  upon  market  specimens,  probably  brought  from  more  southern  localities. 
Professor  Baird  did  not  obtain  any  specimens  when  he  explored  the  New  Jersey  coast  in  1854,  nor 
are  they  to  be  found  in  Professor  Webster's  collections  from  the  Atlantic  .-itle  of  the  east  shore  of 
Virginia.  Its  range  to  the  south  seems  to  terminate  with  equal  abruptness.  Mr.  Silas  Stearns 
gives  the  result  of  his  observations  in  1880:  'From  Tampa  Bay  and  northward  to  the  Mississippi 
River  it  is  one  of  the  most  common  edible  fishes,  while  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  it  is  more 


372  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

abundant  than  any  other  sea-fish,  evidently  increasing  in  numbers  as  the  Texas  coast  is  approxi- 
mated.' On  the  Texas  coast  it  is  taken  in  greater  quantity  than  all  ottier  species  combined. 
West  of  the  month  of  the  Eio  Grande  the  species  has  not  been  recorded,  chiefly,  no  doubt,  for 
the  reason  that  no  explorations  have  been  made  along  the  shores  of  Mexico.  The  fish  fauna 
of  the  Caribbean  coast  of  Panama  has,  however,  been  carefully  studied,  and  this  fish  has  not  been 
found.  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  its  range  is  as  abruptly  limited  at  the  south,  perhaps  by  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan,  as  it  is  in  its  northward  extension.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  Scicena, 
does  not  wander  more;  for  every  other  species,  I  think  without  exception,  which  is  abundant  north 
of  Cape  Hatteras,  is  occasionally  met  with  in  Buzzard's  and  Narragansett  Bays,  these  two  great 
pockets  in  the  coast-line  of  Southern  New  England  in  which  are  lodged  so  many  of  the  straying 
Southern  marine  animals. 

"This  fish  is  very  much  in  need  of  a  characteristic  name  of  its  own.  Its  local  names  are  all 
preoccupied  by  other  more  widely  distributed  or  better-known  forms  which  seem  to  have  substan- 
tial claims  of  priority.  In  the  Chesapeake,  and  south  to  below  Cape  Hatteras,  it  is  called  the 
'Drum';  but  its  kinsman,  Pogonias  chromis,  is  known  by  the  same  name  throughout  its  whole 
range  from  Provincetown  to  Texas,  and  is  the  possessor  of  a  much  larger  and  more  resonant 
musical  organ.  Some  of  the  old  writers  coined  names  for  it  like  '  Branded  Drum,'  referring  to  the 
brand-like  spots  upon  the  tail,  and  'Beardless  Drum';  but  these  are  valueless  for  common  use, 
like  most  other  'book-names.'  In  the  Carolinas,  Florida,  and  the  Gulf,  we  meet  with  the  names 
'Bass,'  and  its  variations,  'Spotted  Bass,'  'Red  Bass,'  'Sea  Bass,'  'Reef  Bass,'  and  'Channel  Bass.' 
Many  persons  suppose  'Channel  Bass'  to  be  a  characteristic  name,  but  this  is  a  mistake,  for  the 
term  is  applied  properly  only  to  large  individuals  which  are  taken  in  the  channels  of  streams  and 
sounds;  wherever  this  name  is  used,  the  smaller  fish  of  the  species  are  called  simply  'Bass,'  or 
'School  Bass';  even  if  the  word  'Bass'  could  be  so  .qualified  as  to  be  applicable  to  the  species, 
there  is  an  insuperable  objection  to  its  use  for  any  fish  of  this  family.  It  is  a  modification  of  an 
old  Saxon  word,  Bears,  or  Boers;  also  found  in  German  under  the  forms  Bars  and  Barsch,  from 
which  'Perch'  and  'Bass'  are  both  evident  developments.  This  name  should  evidently  be  retained 
for  the  spiny-formed  fishes  of  the  perch  tribe.  I  find  in  my  note-book  references  to  thirty-eight 
distinct  kinds  of  fish  called  by  the  name  'Bass,'  with  various  prefixes,  all  of  which  are  justly 
entitled  to  bear  this  name. 

"'Spot'  is  another  name  erroneously  applied  to  this  fish,  and  which  is  the  property  of  a  much 
.smaller  species  of  the  same  family,  otherwise  known  as  'Lafayette,'  or  'Cape  May  Goody.' 

"  Finally,  we  have  the  '  Red  Fish'  and  '  Bed  Horse'  of  Florida  and  the  Gulf  States,  the  '  Poisson 
Ttouge'  of  the  Louisiana  Creoles,  and  'Pez  Colorado'  of  the  Mexicans.  Although  this  name  is 
occasionally  applied  to  a  much  redder  fish,  the  Norway  haddock,  or  red  perch  of  the  north,  and 
to  the  big  labroid  Trochocopus  in  California,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  one  and 
that  most  suitable  for  general  use,  especially  if  modified  into  'Southern  Red  Fish.'  The  chief 
objection  is  that  the  fish  is  not  always  red ;  in  the  young  there  is  not  a  suggestion  of  this  color, 
while  in  the  adult  it  is  more  a  tint,  an  evanescent,  metallic  reflection  of  claret  from  the  scales, 
which  is  often  absent,  and  at  all  events  soon  disappears  after  life  is  gone.  The  number  of  spots  on 
the  tail  is  variable;  sometimes  there  is  one,  sometimes  eight  or  ten,  and  their  arrangement  is  a 
matter  of  chance;  occasionally  they  are  absent. 

"The  Red  Fish  grows  to  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet  and  a  weight  of  forty  pounds  or  more.  In 
April,  1877,  those  to  be  seen  in  the  markets  of  Jacksonville,  Florida,  ranged  from  one  to  four  feet. 
In  the  markets  of  Washington  and  New  York  strings  of  small  ones  are  often  seen.  The  average 
size  is  perhaps  ten  pounds. 


FOOD  OF  THK  RED  FISH.  373 

The  food  is  .similar  to  that  of  the  striped  bass,  which  it  seems  to  resemble  in  habits.  It  preys 
upon  small  lish  and  the  crustaceans  with  which  Southern  waters  are  filled.  They  swim  in  scattered 
schools  at  times,  probably  in  the  spawning  season,  and  may  be  heard  spring  above  the  surface 
while  feeding.  At  this  time  the  fish  are  taken  in  large  gill-nets,  which  are  set  around  them  by  the 
tishermen.  This  species  undoubtedly  gathers  much  food  from  the  bottom,  although  it  cannot  be 
so  much  of  a  grubber  as  many  other  members  of  the  same  family,  better  provided  for  this  kind  of 
foraging  by  the  tactile  organs  under  the  chin,  and  a  set  of  grinding  teeth  with  which  to  liberate 
the  shells  of  muscles  and  barnacles.  An  accurate  observer  describes  them  as  swimming  along 
close  to  the  bottom,  with  head  down  and  body  obliquely  upward,  wriggling  through  the  water, 
rooting  up  the  weeds  and  grass,  among  which  it  finds  quantities  of  shrimps  and  crabs.  Their 
enemies  are  sharks,  porpoises,  and  saw-fish.  The  power  of  uttering  sounds  is  also  shared  by  this 
fish,  but  probably  not  to  any  very  great  degree.  No  one  has  reported  observations  upon  this 
point 

The  movements  and  breeding  habits  of  this  fish  have  not  been  sufficiently  studied  to  warrant 
the  framing  of  a  generalized  statement  of  their  character.  There  is  need  of  a  careful  investigation 
of  this  question  at  different  stations  along  the  coast.  1  cannot  here  do  better  than  to  quote  the 
observations,  as  yet  unpublished,  of  two  excellent  observers,  one  upon  the  east,  the  other  upon  the 
west  coast  of  the  Florida  Peninsula:  "In  the  spring,"  writes  Mr.  Stearns,  "they  are  seen  in  large 
numbers  in  the  Gulf,  swimming  in  shoal  water  near  the  coast.  This  is  usually  in  March  and 
April,  though  the  weather  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  seem  to  influence  the  time  of  their 
arrival.  Arriving  at  the  entrance  of  a  bay,  their  migratory  movement  ceases,  and  for  days  and 
weeks  they  may  be  seen  in  shoal  water  near  the  inlet  swimming  lazily  about  in  search  of  food,  or 
lying  quite  still  in  deep  holes  between  shoals,  where  there  is  comparatively  little  current  and  few 
enemies  can  reach  them.  Some  seasons  immense  numbers  of  Bed  Fish  gather  about  the  inlets  before 
any  are  noticed  inside  or  coming  in,  while-  in  other  seasons  there  is  but  slight  accumulation,  the 
schools  working  in  as  fast  as  they  arrive.  By  the  1st  of  June  the  'run'  is  over,  and  the  fish  are 
believed  to  have  all  come  in.  When  once  inside  the  schools  break  up  into  small  squads,  which 
proceed  to  the  weedy  bottoms  of  the  bayous  and  to  the  heads  of  the  bays.  About  the  river  months, 
where  the  water  is  brackish,  and  even  in  fresh  water,  they  are  found  through  the  summer.  While 
at  sea  their  color  is  light,  and  they  are  so  thin  in  flesh  that  they  are  far  from  desirable  as  food.  In 
the  bays  they  become  very  fat  and  their  colors  are  much  darker.  In  September  spawn  is  found  in 
them  in  a  half-developed  state.  In  October  and  November  they  again  form  in  schools  and  are 
observed  moving  out  of  the  inlets  to  the  sea.  They  do  not  leave  the  coast  immediately,  but  follow 
the  beach  for  some  days.  At  this  time  they  contain  spawn  which  I  should  think  to  be  three- 
fourths  developed.  Many  reliable  fishermen  here  have  observed  that  the  Bed  Fish  go  to  sea  with 
spawn  in  them." 

I  have  never  found  the  young  in  the  north  less  than  ten  inches  long,  but  in  Peusacola  Bay 
Jordan  and  Stearns  secured  numerous  young  in  the  seine  in  April,  the  smallest  measuring  two  and 
a  half  inches.  Jordan  supposes  that  they  spawn  in  water  of  no  great  depth. 

Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke,  however,  tells  the  following  story  about  Bass  in  the  Indian  Biver  region : 
'They  enter  the  rivers  and  creeks  from  the  sea.  The  young  fish  are  here  all  the  time.  The 
adults  leave  the  shore  in  a  body  when  done  spawning.  They  are  first  seen  off  the  coast  in 
January  and  February,  and  remain  in  the  rivers  until  late  in  the  spring.  The  males  and  females 
swim  together,  frequenting  localities  on  shoals  and  sand-banks,  where  the  water  is  from  one  to  four 
feet  deep  and  warm.  After  spawning  they  scatter.  They  begin  to  breed  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember in  the  shallow  bays  and  inlets,  at  which  time  both  sexes  are  poor  and  unfit  for  food.  The 


374  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

spawn  is  small,  brown,  about  as  large  as  number  five  shot,  and  floats.  The  young  are  found 
abundantly  in  the  creeks  and  bays.' 

The  fishermen  of  the  Saint  John's  River  told  me  that  in  November,  when  schooling  begins, 
the  fish  are  full-roed,  but  that  in  December  the  eggs  have  all  been  spent. 

Little  need  be  said  here  about  their  commercial  value  except  that  they  are  taken  with  gill- 
nets  and  spears  and  by  the  use  of  bottom-lines,  baited  with  pieces  of  fish  or  shrimps.  They  are 
much  esteemed  for  food  all  through  the  South,  resembling  the  striped  bass  or  rock-fish  in  flavor 
and  flesh-texture,  though  possibly  somewhat  inferior.  They  enter  largely  into  local  consumption, 
though  a  few  thousand  pounds  are  sent  every  year  to  New  York  and  other  cities  of  the  North. 

In  discussing  the  rank  of  this  species  as  a  game-fish,  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the 
words  of  Mr.  H.  8.  Williams,  regarding  his  experiences  in  the  Indian  River  region:  "I  have  seen 
them  swimming  in  shallow  water  by  the  hundreds,  sometimes  ten  and  twenty,  almost,  moving 
with  all  the  regularity  of  solid  columns  of  infantry;  all  apparently  of  the  same  size.  The  Red  Fish 
are  in  season  at  all  times,  but  best  from  the  1st  of  April  until  January  1.  In  size  they  run  up  to 
forty,  and  even  fifty,  pounds.  They  readily  take  mullet  bait,  and  when  securely  hooked  furnish 
fine  sport,  for  the  Red  Fish  is  emphatically  a  game-fish.  I  shall  never  forget  my  first  experience  in 
this  line,  a  day  or  two  before  the  full  of  the  moon  in  November.  I  concluded  to  try  a  new  hook 
just  sent  me  by  a  distant  friend.  Just  at  dusk  I  went  down  to  the  river,  and  baiting  my  hook  with 
a  half  mullet,  I  walked  out  on  a  shelving  coquina  rock,  and  swinging  the  hook  around  my  head  a 
few  times  sent  it  out  into  the  river  to  the  full  length  of  the  line;  then  filling  and  lighting  my  pipe  I 
took  a  seat  and  quietly  awaited  results.  The  moon,  nearly  full,  was  half  an  hour  or  more  high, 
not  a  cloud  obscuring  its  brightness,  and  it  made  a  highway  of  silver  across  the  broad  river,  now 
calm  and  smooth  as  glass.  Scarcely  a  breath  of  air  stirred  the  leaves  of  the  huge  live-oaks  above 
my  head,  and  everything  was  so  still  that  I  could  distinctly  hear  the  fish  in  shallow  water  a  mile 
away  as  the  small-fry  dashed  and  jumped  in  their  frantic  endeavors  to  escape  from  the  ravenous 
jaws  of  their  pursuers;  in  fact,  everything  was  so  still  that  I  remember  to  have  heard  the  sound 
of  a  cow-bell,  two  miles  away,  as  its  low,  mellow  notes  were  borne  over  the  broad  expanse  of 
water.  I  had  occasionally  taken  a  whiff  or  two  at  my  pipe  and  watched  the  fleecy  clouds  of  smoke 
float  slowly  upward  and  dissolve  into  space,  before  something  sent  an  electric  message  to  my  finger 
from  the  other  end  of  the  line.  It  was  a  faint  message,  scarcely  felt,  but  distinct  enough  to  tell 
me  what  was  there.  A  moment's  pause  and  then  it  was  repeated ;  this  time  it  was  emphatic,  for 
the  fish  picked  up  the  bait  in  its  mouth  as  daintily  as  a  neatly-gloved  lady  would  pick  up  an 
orange,  and  then  let  it  fall  again.  Aha!  my  boy.  You  are  an  old  hand  at  the  business,  and  know 
by  past  experience  that  sometimes  even  the  most  tempting  morsels  are  dangerous.  A  moment 
more  it  is  picked  up  again,  and  yet  again,  and  then  it  is  carried  a  couple  of  yards  or  so  before  it  is 
dropped;  and  then  back  again;  then  further  off.  Our  fish  is  playing  with  the  bait  as  a  coquette 
with  hearts.  The  very  moment  a  novice  would  think  that  he  was  going  to  take  it,  'tis  dropped 
and  he  is  gone  again.  No,  not  gone,  only  swimming  around  in  circles,  keeping  one  eye  on  the 
prize  and  keeping  away  all  such  intruders  as  sharks  and  cat-fish. 

"Now  for  it.  The  bait  is  picked  up,  seized  with  a  vim,  as  though  he  meant  business,  and 
away  he  starts  with  it.  Here  the  inexperienced  would  jerk  the  line  and  perhaps  lose  the  fish,  or 
at  least  have  the  whole  formula  to  go  over  again.  But  wait;  the  successful  sportsman  must 
practice  patience.  Again  the  bait  is  dropped,  but  not  for  long.  In  a  moment  it  is  seized,  and  this 
time  there  is  no  feint  about  it.  He  darts  off,  the  lino  Is  drawn  tight,  then  u  sudden  jerk  and  a 
wild  plunge  tell  that  the  game  is  safely  hooked.  And  now  commences  the  struggle  for  life. 
Away  he  goes  up  the  stream  for  fifty  yards  or  more,  straining  every  nerve  to  get  free;  then  down, 


CAi'TI   i:i;  OF  TI1K    KK1)  FISH.  375 

tin  n  l>aek  a-ain.  \\  In!.'  the  line  is  pulled  just  hard  enough  to  <lra\v  him  in  a  little  nearer  tbe  shore; 
then  up  and  down,  each  time  a  still  shorter  distance.  At  each  effort  I  feel  his  i>owers  give  way, 
and  then  as  he  makes  a  turn  we  pull  his  head  toward  the  shore  and  keep  it  there.  Now  is  the 
eriiieal  period;  now,  it'  ar  all,  the  line  will  part  or  the  hook  break.  1  haul  the  line  in  rapidly, 
hand  over  hand,  keeping  it  taut,  for  the  least  slack  or  a  failure  to  grasp  the  line  firmly  would 
perhaps  lose  the  game.  Swerving  to  and  fro,  I  draw  him  rapidly  in,  and  with  such  iorce  does  he 
come  that  far  up  tbe  shelving  rocks  we  land  our  prize,  a  thirty-pound  Bass,  a  magnificent  fellow, 
his  scales  glistening  like  burnished  silver  in  tbe  moonlight.'" 

123.  THE  YELLOW  TAIL— BAIRDIELLA  CHRYSURA. 

The  Yellow-tail,  known  as  "Silver  Perch"  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  is  quite  an  important 
food-fish  in  the  Southern  States.  But  little  has  been  written  regarding  it,  and  its  excellent 
qualities  are  not  yet  thoroughly  appreciated.  In  fact,  it  has  been  confused  with  other  species  by 
both  Uolbrook  and  Giinther.  This  fish  has  not  been  observed  north  of  New  York,  where  it  was 
recorded  by  Mitchill  and  DeKay,  the  latter  of  whom  stated  that  it  was  not  uncommon  in  the 
siiminer  season. 

Professor  Baird  found  the  yonng  very  abundant  about  Beasley's  Point  in  1&14,  though  the 
adults  were  unknown  to  the  fishermen  Uhler  and  Lugger,  who,  following  the  mistaken  nomen- 
clature of  Holbrook,  confusing  this  with  a  species  of  Liostomus,  state  that  it  is  common  in  the 
Chesapeake  and  Lower  Potomac.  It  is  also  abundant  about  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Charleston. 

According  to  many  observers,  Yellow-tails  are  highly  esteemed  for  food  at  Saint  Simon's 
Island,  New  Brunswick,  Georgia,  and  in  the  Lower  Saint  John's  Biver.  They  probably  never 
ascend  the  river  much  above  Jacksonville,  though  in  1877  great  quantities  were  taken  in  the 
month  of  April  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arlington  Biver.  In  1878  the  water  was  so  fresh  at  this  point 
that  none  could  be  taken  there,  though  I  saw  them  at  Yellow  Bluffs  in  water  not  perceptibly 
brackish  to  the  taste.  A  large  majority  of  those  observed  at  Mayport  on  April  7,  1875,  were  full 
grown  and  taken  at  the  point  of  spawning.  Others  taken  by  fishermen  at  Mayport,  April  15, 1878, 
hud  the  spawn  running  freely  from  them.  The  largest  adult  did  not  exceed  eight  inches  in  length. 

On  the  Florida  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  according  to  Mr.  Stearns,  they  are  very  common. 
They  were  found  by  Jordan  to  be  very  abundant  along  the  shores  of  Louisiana  and  Texas.  At 
Pensacola  they  are  known  by  the  name  "  Mademoiselle."  They  are  present  throughout  the  year, 
but  most  plenty  from  May  until  November,  and  are  found  in  company  with  the  Trout  and  the 
Spot  on  the  grassy  shoals  of  the  bays  where  they  feed  and  spawn.  The  time  for  spawning  is  in 
June  and  July.  They  feed  chiefly  upon  small  fishes  and  shrimps.  They  do  not  school,  but  swim 
singly  or  in  pairs.  Their  extreme  length  does  not  exceed  ten  or  eleven  inches,  the  average  being 
about  eight.  They  are  regarded  as  excellent  pan-fish. 

124.  THE  KINO-FISH— MEFHCIRRUS  HEBULOSTJS. 

The  King-fish,  also  known  as  the  "  Hake"  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  and  as 
the  "Tom-cod"  on  the  coast  of  Connecticut,  the  "Black  Mullet"  in  the  Chesapeake,  the  "Sea 
Mink  "  in  North  Carolina,  and  sometimes  also  in  the  South  as  the  "  Whiting,"  ranges  from  Cape 
Ann  south  at  least  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  Biver,  Florida,  although  in  the  southern 
part  of  its  range  it  is  frequently  confused  with  the  Whiting.  It  has  been  obtained  by  Jordan 
and  Stearns  at  Pensacola ;  it  is,  however,  rare  in  the  Gulf.  It  is  discussed  as  follows  by  Pro- 
fessor Baird  in  an  unpublished  nianuseript : 

'The  Semi-Tropical,  iii,  1877,  p.  663. 


376  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"  This  species,  well  worthy  of  the  name  which  has  been  given  it,  and  the  estimation  in  which 
it  is  held  by  New  York  epicures,  as  it  is  certainly  savory  when  taken  iresh  from  the  water,  leaves 
nothing  to  be  desired  in  the  way  of  a  fish  diet.  It  is  quite  abundant  off  the  Middle  States,  but 
is  rare  much  to  the  eastward.  A  few  specimens  are  occasionally  taken  in  Buzzard's  Bay  and 
Vineyard  Sound,  and  L)r.  Storer  mentions  four  as  having  been  captured  in  Massachusetts  Bay. 
It  is  almost  as  capricious  in  its  occurrence  in  the  more  northern  waters  as  the  Lafayette,  Sometimes 
being  scarcely  met  with  for  several  successive  summers,  and  then  suddenly  reappearing,  as  if 
migrating  from  more  southern  waters.  At  Beasley's  Point,  New  Jersey,  where  I  have  had  most 
opportunity  of  studying  its  habits,  it  appears  quite  early  in  the  spring  with  the  Squeteague,  and 
is  found  a  good  deal  in  company  with  it,  like  that  fish  seeming  to  prefer  a  slight  mixture  of  fresh 
water,  as  shown  by  its  keeping  in  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  running  farther  up  during  the  dry 
season.  It  takes  bait  readily  and  affords  excellent  sport  to  the  fishermen,  although  not  caught  in 
anything  like  the  same  number  in  a  given  time  as  the  Squeteague,  thirty  or  forty  at  a  single  tide 
being  considered  an  excellent  catch  for  one  boat. 

"  Nothing  has  been  recorded  in  regard  to  the  precise  time  of  their  spawning  or  the  places 
where  they  lay  their  eggs.  The  young  were  met  with  at  Beasley's  Point  in  immense  numbers  on 
the  sandy  bottom  as  well  as  in  the  surf.  The  smallest  were  about  an  inch  long.  I  have  taken 
the  young  also  in  considerable  number  in  Vineyard  Sound  at  a  time  when  the  old  fish  were 
scarcely  known.  They  occasionally  run  to  a  considerable  distance  up  the  rivers,  as  I  have  caught 
young  fish  of  this  species  at  Sing  Sing,  on  the  Hudson,  where  the  water  is  scarcely  brackish. 
The  King-fish  run  much  in  schools,  and  keep  on  or  near  a  hard,  sandy  bottom,  preferring  the  edge 
of  channels  and  the  vicinity  of  sand  bars ;  and  they  congregate  about  oyster-beds,  especially  when 
the  oysters  are  being  taken  up,  and  may  be  seen  under  the  boats,  fighting  for  the  worms  and 
crustaceans  dislodged  in  the  operation.  They  bite  readily  at  hard  or  soft  clams,  or  even  pieces  of 
fish,  and  are  taken  most  successfully  on  the  young  flood.  Like  the  Squeteague,  they  will  occasion- 
ally run  up  the  salt  creeks  at  night,  and  may  be  captured  in  gill-nets  as  the  water  recedes.  This, 
however,  is  not  so  common  a  habit  with  them  as  it  is  with  its  associate. 

"  The  price  of  this  fish  varies  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  it  is  always  well  maintained, 
and  it  is  generally  valued  at  nearly  as  high  a  figure  as  the  Spanish  mackerel.  The  European 
analogue  of  this  species  ( Umbrina  drrhosa)  is  somewhat  similar  in  general  appearance,  and  its 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed.  This  feeds  on  small  fishes,  mollusks,  and,  according  to  Yarrow,  on  sea- 
weed, sometimes  obtaining  a  weight  of  forty  pounds.  This  magnitude  I  have  not  seen  approxi- 
mated by  our  species,  although  it  is  possible  that  it  may  occasionally  reach  a  large  size.  Of  its 
distribution  southward  I  can  find  no  satisfactory  account." 

In  1879  numerous  small  individuals  of  this  species  appeared  in  the  harbor  of  Provincetown, 
Massachusetts;  they  seemed,  however,  to  be  out  of  their  proper  habitat,  and  many  were  chilled  by 
the  coldness  of  the  water  and  cast  up  on  the  beach.  In  1880  and  1881,  the  species  is  said  to  have 
been  particularly  abundant  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  and  to  have  afforded  much  sport  to  anglers 
of  that  vicinity,  many  of  whom  had  not  been  familiar  with  it  in  previous  years. 

125.  THE  WHITINGS— MENTICIRRUS  ALBURNUS  AND  M.  LITTORALIS. 

The  Whiting,  one  of  the  favorite  food-fishes  of  the  Southern  coast,  is  a  species  very  closely 
allied  in  its  general  character  to  the  King-fish  of  more  northern  waters.  It  is  said  to  occur  abun- 
dantly from  Cape  Fear  Kiver,  North  Carolina,  to  the  Rio  Grande,  in  Texas.  Uhler  and  Lugger  claim 
that  it  inhabits  the  salt  water  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  estuaries,  but  it  is  not  probable  that 
it  is  at  all  abundant.  On  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  according  to  Dr.  Holbrook,  "  the  Whiting 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  TIIK  WHITINGS.  377 

remains  all  the  year  round,  and  although  few  are  taken  in  December  and  January,  yet  they 
are  sufficient  to  prove  themselves  constant  residents.  Near  Charleston  in  the  spring  and  summer 
mouths  they  are  very  abundant;  they  cuter  the  mouths  of  bays  and  rivers,  and  are  captured  in 
great  numbers.  They  lake  the  hook  readily ;  their  favorite  bait  is  the  Drum,  and  being  a  strong, 
lively,  and  active  animal,  they  a  (lord  great  sport  to  the  fishermen.  They  prefer  deep  and  running 
waters,  and  seldom  approach  so  near  the  shore  as  to  betaken  in  seines.  Their  ordinary  food  seems 
to  be  various  species  of  a  small  shell-fish,"  etc. 

Speaking  of  the  "Surf  Whiting" of  Charleston,  Holbrook  remarks:  "This  species  makes  its 
appearance  on  the  coast  of  Carolina  in  the  mouth  of  April,  and  continues  with  ns  during  the 
entire  summer,  though  very  few  are  taken  in  July  or  August.  It  is  ouly  found  in  shallow  water 
where  the  bottom  is  hard  and  sandy,  often  forming,  when  the  tide  is  out,  an  extensive  beach.  Its 
favorite  resort  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  shore  where  the  surf  can  roll  over  it  from  the  ocean 
and  bring  with  it  doubtless  the  animals  on  which  it  feeds.  In  such  localities  many  are  captured 
with  the  seine  and  are  sold  in  the  market  under  the  name  'Surf  Whiting,'  in  contradistinction  to 
the  other  species  which  is  called  the  'Deep- water  Whiting.'  Its  food  seems  to  be  similar  to  that 
of  the  Deep-water  Whiting,  judging  from  the  contents  of  its  stomach,  and  yet  it  is  seldom  taken 
with  the  hook.  Hitherto  I  have  only  seen  this  fish  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Charleston. 
This  fish  is  very  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  adult  male  of  the  common  Whiting,  approaching  the 
shoal  water  to  deposit  its  spawn.  I  believed  it,  from  common  report,  to  be  such,  until  frequent 
dissections  proved  to  me  that  there  are  both  males  and  females  among  them.  The  flesh  of  this 
species  is  good,  but  by  no  means  so  finely  flavored  as  that  of  the  Deep-water  Whiting." 

At  Mayport,  Florida,  the  Whiting  is  abundant,  and  also  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's.  The 
largest  observed  by  me  measured  ten  inches,  and  in  the  first  week  of  April  was  within  two  or 
three  weeks  of  spawning.  A  few  are  taken  in  the  Saint  John's  as  high  up  as  Arlington.  They 
are  abundant  in  the  Indian  River.  About  New  Smyrna,  Florida,  according  to  Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke, 
it  is  called  "Whiting,"  "King-fish,"  "Barb,"  and  "Bull-head  Whiting."  They  occur  in  the 
winter  and  spring,  though  seldom  in  summer.  The  largest  reached  the  weight  of  one  and  a  half 
pounds.  They  average  three-quarters  of  a  pound,  the  female  being  usually  the  larger.  They 
appear  about  the  last  of  November,  and  spend  the  winter  in  bays  and  still  rivers.  They  bite  in 
strong  currents,  not  in  slackwater.  They  prefer  deep  channels  and  sandy  bottoms.  They  are 
found  in  the  deepest  water  and  prefer  cold  water.  Their  food  consists  of  crabs,  shrimps,  and  small 
crustaceans,  and  they  feed  at  the  bottom.  Half-grown  to  full-grown  fish  contain  spawn.  They 
spawn  in  the  sea  in  May.  They  are  taken  with  a  hook  by  the  use  of  mullet  or  clam  bait  at  half- 
tide.  They  bite  best  in  a  strong  current  in  winter  and  spring.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  according 
to  Stearns,  they  are  abundant  from  Key  West  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  are  known  as  the 
"  Whiting,"  though  at  Pensacola  the  name  "  Ground  Mullet"  is  in  use.  He  writes: 

"There  are  two  varieties,  which,  if  they  have  no  specific  differences,  have  at  least  diffeient 
habits.  One  variety  lives  exclusively  in  very  shoal  water  along  the  sandy  beaches,  appearing  to 
take  pleasure  from  the  action  of  the  surf,  and  swimming  in  small  schools.  The  other  inhabits 
deeper  waters;  is  found  singly,  and  is  of  much  darker  coloring.  The  former  seldom  leaves  the 
sea-water,  while  the  latter  are  often  found  in  brackish  and  fresh  water.  I  have  found  ripe  spawn 
in  the  surf  variety  in  April,  and  believe  they  deposit  it  on  the  sea-beach.  Large  specimens  of  the 
dark  variety  were  taken  in  September,  1879,  in  the  Apalachicola  River,  where  the  water  is  fresh. 
The  Whiting  is  an  excellent  food-fish." 

The  two  varieties  thus  referred  to  by  Stearns  have  been  identified  by  Jordou  as  the  two  species 
M.  alburnun  and  M.  littoralis,  the  latter  being  the  surf-loving  species  first  mentioned. 


378  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Whiting  is  a  delicious  pan-fish,  sweet  and  hard,  though  soon  losing  its  delicate  flavor. 
In  Charleston  it  is  regarded  as  a  special  dainty.  According  to  Colonel  Lymau,  when  Charleston 
was  closely  blockaded  and  fishing  was  a  hazardous  occupation,  the  commandant  of  the  garrison, 
who  was  a  bon  vivant,  gave  $100  of  Confederate  money  for  a  string  of  Whiting. 

Some  of  the  early  writers  called  this  fish  the  "  Bermuda  Whiting,"  for  what  reason  it  is 
difficult  to  understand,  for  the  Whiting  of  Bermuda  at  the  present  day  is  a  fish  very  unlike  that 
of  our  Southern  coast 

The  "  Surf  Whiting,"  according  to  Jordan,  is  uot  rare  at  Charleston,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
is  as  common  as  the  other  species,  but  is  chiefly  found  in  the  surf,  aud  hence  is  less  frequently 
brought  into  the  markets. 

126.  THE  CROAKER— MICROPOGON  UNDULATUS. 

The  Croaker,  Micropogon  undulatus,  ranges  from  New  York  at  least  to. the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
although  rarely  seen  north  of  Delaware.  It  occurs  also  in  some  of  the  West  Indian  islands  and 
south  of  Brazil.  Its  name  refers  to  the  peculiar  grunting  sound  which  it  utters,  but  in  the 
Chesapeake  this  name  has  been  corrupted  into  "Crocus."  In  Texas  it  is  called  "Ronco." 

At  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  according  to  Jordan,  it  is  very  abundant,  and,  next  to  the  mullet 
and  the  Spot,  is  the  commonest  food-fish  of  the  region.  Holbrook  states  that  the  Croaker 
makes  its  appearance  off  Charleston  in  the  month  of  May,  but  becomes  common  in  shallow  water 
in  June  and  July,  and  is  most  abundant  and  attains  its  largest  size  in  October  and  November.  It 
is  not  much  esteemed  as  food,  and  is  only  used  as  a  pan  fish. 

It  is  abundant  and  highly  esteemed  at  Brunswick,  Georgia,  and  everywhere  in  Eastern 
Florida,  in  company  with  the  Spot,  ascending  the  Saint  John's  as  far  as  Jacksonville. 

Stearns  writes:  "In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  it  is  very  common.  Is  found  everywhere  in  the  bays 
and  bayous  throughout  the  year.  Lives  mostly  in  shoal  water  or  grassy  bottoms.  Feeds  upon 
crustaceous  animals.  Breeds  in  the  bays  in  November  and  December.  The  young  are  seen  in  the 
spring,  having  grown  to  a  size  of  two  and  three  inches  in  length.  Is  caught  with  hook  and  line 
and  seine.  Sells  with  other  pan-fish  for  a  low  price.  It  is  an  excellent  food-fish;  average  length 
ten  inches.  At  Sarasota  Bay,  December  8,  1879,  I  caught  two  specimens  of  "spawning  Croakers 
that  were  each  fully  eighteen  inches  long — the  largest  that  I  have  ever  seen." 

An  allied  species  is  Larimus  fasciatus,  which  is  called  "Chub"  in  Charleston. 

127.  THE  CORVIWAS  AND  RONCADORS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 

By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 
THE  WHITE  SEA  BASS— CYNOSCION  NOBILE. 

This  species  is  everywhere  known  as  the  "Sea  Bass"  ("Sea  Trout"),  sometimes  as  "White 
Sea  Bass,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Black  Sea  Bass,  or  Jew-fish.  The  young,  while  yet  banded, 
are  known  as  "  Sea  Trout,"  and  generally  considered  a  distinct  species,  and  both  are  frequently 
called  "Corvina"  and  "Caravina." 

It  reaches  a  length  of  four  to  six  feet  and  a  weight  of  fifty  to  seventy -five  pounds,  perhaps 
more.  Those  usually  seen  in  market  average  about  fifteen. 

It  ranges  from  Cape  Mendocino  southward  to  below  San  Diego,  being  especially  abundant 
from  Santa  Barbara  to  Monterey  in  spring  and  summer.  It  is  not  often  seen  in  winter.  Only 
adults  are  taken  in  spring,  and  it  probably  comes  to  the  shore  from  deeper  water  for  the  purpose 
of  spawning.  It  goes  in  small  schools,  and  its  movements  are  irregular.  Its  food  consists  of 
crustaceans  and  fishes.  It  spawns  in  June  or  July.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  food-fishes 


TOE  CALIFORNIA  \VI1ITK  SEA  BASS.  379 

of  the  coast.  Its  llcsh  is  excellent,  firm  and  well  flavored,  and  its  great  size  reuders  it  a  very 
valuable  species.  In  tlie  lirmnes.s  of  its  flesh  it  differs  strikingly  from  most  of  the  other  species  of 
t lie  gi-nns. 

THE  CORVINA — CYNOSOION  PABVIPINNE. 

This  species  is  usually  known  as  the  "Corviua"  or  "Caravina."  It  is  also  occasionally  called 
Bliu'fish.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  two  feet,  and  a  weight  of  eight  pounds.  It  is  found  from 
San  Pedro  southward  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  rarely  straying  to  the  north.  In  San  Diego  Bay 
it  is  abundant.  It  feeds  on  Crustacea,  and  especially  on  small  fishes,  as  anchovies  and  sardines, 
and  is  very  voracious.  It  spawns  in  July  or  August.  Its  flesh  is  tender,  being  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  weak-fish  (C.  regale).  It  softens  soon,  but  when  fresh  is  of  a  flue,  delicate  quality,  and 
scarcely  surpassed  by  any  fish  on  the  coast.  Several  other  species  of  this  genus  occur  southward 
alonj,'  the  Mexican  coast,  where  they  are  among  the  most  important  of  the  food-fishes. 

THE  RED  RONCADOB — CORVINA  SATUBNA. 

This  fish  is  known  where  found  as  the  "Red  Roncador,"  less  commonly  as  "Black  Roncador" 
or  "Croaker."  It  reaches  a  length  of  sixteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  three  or  four  pounds.  It  is 
found  from  Point  Concepciou  southward  in  moderate  abundance.  It  feeds  largely  on  crustaceans 
and  spawns  in  July.  It  is  a  food-fish  of  good  quality. 

THE  RONCADOII — RONCADOB  STEABNSI. 

This  species  is  generally  known  as  the  "Roncador"  (snorer,  from  the  Spanish  roncar,  to  snore), 
and  is  always  considered  as  the  genuine  Roncador,  the  other  Sciaenoids  being  to  the  fishermen 
bastards.  The  name  "Croaker"  is  often  applied  to  it.  It  makes  a  very  distinct  grunting  noise, 
probably  with  its  air-bladder,  on  being  taken  from  the  water.  It  reaches  a  length  of  over  two 
feet,  and  a  weight  of  six  to  eight  pounds.  It  is  found  from  Santa  Barbara  southward,  usually  in 
abundance.  It  feeds  on  crnstacea  and  spawns  in  July.  It  is  a  food-fish  of  excellent  quality. 

THE  LITTLE  ROMOADOB — GENYONEMUS  LINEATUS. 

This  species  is  known  about  San  Francisco  as  the  Little  Bass.  Southward  it  is  called  the 
Little  Roncador.  The  name  "Cognard,"  said  by  Dr.  Ayers  to  be  given  to  it  in  San  Francisco,  is 
unknown  to  us.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  little  over  a  pound,  and  a  length  of  one  foot;  it  is  found 
from  Tomales  to  San  Diego,  being  most  abundant  from  Santa  Barbara  to  San  Francisco.  It  often 
comes  into  the  markets  in  large  numbers;  it  feeds  chiefly  on  Crustacea  and  spawns  in  July.  It  is  a 
food-fish  of  good  quality  when  fresh,  but  its  flesh  becomes  soft  in  the  market  sooner  than  that  of 
most  species.  Many  are  dried  by  the  Chinese. 

THE  YELLOW-PINNED  RONOADOR — UMBRINA  RONOADOR. 

This  fish  is  generally  known  as  the  "  Yellow-tailed"  or  "  Yellow-finned  Roncador."  It  reaches  a 
length  of  more  than  a  foot,  and  a  weight  of  two  or  three  pounds.  It  is  found  from  Santa  Barbara 
southward,  and  is  generally  abundant,  especially  in  summer.  It  feeds  on  Crustacea  and  spawns  in 
July.  It  is  a  food-fish  of  good  quality.  Many  are  split  and  salted. 

THE  BAGRE — MENTICIRRUS  UNDULATUS. 

This  fish  is  known  as  the  "Bagre"  or  "Sucker."  It  reaches  a  length  of  twenty  inches,  and  a 
weight  of  four  or  live  pounds.  It  is  found  close  to  shore  from  Point  Concepcion  southward  to 
Cerros  Island,  and  is  generally  abundant.  It  feeds  on  crnstacea,  spawns  in  July,  and  is  a  food-fieh 


380  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  fair  quality.     In  appearance  and  in  value  it  approaches  closely  to  the  Surf  Whiting  of  the 
Atlantic,  M.  littoralis. 

THE  QUEEN-FISH — SERIPHUS  POLITUS. 

This  species  is  known  as  "King-fish"  or  "Queen  fish."  It  reaches  a  length  of  eight  inche.s,  and 
a  weight  of  half  a  pound.  It  ranges  from  Tomales  Bay  southward,  and  is  abundant  in  summer, 
when  it  is  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  surf  along  sandy  shores.  Enormous  numbers  of  them 
are  sometimes  taken  in  seines,  especially  at  Santa  Barbara  and  Soquel.  It  is  not  often  brought 
into  the  San  Francisco  market.  It  feeds  on  small  fishes,  crustaceans,  etc.  It  spawns  in  summer. 
It  is  a  food-fish  of  excellent  quality,  but  it  is  too  small  to  possess  much  economic  value. 


•nir:  siii:i:i'siii:.\i)  FAMILY.  381 


0.— SHEEPSHEAD,  BASS,  BREAM,  PERCH,  ETC. 

THE  SHEEPSHEAD  FAMILY— SPARID^J. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  especially  characterized  by  their  heavy,  rather  compressed 
bodies,  and  by  their  large  heads,  strong  jaws  and  teeth,  for  cutting  or  crushing  the  hard-shelled 
marine  animals  upon  which  they  feed.  They  are  usually  sedentary  in  their  habits,  living  close  to 
the  bottom  and  browsing  among  the  rocks  and  piles.  Their  colors  are  usually  inconspicuous  and 
their  motions  sluggish.  Representatives  of  this  family  are  found  throughout  the  world  in  temperate 
and  tropical  waters. 

128.  THE  SHEEPSHEAD— DIPLODUS  PROBATOCEPHALUS. 

The  Sheepshead  is  one  of  the  choicest  fishes  of  our  coast.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  profile  and  teeth  to  those  of  a  sheep,  and  also  from  its  browsing  habits.  Unlike 
most  of  those  fishes  which  are  widely  distributed  along  our  seaboard,  it  has  only  this  one  name 
by  which  it  is  known  from  Cape  Cod  to  the  Mexican  border.  The  negroes  of  the  South,  however, 
frequently  drop  the  "s"  out  of  the  middle  of  the  word  and  call  it  "  Sheephead." 

This  fish  has  never  been  known  to  pass  to  the  north  of  the  sandy  arm  of  Cape  Cod,  and  its 
northern  range  is  at  present  somewhat  more  limited  than  it  was  eighty  years  ago.  In  the  records 
of  Wareham,  Massachusetts,  they  are  referred  to  as  being  somewhat  abundant  in  1803,  and  in 
Narragausett  Bay  there  is  a  tradition  that  they  began  to  disappear  in  1793,  when  the  scuppaug 
commenced  to  increase  in  abundance.  In  1871,  Mr.  E.  Taylor,  of  Newport,  testified  before  Professor 
Baird  that  his  father  caught  Sheepshead  in  abundance  forty-five  or  fifty  years  previous.  In  1870 
and  1871  the  species  was  again  coming  into  notice  in  this  region,  though  not  at  that  time  nor  since 
has  it  appeared  abundantly.  On  the  south  shore  of  Long  Island  it  is  quite  abundant,  and  in  New 
York  Harbor  and  its  various  approaches,  at  times,  may  be  taken  in  considerable  numbers.  On  the 
coast  of  New  Jersey  it  is  also  abundant,  and  between  Cape  May  and  Montauk  Point  the  species  is 
said  to  attain  its  greatest  perfection  as  a  food-fish.  Lugger  states  that  it  frequents  the  oyster 
localities  of  all  parts  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  is  now  more  common  among  the  southeastern 
counties  of  Virginia,  where  it  comes  in  considerable  numbers  to  feed  upon  the  animals  which  live 
on  the  oyster  bars.  It  is  found  about  wrecks  of  old  vessels,  on  which  barnacles  and  shells  abound. 
About  Bedford,  North  Carolina,  it  is  also  abundant,  and  also  along  the  entire  coast  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States,  where  it  frequently  ascends,  especially  in  Florida,  high  up  the  fresh-water  rivers. 
In  the  Gulf,  according  to  Stearns,  it  is  abundant  on  the  coast  from  Southern  Florida  to  Mexico. 

The  Sheepshead  is  a  bottom-loving  species,  quiet  in  its  habits,  and  little  given  to  wandering. 
North  of  Charleston  it  is  absent  from  the  inshore  waters  during  the  winter  season,  but  it  is  probable 
that  its  wanderings  do  not  extend  very  far.  Holbrook  records  that  it  has  been  taken  in  Port  Royal 
Sound  as  early  as  January,  while  in  Charleston  it  makes  it  appearance  in  April  and  continues 
until  November.  Dr.  Mitchill,  whose  observations  of  this  species  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York, 
made  sixty  years  ago,  are  perhaps  as  satisfactory  as  any  which  have  been  made,  remarked  that 
its  term  of  continuance  was  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  middle  of  September.  He 
had,  however,  known  it  to  stay  later,  for  one  of  the  most  numerous  collections  of  Sheeps- 


382  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

head  he  ever  saw  was  on  the  4th  of  October,  1814;  he  had  observed  it  as  late  as  the  17th  of 
October. 

In  Florida  the  Sheepshead  is  abundant  along  the  shores  throughout  the  entire  year,  and  this 
is  also  the  case  throughout  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

It  is  curious  to  see  how  much  at  variance  were  the  statements  of  early  observers  concerning 
its  habit  of  entering  fresh  water  streams.  Mitchill  states  explicitly:  "He  confines  himself  strictly 
to  the  salt  water,  never  having  been  seen  in  the  fresh  rivers."  Holbrook,  speaking  of  the  vicinity 
of  Charleston,  says:  "It  enters  shallow  inlets  and  mouths  of  rivers,  but  never  leaves  the  salt  for 
fresh  water."  In  the  Saint  John's  and  other  rivers  of  Florida  the  Sheepshead  becomes  almost  a 
fresh-water  species,  the  young  especially  being  constantly  taken  in  seines  in  company  with  Bass, 
Perch,  and  suckers,  far  above  the  limits  of  perceptibly  brackish  water.  It  is  not  yet  possible,  to 
infer  with  any  certainty  what  the  temperature  limits  of  this  species  may  be,  but  it  would  seem 
probable  that  they  never  willingly  encounter  water  colder  than  60°,  except  perhaps  in  fall,  when 
they  are  reluctant  to  leave  their  feeding  grounds. 

The  statement  just  made,  however,  requires "k  certain  qualification.  No  one  knows  whether 
the  Sheepshead  of  our  Northern  waters  go  south  in  winter  or  whether  they  simply  become  torpid 
and  remain  through  the  season  in  deep  holes  near  their  summer  haunts,  their  presence  unsus- 
pected. Perhaps  it  would  be  wiser  to  say  that  they  are  not  actually  engaged  in  feeding  when  the 
temperature  is  lower  than  60°,  and  that  their  winter  habits  arc  entirely  unknown.  Where  the 
water  is  throughout  the  year  warmer  than  60°  they  are  constantly  active.  The  Sheepshead  feeds 
almost  exclusively  upon  hard-shelled  animals,  mollusks  and  barnacles,  and  particularly  on  young 
oysters  as  they  grow  attached  to  stones  and  sticks  of  wood.  With  its  strong  cutting  and  grinding 
teeth  and  powerful  jaws  it  can  easily  rip  otf  thick  bunches  of  shells  and  grind  them  to  pieces. 
The  ordinary  bait  for  it  in  the  North  is  the  soft-shelled  clam,  while  in  the  South  it  is  caught 
frequently  by  the  use  of  shrimps  and  crabs. 

In  discussing  the  habits  of  this  species  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  quite  fully  the  obser- 
vations of  several  writers  on  fish  and  angling,  many  of  whom  have  taken  a  special  interest  in  the 
study  of  its  haunts  and  movements. 

Mitchill  wrote  in  1814:  "This  noble  fish  visits  the  neighborhood  of  Long  Island  annually, 
emerging  from  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  He  feeds  in  the  recesses  and  inlets  upon  the  clams  and 
mussels,  which  are  abundant,  and  on  which  he  loves  to  feed.  He  confines  himself  strictly  to  the 
salt  water,  never  having  been  seen  in  the  fresh  rivers.  His  term  of  continuance  is  only  during  the 
warmest  season;  that  is,  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  middle  of  September.  He  then 
disappears  to  the  unknown  depths  of  the  Atlantic,  and  is  seen  no  more  until  the  ensuing  summer. 
The  Sheepshead  swims  in  shoals,  and  is  sometimes  surrounded  in  great  numbers  by  the  seine; 
several  hundreds  have  often  been  taken  at  a  single  haul  with  the  long  sweeping  nets  in  use  near 
Rayner  Town,  Babylon,  and  Fire  Island.  They  even  tell  of  a  thousand  brought  to  land  at  a 
draught.  He  also  bites  at  the  hook,  and  several  are  not  unfrequenrly  thus  caught  in  succession. 
The  outfitting  of  a  Sheepshead  party  is  always  an  occasion  of  considerable  excitement  and  high 
expectation,  as  I  have  often  experienced.  Whenever  a  Sheepshead  is  brought  on  board  the  boat 
more  joy  is  manifested  than  by  the  possession  of  any  other  kind  of  fish.  The  sportsmen  view  the 
exercises  so  much  above  common  fishing  that  the  capture  of  the  Sheepshead  is  the  most  desirable 
combination  of  luck  and  skill;  and  the  feats  of  hooking  and  landing  him  safely  in  the  boat  furnish 
abundant  materials  for  the  most  pleasing  and  hyperbolical  stories.  The  Sheepshead  is  a  very 
stout  fish,  and  the  hooks  and  lines  arc  strong  in  proportion;  yet  he  frequently  breaks  them  and 
makes  his  escape.  Sheepshead  have  been  caught  with  such  fishing-tackle  fastened  to  their  jaws. 


MITCH  ILL  ON  THE  SHEEPSHEAD.  :',*;{ 

When  tin-  lino  or  hook  gives  way,  the  svccident  makes  a  serious  impression  on  the  company.  As 
the  possession  of  the  Sheepsbead  is  a  grand  prize,  so  bis  escape  is  felt  as  a  distressing  loss.  I 
know  an  ancient  fisherman  who  used  to  record  in  a  book  the  time,  place,  and  circumstances  of 
••very  Shecpshead  he  had  caught.  This  fish  is  sometimes  speared  by  torchlight  in  the  wide  and 
shallow  bays  of  Queens  County  and  Suffolk."  Dr.  Mitcbill  concludes  bis  naive  remarks  by  the 
mournful  words:  "It  is  to  be  regretted  that  tbe  Sbeepshead  too  often  corrupt  for  want  of  ice." 

Schoepf,  writing  of  the  same  region  forty  years  before,  states  that  during  the  period  of  the 
Revolutionary  war  the  Sbeepshead  was  very  abundant  in  the  summer  months  and  was  a  very 
highly  prized  species.  Some  unknown  writer  contributed  to  Brown's  "American  Angler,"  in 
I* Hi,  the  following  memorandum: 

"These  noble  fish  have  become  quite  scarce  in  our  harbor.  The  writer  has  taken  them 
repeatedly  near  Governor's  Island,  opposite  tbe  Battery,  but  this  was  in  days  long  since  gone  by. 
Still,  they  are  still  taken,  occasionally,  at  Caving  Point  and  at  the  Signal  Poles,  at  the  Narrows, 
:I!.M)  at  Pelham  Bridge  and  Little  Hell  Gate."1 

Scott  gives  the  following  advice  to  the  Sheepsbead  angler:  "If  a  resident  of  New  York,  you 
will  find  Cauarsie  on  tbe  Old  Mill,  near  East  New  York,  the  most  convenient  place  from  which  to 
take  a  sail-boat;  a  boat  is  generally  at  baud  at  eitber  place.  Sail  down  tbe  channel  above  the 
inli-t  toward  Near  Kockaway,  about  a  mile  below  Remson's  Hotel;  feel  by  sounding  for  a  mussel- 
bed  (they  are  numerous  for  a  mile  along  shore),  about  two  hundred  yards  from  which,  when  found, 
cast  anchor  far  euough  away  so  that,  when  the  boat  toles  round  from  the  tide  toward  the  feeding- 
ground,  tbe  cast  required  for  dropping  your  anchor  will  be  about  fifty  feet.  The  water  should  be 
about  seven  feet  deep  at  low  tide,  and  it  rises  there  from  four  to  six  feet.  The  best  time  is  duriHg 
tbe  period  between  high  and  low  tides  when  the  water  is  slack,  and  until  it  runs  at  the  rate  of  five 
miles  an  hour,  or  one  hour  after  it  begins  to  run;  for  when  the  tide  runs  out  it  is  then  considered 
that  Sbeepshead  seek  some  still- water  ground  and  wait  for  a  moderate  motion  of  the  waters.  At 
the  right  times  of  tide  the  location  of  the  mussel-beds  is  plainly  indicated  by  a  fleet  of  fifteen  to 
twenty  sail-boats  or  hand-line  fishermen.  Many  of  them  are  farmers,  who,  residing  near  the  shore 
of  Jamaica  Bay,  employ  the  interregnum  between  bay  and  grass,  uniting  their  profits,  and  earning 
from  $3  to  $10  a  day,  by  fishing  for  Sheepshead. 

"There  are  many  places  along  our  shores  better  than  Jamaica  Bay.  The  Hand-line  Coin- 
mitU'c  makes  it  pay  at  Fire  Island,  and  there  are  many  superior  feeding  places  in  the  South  Bay; 
about  the  wreck  of  the  '  Black  Warrior,'  near  tbe  Narrows,  is  celebrated  for  great  numbers  of  them ; 
in  truth,  our  whole  coast  south  of  Long  Island  is  rendered  inviting  by  this  delicious  fish." 

Norris  wrote:  "In  fishing  for  Sheepsbead  it  is  a  common  practice  in  Lower  Virginia  and 
other  waters  to  drive  down  stout  stakes  forming  an  iuclosure;  to  these  different  species  of  mol- 
lusks  will  attach  themselves  in  a  few  mouths  and  entice  the  Sbeepsbead;  when  they  have  made 
it  a  place  of  resort  the  fisherman  ties  his  boat  to  a  single  stake  on  eitber  side  at  a  convenient  dis- 
tance and  throws  his  bait  towards  the  pen." 

Holbrook  wrote,  in  1860:  "At  present  the  best  fishing-grounds  for  tbe  Sheepshead  in  South 
Carolina  is  the  breakwater  at  Sullivan's  Island,  or  the  Foundation  Rocks  at  Fort  Sumter,  at  the 
entrance  to  Charleston  Harbor. 

Tbe  Hon.  William  Elliott,  in  his  "Carolina  Sports,"  gives  tbe  following  account  of  the 
peculiar  methods  employed  in  catching  Shcepslirud  in  I'ort  Royal  Sound,  South  Carolina: 

"They  are  exceedingly  choice  in  their  feeding,  taking  no  other  bait  but  shell-fish.  Their 
favorite  food  is  the  young  oyster,  which,  under  the  form  of  barnacle,  they  crush  with  their  strong 

'American  Angler's  Guide,  lil'th  edition,  p.  198. 


384  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

teeth.  Of  course  they  frequent  those  shores  that  abound  with  fallen  trees.  On  the  Florida  coast 
they  are  taken  in  great  quantities  among  the  mangrove  trees,  whose  roots,  growing  in  the  salt 
water,  are  covered  with  baruacles.  Formerly  they  were  taken  in  considerable  numbers  among  our 
various  inlets.  Wherever  there  were  steep  bluffs,  from  which  large  trees  had  fallen  in  the  water, 
there  they  might  confidently  be  sought.  But  as  these  lands  have  been  cleared  for  the  culture  of 
sea-island  cotton,  the  trees  have  disappeared,  and  with  them  the  lish;  and  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  renew  their  feeding-grounds  by  artificial  means.  Logs  of  pine  or  oak  are  cut  and 
framed  into  a  sort  of  hut  without  a  roof.  It  is  floored  and  built  up  tive  or  six  feet  high,  then 
floated  to  the  place  desired,  and  sunk  in  eight  feet  of  water  by  casting  stones  or  live-oak  timber 
within.  As  soon  as  the  barnacles  are  formed,  which  will  happen  in  a  few  weeks,  the  fish  will  begin 
to  resort  to  the  ground.  It  is  sometimes  requisite  to  do  more  before  you  can  succeed  in  your 
wishes.  The  greatest  enemies  of  this  fish  are  the  sharks  and  porpoises,  which  pursue  them 
incessantly  and  destroy  them,  unless  they  can  find  secure  hiding-places  to  which  to  retreat.  Two 
of  these  pens,  near  each  other,  will  furnish  this  protection;  and  when  that  course  is  not  adopted, 
piles  driven  near  each  other,  quite  surrounding  the  pen,  will  have  the  same  effect.  Your  work 
complete,  build  a  light  staging  by  driving  down  four  upright  posts  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  feet 
from  the  pen,  and  then  take  your  station  on  it,  provided  with  a  light,  flexible,  and  strong  cane 
reed,  of  twenty  feet  length,  with  fourteen  feet  of  line  attached,  a  strong  hook  and  a  light  lead. 
Instead  of  dropping  your  line  directly  down  and  poising  it  occasionally  from  bottom,  I  prefer  to 
throw  the  line  out  beyond  the  perpendicular  and  let  the  lead  lie  on  the  bottom.  The  Sheepshead 
is  a  shy  fish,  and  takes  the  bait  more  confidently  if  it  lies  on  the  bottom.  When  he  bites  you 
perceive  your  rod  dipping  for  the  water;  give  a  short,  quick  jerk,  and  then  play  him  at  your 
leisure.  If  the  fish  is  large,  and  your  jerk  too  violent,  the  rod  will  snap  at  the  fulcrum — the  grasp 
of  your  left  hand.  It  has  happened  that,  at  one  of  these  artificial  grounds,  I  have  taken  sixteen 
Sheepshead  at  one  fishing.  What  was  unusual  was,  thit  they  were  taken  in  February,  when  no 
one  thinks  of  fishing  for  these  or  any  other  sea-fish  within  the  inlets.  I  ascertained,  from  the 
continued  experiments  of  several  years,  that  they  could  always  be  taken  at  this  season,  and 
frequently  in  January  also.  The  difficulty  is  to  find  bait,  for  neither  shrimps  nor  crabs  are  then  in 
season.  In  the  case  referred  to  the  difficulty  was  thus  removed:  The  lines  were  rigged  with  two 
hooks;  upon  one  was  placed  an  oyster  taken  fresh  from  the  shell,  on  the  other  an  oyster  boiled. 
The  scent  of  the  first  attracted  the  fish,  but  so  little  tenacity  was  found  in  it  that,  before  the  fish 
had  taken  hold  of  the  hook,  the  oyster  was  detached;  but  when,  encouraged  by  the  taste  of  the 
first,  the  fish  advanced  to  the  second,  that  having  acquired  toughness  from  boiling,  would  adhere 
until  the  hook  was  fairly  taken  into  the  fish's  mouth.  They  clearly  prefer  the  uncooked  to  the 
cooked  oyster,  but  the  latter  was  more  to  the  fisherman's  purpose.  Their  fondness  for  this  food 
suggested  the  expedient  of  breaking  up  the  live  oysters  in  the  shell  and  scattering  them  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  ground;  also  that  of  letting  down  the  broken  oysters  in  a  wicker  basket.  Each 
plan  is  found  effectual  in  attracting  the  fish. 

"The  blufts,  in  their  primitive  state,  in  which  trees  enough  are  found  fallen  to  give  the  fish 
both  food  and  protection  against  their  enemies,  are  only  to  be  met  with  now  among  the  Hunting 
Islands,  where  the  barrenness  of  the  land  had  secured  them  against  cultivation.  On  two  occasions 
I  have  enjoyed  excellent  sport  at  such  places.  On  one  I  took  twenty-three  to  my  own  rod;  on 
another,  twenty  four,  and  desisted  from  fatique  and  satiety.  They  are  never  taken  in  such  num- 
bers when  fishing  from  a  boat  with  a  drop-line  on  the  rocks.  It  is  very  rare  that  as  many  as 
twenty  are  taken  in  one  boat."1 

1  ELLIOTT,  WILLIAM  :  Carolina  Sports  by  Laud  and  Water.    New  York,  ia59,  pp.  145-149. 


IIAT.ITS  or  TIIK  SHKKI'SliKAl).  385 

Mr.  S.  T.  Walker  writes:  "In  regard  to  the  coiisuinptiou  of  moss,  etc.,  by  the  Sheepshead,  I 
must  say  that  I  can  lianlly  answer  intelligently.  At  high  tide,  when  the  flata  are  overflowed,  I 
have  often  observed  tlio  Sheepshead  standing  oil  end,  tail  up  and  often  out  of  the  water,  grub- 
bing at  the  roots  of  a  coarse,  rough  grass  that  grows  on  the  flats.  When  engaged  in  this  way  it 
is  easy  to  capture  from  two  to  six  at  a  single  throw  of  the  casting-net.  I  have  often  observed  a 
yellowish-green  vegetable  matter  among  the  broken  shell  in  their  intestines,  but  imagined  it  was 
swallowed  accidentally  with  the  shell-fish,  or  was  possibly  attachc-d  to  the  shells  themselves." 

In  the  Saint  John's  River  Sheepshead  are  abundant  as  far  up  as  the  lakes,  and  about 
Jacksonville  are  always  associated  with  the  sailor's  choice,  Lagodon  rhomboides.  They  are  never 
seen  of  large  size;  individuals  of  eight  inches  and  less  were  taken  around  the  piles  and  river  at 
Arlington  and  Mayport.  "In  the  Indian  River  region,"  says  Mr.  Williams,  "the  season  for 
Hueepshead  begins  the  1st  of  May.  They  range  in  weight  from  three  to  seven  pounds.  Half- 
grown  specimens,  which  can  be  taken  along  the  rocks  with  cast-net  or  spear,  are  good  pan-fish. 
Thej'  do  not  take  mullet  bait  readily,  hence  are  seldom  taken  with  the  hook.  Hundreds  of  a 
larger  size  may  be  seen  in  shallow  water  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  or  in  calm  water,  on 
barnacles  attached  to  sunken  logs,  or  rocks  under  water." 

Mr.  8.  0.  Clarke,  writing  from  New  Smyrna,  Florida,  states  that  they  occur  throughout  the 
year  and  are  most  abundant  from  December  to  March,  having  decreased  in  numbers  perhaps 
one-fourth  during  the  past  ten  years.  They  winter  in  the  deep  water  of  the  inlets  and  rivers,  are 
regular  in  their  appearance,  take  the  hook  at  most  times,  come  and  go  with  the  tide,  swim  low, 
except  in  the  spawning  season,  when  they  come  inshore  and  prefer  warm  and  muddy  water  with 
shelly  bottom.  They  feed  about  rocks  and  logs  on  clams,  shrimps,  barnacles,  crabs,  and  oysters, 
and  are  best  taken  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ebb  and  young  flood,  and  during  the  season  of  plenty, 
from  November  to  March,  twenty-five  fish  may  be  considered  the  average  result  of  a  day's  fishing 
with  hook  and  line.  They  are  taken  with  cast-nets  and  with  hooks,  using  crabs,  clams,  mussels, 
and  shrimps  for  bait.  They  are  highly  prized,  fresh  and  salt,  though  they  are  mostly  consumed 
in  the  fresh  state. 

Mr.  Clarke  also  gives  some  important  information  regarding  the  spawning  of  this  fish.  He 
says:  "Before  spawning  they  go  in  schools,  but  afterwards  they  scatter.  They  spawn  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers  and  inlets  in  March  and  April,  the  sexes  mixing  together  in  schools.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  shallow  water  near  the  shore,  and  are  about  the  size  of  mustard  seed,  and  dark. 
At  the  spawning  season  the  fish  play  near  the  surface  and  become  thin  and  until  for  food.  The 
young  fish  are  abundant  in  shallow  water  among  the  rocks." 

Finally,  I  append  in  full  the  statement  of  Mr.  Stearns,  which  is  especially  important  since  it 
contains  an  account  of  their  spawning.  He  writes: 

"The  habits  of  the  Sheepshead  depend  somewhat  on  the  nature  of  the  feeding-gronnds  in 
those  localities  where  the  fish  occurs.  At  such  places  as  Saint  Mark's  River,  Cedar  Keys, 
Homassassa  River,  and  the  Mangrove  Islands,  farther  south,  it  is  present  throughout  the  year, 
in  about  the  same  abundance,  whether  it  will  take  the  hook  or  not;  while  at  Apalachicola,  Saint 
Andrew's,  Pensacola  and  Mobile  Bays,  and  the  Louisiana  marshes,  its  habits  are  those  of  a 
migratory  fish,  which,  in  a  body,  at  a  certain  season,  approaches,  and,  later  on,  leaves  the  coast 
At  the  latter-mentioned  places  it  is  found  to  a  limited  extent  during  the  spring  and  summer. 
At  these  same  places  large  schools  of  Sheepshead  appear  on  the  coast  during  the  months  of 
September,  October,  and  November,  finally  entering  the  harbors.  This  is  as  important  and 
noticeable  a  movement  as  the  'runs'  of  pompano,  Spanish  mackerel,  or  hard-tails  in  the  spring, 
and  it  is  the  only  time  when  large  quantities  are  caught.  The  fish  composing  the  'run'  are  very 
25  F 


386  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  EQUAT1C  ANIMALS. 

thin  in  form  and  hardly  marketable,  but  after  a  few  days'  rest  and  refreshment  in  the  bays  they 
become  fat  and  desirable  for  food.  The  schools  having  entered  the  harbors,  become  somewhat 
scattered  and  go  to  the  feeding-grounds,  where  they  are  largely  taken  with  hook  and  line  and 
seine.  Any  movement  seaward  to  balance  this  must  be  gradual,  and  takes  place,  I  think,  in 
summer,  for  it  is  not  noticeable. 

"The  Sheepshead  spawns  in  April  and  May,  in  the  bays.  On  June  18,  1878,  and  in  June, 
1879, 1  caught  young  Sheepsheaa,  measuring  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  in  Pensacola  Bay.  It  lives 
about  wharves,  rock-piles,  old  wrecks,  oyster-reefs,  and,  in  South  Florida,  about  the  roots  of  the 
mangrove  tree,  feeding  upon  the  barnacles  that  grow  in  such  places.  It  is  caught  with  hook  and 
line,  in  fall  and  winter,  at  which  seasons  it  is  in  its  best  condition.  Its  average  weight  is  three  or 
four  pounds,  and  its  maximum  twenty  pounds." 

When  the  Sheepshead  first  appear  on  our  northern  coast  it  is  stated  by  several  writers  that 
they  are  always  thin  and  unfit  for  food ;  it  would  seem  from  this  as  if  their  spawning  season  was 
just  ended.  No  one,  however,  has  made  any  careful  observations  upon  this  point  north  of  Florida. 

In  the  South,  Sheepshead  are  usually  small,  rarely  exceeding  two  pounds  in  weight.  This  is 
also  the  case  in  Florida,  although  large  individuals  are  occasionally  seen.  About  New  York  Harbor 
they  sometimes  weigh  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds,  though  the  average  size  is  not  more  than  half 
this  weight.  All  authorities  agree  that  the  Sheepshead  is  one  of  the  very  finest  food-fishes  in  our 
waters,  many  persons  preferring  it  to  the  salmon,  while  others  compare  it  to  the  English  turbot,  to 
which,  however,  it  is  doubtless  much  inferior. 

In  the  North  the  Sheepshead  is  almost  always  boiled,  but  the  smaller  fish,  more  commonly 
taken  in  the  South,  are  well  suited  for  frying  or  broiling. 

THE  PIN-FISH — DIPLODUS  HOLBEOOKII. 

This  fish,  which  is  abundant  at  Charleston  and  about  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  was  first 
scientifically  described  by  Dr.  Bean  from  specimens  obtained  in  Charleston  market,  in  March, 
1878.  Jordan  found  it  abundant  everywhere  near  the  shores  of  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  in 
which  regiou  it  reaches  but  a  small  size,  and  is  not  used  as  food.  It  is  confounded  by  the  fisher- 
men with  the  Sailor's  Choice. 

129.  THE  SCUP  OR  SCUPPAUG— STENOTOMUS  VERSICOLOB  AND  S.  GASDENI. 

Until  very  recently  only  one  species  of  the  genus  Stenotonws  was  known  to  occur  in  our  waters. 
Dr.  Bean  has  recently  shown  that  there  are  two  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  in 
addition  to  the  unimportant  species,  8.  caprinua,  recently  described  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  "Scup"  of  the  Norih,  Stenotomus  veraicolor,  is  by  far  the  most  important,  though  the 
Southern  species,  8.  Oardeni,  has  considerable  commercial  value.  The  former,  which  is  distin- 
guished by  its  larger  teeth  and  more  abrupt  profile,  is  abundant  between  Cape  Cod  and  Cape  Hat- 
teras,  the  latter  has  its  metropolis  on  the  Carolina  coast,  but  has  been  found  sparingly  as  far  north 
as  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts. 

The  Scup,  which  in  many  respects  resembles  the  Sheepshead,  is  often  known  in  New  England 
as  the  "  Scuppaug,"  this  word  being  an  abbreviation  of  Mishcuppauog,  the  name  applied  to  it  by 
the  Narragansett  Indians.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  has  been  corrupted  to  form  two  others, 
neither  of  which  is  euphonious  or  significant.  In  New  England  it  is  generally  called  "  Scup," 
while  about  New  York  the  second  syllable  of  the  abbreviated  Indian  name  has  been  lengthened 
into  "Pangy  "  or  "Porgy."  The  latter  name  is  particularly  objectionable  because  it  belongs  to  the 


NAMES  OF  THE  8CDP.  387 

English  fish,  and  its  proper  etymology  as  a  fish  name  is  very  different.  Another  Indian  word, 
"  poghadou,"  a  corrupted  form  of  the  Abnaki  name  for  the  menhaden,  or  moss-bunker,  has  been 
changed  to  "pogy"  and  "  porgy,"  thus  leading  to  much  confusion.  "Scnppaug"  is  an  excellent 
name  for  the  fish,  and  its  claims  for  general  adoption  will  be  recognized  by  all  who  wish  to  see 
preserved  the  name  of  the  aboriginal  languages  of  America. 

On  the  Virginia  coast  the  Southern  Scup  is  known  as  the  "Fair  Maid."  The  name  "  Porgy  " 
is  in  nse  about  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  but  is  usually  applied  to  other  members  of  the  same 
family.  Their  range  is  much  more  limited  to  the  south  and  extends  farther  to  the  north  than  that 
of  the  Sheepshead.  Holbrook  wrote  in  1860:  "  The  Porgy  is  found  along  our  coasts  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  though  most  abundant  in  June  and  July."  He  further  states  that  its  southern  limit 
on  the  Atlantic  border  is  Cape  Florida,  a  statement  probably  not  susceptible  of  proof. 

The  Northern  Scup  rarely  passes  the  boundary  of  Cape  Cod;  in  1878,  however,  thirty-seven 
were  taken  at  the  Milk  Island  weir  off  Thatcher's  Island,  Cape  Ann,  Massachusetts,  and  they 
appear  to  be  increasing  in  abundance. 

This  species  does  not  appear  to  be  indigenous  north  of  Cape  Cod.  Storer  gives  the  following 
account  of  its  introduction :  "  Mr.  James  Newcomb,  fishmonger  in  the  Boston  market,  informs  me 
that  in  the  year  1831  or  1832  a  smack-load  of  Scapaugs  arrived  in  Boston  Harbor.  A  portion  of 
them  were  purchased  by  subscription  among  the  fishermen  in  the  market  and  thrown  into  the 
harbor.  The  next  season  two  specimens  were  caught  from  our  wharves;  in  the  summer  of  1835, 
one  individual  was  taken  at  Nahant,  and  was  considered  a  very  strange  fish,  no  specimen  having 
been  known  to  have  been  seen  there  before ;  in  1836,  still  another  was  captured  at  Nahant.  As  no 
specimen  had  ever  been  taken  so  far  north  before,  and  as  the  few  taken  would  lead  to  the  inference 
that  those  which  had  been  transplanted  from  Buzzard's  Bay  had  not  bred  in  the  cold  waters  of 
this  portion  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  the  individuals  taken  immediately 
around  Boston  were  of  the  number  originally  brought  from  the  South.  In  the  year  1834  or  183  >, 
Capt.  William  Downes,  of  Holmes'  Hole,  carried  a  smack-load  of  this  species  from  Vineyard  Sound 
and  threw  them  overboard  in  Plymouth  Harbor."  Storer,  writing  in  1867,  says  that  "within  a  few 
years  small  numbers  have  appeared  north  of  Cape  Cod  and  are  yearly  captured  at  Wellfleet  and 
Sandwich." 

Judging  from  the  rare  occurrence  of  the  species  thus  introduced,  it  can  hardly  be  considered 
to  have  become  naturalized ;  the  few  which  have  been  taken  were  doubtless  summer  stragglers. 
In  the  Boston  Society's  museum  is  a  specimen  taken  at  Swampscott,  June  29,  1860,  by  J.  Phillips. 
In  the  Salem  Museum  is  another  taken  in  Salem  Harbor,  July  23, 1860,  by  C.  A.  Putnam.  Scup 
become  abundant  on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Cod  from  the  5th  to  the  12th  of  May,  which  would 
allow  ample  time  for  the  appearance  of  a  part  of  the  school  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Massachusetts 
as  early  as  the  dates  recorded. 

Mr.  Hinckley,  president  of  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington  and  Baltimore  Railroad,  informs  us 
that  in  the  winter  of  1833  he  found  a  dead  Scnppang  on  the  Cohasset  shore;  this  was  its  first 
occurrence  in  that  locality,  and  none  of  the  fishermen  knew  it. 

In  1856,  Captain  Atwood  recorded  the  Scup  as  very  rare  at  Provincetown. 

"  Sometimes,"  says  Captain  Atwood,  "  I  have  seen  a  dozen  of  these  fish.  The  Scnp  were  never 
here  at  all  abundantly ;  only  scattering  individuals  have  been  taken  from  year  to  year.  Since 
1842,  when  the  mackerel  nets  were  first  set  in  the  outside  of  the  harbor,  Scup  were  first  seen,  and 
a  few  have  been  seen  since." 

The  history  of  this  species,  like  that  of  the  blnefish,  has  been  very  carefully  worked  out  by 


388  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Professor  Baird ;  *  and  from  this  article  and  an  unpublished  essay  written  in  1877  the  remainder 
of  this  section  is  made  up.    Professor  Baird  writes : 

"  It  makes  its  appearance,  at  least  in  considerable  quantity,  on  the  coast  of  New  England 
about  the  middle  of  May,  although  the  advance-guard  of  very  large  fish  arrive  sometimes  as  early 
as  the  middle  of  April ;  and  it  is  most  abundant  toward  the  1st  of  June,  and  arrives  in  successive 
detachments  or  '  runs '  differing  in  size,  the  smallest  fish  coming  last.  The  first  run  on  the  south- 
ern coast  of  New  England,  as  stated,  takes  place  about  the  beginning  of  May  and  consists  of 
large  breeding  fish,  weighing  from  two  to  four  pounds,  and  measuring  up  to  eighteen  inches  or 
more  in  length.  The  spawn  is  quite  well  developed  at  that  time,  and  is  said  to  be  at  first  red,  but 
gradually  to  become  light  yellow  as  it  matures.  The  particular  time  and  place,  however,  of  laying 
the  eggs  is  not  yet  known,  although  it  is  probable  that  this  occurs  early  in  June,  since  the  schools 
are  said  to  break  up  about  the  middle  of  that  month,  and  the  fish  to  scatter.  It  is  thought  prob- 
able that  the  spawning  takes  place  in  the  eel-grass  which  covers  the  shoal  waters  of  Narragansett 
Bay  and  Vineyard  Sound. 

"According  to  the  fishermen  generally,  the  Scup  on  first  coming  into  the  shores  do  not  take 
the  hook  readily,  being  apparently  too  much  occupied  in  the  business  of  reproduction,  and  two 
weeks  usually  elapse  before  they  can  be  caught  in  this  way.  They  present  themselves  in  large 
schools  of  immense  extent,  and  moving  very  slowly,  at  about  the  rate  of  thres  miles  an  hour. 
From  the  testimony  presented  before  the  committee  of  investigation  of  the  Rhode  Island  legisla- 
ture, they  appear  to  come  from  the  south  and  west,  as  when  they-  enter  Narragausett  Bay  they 
strike  the  western  shore  and  move  up  along  its  edge.  They  are  said,  however,  to  drift  slowly 
backward  and  forward  with  the  tide,  especially  at  the  entrance  of  this  bay.  At  (his  time  they  are 
very  sluggish,  and  are  said  sometimes  to  appear  as  if  blind,  and  can  frequently  be  taken  with  the 
hand,  or  a  very  short  scoop-net. 

"According  to  Captain  Edwards,  of  Wood's  Holl,  in  proceeding  to  their  breeding-grounds,  on 
the  coast  of  New  England,  they  are  taken  at  Montauk  Point  three  weeks  earlier  than  at  Wood's 
Holl,  and  a  week  earlier  at  Wood's  Holl  than  at  Hyannis,  still  farther  east. 

"  The  Scup  feed  upon  a  great  variety  of  marine  animals,  such  as  worms,  small  crustaceans, 
mollusks,  etc.,  and  take  the  hook  very  freely  during  the  greater  part  of  their  rrtay ;  in  fact,  the 
smaller  ones  become  veritable  nuisances  to  the  fishermen,  from  the  readineso  with  which  they 
pounce  upon  the  baited  hook  whenever  thrown  overboard. 

"The  flesh  of  the  Scup  is  very  much  prized  by  most  persons,  as  it  is  firm  and  flaky,  and  usually 
sweet,  although  occasionally  a  bitter  flavor  detracts  from  its  palatability.  Since  the  settlement  of 
the  coast  by  the  whites,  it  has  been  by  far  the  most  important  food-fish  of  Fisher's  Island  and 
Vineyard  Sounds,  Narragansett  Bay,  and  of  Buzzard's  Bay;  and  the  rapid  diminution  in  number 
has  caused  the  greatest  solicitude. 

"  Of  their  abundance  on  the  south  coast  of  New  England  in  former  times,  almost  incredible 
accounts  are  given.  They  swarmed  to  such  a  degree  that  their  capture  ceased  to  be  a  matter  of 
sport.  The  line  when  thrown  overboard  could  be  immediately  withdrawn  with  the  assurance  of 
having  a  fish  on  each  one  of  two  hooks.  Any  number  of  fishermen  from  boats  could  take  five 
hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  a  day  without  the  slightest  difficulty,  the  limits  of  the  catch 
being  simply  the  ability  to  find  a  sale. 

"In  flavor  the  flesh  of  this  fish  is  surpassed  by  very  few  others  on  the  coast,  although  its 
superabundance  caused  it  to  be  undervalued.  The  period  of  greatest  development  in  number  of 

1  Report  U.  8.  Commission  Fish  and  Fisheries,  part  i,  pp.  228-235> 


USES  OF  TDK  SOUP.  389 

this  fish  coincided  with  that  of  tho  absence  of  the  blueflsh,  and  since  the  return  of  the  latter  to 
the  coast  of  New  England  tho  Scup  lias  become  scarce,  although  still  a  very  important  object  of 
pursuit. 

"  Immense  numbers  are  caught  in  the  pounds  and  traps  in  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts, 
and  for  several  weeks  the  market  is  usually  glutted,  a  barrelful  being  frequently  sold  for  twenty- 
live  to  fifty  cents,  or  a  small  fraction  of  a  cent  a  pound.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  any 
part  of  the  more  northern  coast  of  North  America  can  furnish,  within  three  miles  of  the  shore,  as 
largo  a  weight  of  fish  in  mackerel,  herring,  and  cod  as  has  been  furnished  by  the  Scup,  sea-bass, 
and  tan  tog  alone  in  the  waters  of  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts.  Mr.  William  Davol,  of  Rhode 
Island,  with  his  'gang,'  caught  2,400  barrels  of  Scup,  valued  at  $1,200,  at  Seconnet,  in  May,  1860. 
Fish  were  purchased  by  Messrs.  Reynolds,  Young  &  Co.,  of  Fall  River,  and  shipped  to  Philadelphia.1 

"The  Scup  is  a  fish  that  grows  with  rapidity,  and  at  two  years  is  almost  of  sufficient  size  to  bo 
marketable.  Throughout  the  summer  young  fish  of  the  spring  spawning  are  to  be  seen  floating 
around  in  the  eel-grass  and  over  the  sandy  bottoms,  having  attained  a  length  of  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  and  a  quarter  inches  by  the  1st  of  October.  When  these  fish  reappear  the  next 
season,  thus  completing  one  year  of  existence,  they  measure  about  six  inches,  six  to  eight  or  nine 
weighing  a  pound;  and  by  the  1st  of  September  attain  an  average  length  of  eight  inches,  includ- 
ing the  tail,  and  a  breadth  of  three  inches.  (Twelve  individuals,  measured  on  tho  31st  of  August, 
measured  from  7.75  to  9  inches  in  length,  and  from  2.75  to  3.25  inches  in  breadth,  not  including 
the  dorsal  and  anal  fins.)  On  the  8th  of  September  twenty  five  of  this  age  weighed  four  and  three- 
quarter  pounds,  or  an  average  of  little  over  three  ounces  each.  In  the  third  year  of  existence,  or 
at  the  age  of  two  years,  they  have  increased  considerably,  though  not  so  rapidly  as  was  once 
supposed,  measuring,  on  their  reappearance,  about  ten  inches,  with  an  average  weight  of  one-half 
pound.  Six  weighed  in  New  Bedford,  October  9,  averaged  but  little  over  five  ounces  each,  while 
the  average  of  those  on  the  stalls  in  New  York,  October  17,  was  a  little  over  eight  ounces.  After 
this  they  grow  more  quickly.  One  hundred  and  ninety-nine,  presumed  to  be  three  years'  fish, 
weighed  on  the  Cth  of  September,  averaged  one  and  a  half  pounds  each,  and  measured  about 
twelve  inches  in  length  by  four  and  a  half  inches  in  width,  some  individuals  being  larger  and  some 
smaller.  The  female  fish  of  the  second  year  not  unfrequently  contains  mature  eggs.  It  is  in  the 
fifth  year,  or  after  the  lapse  of  four  years  from  birth,  that  the  Scup  presents  its  finest  development; 
specimens  believed  to  be  of  this  age  measured  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  by  five  to  six  inches  or 
more,  with  a  weight  of  two  and  a  half  to  three  pounds.  They,  however,  still  continue  to  grow, 
specimens  being  not  unfrequently  met  with  eighteen  inches  long,  and  weighing  four  pounds  and 
even  more.  The  dimension  s  may  belong  to  fish  of  six  or  more  years  of  age ;  more  probably,  however, 
of  five  years.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  do  more  than  give  average  estimates  of  the  weight  and 
size  of  fish  of  the  same  age,  the  differences  probably  depending  on  the  fact  whether  they  were 
spawned  by  old  or  young  fish,  and  the  period  when  the  eggs  were  laid,  this  extending  over  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  in  each  locality,  although  the  great  majority  of  fish  undoubtedly  spawn 
at  nearly  the  same  season. 

"Abundant  as  the  Scup  has  been  during  the  greater  part  of  the  present  century,  there 
appears  to  be  good  evidence  to  show  that  prior  to  the  year  1800  there  was  at  least  one  period,  if 

• 

not  more,  when  it  was  extremely  rare.  According  to  Mr.  Southwick  (page  11),  there  is  a  tradition 
that  they  first  occurred  at  Newport  about  1793,  the  sheepshead  disappearing  about  the  same  time. 
Mr.  Lymau,  in  an  article  on  the  possible  exhaustion  of  the  sea  fisheries,  written  in  1871,  also 


>  Fall  Biver  News,  I860. 


390  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

quotes  some  negative  evidence  of  the  absence  of  this  fish  at  Compton,  Rhode  Island,  from  1794  to 
1803,  the  'sheepshead'  (more  probably  the  tautog  is  meant)  being  spoken  of  as  common,  and  the 
Scnp  not  mentioned. 

"Mr.  John  C.  Parker,  an  octogenarian  of  Falmouth,  Massachusetts,  states  that  the  Scup  were 
observed  there,  according  to  his  father's  statement,  some  time  after  1790,  and  had  become  quite 
abundant  by  1814.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  in  1621,  again  quoting  from  Mr.  Lyman,  Massa 
soit  entertained  his  half-famished  Puritan  visitors  with  'fishes  like  bream,  but  three  times  so  big, 
and  better  meat';  this  fact,  with  the  description,  being  applicable  to  no  other  fish  than  the  Scup. 
The  European  sea-bream  is  very  similar  to  the  Scup,  and  would  readily  be  referred  to  the  same 
species  by  the  unobservant  traveler. 

"Again,  Roger  Williams,  in  his  '  Key  to  the  Language  of  the  Indians,'  speaking  of  the  Scup, 
says  '  mushcup,  the  bream.'  '  Of  this  fish  there  is  abundance,  which  the  natives  dry  in  the  sun 
and  smoke,  and  some  English  begin  to  salt.  Both  ways  they  keep  all  the  year,  and  it  is  hoped 
they  may  be  as  well  accepted  as  cod  at  market,  and  better  if  once  known.'  We  find  no  reference 
to  the  occurrence  of  the  fish  from  this  date,  1642,  up  to  1794. 

"The  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Scup  on  the  coast  varies  with  the  locality.  The  young  proba- 
bly spend  the  winter  in  our  southern  waters  or  out  in  the  Gulf  Stream,  but  in  the  spring  commence 
their  migration  either  along  the  coast  or  from  the  deep  seas  toward  the  waters  on  the  south  coast 
of  New  England.  The  latter  supposition  is  the  more  probable,  as  no  Scup  are  taken  on  the 
southern  coast  of  anything  like  the  size  of  the  breeders  that  visit  New  England,  making  their 
appearance  at  once  in  a  huge  body,  extending,  apparently,  from  Block  Island  to  Martha's  Vineyard. 

"The  western  division  of  this  army  appears  to  strike  first  at  Watch  Hill,  to  the  west  of  Point 
Judith,  and  to  make  its  way  slowly  along  eastward,  the  smaller  or  eastern  division  moving  through 
Vineyard  Sound.  According  to  Captain  Luce,  the  Menemsha  pounds  take  the  Scup  three  days  or 
a  week  earlier  than  the  pounds  at  Lombard's  Cove,  and  nearly  two  weeks  earlier  than  at  the 
guano-works  at  Wood's  Holl.  The  progress  of  this  fish  is  at  first  very  slow,  scarcely  exceeding  a 
few  miles  a  day,  and  its  movements  appear  to  be  largely  regulated  by  the  flow  of  the  tide,  going 
forward  with  the  flood,  and  partly  retrograding  with  the  ebb.  According  to  Mr.  Whalley  (page 
24),  of  Narragansett  Pier,  it  occupies  about  four  tides,  or  two  days,  in  moving  from  Point  Judith 
to  Seconnet  Point. 

"The  precise  period  of  their  reaching  the  coast  varies  with  the  season,  although  their  abun- 
dance generally  occurs  from  the  5th  to  the  12th  of  May.  In  1871  the  fish  appeared  much  earlier 
than  usual,  and  were  on  the  shore  before  traps  were  down  in  readiness  for  their  capture.  Their 
occurrence  was  about  the  15th  to  the  25th  of  April.  Breeding  Scup  were  taken  at  Hyannis  the 
same  year  on  the  27th  of  April,  at  least  two  weeks  earlier  than  usual.  They  were  taken  in  the 
fish-pound  at  Wood's  Holl  on  the  27th  of  April,  but  were  most  abundant  on  the  8th  of  May.  In 
1872  the  season  was  late,  and  a  few  scattering  Scup  were  taken  at  Wood's  Holl  from  the  10th  to 
the  13th  of  May,  but  were  most  abundant  at  a  later  date.  On  the  17th  of  May  ten  barrels  were 
taken,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  barrels  on  the  9th  of  June.  Some  of  those  captured  in  the 
middle  of  May  were  of  unusual  size,  weighing  four  pounds  and  over.  At  Newport  they  were  most 
abundant  on  the  15th  of  May,  or  two  days  earlier  than  at  Wood's  Holl.  Here,  too,  the  number  of 
mature  fish  was  less  than  usual,  but  the'  average  size  greater.  Over  one  thousand  barrels  were 
taken  in  Luce's  pound,  at  Menemsha  Bight.  It  is  mentioned  as  an  unusual  occurrence  that  in 
the  spring  of  1872  large  fish  were  caught  in  purse-nets  five  or  ten  miles  off  the  shore  of  Newport, 
mostly  with  spawn,  although  very  poor  and  thin. 

"According  to  Capt.  Thomas  Hinckley,  after  passing  Seaconuet  Point  and  entering  Buzzard's 


MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  SCUP.  391 

Bay,  the  Scup  keep  along  the  northern  shore  am  I  make  almost  the  entire  circuit  of  the  bay  before 
appearing  at  Quissett  Harbor  and  Wood's  Holl,  their  appearance  being  always  later  there  than  at 
the  head  of  the  bay  or  about  New  Bedford.  Whether  it  is  the  flsh  alone  that  belong  to  Buzzard's 
Bay  that  enter  it,  or  whether  others  pass  directly  between  the  Elizabeth  Islands  and  Martha's 
Vineyard,  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  ascertained.  We  know,  however,  that  they  reached  Waquoit, 
tli<'  first  pound  on  the  north  side  of  Vineyard  Sound,  in  1871,  as  early  as  April  25,  bat  that  the 
largest  numbers  were  taken  from  the  10th  to  the  13th  of  May.  This  gives  about  a  week's  differ- 
ence between  this  point  and  Newport. 

"On  the  south  of  Vineyard  Sound  the  fish  are  netted  at  Meuemsha  Bight,  where  them  are 
several  large  and  effective  pounds,  three  days  or  a  week  earlier  than  at  Lombard's  Cove,  and 
nearly  two  weeks  earlier  than  at  the  Wood's  Holl  pound. 

"According  to  Mr.  Luce,  breeding  fish  enter  the  tidal  pouds  on  the  north  side  of  Martha's 
Vineyard  (formerly  in  large  numbers),  where  they  spawn,  accomplishing  this  operation  by  the  end 
of  June,  the  ponds  being  filled  with  young  in  August.  As  soon  as  frost  comes  these  fish  leave  for 
their  winter  abode. 

"A  new  point  was  made  in  the  capture  of  Scnp  by  the  fishermen  of  Block  Island  during  the 
spring  of  1877.  Heretofore  Scnp  have  been  taken  in  quantities  only  in  the  vicinity  of  the  shores, 
being  captured  in  immense  numbers  in  traps  at  Seconnet  River  and  by  pounds  elsewhere,  and 
sometimes  by  seines.  The  capture  by  hand-lines  is  the  more  common,  and  may  be  carried  on  at 
sonic  distance  from  the  shore;  but  it  has  never  been  taken  very  far  from  the  land.  On  the  occasion 
referred  to,  some  fishermen,  while  engaged  in  capturing  mackerel  off  Block  Island,  saw  what  they 
supposed  to  be  a  school  and  put  their  purse-seine  around  it.  To  their  surprise  they  found  their 
net  to  contain  Scup  exclusively.  Of  these  they  took  at  one  haul  six  hundred  barrels  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty  pounds  each,  all  of  marketable  size  and  bringing  a  good  price  in  the  New 
York  market. 

"As  a  general  rule,  in  their  movement  along  the  coast  the  Scnp  are  not  found  in  water  shal- 
lower than  a  few  fathoms;  and  it  sometimes  happens,  in  the  course  of  heavy  storms,  that  in  con- 
sequence of  the  discoloration  of  the  water  near  the  shore  the  fish  move  farther  out  to  sea,  and  on 
such  occasions  measurably  escape  falling  into  the  traps. 

"The  Scup  is  very  largely  a  bottom  feeder,  and  depends  very  much  upon  mollusks  or  shell- 
fish for  subsistence.  I  have  been  informed  by  the  fishermen  that  they  may  frequently  be  seen  a 
feeding  upon  small  bivalves  of  different  species,  rooting  them  out  of  the  sand  or  mud.  The 
stomachs  of  about  two  hundred  one  and  one-half  pound  Scnp  were  examined  at  one  time  in  the 
beginning  of  September.  These  almost  exclusively  contained  shells  of  various  genera,  with  some 
worms  and  a  few  amphipods.  Its  especial  food  appears  to  be  small  shells,  crabs,  shrimp,  and 
possibly  small  fish.  The  abundance  of  such  food  on  the  south  coast  of  New  England  must  be 
prodigious  to  support  the  swarms  that  even  now  are  found  there.  It  is  in  regard  to  this  species 
that  a  close  time  is  desirable,  so  that  access  to  the  spawning-grounds  and  freedom  from  disturb- 
ance may  be  enjoyed  by  a  sufficient  number  to  maintain  the  species. 

"  Like  all  other  small  fish,  they  are  devoured  by  their  more  rapacious  fellows,  and  very  largely 
by  bluefish,  notwithstanding  a  general  impression  to  the  contrary.  The  extent  to  which  this 
takes  place  will  be  considered  under  the  head  of  the  blnefish.  Halibut,  cod,  sharks,  and  other 
ground-feeders  likewise  use  them  up  in  great  numbers. 

"As  already  remarked,  the  breeding  fish  do  not  appear  to  feed  on  their  first  arrival,  being 
then  too  much  occupied  in  carrying  out  the  reproductive  function.  As,  however,  they  can  be  taken 
with  the  hook  about  the  1st  of  June,  we  muy  infer  that  this  is  about  the  time  they  begin  to  feed 


392  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

for  themselves.  The  younger  fish  probably  feed  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  shores.  No  remains  of 
fish  have  hitherto  been  found  in  the  stomachs  of  Scup,  and  we  may  conclude  that  they  are  not 
piscivorous. 

"Although  the  period  and  the  general  region  where  the  eggs  are  deposited  has  been  pretty 
Well  ascertained,  I  regret  that  nothing  is  known  of  the  peculiar  method  by  which  this  is  accom- 
plished. I  have  been  informed  (page  47)  that,  on  hauling  up  of  anchors  of  boats  that  have  been 
lying  overnight  in  two  fathoms  of  water,  the  rope  is  frequently  found  coated  with  spawn  sticking 
upon  it.  The  eggs  are  doubtless  fertilized  as  discharged,  and  probably  adhere  to  the  gravel,  grass, 
and  other  objects  at  the  bottom;  but  as  to  the  precise  period  of  development,  nothing  is  known. 

"INCREASING  ABUNDANCE  OF  SOUP. — According  to  Captain  Ashby,  of  Noank,  the  young 
Scup  have  been  extremely  abundant  in  Buzzard's  Bay  during  the  summer  of  1877,  he  himself 
having  turned  out  2,500  barrels  from  a  small  pound  worked  by  him  at  the  Wepeckets,  opposite 
Naushon.  He  estimates  that  at  least  25,000  barrels  have  been  thus  liberated  from  the  various 
pounds  in  Buzzard's  Bay.  In  1880  immense  numbers  of  young  Scuppaug  were  noticed  in  Narra- 
gansett  Bay. 

"The  Scup,  like  other  shore  fish,  not  unfrequently  suffer  from  changes  of  weather.  Mr.  South- 
wick  informed  me  that  he  has  evidence  to  show  that  in  the  early  part  of  May  in  1809,  1818,  and 
1838,  after  a  cold  spell  in  each  of  those  years,  large  numbers  were  thrown  on  the  shore.  On  the 
29th  of  November,  1871,  there  was  a  fall  of  snow  at  Wood's  Holl,  and  the  next  day  Scup  and  sea- 
bass  came  ashore  in  considerable  numbers,  generally,  according  to  Mr.  Edwards,  about  ten  Scup 
to  every  yard  along  the  shore  for  a  considerable  distance.  They  were,  however,  all  small  fish. 
While  Scup  were  in  greatest  abundance,  the  other  fish  observed  were  sea-bass,  butter-fish,  mullet, 
etc.  Similar  facts  have  been  observed  in  regard  to  tautog,  which  indeed  seemed  to  suffer  very 
much  more  than  Scup  from  this  agency. 

"  As  may  be  inferred  from  what  has  already  been  said,  the  market  at  the  present  time  is  sup- 
plied with  Scnp  from  the  spring  traps  and  pounds,  the  capture  by  these  means  having  become 
almost  entirely  exclusive.  Formerly,  however,  they  could  be  taken  with  the  hook  from  the  latter 
end  of  May  until  the  end  of  October,  and  in  any  desired  abundance.  There  is  no  fish  on  the 
American  coast  that  bites  so  freely  when  abundant,  and  which  can  be  captured  with  so  much  ease. 

"I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Dunham  that  in  the  deep  holes  of  the  pond  at  Nantucket,  where  he 
has  been  with  his  boat,  he  has  sometimes  thrown  a  stone  overboard  so  as  to  give  the  Scup  a  start 
toward  the  shore,  and  then  following  and  throwing  his  dog  overboard,  ho  has  driven  the  fish  clear 
out  of  the  water  upon  the  beach,  and  has  taken  as  many  as  five  hundred  in  this  way  at  one  time. 
A  similar  mode  of  capture  was  reported  to  me  as  having  taken  place  in  the  pond  at  Menernsha 
Bight. 

"The  value  of  the  Scup  as  a  marketable  fish  varies,  of  course,  with  the  supply;  and  while 
they  have  been  sold  in  early  times  as  low  as  from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  a  barrel,  and  were  used 
as  a  manure,  they  are  now  too  scarce  for  any  such  purpose.  They  were  worth  in  1871  from  six  to 
eight  cents  a  pound  at  Newport,  and  about  two  cents  at  Hyannis.  At  New  Bedford  they  generally 
brought  ten  cents  as  a  maximum  price. 

"On  the  coast  of  Carolina  they  are  said  to  prefer  deep,  clear  water,  with  rocky  bottom, 
although  they  may  be  taken  in  almost  any  locality  in  the  region  of  their  occurrence. 

"The  Scup  remain  along  the  northern  coast  until  about  the  middle  of  October,  when  the 
larger  ones,  at  least,  begin  to  leave  the  shores  and  move  out  into  deeper  water.  Mr.  Vinal 
Edwards  has,  however,  taken  young  fish  at  Wood's  Holl  as  late  as  the  10th  of  December,  and 
Capt.  John  Rogers,  of  Noank,  states  that,  in  fishing  for  cod  on  Nautucket  Shoals  late  in  Novem- 


WINTER  ABODE  OF  THE  SOUP. 

•W   ^    I        r^K1^" 

ber,  their  stomachs  are  occasionally  tilled  with  small  Scup,  which  drop  out  of  their  mouths  when 
hauled  on  deck,  found  to  be  to  the  extent  of  five  or  six  at  a  time.  It  is  quite  possible  that  they, 
as  well  as  other  fish,  seek  in  winter  that  portion  of  the  Gulf  Stream  that  corresponds  in  temper- 
ature to  that  of  their  summer  abode;  and  as  the  mean  summer  temperature  of  the  waters  of 
Southern  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  amounts  to  about  63°  Fahrenheit,  they  must  go  nearly 
to  the  latitude  of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  before  they  can  find  that  same  temperature  in  the  winter 
season. 

The  European  analogue  of  our  American  Scup  or  Porgy  is  the  Sparus  auratut,  the  braize  or 
becker,  sometimes  bream,  of  the  fishermen.  These  come  on  to  the  European  coast  in  the  summer 
time,  and  are  said  to  have  much  the  same  habits  as  the  American  species." 

A  species  closely  related  to  the  Scup  is  the  "  Goafs-head  Porgy  "  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  8te- 
notomus  caprinus. 

Sparus  pagrus  is  rather  common  at  Charleston  and  Pensacola,  and  is  found  also  in  the  south 
of  Europe.  There  are  also  in  our  southern  waters  various  species  of  the  genus  Pagellus,  which 
resemble  in  a  general  way  the  "  Scup." 

130.  THE  SAILOR'S  CHOICE— LAGODON  RHOMBOIDES. 

This  species,  which  bears  considerable  resemblance  in  its  form  to  the  scnppaug,  is  found  in 
great  abundance  from  Cape  Hatteras  south,  and  around  the  Gulf  coast;  also  occasionally  north  of 
Cape  Hatteras ;  it  is  known  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  two  or  three  stragglers 
have  recently  been  taken  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Bermudas. 
It  may  readily  be  recognized  by  the  longitudinal  stripes  of  iridescent  color  upon  the  sides,  and  by 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  teeth,  each  having  a  prominent  notch  on  either  edge. 

The  •  •  Sailor's  Choice,"  as  it  is  called  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  at  Brunswick,  Georgia,  and 
about  Key  West,  bears  several  other  names,  being  known  about  Cape  Hatteras  as  the  "Robin" 
and  "Pin-fish,"  at  Charleston  as  the  "Salt- water  Bream,"  at  Brunswick,  Georgia,  as  the  "Squirrel- 
fish  "  and  "  Sailor's  Choice,"  in  the  Saint  John's  River  as  the  "  Sailor's  Choice "  and  "  Porgy,"  in 
the  Indian  River  region  as  the  "Sailor's  Choice,"  "Scup,"  and  "Yellow-tail,"  at  Cedar  Keys  as 
the  "Porgy"  and  "Shiner,"  and  at  Pensacola  as  the  "Chopa  Spina." 

South  of  Cape  Hatteras  this  fish  is  exceedingly  abundant,  and  is  usually  found  in  company 
with  the  sheepshead,  which  it  much  resembles  in  habits.  Its  jaws,  however,  are  not  so  strong  as 
those  of  the  sheepshead,  by  reason  of  which  it  is  debarred  from  feeding  upon  the  stronger  shelled 
mollusks  and  crustaceans,  which  constitute  the  principal  diet  of  the  latter. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  the  largest  individuals  rarely  exceed  ten  inches  in  length,  the  ordinary 
size  in  Eastern  Florida  being  six  or  eight  inches,  with  the  weight  of  five  or  six  ounces. 

The  Sailor's  Choice  is  one  of  the  most  deliciously-flavored  fishes  of  our  coast,  being  preferred 
to  the  young  sheepshead  by  many  of  those  who  are  familiar  with  its  good  qualities.  Lugger 
states  that  it  enters  the  drains  of  the  ocean  coast  of  Maryland,  and  is  occasionally  caught  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  According  to  Jordan  they  are  excessively  abundant  every- 
where in  the  harbor  of  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  where  they  are  taken  by  the  thousand  by  boys 
with  hook  and  line  from  the  wharves,  but  are  seldom  used  for  food,  and  are  found  equally  numer- 
ous through  the  Gulf  States  coast 

At  Charleston,  according  to  Holbrook,  this  fish  is  taken  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  though 
most  plentiful  in  May  and  June.  No  reference  is  made  by  this  author  to  its  value  as  an  article 
of  food.  At  Brunswick,  Georgia,  the  Sailor's  Choice  is  highly  esteemed;  in  the  Saint  John's 
it  is  very  abundant,  and  is  taken  in  company  with  the  sheepshead  far  up  the  river.  It  is  easily 


394  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

captured  with  hooks  baited  with  shrimp,  and  is  considered  to  be  a  very  superior  pan-fish,  its  flesh 
resembling  that  of  the  scuppaug,  though  much  sweeter  and  harder. 

In  the  Indian  River  region,  according  to  Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke,  this  fish  is  resident  all  the  year,  and 
is  very  abundant.  The  weight  of  the  largest  observed  by  him  was  one  pound.  The  average 
weight  is  about  five  ounces.  They  are  found  in  the  deep  water,  or  salt  water,  feeding  upon 
minnows,  small  crabs,  and  shrimps.  The  spawn  is  pale  blue,  and  of  the  size  of  mustard-seed. 
Young  fish  are  seen  in  great  abundance.  They  are  taken  by  hook  with  mullet  or  clam  bait,  and 
also  in  cast-nets  and  seines.  One  hundred  are  often  taken  by  a  fisherman  in  a  day.  They  are 
highly  prized  for  food,  and  are  occasionally  salted.  They  are  sometimes  sent  in  ice  to  Savannah 
and  Charleston.  "On  the  Gulf  coast,"  writes  Mr.  Stearns,  "they  are  very  abundant,  living  and 
breeding  in  the  bays  and  bayous.  They  spawn  in  winter  or  early  spring,  and  the  young  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  may  be  seen  in  May  and  June.  The  adult  fish  live  in  deep  water,  while  the  young 
remain  near  the  shore.  Many  are  caught  by  hook  and  line,  and  with  the  seine." 

131.  CERTAIN  MINOR  SPABOIDS. 

THE  MARGATE-FISH. 

This  species  is  known  only  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Stearns  writes  that  it  is  abundant  off  the 
Florida  coast,  and  is  found  throughout  the  year  in  all  the  gulches,  and  commonly  on  the  snapper 
banks  in  water  from  ten  to  thirty  fathoms  deep.  About  Pensacola,  where  it  is  called  the  "  Porgy," 
it  is  seldom  eaten,  being  regarded  by  the  fishermen  as  a  nuisance,  for  it  steals  their  baits  and 
interferes  generally  with  their  fishing.  It  is,  however,  used  to  some  extent  as  bait  for  red  snap- 
pers. At  Key  West  it  is  brought  to  market  in  well-boats,  and  sells  readily.  The  small  ones  are 
there  called  "Porgies"  and  the  large  ones  "Margate-fish"  and  "Market-fish." 

In  West  Florida  Stearns  states  that  he  has  often  found  spawn  in  them  in  April.  At  Cedar 
Keys,  October  28, 1879,  he  obtained  a  specimen,  seven  inches  in  length,  with  a  gill-net.  The  largest 
one  he  has  seen  measured  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  in  length. 

THE  PORGEES  OP  THE  GULP. 

A  fish  known  as  the  "Sheepshead  Porgy"  is  said  by  Stearns  to  be  common  about  the  Florida 
Reefs.  It  is  caught  with  hook  and  line,  and  is  sold  in  the  markets  of  Key  West.  There  are  other 
species,  known  by  the  name  "Porgy,"  which  are  found  in  this  region,  such  as  Calamus  bajonado, 
common  also  at  Charleston,  where  it  is  called  the  "  White-boned  Porgy,"  0.  megaeephalus,  C.  arc- 
tifrons,  and  V.  maorops. 

THE  BERMUDA  CHUB — CYPHOSUS  Boson. 

This  fish,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  food  species  of  Bermuda,  occurring  also 
in  the  West  Indies  and  east  to  Madeira,  has  but  recently  been  found  on  our  coast.  Stearns  has 
observed  it  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  the  fishermen  call  it  the  "  Bream,"  and  individuals  have 
also  been  taken  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts.  It  is  a  most  delicious  food-fish,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  the  few  which  have  been  seen  on  our  coasts  are  the  precursors  of  large  schools  to  follow. 

CALIPOBNIAN  SPAROIDS. 

California  has  two  important  species  belonging  to  this  family,  concerning  which  Professor 
Jordan  has  communicated  the  following  information: 

"The  'Blueflsh,'GtreJJa  nigricans,  inappropriately  so  called,  reaches  a  length  of  about  fourteen 
inches,  and  a  weight  of  three  or  four  pounds.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  southward,  and  is  very 
abundant  about  the  Sauta  Barbara  Islands.  The  young  of  this  species  are  common  inhabitants 


THE  CALIFORNIAN  BLUEFI8H.  395 

of  the  rock-pools.  The  '  Blueflsh '  is  entirely  herbivorous.  It  is  a  food-fish  of  good  quality,  but  the 
flesh  softens  sooner  after  death  than  is  usually  the  case  with  related  fishes.  It  is  very  tenacious 
of  life. 

"The  'Half-moon,'  more  commonly  known  by  its  Spanish  name,  ' Medialuna,'  Scorpit  califor- 
nierutix,  reaches  a  length  of  more  than  a  foot,  and  a  weight  of  three  or  four  pounds.  It  ranges 
from  Point  Concepcion  southward,  chiefly  about  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands,  where  it  is  exceed- 
ingly abundant,  and,  in  the  winter,  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  catch  at  San  Pedro.  It  feeds 
chiefly  upon  crustaceans,  but  is,  to  some  extent,  herbivorous.  It  takes  the  hook  readily,  is  an 
excellent  food-fish,  and,  in  the  Los  Angeles  market,  is  second  only  to  the  barracuda  in  impor- 
tance." 

THE  SNAPPER  FAMILY— PRISTIPOMATID2B. 

132.  THE  RED  AND  GRAY  SNAPPERS. 
THE  RED  SNAPPER — LUTJANUS  BLACKFOBDII. 

The  Red  Snapper,  although  it  has  been  for  many  years  a  favorite  food-fish  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Eastern  Florida,  has  but  recently  become  known  in  Northern  markets.  About  1874 
individuals  of  this  species  were  occasionally  seen  in  New  York  and  Washington,  and  shortly  after 
they  began  to  come  into  notice  in  the  cities  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  It  was  not  even  described 
and  named  until  1877,  when  Messrs.  Goode  and  Bean,  having  determined  that  it  was  distinct  from 
the  West  Indian  form,  which  it  resembles,  described  it  under  the  name  Lutjanug  Blaclifordii,  in 
honor  of  Mr.  Eugene  G.  Blackford,  of  New  York  City,  who  has  for  many  years  been  prominent  in 
all  matters  relating  to  fish  culture  and  the  fish  trade.  By  reason  of  its  bright  crimson  color  it  is 
the  most  conspicuous  fish  ever  seen  in  our  markets. 

Three  years  ago  the  geographical  range  of  this  species  was  supposed  to  be  limited  at  the  north 
by  Savannah  Bank,  but  during  the  summer  of  1880  several  specimens  were  taken  along  the  coast  of 
the  Middle  States ;  one,  nine  and  a  half  pounds  in  weight,  off  Port  Monmouth,  New  Jersey,  October 
5;  another,  about  August  10,  near  Block  Island.  This  northern  extension  of  its  range  is  quite 
unexpected,  and  the  fact  that  even  stragglers  find  their  way  into  our  northern  waters  suggests 
great  possibilities  for  the  future  in  the  way  of  their  artificial  propagation  and  introduction  along 
the  coast  of  the  Middle  States.  In  the  South  it  is  found  associated  on  the  same  grounds  with  the 
sea-bass,  Serranus  atrarius,  which  it  resembles  in  habits  and  manner  of  feeding.  The  sea-bass 
is  abundant  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod,  and  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  the  banks,  which  are 
favorite  haunts  of  this  fish,  should  not  also  be  shared  by  the  Red  Snapper.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
the  Red  Snapper  is  exceedingly  abnudant  in  suitable  localities  from  Key  West  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

"About  the  Florida  reefs  and  as  far  north  as  Temple  Bay,  where  there  are  reefs  and  rocks, 
they  live  in  holes  and  gullies  where  all  kinds  of  marine  animals  and  fish  are  most  abundant,  and 
sometimes,  as  I  have  noticed,  off"  Charlotte  Harbor  numbers  of  them  will  congregate  about  a  soli- 
tary ledge  protruding  over  a  level  bottom  of  white  sand.  Throughout  this  southern  district  the 
fishing  spots  are  small,  but  very  numerous ;  and  away  from  the  reefs,  where  the  bottom  is  chiefly 
sand,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  rocks  or  a  rocky  bottom  to  find  Red  Snappers.  Since  it  is 
impracticable  to  make  use  of  bearings  by  which  to  find  the  fishing  grounds,  the  fishermen  sail 
about,  throwing  the  lead  continually  until  it  indicates  the  proper  bottom.  Along  the  coast  from 
Temple  Bay  to  Texas  the  bottom  declines  very  gradually  to  the  hundred-fathom  curve,  forming 
vast,  almost  level,  plains  of  sand.  In  these  barren  wastes  there  are  gullies  of  variable  size,  having 
rocky  bottoms  and  teeming  with  animal  and  vegetable  life.  These  gullies  occur  at  a  depth  of 
from  twelve  to  forty-five  fathoms,  the  water  in  them  being  several  fathoms  deeper  than  the  snr- 


396  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

rounding  bottom,  and  more  rocky,  and  in  the  deepest  parts  richer  in  animal  life.  Red  Snappers 
are  exceedingly  abundant  in  these  places,  which  arc  the  so-called  'snapper  banks.'  From  Temple 
Bay  to  Cedar  Keys  the  gullies  are  numerous  in  sixteen,  eighteen,  and  twenty  fathoms;  from 
Cedar  Keys  to  Saint  Mark's,  in  fifteen  and  sixteen  fathoms.  Off  Saint  Mark's  and  Dog  Island 
there  are  a  few  in  five  and  ten  fathoms.  From  Cape  San  Bias  to  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi 
River  occur  the  best  fishing  grounds  in  the  Gulf,  so  far  as  is  now  known ;  gullies  in  ten  and 
fifteen  fathoms  of  water  especially  abundant  from  the  cape,  fifty  miles  to  the  west.  West  of  the 
Mississippi,  on  the  Texas  coast,  there  are  a  few  which  are  in  twelve  and  fifteen  fathoms.  These 
grounds  are  found  by  the  use  of  the  sounding-lead,  which  shows  every  position  by  the  sudden 
increase  in  the  depth  of  the  water.  Red  Snappers  live  in  such  places  all  the  year,  except,  perhaps, 
in  some  of  the  five  and  ten  fathom  ones,  which  are  nearly  deserted  in  winter.  Off  Pensacola  there 
seems  to  be  quite  a  movement  inshore  in  spring  and  offshore  in  fall.  In  South  Florida  they  are 
usually  associated  with  the  groupers,  which  occur  in  the  proportion  of  about  three  to  one,  while 
in  West  Florida  the  case  is  reversed ;  not  more  than  one  fish  in  ten  of  those  caught  is  a  grouper." ' 

Red  Snappers  are  also  known  to  be  abundant  on  the  Savannah  Bank  and  on  the  Saint  John's 
Bank,  off  Eastern  Georgia  and  Florida. 

The  Red  Snappers  are  strictly  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  small  fish,  crabs,  and  prawns.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  in  which  they  live  probably  rarely  falls  below  50°.  They  have  no  enemies 
except  sharks  and  two  or  three  enormous  spiny-rayed  fishes,  such  as  the  jew-fish  or  warsaw  (Ouasa). 
The  only  reliable  observations  upon  their  breeding  habits  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Stearns,  who  states 
that  they  spawn  in  May  and  June  in  the  bays  and  at  sea.  In  June,  July,  and  August  they  arc 
found  in  some  of  the  bays  of  the  Northern  Gulf,  about  wrecks  and  rock-piles,  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  none  are  taken  but  the  larger  adults  and  the  young  from  one  to  eight  inches  long. 
The  spawning  season  probably  extends  over  a  period  of  several  months,  Mr.  Stearns  having  found 
well- developed  ovaries  in  them  from  April  to  July.  Nothing  is  known  of  their  rate  of  growth. 
They  attain  the  size  of  forty  pounds.  In  East  Florida,  however,  the  average  is  much  less.  Mr. 
Stearns  remarks  that  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  very  seldom  exceed  thirty  pounds'  weight, 
though  he  has  seen  several  of  that  size,  while  the  average  is  eight  or  nine  pounds,  and  in  a  large 
lot  may  usually  be  found  individuals  weighing  from  two  and  a  half  to  twenty  pounds. 

Red  Snappers  from  Florida  are  frequently  quoted  in  the  New  York  market  returns.  In  1879 
about  12,000  pounds  were  there  sold.  They  are  also  shipped  to  New  York,  Washington,  and 
Baltimore  in  winter,  the  supply  in  these  cities  being  derived  chiefly  from  Pensacola.  Mobile  and 
New  Orleans  consume  considerable  quantities,  and  from  these  ports  they  are  shipped  up  the 
Mississippi  River  to  the  principal  cities  along  its  line,  where  the  fish  is  growing  to  be  a  staple  of 
much  importance.  In  Saint  Louis  it  is  already  one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  food-fishes.  The 
price  in  New  York  in  1879  ranged  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  cents  per  pound,  but  they  are  now 
less  expensive. 

THE  PENSAOOLA  SNAPPER. 

The  Red  Snapper  belongs  to  a  genus  which  is  found  everywhere  in  tropical  waters;  fish 
resembling  it  occur  everywhere  throughout  the  West  Indies.  There  is  a  kind  of  Red  Snapper 
wHioh  is  abundant  on  the  Bahama  Banks  and  in  South  Florida.  This  is  L.  campechianus  Poey, 
perhaps  also  acccompanied  by  L.  torridus  Cope.  Two  other  brilliant  red  species  occur  with  L. 
Blackfordii  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico — the  Pensacola  Snapper,  L.  Stearrutii,  and  the  Mangrove  Snapper, 
Rltomboplites  aurorubens,  the  former  of  which  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  L.  Blackfordii, 

'Silas  Steams,  MS. 


HABITS  OF  THE  PENSACOLA  SNAPPER.  397 

although  its  color  is  somewhat  less  vivid.  Concerniiig  this  species,  Mr.  Stearns,  whose  name  it 
bears,  writes:  "It  is  abundant  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  lives  in  the  bays  all  the  year.  In  summer 
it  is  to  be  found  about  stone-heaps,  wharves,  and  old  wrecks,  where  it  obtains  crustaceous  food  in 
abundance.  In  winter  it  returns  to  the  deeper  places  in  search  of  food,  and  to  escape  from  the 
cold  surface  water.  During  a  cold  snap  in  1876  a  groat  many  of  these  fish  were  benumbed  aud 
tlo.it  r<l  at  the  surface,  until  the  sun  appeared  and  warmed  them,  when  they  revived  and  sought 
the  bottom.  They  spawn  in  May  aud  June.  They  are  very  cunning,  and  will  not  readily  take  the 
hook.  Those  commonly  seen  in  the  bays  are  quite  small,  averaging  ten  inches  in  length,  while 
those  taken  with  the  Red  Snappers  at  sea  are  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  long.  It  is  an 
excellent  food- fish,  generally  thought  to  be  superior  in  flavor  to  the  Red  Snapper."  This  fish  has  as 
yet  been  found  only  on  the  Gulf  coasts  of  the  United  States,  where  it  is  kuowu  as  the  "Mangrove 
Snapper."  Since  this  name  is  used  on  the  Atlantic  coast  for  another  species,  aud  has  been  so  used 
since  the  time  of  Catesby,  it  seems  desirable  to  designate  Lutjanua  Stearnsii  by  another  name,  and 
"Peusacola  Snapper"  has  been  suggested. 

THE  MANGROVE  SNAPPER— RHOMBOPUTES  AURORUBENS. 

The  "  Mangrove  Snapper"  of  Charleston,  called  at  Peusacola  the  "  Bastard  Snapper,"  is  a  much 
more  slender  aud  elegantly  formed  fish  than  either  of  the  Snappers  already  described.  Its  color 
is  less  vivid,  being  somewhat  more  russet,  and  is  enlivened  by  the  presence  of  narrow,  oblique 
lines,  with  gold  and  yellow  upon  the  sides.  It  is  a  swift-swimming  fish,  probably  less  given  to 
feeding  on  the  bottom,  and  more  partial  to  a  diet  of  living  fish.  It  has  been  found  at  Jamaica,  and 
as  far  north  as  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

"In  the  Pensacola  region,"  writes  Stearns,  "it  is  a  well-known,  but  not  common,  species." 
Single  individuals  are  occasionally  brought  in  from  the  sea  with  the  Red  Snappers  and  groupers. 
It  is  caught  at  all  depths,  from  ten  to  thirty -five  fathoms,  and  seldom  exceeds  eighteen  inches  in 
length.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  equal  to  the  Red  Snapper.  The  Bermuda  Red  Snapper,  abundant  and 
much  esteemed  in  those  islands,  is  a  small  but  very  brilliantly  colored  species,  not  yet  described, 
which  is  to  be  called  Lutjanua  autolycun. 

THE  GBAT  SNAPPER— LUTJANUS  OAXIS. 

Another  snapper,  similar  in  form  to  these  others,  but  not  red  in  color,  which  is  called  the  '  Gray 
Snapper'  at  South  Florida,  and  the  ' Black  Snapper'  at  Pensacola,  L.  caxis,  is  abundant  about 
the  Bermudas,  and  has  been  found  on  the  east  coast  of  Florida,  in  tropical  South  America,  in 
Western  Africa,  and  about  the  Bermudas,  where  it  attains  the  enormous  size  of  sixty  to  eighty 
pounds,  and  is  known  as  the  'Gray  Snapper,'  and  also,  on  account  of  its  sly,  cunning  habits, 
the  'Sea  Lawyer.'  Mr.  Stearns  writes:  "It  is  most  abundant  in  South  Florida,  living  in  deep 
channels,  on  rocky  bottoms,  about  old  wrecks,  stone-heaps  and  wharves;  it  is  considered  the  most 
cunuing  fish  on  the  coast,  and  is  extremely  difficult  to  catch.  The  young  may  be  seen  about  the 
wharves,  and  the  breeding- ground  is  probably  near  by.  Those  usually  observed  are  from  ten  to 
twelve  inches  in  length,  but  I  think  I  have  seen  specimens  which  would  measure  two  feet" 

133.  THE  GRUNTS  OR  FIG-FISHES. 

In  the  inshore  waters  of  the  Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  occur  several  species  of  small 
fish  belonging  to  the  genus  Diabasix.  They  are  closely  related  to  the  snappers,  which  they 
resemble  in  form,  and  have  remote  affinities  with  the  perch,  the  bass,  and  the  porgy  and  sheeps- 
head.  Their  colors  are  usually  striking,  and  they,  without  exception,  are  distinguished  by  the 
brilliant  red  color  of  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  from  which  they  have  sometimes  been 


398  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

called  Eed  Mouths,  or  Flannel  Mouths.  From  their  habit  of  uttering  a  loud,  rather  melodious  sound 
when  taken  from  the  water  they  have  acquired  the  name  of  "Grunt"  and  "Pig-fish."  In  some 
localities  they  are  also  called  "  Squirrel  -fish,"  in  allusion  to  the  same  habit.  They  are,  for  the 
most  part,  bottom  feeders,  preying  chiefly  upon  crustaceans  and  small  fish.  In  fact,  they  are,  in 
most  respects,  miniature  counterparts  of  the  red  snapper.  In  many  localities  they  are  in  high 
favor  as  a  food-fish.  They  have  not  yet  been  very  carefully  studied,  but  so  far  as  they  are  now 
understood  the  following  species  are  known  to  occur  in  sufficient  numbers  to  prove  of  commercial 
importance : 

THE  BLACK  GRUNT — DIABASIS  PLTTMIERI. 

This  species  has  a  brownish  body,  lighter  upon  the  sides,  and  has  the  sides  of  the  head 
ornamented  with  numerous  horizontal  stripes  of  bright  blue,  while  the  posterior  half  of  the  lower 
lip  is  red.  It  occurs  as  far  north  as  Charleston,  and  Dr.  Yarrow  claims  to  have  seen  it  at  Beaufort, 
North  Carolina,  though  there  is  some  question  whether  this  species  was  not  mistaken  for  another. 
Holbrook  records  that  it  has  been  observed  on  the  Atlantic  borders  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
and  Florida.  I  noticed  several  small  individuals  in  the  markets  of  Saint  Augustine  in  March,  1877. 
Stearns  mentions  the  Black  Grunt  as  abundant  at  Key  West  among  the  reefs,  and  as  frequently 
seen  in  the  markets. 

THE  EED-MOITTH  GRUNT — DIABASIS  AUROLINEATUS. 

The  Red-mouth  Grunt,  Diabasis  aurolineatiis,  is  probably  the  Flannel-mouthed  Porgy, 
familiar  to  Florida  fishermen,  and  often  taken  on  the  Saint  John's  Bar.  It  has  also  been 
recently  found  to  be  common  in  Charleston  in  summer.  This  species  was  mentioned  in 
Catesby's  great  work,  published  in  1743,  under  the  name  of  "Margate-fish."  When  alive  its 
color  is  bright  silvery,  but  it  soon  becomes,  when  taken  from  the  water,  of  a  dull  amber- 
brown,  with  a  slight  brazen  tint  along  the  back  and  sides,  though  the  belly  remains  white.  The 
upper  jaw  within  is  white;  the  palate  is  salmon-colored;  the  lower  jaw  and  month  below  are  also 
white  in  their  interior  third;  the  posterior  two-thirds,  both  within  and  without,  are  red,  and  the 
mouth  below;  the  tongue  and  fauces  are  of  a  similar  color.1  This  fish  occurs  in  Northern  Brazil 
and  throughout  the  West  Indies,  and  specimens  are  recorded  from  Jamaica,  Trinidad,  and  the 
Bahamas;  it  is  found  in  the  Bermudas  and  on  our  coast  at  least  as  far  north  as  Charleston.  Stearns 
writes:  "It  is  quite  common  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida  from  Pensacola  to  Key  West.  It  is 
caught  with  hook  and  line,  and  is  eaten  as  a  pan-fish.  I  took  an  extremely  large  specimen  from 
the  snapper  ground  between  Cedar  Keys  and  Saint  Mark's  in  fifteen  fathoms  of  water.  It  is  not 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  Pensacola."  Holbrook  writes:  "The  Red-mouthed  Grunt  is  occasionally 
taken  in  our  waters  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  is  never  abundant,  as  seldom  more  than  a  dozen 
or  two  are  met  with  in  the  market  at  one  time.  It  is  not  highly  esteemed  for  food,  since  its  flesh 
lacks  both  firmness  and  flavor." 

Uhler  and  Lugger  say  that  it  occurs  occasionally  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay, 
where  it  is  not  considered  to  possess  great  economical  value.  The  occurrence  of  this  species  BO 
far  north  needs  confirmation. 

THE  PIG-FISH — POMODASYS  FULVOMACULATUS. 

A  species  belonging  to  a  closely  related  genus  is  the  Hog-fish,  or  Grunt,  of  the  Chesapeake, 
called  also  "Pig-fish"  or  "Grunt"  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Pomodasy*  fulvomaculatus,  and  known 
in  South  Carolina  as  well  as  in  Bermuda  under  the  name  of  "Sailor's  Choice."  Its  color  is  thus 

'Description  by  Holbrook. 


THE  PIG-FISH  OB  GRUNT.  399 

described  by  Dolbrook:  "Body  above,  pale  browii;  belly,  silvery;  sides  marked  with  uumeroua 
orange-colored  or  yellow  spots ;  those  above  the  lateral  line  disposed  in  irregular  oblique  Hues, 
those  below  it  in  horizontal  rows.  Dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins  with  similar  spots;  sides  of  the 
head  pale  bluish  with  a  silvery  tint  and  marked  with  yellow  spots ;  lower  jaw,  orange  at  the 
angle  of  the  mouth ;  internal  surface  of  the  gill  membrane,  bright  orange." ' 

Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke  has  communicated  a  full  account  of  a  species  which  is  either  identical  or  closely 
related  to  this.  "  The  common  Pig-flsh  or  Grunt  of  the  Indian  River  region  :  This  fish,  answer- 
ing the  same  description,  occurs  at  the  mouth  of  Saint  Johns  River,  and  is  probably  the  same." 
Mr.  Clarke  states  that  in  the  Indian  River  region  they  spawn  in  April  in  deep  salt-water  rivers, 
the  spawn  being  very  small  and  of  a  brown  color.  The  young  flsh  are  not  abundant,  nor  are  the 
iidults  very  numerous,  though  the  number  has  increased  of  late  years.  In  1872  and  1873,  three  or 
four  might  be  taken  in  a  day,  while  in  1874  twenty  or  thirty  were  taken  by  one  line  on  a  tide.  The 
largest  weight  is  one  and  a  half  pounds;  the  average  flsh  weighs  three-quarters  of  a  pound.  The 
1'if;  nsh  come  from  the  sea  into  the  salt-water  rivers  in  December.  Their  appearance  is  regular, 
though  they  vary  in  abundance  from  year  to  year.  They  swim  low,  and  prefer  to  live  in  deep 
water  with  shell  bottom.  They  go  out  to  sea  soon  after  spawning  in  April ;  they  feed  upon  small 
fish,  crab,  and  shrimp.  They  are  captured  by  hook,  with  mullet,  clam,  and  shrimp  bait;  never 
with  nets.  They  are  much  prized  for  food ;  the  best  of  table  fish,  rich  and  delicate. 

This  species  was  first  described  by  Mitchill  from  a  specimen  taken  in  the  bay  of  New  York. 
The  National  Museum  has  many  specimens  from  various  parts  of  the  Southern  coast  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  "  In  New  York,"  wrote  DeKay  in  1842,  "  this  is  a  rare  fish,  but  occasionally  appearing, 
as  I  am  informed,  in  our  harbor  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is  a  very  savory  food."  Professor 
Baird  did  not  find  it  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  in  1854.  Uhler  and  Lugger  state  that  it  occurs 
in  the  salt  water  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  food. 

A  correspondent,  at  Hunger's  Wharf,  Virginia,  writes:  "In  my  estimation  it  is  the  finest  flsh 
that  swims.  It  grows  to  the  size  of  about  one  pound,  and  is  now  rather  scarce.  When  1  was  a  boy, 
about  forty  years  ago,  they  were  very  plentiful,  and  I  have  known  three  hundred  pounds  caught 
at  one  haul  of  the  seine.  They  have  since  gradually  become  scarcer,  and  a  few  years  ago  we  rarely 
caught  one  during  the  season.  In  1879  and  1880  they  are  coming  in  plenty,  especially  in  1880,  and 
I  believe  that  in  a  few  years  we  will  have  them  in  plenty  again.  They  come  about  the  1st  of  July 
and  remain  until  November." 

At  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  where  it  is  also  called  "  Hog-fish,"  according  to  Jordan,  it  is 
extremely  common  everywhere  in  the  harbor.  Holbrook  wrote  about  1860 :  "  The  '  Sailor's  Choice ' 
makes  its  appearance  in  our  waters  about  the  month  of  April  and  continues  with  us  until  Novem- 
ber, when  the  largest  are  taken.  I  have  found  in  the  stomach  of  this  animal  only  the  remains  of 
smaller  fish,  and  yet  it  takes  the  hook  readily  when  baited  with  shrimps  and  clams.  It  is  found 
along  the  coast  from  Georgia  to  Virginia,  where  it  is  called  "  Hog-fish,"  and  is  held  in  great 
estimation  by  epicures." 

"In  the  Gulf  coast,"  writes  Stearns,  " it  is  common  everywhere  and  throughout  the  year.  It 
lives  in  shallow  water  among  the  grass,  feeding  upon  small  and  crustaceons  animals.  It  spawns 
in  April  and  May  and  is  a  choice  food-fish.  The  average  length  is  about  ten  inches."  Stearns 
also  refers  to  three  species  known  respectively  as  the  "  White,"  "Yellow,"  and  "Black"  Grunt, 
which  are  found  at  Key  West  and  upon  the  neighboring  reefs  in  great  abundance.  He  states  that 


'The  colors  of  the  tishes  of  this  group  are  thus  minutely  described  in  order  to  aid  observers  in  discriminating 
between  the  different  kinds  of  these  fish  which  so  closely  resetnble  each  other.  In  moat  cases  this  has  been  thought 
unnecessary,  since  the  plates  and  the  reference  to  Jordan's  "  Synopsis"  are  thought  to  be  sufficient. 


400  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"  they  are  taken  with  hook  and  line  and  are  brought  daily  into  the  market.  Before  the  poisoned 
water  visited  that  neighborhood  the  Grunt  was  the  most  important  as  well  as  the  favorite  food- 
fish  in  the  market,  but  since  then  they  have  been  scarce,  and  other  fish,  to  a  great  extent,  have 
taken  their  place." 

CALIFORNIAN  GRUNTS. 

On  the  California  coast  occur  two  species  of  this  family;  one,  known  to  tjhe  fishermen  by  the 
name  "  Sargo,"  Pristipoma  Davidsoni,  is  found  from  San  Pedro  southward  to  Cerros  Island,  chiefly 
about  the  islands,  and  is  nowhere  common.  It  feeds  on  crustaceans  and  is  a  good  pan-fish,  but  is 
too  scarce  to  have  much  economic  value.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  fifteen  inches.  Still  another, 
Xenistius  californiensis  Steindachner,  occurs  from  San  Diego  to  Cape  San  Lucas.  It  is  too  scarce 
to  be  of  any  importance  for  food. 


THE  BLACK  BASS  FAMILY.  401 


THE  BLACK  BASS  FAMILY  OENTRARCHID.E. 

134.  THE  BIG-MOUTH   BLACK   BASS— MICROPTERUS   SALMOIDES,  AND  THE   SMALL  MOUTH 

BLACK  BASS— M.  DOLOMIEI. 

Professor  Gill's  paper,  in  which  he  defines  the  differences  between  the  two  species  of  Black 
Bass,  was  published  in  1873  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science";  but  since  this  volume  is  not  easily  accessible,  the  most  important  differences  are 
mentioned  here.  In  the  Large-mouth  the  upper  jaw  extends  far  behind  the  eyes,  iu  the  other  to  a 
point  below  it.  The  Large-mouth  has  from  sixty-five  to  seventy  rows  between  the  gill-opening  and 
the  base  of  the  tail,  instead  of  seventy-two  or  more,  while  on  the  cheek  there  are  about  ten  oblique 
rows  instead  of  seventeen.  There  are  other  distinctions,  such  as  the  absence  in  the  Large-mouth 
of  scales  on  the  bases  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  the  smaller  number  of  rays  in  the  pectoral  fins 
(there  being  thirteen  or  fourteen  instead  of  sixteen  or  seventeen),  and  the  lesser  height  of  the 
spinous  dorsal.1 

Numerous  as  have  been  the  zoological  names,  they  are  outnumbered  by  the  popular  names 
still  in  use  in  different  localities.  Charlevoix,  a  Jesuit  missionary  who  explored  Canada  in  1721, 
mentions  a  fish  called  "Achigan,"  which  is  thought  to  have  been  the  Large-mouth.  An  earlier 
allusion  to  this  species,  which  in  the  Southern  States  is  still  called  "Trout,"  occurs  in  the 
writings  of  Rene1  de  Laudonniere,  who  describes  the  incidents  of  the  first  Huguenot  expedition  to 
Florida  iu  1652,  under  the  command  of  Jean  Rlbault.  The  Large-mouth  is  known  in  the  Great  Lake 
region,  especially  in  Northern  New  York,  as  the  "Oswego  Bass."  This  name  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  "Otsego  Bass,"  a  local  name  for  the  common  whitefish.  In  Kentucky  it  is  called 
"Jumper";  in  Indiana,  "Moss  Bass";  in  the  Southern  States,  generally,  "Trout,"  though  on  the 
Tar  River  of  North  Carolina  it  is  called  "Chub,"  and  on  the  Neuse  "Welshman." 

The  Small-mouth  shares  with  the  Large  mouth  in  the  Southern  States  the  names  "Jumper," 
"Perch,"  and  "Trout,"  and  in  Alabama,  according  to  Professor  Jordan,  it  is  called  the  "Mountain 
Trout" 

Both  species  are  very  widely  distributed  over  the  Atlantic  slope  of  the  continent  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  their  range  is  probably  much  wider  than  is  now  supposed,  for  many  of  our 
northern  and  western  waters  are  unexplored.  The  Large-mouth  and  the  Small-mouth  dwell 
together  iu  the  Great  Lakes,  and  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  basins. 
The  Small-mouth  is  found  north  to  latitude  47°  and  west  to  Wisconsin,  while  southward  it  ranges 
to  latitude  33°,  where  Professor  Jordan  found  it  in  the  headwaters  of  the  Chattahoochee  and 
Ocmulgee  Rivers,  the  latter  being  the  only  instance  of  its  presence  in  a  stream  emptying  east  of 
the  Alleghanies  into  which  it  is  not  known  to  have  been  introduced  by  man.  The  Large-mouth 
ranges  farther  to  the  west  and  north,  occurring  in  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  perhaps  as  far  as 
Manitoba,  in  latitude  50°.  It  abounds  in  all  the  rivers  of  the  Southern  States,  from  the  James 
to  the  Saint  John,  and  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  streams  and  bayous  connected  with  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  around  to  Texas,  in  latitude  27°. 

1  For  fuller  information  upon  this  and  every  other  point  connected  with  the  species  now  under  discussion  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  J.  A.  Heushall's  elaborate  and  exhaustive  illustrated  treatise,  entitled  "Book  of  the  Black 
Bass,"  published  in  1881  by  Bobert  Clarke  &.  Co.,  of  Cincinnati. 
26  F 


402  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

To  the  waters  of  New  Englaud  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Middle  States  they  are  not  native. 
The  Small-mouths  found  their  way  into  the  Hudson  in  1825  or  soon  after,  through  the  newly -opened 
Erie  Canal,  and  they  have  since  been  introduced  by  man  into  hundreds  of  eastern  lakes  and  rivers. 
Many  circumstances  suggest  the  idea  that  in  early  days,  before  the  various  drainage  systems  were 
connected  by  canals,  the  distribution  limits  of  the  two  species  were  much  more  sharply  defined, 
the  Large-mouth  inhabiting,  perhaps,  the  upper  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Saint 
Lawrence  and  the  rivers  of  the  southern  seaboard,  while  the  Small-mouth  was  found  chiefly  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Mississippi  basin.  This  theory  can  never  be  demonstrated,  however,  for  the 
early  ichthyologists  had  not  adopted  the  accurate  methods  of  study  now  in  use,  and  their  descrip- 
tions of  the  fish  they  saw  are  scarcely  good  enough  to  guess  by.  The  mingling  of  the  two  forms 
might  have  been  accomplished  in  an  incredibly  short  lime.  A  few  young  Bass  will  multiply  so 
rapidly  as  to  stock  a  large  lake  in  five  years.  The  Potomac  and  its  tributaries  swarmed  with  them 
ten  years  after  their  first  introduction. 

Gill  states  that  the  two  forms  of  Micropterus  were  represented  in  waters  of  the  cismontaue 
slope  of  the  United  States,  except  those  of  the  New  England  States  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
of  the  Middle  States.  But  one,  the  Small-mouth,  appears  to  have  been  an  original  inhabitant 
of  the  hydrographic  basin  of  the  Ohio  River. 

The  Bass  do  not  seem  to  depend  closely  on  temperature.  Having  no  opportunity  of  avoiding 
the  cold,  they  sink  to  the  deepest  part  of  their  watery  domain  at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  if 
the  chill  penetrates  to  their  retreats  their  vitality  is  diminished,  their  blood  flows  more  slowly, 
they  feel  no  need  of  food,  and  forthwith  enter  into  a  state  of  hybernation.  Mr.  Fred.  Mather  kept 
one  in  his  aquarium  nearly  all  of  one  winter.  It  ate  nothing,  and  seldom  moved  any  member  except 
its  eyes.  In  deep  lakes,  however,  they  can  sink  below  the  reach  of  surface  chills,  and  here  they 
are  sometimes  caught  with  a  hook  through  the  ice.  In  the  South  their  activity  never  ceases.  Any 
one  who  has  seen  Black  Bass  feeding  must  have  been  impressed  with  their  immense  power  of 
movement.  They  soon  become  -masters  of  the  waters  in  which  they  are  placed.  Sunfish,  perch, 
trout,  young  salmon,  and  even  the  ravenous  pickerel,  are  devoured.  They  feed  at  the  surface  on 
moths,  flies,  and  frogs;  they  turn  over  stones  in  search  of  crawfish  and  insect  larvae.  Rats  and 
snakes  have  been  seen  in  their  stomachs.  A  correspondent  of  "Forest  and  Stream"  relates  that 
once,  while  fishing  in  the  Chicago  River,  one  of  the  small  frogs  used  for  bait  escaped  and  perched 
on  a  portion  of  an  old  wreck  above  the  water.  A  Black  Bass  came  along,  and,  lifting  his  head  from 
the  water,  picked  off  the  frog,  and  descended  to  the  depths  below.  The  angler  finds  them  at  the 
proper  seasons  equally  eager  for  fly-hook,  trolling-spoon,  or  still-bait,  and  always  ready  for  a  strug- 
gle which  puts  his  rod  and  line  to  a  severe  test.  Their  leaps  are  almost  as -powerful  as  those  of  the 
salmon.  The  negro  fishermen  of  Florida  often  surround  a  body  of  Large-mouths  with  a  seine,  but 
as  the  lines  are  hauled  in  and  the  arc  grows  smaller  the  dark  forms  of  the  "Trout"  begin  to  appear, 
springing  over  the  cork  line  and  returning,  with  a  splash  and  a  jet  of  spray,  to  liberty.  I  have 
seen  them  rise  five  or  six  feet  above  the  water.  They  are  said  to  be  taken  best  at  night,  or  when 
the  river  is  high  and  the  water  muddy.  Otherwise  they  leap  over  the  seine.  Expert  seiners  coil 
their  nets  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  part  of  the  school.  The  Small-mouths  are 
said,  generally,  to  prefer  deep  or  swift,  cool  waters,  while  the  Large-mouths  live  in  muddy,  black 
pools,  or  in  the  shelter  of  old  stumps  and  ledges.  In  Florida  they  lurk  among  the  lily -pads  and 
aquatic  plants  in  shallow,  dark  streams,  where  they  feed  on  a  grub  called  the  "bonnet- worm," 
which  burrows  in  the  flower-buds  of  the  "bonnets"  or  yellow  water-lilies  (Nuphar  advena). 

The  spawning  season  occurs  on  the  approach  of  warm  weather.  Its  date  does  not  vary  much 
with  latitude.  In  Florida,  in  Virginia,  and  in  Wisconsin  they  build  their  nests  in  May  and  June. 


SPAWN  I  NT,  OF  TELE  BLACK  BASSES.  403 

Tin-  oldest  fish,  we  are  told,  sometimes  anticipate  the  ordinary  season,  while  many  late  spawners 
are  occupied  with  family  cares  until  the  last  of  July,  and  some  young  fish  are  not  ready  until 
October  and  November.1  After  the  spawning  is  over  the  Bass  are  "in  season."  They  take  the 
hook  eagerly  from  July  till  November.  In  the  winter  they  are  lank  and  black,  though  in  season 
till  the  ice  comes. 

Concerning  their  .spawning  habits,  Mr.  Hallock,  of  the  Blooming  Grove  Association,  wrote  in 
1875:  -'Four  years  ago  one  hundred  and  thirteen  Black  Bass  from  Lake  Erie  were  placed  in 
Lake  (Jiles,  and  their  progeny  has  increased  so  fast  as  to  insure  good  sport  to  the  angler  at 
any  time.  The  late  spawners  are  now  (early  July)  in  their  gravel  beds,  in  the  shallow  waters 
along  shore,  protecting  either  their  spawn  or  their  newly-hatched  fry,  as  the  case  may  be. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  the  pertinacity  with  which  they  guard  their  precious  charges,  and  the 
vigor  with  which  they  drive  away  depredators  and  intruders  of  all  kinds.  They  will  frequently 
allow  a  boat  to  pass  over  them,  scarcely  six  inches  above  their  backs,  and  obstinately  keep  their 
ground.  Suntish  and  such  are  impelled  to  keep  their  distance.  There  are  hundreds  of  these 
bowl-shaped  excavations,  eighteen  inches  or  so  in  diameter,  all  along  the  sandy  shallow  shores  of 
this  lake,  which  is  very  clear,  and  in  the  center  some  seventy  feet  deep,  fed  by  bottom  springs."* 

The  eggs  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  a  trout,  and,  being  heavier  than  the  water,  rest  on 
the  bottom  within  the  limits  of  the  nest.  The  only  estimate  of  their  number  with  which  I  am 
familiar  is  that  made  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant,  who  found  about  seventeen  thousand  in  a  Large- 
mouth  weighing  two  and  one-half  pounds.  The  rate  of  growth  is  easily  determined  by  experience 
in  artificial  ponds.  In  Granby.  Connecticut,  four-pound  fish  were  taken  in  1874,  the  progeny  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  fish  placed  in  the  pond  in  1868.  The  eggs  require  two  or  three  weeks  to 
hatch.  The  parents  watch  them.  In  September  the  young  are  about  two  inches  long;  when  well 
fed  they  grow  to  four  inches  the  first  season.  At  two  years  of  age  they  weigh  about  a  pound,  few 
caught  in  the  North  weighing  more  than  four  pounds.  Leaving  the  egg  in  June,  they  grow  to  two  or 
three  inches  before  cold  weather  begins — trim,  sprightly  little  darters,  with  black  bands  across  the 
bases  of  their  tails.  Another  twelvemonth  finds  them  in  the  garb  of  maturity,  eight  or  nine  inches 
long,  and  with  their  organs  swelling  in  preparation  for  the  act  of  spawning,  which  they  are  said  to 
undertake  at  the  age  of  two  years,  and  when  less  than  a  foot  long.  The  ordinary  size  of  the  adult 
fish  is  two  and  one-half  to  three  pounds,  though  they  are  sometimes  taken  in  the  North  weighing 
six  or  seven  pounds.  In  Florida  the  Large-mouths  grow  larger.  A  seven  or  eight  pounder  is  not 
unusual  in  the  Saint  John's;  and  I  was  told  that  in  March,  1875,  a  fish  weighing  nineteen  and  one- 
half  pounds  was  caught  in  the  lake  at  Gainesville,  Florida. 

Fish-culturists  have  made  many  efforts  to  hatch  the  eggs  of  the  Black  Bass,  and  have  never 
succeeded.  One  reason  for  their  failure,  perhaps,  lies  in  the  fact  that  while  in  the  shad  and 
salmon  the  eggs  fall  from  the  ovaries  into  an  abdominal  cavity,  whence  they  are  easily  expressed, 
in  the  Bass  and  other  spiny-rayed  fishes  they  are  retained  until  the  parent  fish  are  ready  to  deposit 
them.  This  failure  is  the  less  to  be  regretted  since  the  young  Bass  may  easily  be  transported 
from  place  to  place  in  barrels  of  cool  water,  and,  when  once  introduced,  they  soon  multiply,  if 
protected,  to  any  desired  number. 

Black  Bass  are  very  tenacious  of  life.    The  "  Germantown  Telegraph"  mentions  some  taken  at 

1  Mr.  Small  records  the  capture  of  Black  Bass  containing  milt  and  spawn  in  November,  in  the  Potomac  (Forest 
and  Stream,  iii,  p.  212).     "Sculls,"  in  the  same  paper,  October  30,  states  that  there  are  in  the  Sclmylkill  Bass  with 
unripe  spawn ;  others  in  July.     "R.  M.  T."  speaks  of  having  seen  a  Bass  of  half  a  pound  guarding  a  nest  July  10,  in 
the  Housatonic  (Forest  and  Stream,  iii,  p.  292). 
'Forest  and  Stream,  iv,  357. 


40  i  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

10  o'clock  a.  m.,  sold  and  wrapped  in  paper,  left  in  a  warm  room  till  5  p.  m.,  when  they  were 
found  to  be  alive  and  well.1 

The  first  experiment  in  their  transportation  seems  to  have  been  that  mentioned  by  A.  M.  Val- 
entine, who  states  that  a  pond  near  Janesville,  Wisconsin,  was  stocked  with  Black  Bass  about  18A7.2 
In  1850,  Mr.  S.  T.  Tisdale  carried  twenty-seven  Large-mouths  from  Saratoga  Lake,  New  York,  to 
Flax  Pond,  in  Agawam,  Massachusetts.  The  manner  in  which  the  Potomac  was  stocked  with 
Small-mouths  is  also  well  known.  It  was  in  1853,  soon  after  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
was  finished,  that  General  W.  W.  Shriver,  of  Wheeling,  carried  a  number  of  young  fish  from  the 
Ohio  to  Cumberland,  Maryland,  in  the  water  tank  of  a  locomotive  engine.  These  he  placed  in 
the  basin  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  whence  they  soon  penetrated  to  all  parts  of  the 
Potomac  Basin,  and  as  far  down  the  river  as  Mount  Vernon.3  The  custom  of  stocking  streams 
soon  became  popular,  and  through  private  enterprise  and  the  labors  of  State  fish  commissioners 
nearly  every  available  body  of  water  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States  has  been  filled  with 
these  fish.  This  movement  has  not  met  with  universal  approval,  for  by  the  ill  advised  enthusiasm 
of  some  of  its  advocates  a  number  of  trout  streams  have  been  destroyed,  and  complaints  are 
heard  that  the  fisheries  of  certain  rivers  have  been  injured  by  them.  The  results  have  been  on  the 
whole  very  beneficial.  The  Bass  never  will  become  the  food  of  the  millions.  The  New  York 
market  receives  probably  less  than  ten  thousand  pounds  of  them  annually,  and  they  are  nowhere 
very  numerous.  Yet  hundreds  of  bodies  of  waste  water  are  now  stocked  with  them  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  afford  pleasant  sport  and  considerable  quantities  of  excellent  food. 

135.  THE  SUN-FISHES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES. 

By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 
THE  ROOK  BASS — AMBLOPLITES  BUPESTEIS  Gill. 

This  species  is  known  by  the  names  of  "  Rock  Bass,"  "  Goggle-eye,"  and  "Red-eye."  All  these 
names  are  in  general  use;  the  first  most  common  in  the  Lake  region,  the  last  farther  south.  It  is 
everywhere  abundant  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  larger  streams  throughout  the  Great  Lake  region  and 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  It  prefers  clear  waters,  and  is  not  often  found  in  muddy  bayous.  It  is  a 
hardy  and  gamy  fish,  and  takes  the  hook  readily.  It  is  a  good  pan-fish,  but  not  large,  its  weight 
seldom  exceeding  one  and  a  half  pounds.  Like  other  "Sun-fishes,"  it  spawns  in  early  summer. 

1  Forest  and  Stream,  i,  p.  410. 

9  Forest  and  Stream,  ii,  p.  341. 

'THE  BLACK  BASS  OF  THE  POTOMAC.— The  Cumberland  Daily  News  claims  for  Mr.  W.  W.  Shriver,  of  Wheeling, 
West  Virginia,  the  credit  of  originating  and  executing  the  plan  of  transferring  the  Black  Bass,  now  so  abundant  in 
our  waters,  from  the  Ohio  to  the  Potomac.  The  Daily  News  is  no  doubt  correct.  The  performance  was  one  to  be 
proud  of,  and  proper  credit  should  be  given  to  the  right  man.  It  has  been  well  said  that  he  is  a  public  benefactor 
who  "  makes  two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  only  one  grew  before."  How  much  more  is  he  a  public  benefactor  who 
fills  a  river  with  food-fishes  where  there  were  none  before.  A  letter  from  Mr,  Shriver,  written  in  1860,  is  republished 
in  support  of  the  claim  for  him  in  this  matter,  in  which  he  says: 

"The  enterprise  or  experiment  was  contemplated  by  me  long  before  the  completion  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad  to  the  Ohio  River  at  Wheeling,  but  no  satisfactory  mode  of  transportation  presented  itself  until  the 
completion  of  that  great  work  (in,  I  believe,  the  year  1853),  and  in  the  following  year  I  made  ray  first  trip,  although 
I  made  several  afterwards  in  the  same  year,  carrying  with  me  my  first  lot  of  fish,  in  a  large  tin  bucket,  perforated, 
and  which  I  had  made  to  fit  the  opening  in  the  water  tank  attached  to  the  locomotive,  which  was  supplied  with 
fresh  water  at  the  regular  water  stations  along  the  line  of  the  road,  and  thereby  succeeded  well  in  keeping  the  fish 
(which  were  yonng  and  small,  having  been  selected  for  the  purpose)  alive,  fresh,  and  sound." 

Mr.  Shriver  made  several  other  similar  excursions,  and  on  each  occasion  put  the  young  fish  into  the  basin  of  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  at  Cumberland,  Maryland,  where  they  had  free  egress  and  ingress  into  the  Potomac 
River  and  its  tributaries.  The  stock  originally  transferred,  some  seventeen  years  ago,  has  increased  prodigiously, 
and  to-day  they  abound  in  the  Potomac  and  all  its  tributaries.  They  are  of  good  size,  frequently  being  caught  to 
weigh  as  much  as  from  throe  to  four  and  a  half  or  five  pounds. — lialtimore  Sun,  April  28,  1871. 


TOE  HABITS  OF  THE  ROCK  BASS.  405 

Rock  Bass  spawn  about  the  same  time  as  Black  Bass.  They  keep  much  about  sunken  logs, 
roots,  etc. 

THE  MUD  BASS — ACANTHAROHUS  POMOTIS. 

This  species  is  found  only  in  the  coastwise  streams  of  the  lowlands  from  New  Jersey  to  North 
Carolina.  Its  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Warmoutb,  but  it  is  smaller  in  size,  and  has  little 
value  as  a  food-fish. 

THE  SACRAMENTO  PERCH — ARCHOPLITES  INTERRUPTUS. 

This  species  is  known  only  by  the  nainu  of  "Perch,"  a  name  applied  in  the  San  Francisco 
markets  to  many  very  different  fishes.  It  has  been  thus  far  found  only  in  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  Rivers  and  tributaries.  It  is  abundant  in  the  lower  parts  of  these  rivers,  large 
numbers  being  shipped  to  the  market  in  San  Francisco.  It  is  there  bought  and  consumed  mainly 
by  the  Chinese,  who  value  it  highly,  paying  for  it  more  than  for  any  other  fish  which  they  consume. 
Although  it  is  an  excellent  pan-fish,  very  similar  to  the  Black  Bass,  we  have  never  seen  any  of 
tin-in  bought  by  Americans.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  little  more  than  one  pound.  Nothing  distinct- 
ive is  known  of  its  habits. 

THE  WARMOUTH— CH-asNOBRYTTus  GULOSUS. 

This  species  is  known  throughout  the  South  by  the  name  of  "Warmonth."  The  names 
"Perch,"  "Sun-fish,"  "Goggle-eye,"  and  "Red-eye"  it  shares  with  others  of  its  relatives.  It  is 
found  in  all  the  lowland  streams  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  in  all  the  Southern  States,  and  is  gener- 
ally abundant.  In  habits,  food,  size,  and  value  it  agrees  closely  with  the  Rock  Bass. 

THE  BLACK  WARMOUTH — CH^NOBRYTTUS  ANTISTIUS. 

This  species,  known  as  "  Warmouth,"  "Big-mouth,"  "Sun-fish,"  "Goggle-eye,"  etc.,  abounds 
in  the  tributaries  of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  and  is  often  taken  in  Lake  Michigan.  In  Illinois  it  is 
an  important  food  fish.  In  size,  habits,  and  value  it  is  sufficiently  similar  to  the  Rock  Bass. 

COMMON  SUN-FISH — LEPOMIS  GIBBOSUS. 

This  is  the  common  "Sun -fish,"  "Pumpkin-seed,"  or  "Sunny"  of  the  brooks  of  New  York  and 
New  England.  It  is  everywhere  abundant  in  the  Great  Lake  region  and  in  the  coastwise  streams 
from  Maine  to  Georgia.  It  is  never  found  iu  the  Mississippi  Valley  except  in  its  northernmost  part, 
its  distribution  being  precisely  like  that  of  the  Perch.  It  reaches,  in  the  Lakes,  a  weight  of  about 
one  and  a  half  pounds,  and  as  usually  taken  is  of  not  over  a  pound  weight.  Its  flesh  is  of  good 
quality,  similar  to  that  of  other  Sun-fish  of  the  same  size,  and  is  graded  as  superior  to  that  of  the 
Perch,  but  inferior  to  the  Black  Bass  and  White  Bass.  It  takes  the  hook  freely,  and  to  the  small 
boy  is  the  perfection  of  a  game-fish.  Its  breeding  habits  are  thus  described  by  Dr.  Eirtland: 

"This  fish  prefers  still  and  clear  waters.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  the  female  prepares  herself 
a  circular  nest  by  removing  all  reeds  or  other  dead  aquatic  plants  from  a  chosen  spot  of  a  foot  or 
more  in  diameter,  so  as  to  leave  bare  the  clean  gravel  or  sand ;  this  she  excavates  to  the  depth  of 
three  or  four  inches  and  then  deposits  her  spawn,  which  she  watches  with  the  greatest  vigilance; 
and  it  is  curious  to  see  how  carefully  she  guards  this  nest  against  all  intruders;  in  every  fish,  even 
those  of  her  own  species,  she  sees  only  an  enemy,  and  is  restless  and  uneasy  until  she  has  driven 
it  away  from  her  nursery.  We  often  find  groups  of  these  nests  placed  near  each  other  along  the 
margin  of  the  pond  or  river  that  the  fish  inhabits,  but  always  in  very  shallow  water;  hence  they 
are  liable  to  be  left  dry  in  times  of  great  drought.  These  curious  nests  are  most  frequently  encir- 


406  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

cled  by  aquatic  plants,  forming  a  curtain  around  them,  but  a  large  space  is  invariably  left  open 
for  the  admission  of  light." ' 

So  far  as  known,  the  breeding  habits  of  the  other  species  of  Sun-fishes  agree  with  those  of 
Lepomis  gibbosus. 

THE  LONG-EARED  SUN-FISH — LEPOMIS  AURITUS. 

This  species,  like  its  relatives,  receives  the  general  name  of  "  Sun-fish,"  "Brim"  (Bream],  and 
"Pearch"  (Perch).  It  is  found  in  all  the  coastwise  streams  from  Maine  to  Louisiana,  but  does  not 
penetrate  far  into  the  interior.  It  seldom  reaches  a  weight  of  much  over  a  pound,  but  from  its 
abundance  becomes  in  the  rivers  of  the  South  a  food-fish  of  some  importance.  Like  the  others,  it 
feeds  on  worms,  Crustacea,  and  small  fishes,  and  spawns  in  early  summer. 

THE  BLUE  SUN-FISH — LEPOMIS  PALLIDUS. 

This  fish  is  known  as  the  "Blue  Bream,"  "Blue  Sun-fish,"  "Copper-nosed  Bream,"  etc.,  and  in 
Kentucky  sometimes  as  the  "  Dollardee."  This  is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  our  Sun-fish, 
ranging  from  New  Jersey  and  the  Great  Lakes  to  Florida  and  Mexico.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  one 
and  one  half  to  two  pounds,  and  forms  an  important  market  fish  in  some  places.  Its  habits  adapt 
it  especially  for  cultivation  in  ponda. 

LEPOMIS  CYANELLUS  Raf.,  L.  MEGALOTIS  Raf.,  L.  MINIATUS  Jordan,  L.  PUNCTATUS  (Cuv.  &  Val.) 
Jor.,  L.  NOTATUS  (Ag.)  Cope,  AND  L.  HOLBROOKII  (C.  &  V.)  McKay. 

The  small  Sun-fishes,  and  several  others  of  similar  size,  abound  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  and  are  known  as  "Sun-fish,"  "Bream,"  and  "Perch."  L.  cyanellus  and 
L.  megalotis  are  universally  abundant  both  North  and  South;  the  others  are  chiefly  Southern. 
All  take  the  hook  readily  and  are  good  pan-fish,  but  from  their  small  size  they  have  no  economic 
importance,  and  are  valued  chiefly  by  urchins  and  negroes. 

CENTRARCHUS  MACROPTERUS  Jor. 

We  have  never  heard  for  this  species  any  name  more  distinctive  than  "Sun-fish"  or  "Perch." 
It  is  found  throughout  the  lowland  streams  of  the  South,  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida,  Southern 
niiuois,  and  Texas,  preferring  generally  rather  deep,  clear  waters.  It  is  rarely  seen  in  upland 
ptreams.  It  is  a  fish  of  good  quality,  but  small,  rarely  weighing  more  than  half  a  pound.  Little 
distinctive  is  known  of  its  habits. 

THE  CALICO  BASS— POMOXYS  SPAROIDES. 

This  species  is  known  by  a  variety  of  names,  some  of  the  principal  of  which  are  the  following: 
In  Lake  Erie,  and  in  Ohio  generally,  it  is  the  "Strawberry  Bass,"  or  "Grass  Bass."  The  names 
<« Bitter  Head"  and  "Lamplighter"  are  also  ascribed  to  it  by  Mr.  Klippart,  and  "Bank  Lick  Bass" 
by  Dr.  Kirtland.  In  Lake  Michigan,  the  name  "  Bar-fish"  is  in  general  use,  giving  place  in  Illinois 
to  the  name  "Calico  Bass."  The  latter  is  the  most  appropriate  of  these  designations,  having  allu- 
sion to  the  variegated  coloration.  In  the  South,  like  Ambloplites  rupestris,  it  becomes  a  "Goggle- 
eye"  or  "Goggle-eyed  Perch."  The  Calico  Bass  is  found  in  abundance  in  all  the  lakes  and  ponds 
of  the  Great  Lake  region  and  the  Upper  Mississippi.  It  is  also  diffused  throughout  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  and  appears  in  the  streams  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  east  of  the  mountains.  Its 
preference  is  for  quiet,  clear  waters,  with  a  bottom  covered  with  grass;  and  in  the  muddy  sloughs 
and  bayous,  where  the  Crappie  is  abundant,  it  is  rarely  seen.  It  is  an  excellent  pan-fish,  reaching 


HABITS  OF  THE  CALICO  BASS.  407 

soim-timcs  a  weight  of  two  pounds,  although  not  usually  weighing  more  than  one  pound.  It  is, 
like  its  relatives,  gamy,  but  it  is  not  so  voracious  as  most  of  them.  The  following  notes  on  its 
habits  and  value  are  from  tin-  pen  of  Professor  Kirtland: 

"The  'Grass  Bass'  has  not  hitherto  been  deemed  worthy  of  consideration  by  fish-culturists; 
vet,  I'M  HI  i  a  long  ami  intimate  acquaintance  with  its  merits,  I  hesitate  not  to  pronounce  it  the  fish 
for  the  million.  It  is  a  native  of  our  Western  rivers  and  lakes,  where  it  usually  resorts  to  deep 
and  sluggish  waters;  yet  in  several  instances,  where  it  has  found  its  way  into  cold  and  rapid 
streams,  ami  even  small  sized  brooks,  by* means  of  the  constructing  of  canals  or  by  the  hand  of 
man,  it  has  adapted  itself  to  the  change,' and  in  two  or  three  years  stocked  to  overflowing  these 
new  locations.  As  a  pan  fish,  for  the  table,  it  is  surpassed  by  few  other  fresh-water  species.  For 
endurance  and  rapidity  of  increase  it  is  unequaled.  .  .  .  The  Grass  Bass  is  perfectly  adapted 
to  stocking  ponds.  It  wil!  thrive  without  care  in  very  small  ponds  of  sufficient  depth.  ...  It 
will  in  nowise  interfere  with  the  cultivation  of  any  number  of  species,  large  or  small,  in  the  same 
waters.  It  will  live  harmoniously  with  all  others,  and  while  its  structure  and  disposition  restrain 
it  from  attacking  any  other  but  very  small  fry,  its  formidable  armature  of  spiuous  rays  in  the 
dorsal  and  abdominal  fins  will  guard  it  against  attacks  of  even  the  voracious  pike." ' 

THE  CEAPPIE— POMOXYS  ANNULABIS. 

This  species  is  commonly  called  "Grapple"  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  Other  names 
are  "  Bachelor"  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  "New  Light"  and  " Campbellite "  in  Kentucky  and  Indiana, 
"Sac  a-lait"  and  "Chinquapin  Perch"  in  the  Lower  Mississippi.  It  is  also  often  confounded  with 
the  preceding  species,  and  some  of  the  names  of  the  two  are  interchangeable.  This  species  is  not 
often  seen  in  the  Great  Lake  region,  but  throughout  the  Lower  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  it 
is  very  abundant.  Its  young  swarm  in  all  the  muddy  bayous  along  the  rivers,  and  great  numbers 
of  them  are  destroyed  in  the  fall  when  these  bodies  of  water  dry  up.  With  the  exception  of  its 
predilection  for  muddy  waters,  we  know  little  in  its  habits  distinctive  from  those  of  the  Calico 
Bass,  and  like  the  latter  it  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  fish  for  ponds.  Both  take  the  hook,  feed 
upon  small  fishes,  crustaceans,  etc.,  and  both  spawn  in  spring. 

136.  THE  SEA  BASS— SERRANUS  ATRARIUS. 

The  members  of  the  Sea  Bass  family  Serranidas,  are  similar  in  form  and  habits  to  the  Perches, 
from  which  they  are  distinguished  by  certain  anatomical  characters,  scarcely  tangible  to  persons 
not  experts  in  ichthyology.  The  family  contains  a  very  large  number  of  species,  some  of  which 
are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  seas.  On  our  Atlantic  coast  there 
are  some  twenty  species,  while  in  California  there  are  four  at  least  which  are  of  economic 
importance.  Certain  European  members  of  this  family  are  hermaphrodite,  but  there  is  as  yet  no 
evidence  that  any  American  species  is  thus  peculiar. 

The  Sea  Bass,  Serranus  atrarius,  known  south  of  Cape  Hatteras  as  the  "Blackflsh,"  is  the 
most  important  species  on  our  coast.  In  the  Middle  States  the  Sea  Bass  is  called  "Black  Will," 
"Black  Harry,"  and  "Hannahills";  about  Newport  and  New  Bedford,  "Blueflsh,"  and  at  New 
Bedford  also  "Rock  Bass."  Curiously  enough,  the  Southern  name,  "Blackfish,"  is  also  in  use 
at  Oak  Bluff,  Martha's  Vineyard,  and,  it  is  said,  also  in  New  Jersey.  In  Gill's  "Catalogue  of  the 
Fishes  of  the  East  Coast"  it  is  stated  that  the  name  "Black  Bass"  is  also  used  for  the  fish,  but 
this  usage  has  not  yet  fallen  under  my  observation. 

Storer,  in  his  "Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  makes  the  statement  that  it  is  known  as  the  "Black 

'American  Sportsman,  February  28,  1674,  quoted  by  Klippart,  Report  Ohio  Fish  Coium.  for  1075-76,  p.  78. 


408  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Bass"  and  "Black  Fish."  If  this  was  true  at  the  time  of  Storer's  writing,  the  usage  has  since  then 
undergone  a  very  considerable  change.  The  species  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
Black-fish  of  Long  Island  Sound,  which  is  the  tautog,  a  member  of  a  very  different  family. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  writers  that  the  Black-fish  of  the  South  is  distinct  from  the  Sea  Bass  of 
the  North.  This  seems  improbable,  but  is  worthy  of  investigation.  The  chief  advocate  of  this 
idea  was  Holbrook,  in  whose  "Ichthyology  of  South  Carolina"  may  be  found  a  statement  of  the 
supposed  differences.1 

The  geographical  range  of  the  Sea  Bass,  as  at  present  understood,  is  as  follows:  It  is  at  home 
in  all  the  waters  between  the  Vineyard  Sound  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Stearns 
writes  that  it  is  rather  abundant  at  a  few  places  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida,  where  there  are 
rocks  and  rocky  bottoms.  In  Pensacola  Bay  they  are  seen  round  the  piles  of  stone  ballast  that 
lie  in  shoal  water,  and  also  at  sea  on  the  fishing  grounds  near  the  entrance.  They  occur  in  some 
places  in  Saint  Andrew's,  Saint  Joseph's,  and  Apalachicola  Bay.  South  of  these  places  there  is 
more  or  less  rocky  bottom,  showing  either  in  reefs  or  in  channel-beds,  on  which  Sea  Bass  are  found 
in  abundance.  In  the  vicinity  of  Saint  Mark's,  Cedar  Keys,  and  Saint  Martin's  Reef  are  some  of 
the  best  localities.  "  It  is  rarely  or  never,"  says  Jordan,  "  seen  on  the  sandy  coast  of  Texas." 
This  species  has  already  been  recently  discovered  north  of  Cape  Cod.  Previous  to  1878  there 
were  on  record  only  four  instances  of  its  occurrence  east  of  Monomoy,  but  in  the  summer  of 
1878  several  were  taken  in  the  Milk  Island  weir,  off  Gloucester.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  fifty  years  ago  the  Sea  Bass  was  much  less  abundant  in  Southern  New  England  than  it  is 
now.  In  Linsley's  catalogue  of  the  fishes  of  Connecticut,  published  in  1842,  the  species  is  described 
as  a  great  novelty.  It  is  curious,  however,  that  some  time  between  1830  and  1840  there  were, 
according  to  Storer,  fifty  or  sixty  vessels  fishing  for  Sea  Bass  in  the  Vineyard  Sound. 

In  1787,  if  Schoepf  is  to  be  believed,  they  were  rarely  seen  in  the  New  York  market.  A 
diligent  search  through  the  works  of  the  early  writers  on  the  fisheries  of  New  England  fails  to  bring 
to  light  any  allusion  to  them.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  there  has  actually  been 
an  increase  in  their  abundance,  or  whether  this  increase  has  been,  as  it  seems  to  have  been  in  the 
case  of  the  Spanish  mackerel,  due  to  the  introduction  of  new  modes  of  fishing  or  the  discovery  of 
new  fishing  grounds.  Sea  Bass  live  among  the  rocky  ledges  and  "  spots  of  ground "  which 
abound  along  the  entire  outer  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Florida,  and  in  the  North  it  is  also 
found  in  the  large  bays  and  sounds,  like  Long  Island  Sound.  In  the  North  the  best  bass  grounds 
are  in  seven  to  twelve  fathoms  of  water;  off  Charleston  they  are  at  a  depth  of  twenty  to  forty 
fathoms,  though  throughout  this  whole  region  the  fish  are  found  also  close  to  shore,  and  at  all 
intermediate  depths  where  suitable  feeding  grounds  occur.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  found,  for  the  most  part,  in  shoal  water;  indeed  all  along  the  Southern  coast  the 
young  fish  are  found  close  in  to  the  shore,  and  I  have  seen  a  great  many  taken  with  hook  and  line 
from  the  sea  wall  at  Saint  Augustine.  The  temperature  of  the  water  affected  by  this  species  and 
by  the  red  snapper  corresponds  very  closely,  and  in  most  instances  is  probably  not  less  than  50°, 
though  in  the  case  of  the  banks  of  Connecticut  and  New  York  it  may  be  slightly  lower. 

The  Sea  Bass  is  a  bottom-feeding  and  a  bottom-loving  fish,  and  rarely  comes  to  the  surface.2 
Whether  or  not  those  occurring  in  northern  waters  migrate  southward  in  winter,  or  merely  go  into 
deeper  water,  is  not  yet  ascertained.  According  to  Captain  Edwards  and  Captain  Spindle,  they 

1  HOLBROOK  :  Ichthyology  of  South  Carolina,  page  49. 

'An  exception  to  this  has  been  recorded  by  Mr.  Charles  Hallock,  who  writes:  "Although  the  Sea  Bass  is  a  bottom 
Ash,  yet  once  on  an  outward-bound  voyage  to  the  southward  of  the  Gull  Stream  we  made  fast  to  a  ship's  lower  mast, 
found  drifting  on  the  surface,  which  was  covered  with  clams  and  barnacles  and  surrounded  with  Sea  Bass.  We 
caught  all  that  we  wanted  and  cut  loose.  They  weighed  from  five  to  twelve  pounds  each,  and  were  all  male  fish." 


MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  SEA  BASS.  409 

make  their  appearance  in  the  Vinc\ard  Sound  from  the  1st  to  tbe  20th  of  Ma\  up  to  the  10th  of 
.June.  Captain  Spindle  states  that  no  stragglers  are  c\cr  seen  in  April.  Captain  Edwaids 
declares,  on  tin-  other  hand,  that  they  an-  I'oiind  in  that  region  in  the  winter.  A  careful  study  of 
tlicir  habits  would  t'orm  an  important  ronti  ihiition  to  /.oolo^x. 

Mass  arc  somewhat  sluggish  in  their  habits  The  temperature  of  the  body  is  low,  being  very 
nearly  that  of  the  surrounding  water  and  the  digestion  is  slow.  Although  very  voracious  at  times, 
i hey  seem  very  much  less  fat  than  bliiefish  of  the  same  size,  and  their  growth  is  less  rapid. 
They  seldom  leave  the  bottom,  and  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence  that  cold  weather  drives  them  far 
from  their  summer  haunts.  They  retreat,  in  all  probability,  into  water  of  greater  depth,  where 
ihe\  pass  the  winter  in  a  somewhat  torpid  state.  Like  the  tautog,  they  appear  to  have  a  habit 
of  lying  under  loose  stones  and  in  cavities  among  the  rocks.  I  have  observed  this  habit  in  the 
tanks  of  the  Ne\v  York  Aquarium.  The  food  of  this  species,  as  of  its  associates  upon  the  same 
grounds,  consists  of  crabs,  shrimps,  squids,  and  small  fish.  It  is  stated  that  the  intestines  of 
mackerel  and  the  stomach  of  menhaden  are  considered  the  best  bait  about  Wood's  lloll,  Massa- 
chusetts, while  farther  south  shrimps  and  pieces  of  the  flesh  of  fishes,  such  as  small  sharks,  are 
frequently  used.  They  are  vor.ieious  feeders  and  easily  taken  on  the  hook,  and  their  mouths  are 
ton^h  and  leathery,  so  that  when  once  taken  they  are  not  easily  lost. 

Scott  states  that  their  feeding  time  Is  during  the  lull  of  the  waters  between  the  turn  of  the 
tides,  when  they  are  easily  taken  by  the  angler.  In  the  North  the  Sea  Bass  occupies  its  feeding 
grounds  in  company  with  the  scuppaug  or  porgy,  the  flounder,  and  the  tautog,  while  in  the  South 
its  associates  are  the  red  snapper  and  the  various  species  of  grunt,  and  on  the  inshore  grounds, 
among  the  rocks,  it  occurs  in  company  with  the  sheepshead  and  the  king-fish. 

The  breeding-time  is  believed  to  occur  in  July  and  August.  Mr.  Dyer,  of  Naushou,  states 
that  the  Sea  Bass,  when  they  come  into  the  pounds  in  the  spring,  are  full  of  spawn,  ready  to 
shoot.  Young  fish,  one  or  two  inches  long,  are  abundant  among  the  eel-grass  along  the  shores  of 
Southern  New  England.  "In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,"  according  to  Stearns,  "they  spawn  in  early 
summer,  and  the  young  are  caught  in  July  and  August." 

The  average  size  of  the  fish  in  New  England  is  about  one  and  one-half  pounds.  A  Sea  Bnss 
nine  inches  long  weighs  about  five  ounces;  ten  inches  long,  seven  to  ten  ounces;  eleven  inches 
long,  nine  to  twelve  ounces;  twelve  inches  long,  ten  to  sixteen  ounces;  while  the  length  of  a 
three-pound  fish  varies  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches.  They  occasionally  attain  the  weight  of 
four  or  five  pounds,  but  this  is  unusual,  lu  the  South  they  are,  as  a  rule,  much  smaller  than 
in  the  North.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the,  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  these  waters,  and  along  the 
southern  part  of  the  South  Atlantic  coast,  they  rarely  exceed  a  pound  in  weight.  Large  male  fish 
are  remarkable  on  account  of  the  presence  of  a  large  hump  upon  the  top  of  the  head.  This  is 
particularly  prominent  during  the  breeding  season,  and  at  this  time  the  colors  of  the  whole  body 
are  much  brighter.  The  colored  plate  of  this  species,  drawn  by  Mr.  Kilburu  for  Scribner's  "Game 
Fishes  of  the  United  States,"  represents  a  large  male  at  the  breeding  season,  the  only  picture  of 
this  kind  that  has  ever  yet  been  made. 

The  Sea  Bass  is  of  interest  to  fish-culturists  as  being  the  first  marine  fish  upon  which  the 
experiment  of  artificial  propagation  was  tried  in  this  country.  This  was  in  June,  1.S74,  when 
Mr.  Mather  fertilized  a  number  of  eggs  at  the  station  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  at 
Noank,  Connecticut.  These  eggs  were  placed  in  shad  boxes  and  were  watched  for  several  days 
as  the\  passed  through  the  early  stages  of  segmentation.  A  storm  interfered  with  the  completion 
of  the  experiment 

The  Sea  Bass  is  considered  one  of  our  most  available  food-fishes,  being  especially  excellent 


410  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

for  use  iu  chowders ;  in  this  respect  «i  rival  of  the  haddock,  its  flesh  being  very  sweet,  flaky,  and 
linn.  By  reason  of  the  hardness  of  its  flesh  it  is  especially  adapted  to  packing  and  shipment  in 
ice,  and  in  summer  is  probably  one  of  the  most  desirable  fishes  to  be  obtained  in  the  city  markets. 
The  principal  commercial  fisheries  are  located  in  the  Vineyard  and  Fisher's  Island  Sound  and  the 
vicinity,  carried  on  by  Noank  and  New  London  smacks  oft'  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  Bay,  and 
ofl'  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  As  has  already  been  stated,  its  distribution  is  very  wide  all  along 
the  coast,  and  it  is  probable  that  its  importance  as  a  food-fish  will  increase  in  years  to  come. 

There  is  a.  small  species  (Serranm  trifurcits)  resembling  the  Sea  Bass  which  has  been  found 
only  in  the  vicinity  of  Charleston,  fcouth  Carolina,  and  Pensacola,  Florida,  where  it  is  called  the 
"Eock  Black-fish";  it  occasionally  finds  its  way  to  the  Charleston  markets. 

THE  SQUIRREL-FISH — SERRANUS  FASCICULARIS. 

The  Squirrel-fish  is  usually  to  be  seen  in  the  markets  of  Charleston,  north  of  which  it  has 
never  been  discovered.  The  following  paragraph  from  Holbrook's  "Ichthyology  of  South  Caro- 
lina" contains  all  that  has  been  observed  regarding  its  habits: 

"  Little  can  be  said  of  the  habits  of  this  fish.  It  however  appears  in  our  waters  in  May  and 
June  and  remains  until  November.  It  is  occasionally  taken  with  the  hook  on  the  black-fish 
grounds,  but  is  never  abundant.  Southward  it  ranges  at  least  to  Brazil." 

137.  THE  GROUPERS. 
THE  RED  GROUPER — EPINEPHELTJS  MORIO. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  Sea  Bass  are  the  various  species  of  Grouper,  members  of  the  genus 
Epinephelm.  The  "  Red  Grouper,"  as  it  is  called  iu  Florida,  and  in  New  York  markets  Epinephe- 
lun  morio,  is  a  large  species,  sometimes  attaining  the  weight  of  forty  or  fifty  pounds.  There  is  no 
certain  record  of  its  having  been  captured  north  of  Florida,  where  it  is  called  the  "Brown  Snap- 
per," or  "Red-bellied  Snapper."  DeKay,  writing  iu  1842,  stated  that  it  was  not  unusual  in  the 
New  York  market  in  June  and  July,  where  it  was  called  by  the  fishermen  'Groper,'  or  'Red  Groper'; 
that  it  is  a  Southern  species  and  is  brought  from  the  reefs  of  Florida,  but  that  he  had  been 
informed  by  Indian  fishermen  that  it  is  occasionally,  but  very  rarely,  taken  off  the  coast  of  New 
York;  he  added  that  Dr.  Holbrook  informed  him  that  it  was  brought  into  the  Charleston  markets 
from  Florida  in  the  months  of  January,  February,  and  March. 

Ilolbrook  wrote:  "The  Grouper  is  so  seldom  seen  on  our  coast  that  nothing  can  at  this  time 
be  said  of  its  habits;  but  in  confinement,  as  it  is  brought  to  us  from  Key  West,  it  appears  very 
voracious  and  bold,  taking  food  even  from  the  hand  wheu  offered,  and  always  injuring  such  other 
species  of  fish' as 'may  be  its  fellow-captives." 

It  is  very  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  about  the  Florida  Keys,  and  is  said  also  to  be 
abundant  along  the  whole  coast  of  East  Florida,  and  is  often  taken  on  the  Saint  John's  bar.  Mr. 
8.  C.  Clarke  writes  that  it  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Smyrna,  Florida,  where  it  spawns  in  bays 
and  inlets  in  the  months  of  May  and  June,  as  does  also  the  Black  Grouper.  The  only  reliable 
study  of  its  habits  which  has  been  made  we  owe  to  Mr.  Silas  Stearns,  whose  biographical  sketch  of 
this  species  may  here  be  quoted  in  full : 

"The  Red  Grouper  is  extremely  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  iu  company  with  the  red 
snapper.  It  is  most  abundant  on  the  South  Florida  coast,  and  is  found  throughout  the  year  on  the 
'grounds'  at  sea  and  in  summer  iu  some  of  the  bays.  It  probably  spawns  in  both  places,  and  in 
June  and  July.  The  young  arc  often  caught  in  Pensacola  Bay.  In  June,  1880, 1  obtained  a  young 


HABITS  OF  TIIK   KF.I>  GKOrPKK.  4H 

one  about  one  inch  in  length.  The  Grouper  is  more  of  a  bottom  fish  thau  the  red  snapper,  for  it 
swims  much  more  slowly  ;m<l  very  seldom  rises  to  (In-  surface.  It  is  very  voracious,  consuming, 
as  is  shown  l»y  ;ui  examination  of  the  contents  of  its  stomach,  enormous  quantities  of  crustaceans 
anil  small  fish.  I.aiue  horny  crabs  in  almost  perfect  condition  arc  olteu  found  inside  of  it.  Its 
movements  aie  rather  slow,  and  when  hooked  it  is  hauled  up  more  like  a  dead-weight  than  like  a 
linc-lish.  In  South  Florida  it  is  extensively  eaten  when  procurable,  and  at  Key  West  it  is  partic- 
ulaily  important,  since  a  large  licet  of  smacks  is  constantly  employed  iu  carrying  lares  of  Groupers 
to  Cuba.  In  West  Florida,  where  red  snappers  are  more  abundant,  Groupers  are  not  in  demand 
and  have  but  a  small  market  value.  After  l>eing  taken  from  the  water,  the  Grouper  is  remarkably 
tenacious  of  life,  and  will  live  several  hours,  even  though  exposed  to  considerable  heat.  This  is 
one  reason  why  the  Key  West  licet  prefer  Groupers  for  transportation  to  Cuba,  since  they  are 
obliged  to  go  a  long  way  to  market  and  through  warm  water,  and  no  other  fish  of  the  kind  would 
bear  crowding  and  dialing  in  the  wells  of  the  smacks.  The  Grouper  attains  the  weight  of  forty 
IHJiuids,  and  is  an  excellent  food-fish." 

In  Cuba  this  fish  is  called  by  the  Spanish  name  "Cherna."  Tho  name  "Grouper"  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  "(i.ironpa,"  a  name  given  by  the  Portuguese  to  similar  species.  In  DeKay's  time,  as  has 
been  remarked,  this  fish  was  not  unusual  in  the  New  York  market,  where  it  sold  for  from  six  to 
twelve  cents  a  pound,  though  its  flesh  was  considered  tough  and  not  very  highly  esteemed.  Gill, 
writing  cf  the  same  market  in  1800,  states:  "This  species  is  sometimes  sent  to  our  market  from 
Key  West  and  the  reefs  of  Florida  iu  May  and  the  summer  mouths.  I  have  never  seen  more  thau 
two  or  three  exposed  for  sale  at  a  single  time;  it  appears  to  be  considerably  esteemed,  aud  is  sold 
at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  cents  a  pouud." 

(lenio  Scott  writes:  "The  Grouper  is  an  excellent  dinner-fish,  aud  when  boiled  and  served 
with  drawn  butter  aud  shrimp  or  lobster  sauce  is  said  to  fully  equal  the  turbot." 

.THE  BLACK  GROUPER — EPINEPHELUS  NIGRITUS. 

The  Black  Grouper,  Epinephchis  nigritus,  called  iu  Florida  and  Texas  the  "Jew-fish,"  is  at 
Peusacola  known  by  the  name  "Warsaw,"  evidently  a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  name  "Guasa." 
It  was  first  brought  to  notice  by  Holbrook,  who  had  received  one  specimen  from  the  vicinity  of 
Charleston;  north  of  that  point  it  had  not  yet  been  observed,  though  it  appears  to  be  abundant 
along  the  coast  of  East  Florida  and  iu  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke  has  observed  it  iu 
the  India ii  Eiver  region,  and  has  communicated  the  following  notes  to  Professor  Baird: 

"The  Black  Grouper  is  resideut  all  the  year,  though  not  abundant.  The  greatest  size 
attained  is  about  fifteen  pounds;  the  average,  three  pounds.  They  pass  the  winter  in  the  salt- 
water rivers,  living  iu  holes  in  the  rocks  aud  under  roots  and  snags  aud  about  piles.  They  are 
solitary  iu  their  habits.  They  feed  ou  small  fish,  particularly  mullet,  aud  on  crustaceans,  and 
breed  iu  ihe  salt  rivers  iu  May  aud  June.  Their  spawn  is  very  small,  aud  pale  yellow.  They  are 
taken  with  hook  aud  line  by  the  use  of  mullet  aud  crab  bait,  aud  are  seldom  seen  except  wheu 
thus  captured.  They  are  much  esteemed  as  food." 

Mr.  Stearns  remarks  that  it  is  a  cominou  fish  at  sea  along  the  Gulf  coast,  living  chiefly  ou  the 
same  spots  with  snappers  and  Groupers.  At  some  places  it  is  found  in  abuudaucc  iu  the  bays, 
and  lives  ou  the  bottom,  feeding  upon  small  fishes,  crabs,  etc.  Ou  the  fishing  grouuds  where  fish 
are  b.  ing  caught  rapidly  it  uot  unusually  occurs. 

A  very  large  .lew  fish  will  follow  and  finally  swallow  a  hooked  lish,  usually  a  red  snapper, 
with  hooks,  lead,  line  and  all.  If  the  line  does  not  then  break  the  fish  may  be  hauled  in  with  gaffs. 
The  .icw-iiMi  attains  an  enormous  si/e.  and  specimens  weighing  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  pounds 


412  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

have  been  caught.    The  smaller  fish  are  quite  choice,  but  large  ones  are  too  coarse  ami  tough  to 
be  salable. 

There  is  another  fish  which  is  also  called  "Jew-fish,"  or  "Warsaw,"  and  "Black  Grouper,"  of 
which  only  enormously  large  specimens  have  beeu  obtained,  and  which  is  entered  upon  our  cata- 
logues under  the  name  Promicrops  guam.  It  is  a  fair  question  whether  this  great  fish  be  not  the 
adult  of  the  common  Black  Grouper  or  some  closely  allied  species,  the  appearance  of  which  has 
become  somewhat  changed  with  age.  A  large  specimen,  weighing  about  three  hundred  pounds, 
was  taken  near  the  Saint  John's  bar  in  March  or  April,  1874,  by  James  Arnold.  It  was  shipped  by 
Mr.  Hudson,  a  nsh-dealer  in  Savannah,  to  Mr.  Blackford,  who  presented  it  to  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution. A  fine  cast  of  this  specimen  in  papier-machcS  graces  the  cast-room  of  the  National 
Museum.  Professor  Poey,  by  whom  this  species  was  named,  states  that  in  Cuba  it  attains  to  the 
weight  of  six  hundred  pounds.  An  old  Connecticut  fisherman,  who  was  for  many  years  engaged 
in  the  Savannah  market  fishery,  states  that  the  Savannah  smacks  often  catch  Jew-fish.  They  are 
so  voracious  that  when  put  into  the  well  with  the  Groupers  they  would  do  much  damage.  The 
fishermen  have  therefore  found  it  necessary  to  sew  their  jaws  together  before  placing  them  with 
other  fish. 

THE  SPOTTED  HIND — EPINEPHELUS  DRUMMOND-HAYI. 

The  Spotted  Hind  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Epintphelus  Drummond-Hayi,  has  been  but  recently 
discovered,  and  has  been  observed  only  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  at  the  Bermudas.  It  was 
observed  at  the  Bermudas  in  1851  by  Col.  H.  M.  Drummond-IIay,  of  the  British  army.  Specimens 
were  sent  to  the  National  Museum  in  1876  and  1877  by  Mr.  Blackford  and  Mr.  Stearns.  It  is  one 
of  the  many  important  species  which  have  been  brought  to  notice  by  the  labors  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission.  Although  it  is  an  excellent  food-fish,  it  is  even  now  7iot  well  appreciated. 

Mr.  Stearns  records  the  following  facts  concerning  its  habits:  "The  Spotted  Hind  is  common 
in  company  with  the  Grouper  and  the  Jew-fish,  and  is  most  abundant  in  South  Florida  about  the 
reefs.  Off  Pensacola  it  lives  in  the  deep  fishing  grounds,  in  seventeen,  nineteen,  and  twenty-two 
fathoms.  It  swims  close  to  the  bottom,  and  is  of  sluggish  movements.  I  have  not  known  of  its 
occurrence  in  the  bays,  and  believe  that  it  spawns  at  sea.  Specimens  weighing  fifty  pounds  have 
been  caught,  but  that  is  fully  four  times  the  average  size.  It  is  seen  daily  in  the  Key  West 
market  and  sells  readily,  but  at  Pensacola,  Mobile,  and  New  Orleans  it  is  hardly  marketable.  Its 
color  varies  very  considerably  with  the  ditferent  colored  bottoms  on  which  it  lives." 

The  Coney,  Upinephelus  apua,  of  Key  West,  the  Hind  of  Bermuda,  is  an  important  food- 
fish  which  occurs  throughout  the  West  Indies.  Specimens  have  been  sent  by  Mr.  Stearns,  who 
recorded  that  it  is  common  in  South  Florida  among  the  reefs,  and  is  often  seen  in  the  Key  West 
market,  where  it  is  readily  sold. 

THE  BANDED  GROUPER— EPINEPHULUS  STRIATUS  AND  OTHERS. 

The  common  Grouper  of  Bermuda,  Epinephctus  striatus,  one  of  the  most  important  food-fishes 
of  those  islands,  is  sure  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Key  West,  and  will  probably  prove  to  be 
one  of  the  important  fishes  of  our  own  southern  coasts.  About  Key  WTcst  and  in  the  Gulf  there 
are  several  species  of  the  sub-genus  Myctrroperca,  which  may  be  grouped  together  under  the  name 
"Rock-fish,"  the  name  by  which  all  fishes  of  this  genus  are  also  known  in  Bermuda.  They  are 
large  fishes  of  excellent  food  quality,  similar  in  habits  to  the  others  of  the  family  which  have 
already  been  discussed.  The  material  at  present  on  hand  is  not  sufficient  to  admit  of  satisfactory 
identification  of  all  the  species.  The  "Bhick  Grouper  "of  Pensacola,  which  has  been  variously 


<;i:oi  i-Ki.-s  or  THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO.  413 


named  Mi/i-ti-ropi-n-ti  hniiiiii'ii,  M.  .iiirrnl<-i>ix.  ,niil  ,V.  Htomitu,  \s  said  by  Mr.  Stearns  to  be  common 
in  company  with  tin'  I  .Yd  Grouper.  although  not  so  abundant.  It  spawns  in  June  and  July,  at 
sc.i  and  in  tin-  inlets.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  considered  superior  to  the  Red  Grouper,  although  it  is 
not  more  readily  sold.  It  attains  a  weight  of  titty  pounds.  Professor  Jordan  is  of  the  opinion  that 
tin-  I'onii  rewntly  described  by  Goode  and  Bean  as  M.  atomiaa  is  the  adult  of  that  previously  char- 
acterized I  iy  thriii  under  the  name  M.  microlepit. 

The  Rock  fish  of  Key  West,  which  has  not  yet  been  identified,  is  said  by  Mr.  Stearns  to  be 
very  common,  and  is  sold  almost  every  day  in  the  market.  The  average  weight  is  four  or  five 
pounds,  the  maximum  twenty-five  to  thirty.  There  appear  to  be,  from  Mr.  Stearns'  notes,  at  Key 
West,  as  well  as  in  Bermuda,  various  local  forms  closely  related  to  this,  one  of  which  is  known  by 
tin-  name  ''Gag";  another  fish  of  this  genus,  Mycteroperca  falcata,  is  called  at  Pensacola  by  the 
name  "Scamp."  It  is  common  off  the  Florida  coast,  living  near  the  bottom  in  company  with  the 
other  secies  of  Groupers.  It  is  found  on  the  coast  all  the  year  round,  and  is  caught  with  hook 
and  line.  It  seldom  exceeds  the  weight  of  twenty  pounds,  and  the  average  size  is  much  smaller. 
It  is  considered  an  excellent  table  fish. 

Several  of  these  fishes,  whose  relations  have  not  yet  been  determined,  have  been  taken  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  particularly  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  and  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts. 

There  are  several  other  species  belonging  to  this  family  which  have  been  observed,  none  of 
which,  however,  are  of  any  economic  importance. 

138.  THE  SERRANOID  FISHES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 

By  DAVID  S.  JOBDAN. 
THE  JEW-FISH  —  STEREOLEPIS  GIGAS. 

This  species  is  everywhere  known  as  the  "Jew-fish."  It  is  also  sometimes  called  the  "Black 
Sea  Bass."  It  reaches  a  weight  of  five  hundred  pounds,  being  the  largest  food-fish  on  the  coast. 
It  ranges  from  the  Farallones  to  below  San  Diego,  and  is  generally  abundant  in  deep  water  about 
the  islands,  but  from  its  great  size  is  seldom  taken.  It  feeds  upon  smaller  fishes,  and  is  voracious. 
It  is  often  taken  by  swallowing  a  white-fish  when  the  latter  is  on  the  hook.  Its  flesh  is  of  excellent 
quality,  and  those  small  enough  to  be  available  always  bring  a  very  high  price  in  the  market. 

THE  CABRILLA  —  SEBRANUS  OLATHRATUS. 

This  species  is  called  at  Monterey,  where  it  is  not  common,  the  "  Kelp  Salmon";  farther  South 
it  is  known  to  the  "Americans"  usually  as  "Rock  Bass,"  and  to  the  Italians  and  Spaniards  as 
''Cabrilla,"  a  name  applied  to  other  species  of  Serranus  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Chinese  call 
it  "Locke*  Cod"  (  Rock  Cod).  It  reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches  and  a  weight  of  about  five 
pounds.  It  ranges  from  San  Francisco  to  Cerros  Island,  being  very  abundant  about  the  Santa 
Barbara  Islands,  where  it  is  taken  in  large  numbers.  It  lives  in  water  of  no  great  depth,  chiefly 
about  the  rocks.  It  feeds  on  sqnid,  Crustacea,  and  small  fishes.  It  is  an  excellent  food-fish,  similar 
in  quality  to  the  related  Atlantic  species. 

THE  JOHNNY  VERDE  —  SERRANUS  NEBULIFEB  (Grd.)  Steind. 

This  species  receives  the  name  "Rock  Bass"  nud  "Cabrilla"  with  the  other  species.  The 
distinctive  Spanish  name  of  "Johnny  (Juan)  Verde"  is  also  in  frequent  use,  especially  at  San 
Pedro.  It  reaches  a  length  of  twelve  to  twenty  inches  and  a  weight  of  about  five  pounds.  Most 
individuals  seen  are,  however,  small,  not  averaging  two  pounds.  It  has  been  taken  at  Monterey. 
but  it  is  common  only  from  San  Pedro  southward  to  Magdalena  Bay.  So  far  as  known  to  us,  it 
agrees  in  habits  and  value  with  the  preceding. 


414  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  SPOTTED  CABKILLA — SERVANTS  MACULOFASCIATUS  Steindachner. 

Tliis  species  receives  the  same  names,  "Eock  Bass"  and  "  Cabrilla,"  as  the  others.  It  agrees 
with  the  preceding  in  value,  distribution,  and  habits,  so  far  as  known.  Its  a  rather  smaller  size. 
It  is  au  excellent  food-fish,  and  from  its  great  abundance  about  San  Diego  it  may  become  of 
considerable  economic  importance.  Its  range  extends  southward  to  Mazatlan,  it  being  one  of  the 
very  few  California  fishes  which  extend  their  range  to  the  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 

139.  THE  YELLOW  PERCH— PERCA  AMERICANA. 

"Wherever  found,"  writes  Jordan,  "this  species  is  the  Perch  par  excellence,"  the  name  Perch 
being  elsewhere  wrongly  applied  to  various  Serranoid,  Sciaeuoid,  Centrarchoid,  and  Embiotocoid 
fishes.  The  descriptive  names  "Yellow  Perch"  and  "Einged  Perch"  are  in  common  use.  The 
Perch  is  found  throughout  the  Great  Lake  region,  the  rivers  of  New  England  and  of  the  States 
east  of  the  Alleghauy  Mountains  as  far  south  as  Georgia.  It  occurs  in  some  tributaries  of  the  Ohio 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  of  the  Mississippi  in  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  but 
throughout  the  lower  basin  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  west  slope  of  the  Alleghanies  it  is  entirely 
absent.  The  Perch  is  one  of  the  common  market  fish  of  the  North  and  East.  Its  usual  length  is 
about  a  foot,  and  its  weight  generally  less  than  two  pounds.  It  is  a  fish  of  fair  but  not  excellent 
quality.  It  is  a  carnivorous  fish,  feeding  on  minnows,  etc.,  and  usually  freely  taking  the  hook.  It 
spawns  in  spring.  Dr.  Steindachner,  of  Vienna,  has  recently  attempted  to  demonstrate  the 
identity  of  the  American  Perch  with  the  similar  species  in  Europe,  but  this  I  cannot  admit,  for 
they  are  no  more  alike  than  various  of  our  species  of  Lepomis,  Amiunut,  etc.  It  is  true  enough 
that  the  distinctive  characters  noticed  by  Steindachner  are  unreliable,  but,  so  far  as  I  have  seen, 
they  differ  strongly  in  gill-rakers,  pseudobrauchise,  position  of  first  dorsal,  etc.  Of  course,  no  sane 
man  doubts  their  community  of  origin,  but  different  "  species"  they  are  now,  or  at  least  sub-species." 

The  following  observations  with  regard  to  the  abundance  of  the  Yellow  Perch,  in  the  Great 
Lakes  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Ludwig  Kumlien  and  others: 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  Minnesota,  and  especially  about  Duluth  and  vicinity,  these  fish  are 
common.  On  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  r.s  far  east  as  Keeweeuaw  Point,  and  about 
the  islands  included — such  as  the  Apostle  Islands,  Sand,  York,  and  Eock  Islands — they  are  also 
common.  In  this  region  they  have  been  on  the  increase  for  the  last  ten  years,  being  quite  rare  as 
lately  as  1870.  They  are,  however,  never  shipped  to  the  large  markets,  being  used  for  home  con- 
sumption. In  the  small  bays  running  southeast  from  Keweenaw  Point  Yellow  Perch  are  very 
abundant;  in  this  locality  they  are  not  found  plentifully  at  a  great  distance  from  shore.  In 
Marquette  Harbor  a  few  are  taken  in  the  herring  seines,  but  none  are  caught  in  the  pound  nets. 
The  yellow-perch  fishery  is  of  no  importance  between  this  point  and  Sauk's  Head. 

At  the  north  end  of  Green  Bay  Yellow  Perch  are  not  abundant.  They  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  mouths  of  the  small  bays  included  in  Green  Bay,  and  are  said  to  be  rare  about  the  islands; 
they  are  not  taken  in  the  pound-nets  at  least.  Toward  Cedar  Eiver  this  fish  is  not  plentiful, 
being  taken  almost  entirely  in  the  shoal-nets.  A  little  farther  south,  about  the  mouth  of  Meuom- 
onee  Eiver,  there  is  a  greater  abundance  of  them;  here  also  they  are  taken  in  some  quantities  in 
the  inshore  nets.  They  are  shipped  from  here  with  the  -'dory,"  but  complaint  is  made  by  the  dealers 
if  there  is  too  large  a  proportion  of  Perch.  When  shipped  separate  they  command  a  low  price. 
Writing  on  September  24,  1880,  Mr.  Kumlien  remarks:  "I  have  seen  a  good  many  that  were  taken 
near  Menomonee  Eiver  within  the  last  few  days  and  was  surprised  at  their  small  and  uniform  size; 
few  of  them  would  exceed  eight  inches.  The  fishermen  inform  me  that  there  has  been  a  run  of 
these  small  Perch  since  last  winter  in  excess  of  anything  ever  known  in  previous  years." 


YKLLO\V  IT.I.VII  IN  TIII-:  CKKAT  I.AKKS.  415 

Tin-  fishermen  are  under  the  impression  that  lYn-h  instead  of  white  lisli  were  hatched  out  inul 
deposited  here  by  the  State  Fish  Commission. 

lletwecii  the  Menoinoiire  River  ;iii(l  Oconto  Bay  this  fish  is  coiiiinon,  but  of  little  importance. 
It  lirin;;s  M  li>\v  price  ::nd  is  not  sought  after.  It  is  caught  inshore  in  tho  sloughs.  At  the  southern 
i\;i\  ::iity  of  Green  Toy  the  Yellow  Perch  is  abundant.  All  along  tho  eastern  shore  of  Green  Bay 
it  is  very  plentiful;  there  has  been  a  greater  abundance  of  it  during  the  past  year  (1880)  than 
ever  before. 

Along  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  as  far  as  Mauitowoc,  the  Yellow  Perch  is  extremely 
rare,  except  about  Two  Rivers  and  Manitowoc,  at  which  two  points  it  is  common  and  meets  with  a 
ready  sale.  Between  Manitowoc  and  Port  Washington  the  Yellow  Perch  occurs  very  sparingly, 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Cedar  Grove.  The  other  lishing  grounds  between  the  above-named 
points  are  White  Fish  Bay,  and  Sheboygan. 

I  n  the  vicinity  of  Milwaukee  this  fish  is  extraordinarily  abundant,  and  was  especially  so  during 
Is7!>.  In  less  than  ten  fathoms  they  are  sometimes  caught  in  the  gill-net;  the  majority,  however, 
are  taken  on  hooks.  They  are  of  considerable  importance  in  this  locality  and  meet  with  a  ready 
sale.  At  Racine  a  great  many,  and  of  a  large  size,  are  caught.  At  Watikegan,  a  little  farther 
south,  they  are  especially  abundant  in  June  and  July.  They  were  more  plentiful  in  1879  than 
they  ha«l  ever  been  before. 

At  tho  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  about  New  Buffalo  and  Michigan  City,  they  are 
abundant,  being  caught  on  hooks  and  sold  in  large  numbers  to  the  railway  baggage-men,  who 
piddle  them  on  the  cars.  They  have  been  more  abundant  this  year  (1880)  than  ever  before.  The 
finest  specimens  are  caught  as  far  out  from  shore  as  fifteen  miles,  but  the  smaller  ones  do  not  go 
out  so  far.  Many  are  shipped  to  the  Chicago  market. 

Around  the  docks  of  Saint  Joseph,  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  the  yellow  perch 
fry  fairly  swarms.  In  the  summer  of  1880,  two  hundred  hooks  were  set  two  miles  out  from  shore; 
e.ich  hook  had  a  Perch,  some  weighing  as  high  as  two  pounds.  From  Saint  Joseph  Yellow  Perch 
are  often  shipped  with  white-fish  and  trout.  They  are  chiefly  caught  in  gill-nets,  several  miles 
from  shore. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  about  Ludiugtou  and  Mauistee,  they  were  as  plentiful 
as  ever  before  in  1880;  some  years  they  are  less  common,  and  then  come  on  again.  At  Grand 
Haven  they  were  less  abundant  than  usual,  and  are  seldom  taken  at  this  point  at  any  great  distance 
from  shore.  About  Little  and  Great  Traverse  Bays  and  the  Fox  Islands  they  are  generally 
common,  but  were  less  plentiful  in  1880  than  ever  before.  They  are  occasionally  taken  in  the 
pound  nets,  and  even  in  the  gill  nets,  but  are  of  no  commercial  importance. 

The  Yellow  Perch  is  reported  as  common  at  the  northeast  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  through  the 
Straits  of  Mackinaw,  and  down  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Huron  to  Thunder  Bay.  Captain 
Dingman,  who  appears  to  be  well  informed  as  to  the  fisheries  of  that  region,  says  they  are  not 
one-tenth  as  numerous  as  they  were  in  1879.  If  this  be  true  of  the  northeastern  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  it  may  account  for  their  being  unusually  numerous  on  the  opposite  (western)  shore  of 
that  lake.  Near  the  Les  Cheueaux  Islands  a  large  variety  is  reported  as  having  been  caught. 
Yellow  Perch  are  more  common  about  these  islands  than  generally  along  the  shore.  They  are  not 
often  taken  in  the  deep  pounds  but  are  quite  abundant  in  shallow  water  and  in  the  small  lakes. 

In  Thunder  Bay  Yellow  Perch  are  abundant,  and  an-  taken  principally  in  the  pound-nets  in 
spring.  Mr.  Case  thinks  they  are  increasing.  Very  few  are  shipped  from  this  point ;  during  1879 
not  over  five  hundred,  in  which  year  the  ruu  was  very  large. 

lu  the  rivers  running  into  Saginaw  Bay  Yellow  Perch  are  abundant,  but  not  so  much  so  as 


416  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

formerly.  Mr.  Biker  thinks  they  have  left  the  rivers  for  the  bay,  during  the  last  few  years,  to  a 
great  extent.  From  places  on  this  bay  they  are  shipped  as  soft  fish.  Down  from  Saginaw  Bay 
to  Port  Huron,  the  reminder  of  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Huron,  Yellow  Perch  are  very  abun- 
dant, as  also  in  the  Saint  Clair  Eiver;  Mr.  Canham  thinks  that  they  are  on  the  steady  increase. 
From  this  region  few  are  shipped,  the  demand  being  principally  local,  but  outside  markets  are 
springing  up.  A  good  many  are  taken  on  the  lake  shore  in  the  bait-nets. 

On  the  fishing  grounds  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie,  from  Toledo  to  the  mouth  of  the  Detroit 
River,  including  the  pound  fisheries  of  the  last  named  locality,  Yellow  Perch  are  said  to  be  very 
abundant  and  on  the  increase.  They  are  usually  dressed  (skinned)  and  sent  to  inland  towns. 
There  is  a  great  demand  for  them  by  the  peddlers  who  supply  the  farms. 

About  the  vicinity  of  Maumee  Bay  and  Toledo,  and  in  Maumee  Bay,  Yellow  Perch  are  very 
abundant  at  all  times.  In  late  autumn  and  winter  a  few  are  shipped  to  New  York  City.  East  of 
Port  Clinton  the  pounds  do  not  catch  any,  though  they  are  very  abundant  in  the  Sandusky  River 
and  small  bays  adjacent.  About  Toussaiut  and  Locust  Point  a  few  are  caught  in  spring  in  the 
pounds,  but  are  thrown  overboard. 

In  Saudusky  Bay,  Upper  and  Lower,  and  in  the  lake  between  Ottawa  City,  onCatawba  Island, 
and  the  Huron  fisheries,  Yellow  Perch  are  very  abundant  in  early  spring  and  late  fall.  At  San- 
dusky  they  are  very  abundant,  and  it  is  thought  that  the  offal  thrown  into  the  lake  helps 
to  keep  them  in  that  locality.  They  are  usually  counted  as  "rough"  fish  and  sold  with  the 
herring,  but  are  sometimes  counted  as  "soft"  fish  early  in  the  season.  A  very  large  variety  is 
taken  outside  of  Sandusky  Bay  in  the  lake,  and  Mr.  Stoll,  one  of  the  authorities  of  that  district, 
affirms  that  the  lake  and  marsh  varieties  are  distinct.  About  the  islands  of  this  region  Yellow 
Perch  are  common,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Anthony,  from  five  to  ten  tons  have  been  caught  there, 
several  years  ago,  at  one  lift. 

In  the  fishing  grounds  at  Huron,  Ohio,  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  this  species  is  abun- 
dant. Six  or  seven  years  ago  few  were  taken  in  the  lake  pounds  in  comparison  with  the  numbers 
taken  in  them  at  the  present  day.  About  nine  tenths  of  those  now  taken  are  thrown  away.  A 
few  are  shipped  to  New  York  City  in  late  autumn,  and  a  few  are  frozen.  Yellow  Perch,  in  this 
locality,  are  not  even  graded  as  a  soft  fish,  and  seldom  bring  more  than  do  the  sheepsheads. 

Yellow  Perch  are  very  abundant  at  Vermillion,  Ohio.  Ten  tons  have  been  caught  iu  a  day 
and  set  at  liberty  for  lack  of  demand.  A  few  tons  of  the  late  autumn  catch  is  generally  frozen. 
Here  they  do  not  even  count  as  a  soft  fish,  but  sell  separately,  and  rarely  for  a  higher  price  than 
the  sheepshead.  The  Yellow  Perch  are  here  of  a  uniform  size,  averaging  about  three-fourths  of 
a  |  M  HI  in  I  apiece. 

At  Black  River  and  Ainherst  this  species  is  very  common;  they  are  classed  as  soft  fish,  but 
are  not  considered  a  "good"  soft  fish.  They  are  most  abundant  in  the  spring — usually  in  April — 
but  unimportant.  At  these  points  the  Yellow  Perch  average  a  large  size. 

This  species  is  very  abundant  during  some  years  at  Cleveland  and  Dover  Bay,  Ohio,  and 
again  for  some  time  but  few  are  taken.  They  are  most  plentiful  in  spring,  during  which  season 
of  the  year  as  high  as  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  are  taken  in  a  day.  When  abundant,  they 
have  a  poor  sale,  but  when  a  few  only  are  in  the  Cleveland  market  they  command  a  fair  price. 
They  are  of  uniform  size,  and  average  about  three-quarters  of  a  pound. 

At  Conneaut  and  Ashtabula  Yellow  Perch  are  abundant  and  quite  important.  They  are 
taken  iu  gill-nets  in  winter  as  far  as  eight  miles  from  shore.  In  May.  when  they  spawn,  few  are 
caught  over  a  mile  from  shore.  At  Painesville  Yellow  Perch  are  not  so  common  as  east  and  west 
of  that  place.  At  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  New  York,  this  species  is  very  abundant,  and  especially 


YELLOW  PERCH  IN  THE  GREAT  LAKES.  417 

so  at  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  considered  as  of  great  importance.  Off  Erie  Bay  a  very 
large  grade  of  this  tish  occurs.  Many  are  taken  in  gill-nete.  At  Oswego,  Port  Ontario,  Lake  Viu- 
rent.  I'haiiniont.  and  Sacket's  Harbor,  and  other  points  on  the  southern  and  eastern  shores  of 
Lake,  Ontario,  Yellow  IVrdi  arc  very  abundant.  At  Port  Ontario  they  are  of  some  commercial 
i  in  PI  ii  i  a  IKT  and  are  more  highly  prized  as  a  food-fish  than  is  usual,  as  is  also  the  case  at  Lake 
Vincent,  when-  they  are  more  highly  prized  than  the  sun-fish.  From  Chaumont  they  are  shipped 
in  spring  and  winter  as  "Perch."  At  Lake  Vincent  they  are  known  as  "Striped  Perch."  At 
Sacket's  Harbor  they  are  of  no  special  importance. 

Mr.  Eveland  says  he  has  frequently  caught  Yellow  Perch  weighing  two  pounds.  They  are 
seldom  found  in  water  deeper  than  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet.  It  is  a  prevalent  belief  among 
fishermen  that  Yellow  Perch  are  very  destructive  of  white-fish.  Mr.  Hatch  thinks  that  the 
.I*  rn-ase  of  the  latter  may  be  to  some  extent  due  to  increase  of  the  former.  Perch  caught  in  the 
Lakes  are  much  larger  than  those  caught  in  the  rivers  running  into  them. 

140.  THE  LOG  PERCH— PEECINA  CAFRODE3  (RAF.)  6RD. 
By  DAVID  S.  JOEDAN. 

This  species  is  known  as  the  "Rock-fish,"  "Hog-fish,"  or  "Log  Perch."  It  is  the  largest  of  a 
large  group  of  little  perch-like  fishes  known  as  "Darters"  or  Etheostomatidte.  These  fishes  may 
be  described  as  little  perch,  reduced  in  size  and  compacted,  thus  fitted  for  a  life  in  rocky  brooks 
where  the  water  is  too  shallow,  swift,  and  sterile  to  support  larger  fish.  All  the  Darters  are 
brilliantly  colored,  and  all  have  a  way  of  lying  quiescent  on  the  bottoms,  resting  on  their  large  fins, 
and  then  suddenly  darting  away  for  a  short  distance  when  disturbed.  They  are  carnivorous, 
feeding  chiefly  on  insects  and  crustaceans.  Only  one  of  them  (Percina  caprodes)  is  largu  enough 
to  take  the  hook.  This  one  is  often  found  on  the  urchin's  string,  but  it  cannot  be  said  to  have 
any  economic  value.  The  others  are  too  small  for  the  urchin  even,  and  although,  according  to 
Ralinesque,  "they  are  good  to  eat  fried,"  few  people  think  it  worth  while  to  cook  them.  Darters 
are  found  in  all  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  all  the  species 
are  peculiar  to  America. 

141.  THE  PIKE  PERCHES. 

In  the  interior  of  North  America  occur  two  species  of  the  genus  Slixontedium,  the  Wall-eyed 
Pike,  8.  mtreum  (Mitch.),  J.  &  G.,  and  8.  canadense  (Smith)  Jordan.  Both  of  these  occur  in  the 
Great  Lake  region  and  the  Upper  Mississippi,  and  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Tennessee;  the 
former  penetrating  northward  to  the  fur  countries,  and  into  some  of  the  Atlantic  streams  south  of 
New  England. 

"8.  ritreum,"  according  to  Jordan,  "may  be  readily  known  from  8.  canadense  by  the  presence 
of  a  single  black  spot  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  spinous  dorsal,  instead  of  one  or  two  rows  of 
smaller  spots  on  the  middle  part  of  the  fin." 

THE  WALL-EYED  PIKE  OB  DORY— STIZOSTEDIUM  VITREUM. 

"Stizostedium  rltreum,"  writes  Jordan,  "is  most  commonly  called  the  'Wall-eyed  Pike.'  In 
the  Upper  Lakes,  where  the  true  Pike  (Esox  hiciu*)  is  known  as  '  Pickerel,'  the  Wall-eyed  Pike 
becomes  simply  'Pike.'  The  names  'Glass-eye'  and  'Yellow  Pike'  are  sometimes  heard,  and 
the  name  'Blue  Pike'  is  applied  to  a  local  variety.  The  name  'Pike  Perch,'  a  translation  of 
Lucioperca,  a  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  the  genus  Stizostedium,  is  often  used  in  books,  but  has 
never  taken  root  among  fishermen.  Among  the  French  about  Lake  Michigan  and  in  Canada 
27  F 


418  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  name  'Dory 'is  in  common  use.  Southward  the  name  'Jack'  is  applied  to  this  species  as 
well  as  to  the  Pike.  The  most  unfortunate  misnomer  of  Salmon'  is  also  common  in  the  South,  and 
the  names  'Okow,'  'Blow-fish,'  "Green  Pike,"  and  'Jack  Salmon'  are  also  current  in  various 
localities.  This  species  is  very  abundant  throughout  the  Great  Lake  region  and  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi and  Missouri.  It  has  also  an  extensive  but  not  well-known  distribution  through  the  larger 
streams  of  the  Southern  States,  at  least  of  the  upland  portion.  It  feeds  upon  other  fishes,  and  is 
a  voracious  and  gamy  species.  It  reaches  a  length  of  three  feet  or  more,  aud  a  weight  of  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  pounds  or  more.  Those  seen  in  market  are  generally  much  smaller.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  of  onr  food-fishes,  with  firm,  white  flesh  of  good  flavor.  In  the  markets  supplied  from  the 
Great  Lakes  it  ranks  in  importance  below  the  white-fish  and  lake  trout  only.  It  is  the  most 
valuable  of  out  fresh-water  percoids." 

Jordan  recognizes  two  varieties  of  this  species,  namely,  var.  vitreum  and  var.  salmoneum;  the 
butter,  known  as  the  "Blue  Pike,"  is  a  local  variety  in  Ohio  and  southward;  it  is  bluer  in  color, 
and  is  smaller,  besides  having  the  body  shorter  and  deeper. 

The  abundance  of  the  Wall  eyed  Pike,  Stizostedium  mtreum,  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes 
has  been  recorded  by  Mr.  Kumlien  as  follows: 

"At  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Superior,  at  the  head  of  Saint  Louis  Bay,  Wall-eyed  Pike 
are  abundant.  They  are  there  taken  extensively  with  seines.  Off  the  Wisconsin  coast  of  Lake 
Superior,  and,  passing  east,  as  far  as  Ontonagon,  Michigan,  Pike  have,  within  the  last  two  years, 
become  abundant.  Four  years  ago  the  fishermen  could  scarcely  find  sufficient  for  their  own  tables, 
while  in  1879  there  was  an  immense  "  run"  of  Pike.  They  are  most  abundant  in  Squaw  and  Siscourt 
Bays  and  are  of  larger  size  than  in  Keweenaw  Bay.  The  sudden  appearance  of  Pike  is  a  deep 
puzzle  to  the  fishermen. 

"At  Portage  Entry  and  L'Anse,  Pike  are  abundant;  they  are  common,  however,  all  along  the 
shore  from  Ontonagon  to  Huron  Bay,  between  which  two  points  they  rank  third,  and  would  take 
the  second  place  (f.  e.,  that  of  lake  trout)  if  the  "runs"  of  Pike  were  as  continuous  as  those  of 
trout — which  latter  can  be  caught  at  all  times.  Pike  are  here  taken  principally  in  the  pounds. 
They  average  a  smaller  size  than  in  the  Lower  Lakes.  At  Portage  Entry  the  fishermen  used  to 
keep  the  Pike  in  a  pond  until  required  for  shipment.  They  are  here  called  "Yellow  Pike." 

On  the  fishing  grounds  between  Grand  Island  and  Sauk's  Head,  including  Ontario  Bay, 
Sucker  Bay,  Laughing-fish  Point,  Short  Point,  Marquette  and  Big  Presque  Isle,  Pike  are  taken 
to  some  extent,  but  are  not  abundant  enough  to  be  of  much  importance.  Twelve  years  ago  they 
were  quite  rare;  they  have  since  that  time  been  increasing  steadily.  They  are  taken  in  the  pouud- 
uete  to  some  extent,  but  rarely  in  the  gill  nets.  Some  pounds  do  not  get  half  a  dozen  to  a  lift.  In 
this  region  they  are  known  as  "  Yellow  Pike,"  as  also  at  White-fish  Point,  where  they  are  some- 
times taken  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  at  a  lift,  but  are  not  plentiful. 

At  the  north  end  of  Green  Bay  the  name  "Dore""  is  given  to  this  species.  In  this  locality, 
including  the  fishing  grounds  of  Escanaba,  Chippewa  Point,  Summer  Island,  Saint  Martin's 
Island,  and  Point  aux  Barques,  they  are  equally  abundant,  and  grow  to  a  large  size,  occasionally 
weighing  twenty  pounds.  They  here  rank  third  in  importance,  and  are  taken  in  gill-nets,  except 
in  winter  and  spring.  Of  late  years  they  have  been  salted  to  some  extent. 

Along  the  shore  of  Green  Bay,  between  the  mouths  of  Cedar  River  and  Peshtego  River,  they 
rank  third  in  importance,  the  white-fish  taking  tie  first  place  and  the  sturgeon  the  second.  They 
are  taken  more  plentifully  iu  the  fall  than  in  the  spring,  the  reverse  being  the  case  at  the  head  of 
the  bay,  where  they  spawn  in  great  numbers.  When  shipped  fresh  they  are  not  dressed  at  all. 
In  spring  they  are,  to  some  extent,  salted,  and  are  sold  as  "Salt  Pickerel."  This  business  of 


WALL  EYED  PIKE  IN  THE  GREAT  LAKES.  419 

salting  was  carried  on  during  the  summer  of  1880  along  the  whole  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 
In  SI>HHU  they  an-  taken  quite  extensively  on  rocks  in  the  Menomonee  River,  where  they  go  to 
spawn.  At  this  season  many  art;  taken  with  spears  also,  especially  for  home  consumption.  One 
man  says  lie  took  five  barrels  in  a  night.  They  are  prized  very  highly  by  the  fishermen.  In  the 
deep  watei  nets  a  very  largo  grade  is  caught.  In  this  region  they  are  known  as  "  Dory." 

Between  Peshtego  Point  and  Longtail  Point  they  are  called  "  Wall-eyed  Pike"  and  "  Dory," 
are  of  much  importance,  and  greatly  sought  for.  In  this  division  of  the  western  shore  of  Green 
Bay  they  are  principally  taken  in  gill-nets,  but  do  not  enter  a  pound-net  well.  The  chief  ship- 
ments of  thosi*  fish  salted  take  place  between  the  1st  of  April  and  the  loth  of  June,  when  they  are 
shipped  as  "Salt  Pickerel"  to  the  Western  markets;  during  the  rest  of  the  year  they  are  shipped 
fresh,  on  ice.  In  1878  one  was  taken  at  Oconto  weighing  nineteen  pounds.  They  spawn  early  in 
spring,  and  are  considered  destructive  to  young  fish  and  spawn.  In  scaling  the  fish  a  common 
curry -comb  is  used.  This  fish  and  the  White  Bass  are  the  two  most  important  kinds  taken  at  the 
Green  Bay  City  fisheries,  where  the  former  is  called  "  Dory." 

Along  the  eastern  shore  of  Green  Bay  the  Pike  is  not,  as  on  the  western  shore,  abundant. 
About  Little  Sturgeon  Bay  two  and  three  a  week  are  considered  the  average  number  taken.  One 
kind  only  is  recognized  between  Bay  Settlement  and  the  island  of  Saint  Martin.  Between  Port 
des  Mort.s  and  Mauitowoc,  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  Pike  are  rare,  and  the  few 
caught  are  taken  in  the  spring.  Mr.  Kirtland  took  three  packages  of  Pike  at  Jacksonport  in  1879. 
At  Two  Rivers  they  only  occur  as  stragglers.  At  Manitowoc  the  name  "Pike"  alone  is  used, 
"Dory "being  unknown.  They  likewise  only  occur  as  stragglers  at  the  fishing  grounds  between 
Manitowoc  and  White-fish  Bay. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Milwaukee  they  are  by  no  means  abundant ;  they  are  caught,  when  occurring, 
in  pound-nets,  bnt  never  in  gill-nets.  In  the  small  inland  lakes  they  are  pronounced  to  be  quite 
common.  South  of  Milwaukee,  as  far  as  Evanstown,  Illinois,  they  are  far  from  abundant,  bnt  were 
formerly  quite  plentiful  about  Racine,  though  now  nearly  exterminated  at  that  point.  When 
shipped  they  are  packed  with  the  white-flsh.  In  this  region  they  are  called  "Yellow  Pike."  At 
the  extreme  south  of  Lake  Michigan,  including  the  New  Buffalo  and  Michigan  City  fisheries,  this 
species  is  called  "Wall-eyed"  Pike.  It  is  rare,  but  taken  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Three  or 
four  at  a  lift  of  the  pound-net  is  the  average.  When  shipped  South  it  is  called  "Salmon."  The 
size  attained  is  large,  probably  averaging  fully  ten  pounds. 

At  the  Saugatuck,  South  Haven,  and  Saint  Joseph  fisheries,  on  the  east  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  "  Wall-eyed  Pike"  (as  the  species  is  there  designated)  are  becoming  more  common  of 
late.  It  is  thought  that  they  have,  to  a  great  extent,  replaced  the  pickerel  in  the  small  lakes  and 
river  bayous.  They  are  not  yet  of  sufficient  abundance  to  be  of  any  commercial  importance. 
Individuals  of  this  species  are  here  taken  chiefly  with  hooks,  and  occur  but  sparingly  in  the  lake. 

At  Ludington,  Point  Sable,  Grand  Haven,  and  other  fishing  towns,  between  Saugatuck  and 
Glen  Haven,  Lebanon  County,  Pike  are  by  no  means  abundant,  being  most  plentiful  in  August 
at  Ludington  and  Manistee.  White  Hall  is  an  exceptional  place,  wagon-loads  being  sometimes 
exposed  on  the  streets  for  sale.  At  Grand  Haven  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  a  year  are  caught 
in  the  lake,  but  in  the  Grand  River  they  are  not  at  all  rare. 

On  the  fishing  grounds  of  Little  and  Grand  Traverse  Bays,  and  about  Fox  Islands,  Pike  are 
extremely  rare.  They  are  occasionally  found  in  Grand  Traverse  Bay,  but  are  scarcely  at  all  known 
by  the  fish  authorities  of  that  region.  In  the  fishing  grounds  comprised  between  Little  Traverse 
Bay  (passing  north  and  east  through  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw  as  far  down  the  western  shore  of 
Lake  Huron  as  Hammond's  Bay)  and  Adams  Point  the  name  "Pickerel"  is  given  to  this  species. 


420  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

except  by  the  French  fishermen,  who  call  it  "  Dory."  Throughout  this  region  this  fish  is  common, 
but  principally  in  the  rivers  and  bayous.  Mr.  Bennett  reports  thirteen  hundred  pounds  from  one 
pound-net  in  two  nights  in  Hammond  Bay.  This  fish  is  by  far  the  most  plentiful  in  spring.  It  is 
much  sought  for  because  of  its  good  keeping  qualities.  About  Mud  Lake  and  in  the  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  River  this  species  is  quite  extensively  fished  for  and  is  sold  separately.  In  the  outer  pounds 
in  the  lake  (Huron)  not  many  are  caught.  The  majority  of  fishermen  salt  them  and  sell  as  "  Salted 
Pickerel";  the  proportion  of  this  fish  to  white-fish  is  about  as  one  to  one  hundred. 

At  Alpena,  Thunder  Bay,  Pike,  usually  here  called  "  Yellow  Pike,"  form  quite  an  important 
fishery  during  May  and  June,  after  which  but  few  are  taken  until  September.  The  largest  lift 
known  here  was  in  1874,  when  three  thousand  were  taken  from  one  net  in  a  single  lift.  During 
September  very  few  of  any  other  kind  than  Pike  are  taken  in  the  pound-nets.  In  comparison  with 
Sagiuaw  Bay,  but  few  are  taken  at  Alpena. 

In  Saginaw  Bay  this  species,  known  as  "  Yellow  Pike,"  "  Pickerel,"  and  "  Wall-eyed  Pike," 
is  thus  spoken  of  in  a  circular  by  Biker  &  Kelbourn :  "  Saginaw  Bay  produces  more  fish  yearly 
than  any  equal  extent  of  inland  water  in  the  United  States,  and  of  as  good  quality,  and  in  one 
notable  exception  a  good  deal  better.  This  is  the  Yellow  Pike,  or  what  are  termed  South  'Lake 
Salmon,'  and  on  Lake  Erie  are  known  as  '  Pickerel.'  They  are  a  harder,  firmer,  fish,  and  will  bear 
transportation  better,  and  keep  longer,  than  pickerel  caught  in  the  Lower  Lakes.  Because  of  these 
qualities,  and  their  superior  adaptation  for  the  use  of  the  table,  they  are  regarded  South  and  West 
as  the  fish  first  of  all  desired.  This  immense  catch  of  fish  is  prepared  for  shipment,  in  parcels 
to  suit  customers,  to  the  East,  South,  and  West,  embracing  several  States." 

The  "  Pickerel"  is  the  most  abundant  and  important  fish  in  Saginaw  Bay.  Besides  those  taken 
in  the  pounds  and  with  seines,  large  quantities  are  speared  in  winter  through  the  ice.  In  spring 
they  are  taken  till  July,  and  then  very  few  are  caught  again  till  the  latter  part  of  August.  It  is 
presumed  they  go  into  deep  water  during  the  warmest  weather.  In  spearing  them  through  the  ice 
a  decoy  fish  is  used  to  lure  them  within  reach ;  they  are  very  rarely  taken  in  the  gill  nets.  There 
seems  to  be  no  very  alarming  decrease  among  them,  yet  it  is  readily  admitted  that  they  have  been 
more  plenty  than  they  are  at  present.  Spawn  in  the  bay  during  April. 

From  Point  aux  Barques  to  Port  Huron,  Pike  are  very  abundant,  and  are  the  most  important 
fish  in  the  Saint  Clair  River  on  the  Canada  side,  where  they  are  of  great  commercial  value.  They 
are  here  known  as  "  Yellow  Pickerel."  It  is  an  interesting  question  why  they  should  bo  more 
abundant  on  the  Canadian  than  on  the  American  side.  Saginaw  Bay  is  the  hot-bed  for  this 
species,  and  from  there  they  seem  to  strike  across  the  lake  to  the  Canada  shore,  entirely  avoiding 
the  east  shore  of  the  peninsula  from  Point  aux  Barques  to  Port  Huron.  When  they  come  into 
the  Saint  Clair  River  they  follow  close  to  the  Canada  shore,  and  return  the  same  way. 

Between  Toledo  and  the  mouth  of  Detroit  River,  Pike,  called  "  Yellow  Pickerel"  in  this  region, 
are  not  abundant.  Unlike  Manmee  Bay,  they  do  not  seem  to  delight  in  this  western  shore  of  Lake 
Erie.  The  runs  occur  in  places  in  the  spring  irregularly,  and  no  dependence  is  placed  on  a  fair 
supply  at  any  time.  It  is  not  considered  one  of  the  important  fish. 

In  Maumee  Bay  Pike  are  very  abundant.  Early  in  the  season  large  quantities  come  from  the 
bay  and  river  of  the  same  name.  They  rank  second  in  importance,  and  are  exclusively  salted, 
being  then  known  as  "Salmon,"  otherwise  as  "Yellow  Pike."  In  autumn  few  are  taken  in  com- 
parison with  the  number  caught  in  the  spring.  Pike,  or  "Yellow  Pike,"  here  called,  strike  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  around  Port  Clinton,  about  April  1,  and  stay  only  a  few  days.  They 
rank  about  fourth  at  that  place.  At  Locust  Point  they  are  caught  in  considerable  numbers  in 
spring,  and  some  in  fall  also.  Here  they  rank  third  in  importance. 


WALM:YI:I>  I-IKI:  IN  LAKE  HUftON1.  421 

At  all  the  fishing  points  between  Ottawa  City,  on  Catawba  Island,  and  the  Huron  fisheries, 
with  the  neighboring  islands,  the  greater  part  of  the  "1'ifkerel"  are  called  "Gray  Pickerel,"  and 
many  say  thnt  they  are  totally  different  from  the  "Yellow"  or  "Blue"  Pickerel.  In  Sandusky 
K:iv  they  are  particularly  abundant;  also  about  the  islands  and  in  the  harbors.  They  have  exten- 
sive spawning  grounds  at  Cedar  Point,  Marblehead,  Spit  Island,  East  and  West  Harbors,  Mouse 
Island,  Sugar  Bluff,  Moose's  Point,  North  and  Middle  Bass  Islands,  Put-in  Bay,  and  Kelley's 
Island.  They  are  sold  as  hard  fish,  and  usually  run  large.  When  less  than  a  pound  they  are  sold 
with  the  "  Saugers." 

Connected  with  the  Huron  (Ohio)  fisheries,  the  Pike,  here  called  "  Yellow  Pike,"  are  considered 
quite  important,  but  not  so  abundant  as  farther  west.  They  are  caught  principally  in  the  spring, 
and  are  thought  to  work  westward  toward  Maumee  Bay  about  their  spawning  time.  They  rank 
about  fourth  in  importance.  The  general  impression  among  fishermen  here  is  that  the  true  Yellow 
Pike  is  not  caught  at  all  here — by  which  they  mean  the  Yellow  Pike  of  Saginaw  Bay.  Many  call 
this  fish  the  "Gray  Pike,"  and  yet  consider  it  an  entirely  different  fish  from  the  "Blue  Pike." 

At  Vermillion,  Ohio,  there  is  caught,  early  in  the  spring,  what  is  termed  the  "Spawn  Pike," 
running  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds.  Later  the  runs  average  much  smaller— one  to  five  pounds — 
and  these  are  supposed  not  to  spawn.  Pike  here  are  not  abundant,  and  it  is  only  in  the  spring 
that  they  are  regarded  as  important. 

A  little  farther  east,  including  the  fisheries  of  Black  Kiver,  Amherst,  and  Brownheltn  Bay, 
"Yellow  Pike,"  so  called  in  this  section,  are  not  abundant.  They  are  taken  early  in  spring.  On 
account  of  their  fewness  they  are  of  but  little  importance.  There  is  said  to  be  too  much  waste  in 
dressing  to  make  them  a  salable  fish  among  the  poorer  classes.  The  markets  are  never  glutted 
with  this  fish.  None  are  salted.  At  Cleveland  and  Dover,  Ohio,  this  species  is  known  as  "Yellow 
Pickerel"  and  "Pickerel."  At  the  Dover  Bay  fisheries  they  are  not  abundant,  in  the  largest  lifts 
not  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  being  taken.  They  are  caught  principally 
in  early  spring,  and  range  from  one  to  five  pounds.  Until  the  last  six  years  this  fish  was  unknown 
here.  Farther  east,  at  Conneaut  and  Ashtabula,  "Yellow  Pike,"  as  they  are  there  called,  do  not 
seem  to  be  common ;  a  few  large  ones  (from  ten  to  twelve  pounds)  are  taken  every  season.  About 
Painesville,  Fairport,  and  Willonghby  this  species  is  known  as  "Yellow  Pickerel."  They  are  net 
very  common ;  some  are  taken  in  spring.  In  1879  not  over  two  tons  were  taken  in  sixteen  nets. 
They  are  much  more  common  farther  west.  Years  ago  they  were  abundant  and  one  of  the  most 
important  of  fish,  but  since  the  dynamite  explosion  at  Fairport  (the  port  of  Painesville,  three  miles 
from  the  city,  on  the  lake  shore),  about  eight  years  ago,  they  have  been  rare,  and  the  fishermen 
think  the  explosion — which  was  so  strong  that  it  broke  window-lights  in  Cleveland  and  Buffalo — 
drove  them  away.  A  decrease  in  other  species  was  noticeable  for  some  time  afterwards.  Those 
taken  at  Painesville  are  remarkably  dark  colored,  much  darker  than  those  taken  at  the  islands. 

When  pound-nets  were  used  in  the  fisheries  of  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  New  York,  Erie,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Mill's  Grove,  Ohio,  a  good  many  Pike  were  taken ;  even  now  a  few  are  taken  in  the 
gill-nets.  At  the  above  places  they  are  called  "Wall-eyed  Pike." 

Concerning  the  Lake  Ontario  pike  fishery,  we  learn  that  at  Oswego  they  are  fairly  common 
and  rank  third  in  importance.  At  Port  Ontario  they  are  known  as  "Yellow  Pike."  They  were 
formerly  abundant  at  this  point,  but  of  late  years  few  have  been  taken.  Since  pound-net  fishing 
began  they  have  gradually  grown  less  abundant — been  "caught  out."  A  few  are  yet  taken  in  the 
seines. 

At  Cape  Vincent  Pike  are  abundant.  The  fish  of  one  variety,  with  a  longer  and  more  pointed 
head  than  the  Upper  Lake  fish,  are  called  "  Spike-noses."  They  rank  second  in  commercial  impor- 


422  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

tance.  They  are  brought  over  from  Canada  to  a  great  extent,  but  tbe  bulk  that  is  shipped  from 
Cape  Vincent  is  caught  in  American  waters.  They  are  common  everywhere.  At  Chaumont  they 
rank  first  in  commercial  importance.  The  largest  runs  occur  in  the  bay  in  early  spring.  Pike  do 
not  come  as  near  shore  as  formerly.  At  Sacket's  Harbor  they  rank  first  in  importance,  and  arc 
caught  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  ice  is  out,  and  in  fall  till  winter  sets  in.  During  the  winter 
they  are  brought  from  Canada.  It  is  thought  that  they  have  increased  since  the  alewives  came 
here,  and  that  the  average  weight  now  is  one-third  greater  than  ten  years  ago. 

It  is  said  that  Yellow  Pike,  Stizostedium  vitreum,  can  be  confined  in  a  small  pond  much  more 
successfully  than  most  species.  They  are  said  to  prefer  the  vicinity  of  river  mouths,  and  not  to 
go  far  out  into  the  lakes. 

The  following  facts  concerning  the  abundance  of  the  Blue  Pike,  identified  as  Stizostedium 
vitreum  var.  salmoneum,  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  were  gathered  by  Mr.  Kumlien : 

In  the  fishing  grounds  of  tbe  west  end  of  Lake  Erie  '-Blue  Pickerel"  are  known  only  as  rare 
stragglers.  In  the  vicinity  of  Toledo  and  Maumee  Bay  Blue  Pike  are  very  seldom  seen.  At  some 
of  the  principal  fisheries  not  more  than  one  in  a  year  is  taken.  This  fish  is  generally  not  recognized 
by  the  local  fishermen.  On  the  south  coast  also,  at  Port  Clinton  and  Locust  Point,  this  fish  is  a 
great  rarity,  and  only  appears  as  a  straggler.  It  is  of  no  importance  whatever. 

About  Upper  and  Lower  Sandusky  Bay,  and  all  the  fishing  grounds  between  Ottawa  City  and 
Catawba  Island  to  the  Huron  fisheries,  the  Blue  Pike  are  abundant  from  May  till  June  5,  the 
largest  runs  occurring  from  the  20th  of  May  until  June.  They  rank  in  this  region  about  fifth  in 
importance.  They  are  sold  fresh,  frozen  and  salted,  about  half  the  catch  being  salted  and  sold  as 
"  Medium  Pickerel."  It  is  somewhat  improbable  that  individuals  exceed  one  and  a  half  or  two 
pounds  in  weight.  They  are  less  abundant  around  the  islands,  among  which  may  be  named  Spit 
Island,  Mouse  Island,  North  Bass  Island,  Middle  Bass  Island,  and  Kelley's  Island.  The  "Gray," 
"Yellow,"  and  "Blue"  Pike  grade  into  each  other  in  this  locality  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  hard 
to  draw  the  limiting  line.  Mr.  Kumlien  thinks  that  all  of  these  represented  as  "Gray"  and  some 
"Blue"  were  S.  vitreum,  but  that  the  bulk  of  those  called  "Blue"  are  readily  distinguishable  from 
S.  mtrevm. 

In  the  Huron  (Ohio)  fisheries  Blue  Pike  are  extraordinarily  abundant,  in  fact  too  much  so. 
Such  quantities  are  sometimes  caught  that  not  one-quarter  can  be  made  use  of.  The  largest  runs 
come  on  late  when  the  market  is  already  full,  consequently  a  very  low  price  is  realized  for  them. 
A  few  are  taken  in  early  spring,  as  soon  as  the  fishing  begins,  but  the  bulk  are  caught  from  the 
12th  to  the  20th  of  May.  As  high  as  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons  have  been  brought  to  Huron  in 
a  day.  They  are  largely  salted.  The  average  weight  is  about  a  pound,  though  some  are  taken  in 
early  spring  weighing  ten  to  fifteen  pounds.  The  direction  of  the  movement  made  by  the  Blue 
Pike  is  supposed  to  be  easterly  in  the  spring,  when  they  start  from  the  vicinity  of  the  islands, 
returning  (westward)  in  the  fall.  Between  Cedar  Point  (east  side  entrance  to  Sandusky  Bay)  and 
I ; lack  River  they  occur  in  greater  numbers  than  at  any  other  point  in  Lake  Erie.  Some  are  caught 
in  autumn,  but  the  catch  then  is  nothing  as  compared  with  that  of  late  spring. 

At  Vermillion,  Ohio,  the  Blue  Pike  are  more  abundant  than  any  other  species,  and  rank  second 
in  Importance.  They  are  taken  as  soon  as  the  fishing  commences,  but  from  the  24th  of  May  till 
June  1  to  6  they  come  in  such  myriads  that  it  is  impossible  to  take  care  of  them,  and  tons  upon  tons 
are  let  out  of  the  nets.  The  average  weight  is  about  a  pound,  but  specimens  weighing  as  high  as 
fifteen  pounds  are  said  to  be  taken  early  in  spring  among  the  spawning  Yellow  Pike.  This  fish  was 
formerly  graded  as  "hard,"  but  of  late  years  they  have  been  classed  "soft,"  principally  on  account 
of  their  numbers,  but  also  because  in  flavor  they  are  lar  inferior  to  the  Yellow  Pike.  They  come  into 


WALL  EYED  PIKE  IN  LAKE  HURON.  423 

the  nets  in  such  quantities,  and  at  aseason  wbeu  the  market  is  already  full,  that  they  are  often  sold 
for  the  freight  charges  only.  Mr.  McGraw  thinks  there  is  an  appreciable  increase  in  their  numbers 
eac!i  year.  Tn  1879  as  high  as  four  tons  were  taken  from  one  pound  at  a  single  lift.  When  salted 
they  are  called  "Medium"  and  "No.  2  Pickerel."  The  reason  so  few  are  salted  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  caught  is  on  account  of  the  low  price  realized  for  them,  coming,  as  they  do,  into  competition 
with  more  valuable  kinds.  From  the  following  it  will  be  seen  that  the  profits  to  tbe  fishermen  are 
very  small: 

Cost  of  packing  100  pounds  salt  flsh  ready  for  market:  Half  barrel,  35  cents;  dressing  fish, 
12  cents;  salt,  15  cents;  salting,  10  cents;  inspection,  25  cents;  total,  97  cents.  Then  add  cost  of 
from  160  to  175  pounds  of  undressed  fish,  and  sell  for  $1.50  per  half  barrel,  and  the  profits  are 
very  small. 

At  Black  River,  Amherst,  and  Brownhelm,  Ohio,  the  most  important  flsh  is  the  Blue  Pike.  The 
largest  runs  occur  in  May  and  October.  Mr.  Freund  thinks  tteat  they  spawn  in  June  or  the  latter 
days  of  May.  The  general  impression  amongst  the  fishermen  is  that  they  do  not  spawn,  as  none 
of  them  have  seen  the  spawn  in  the  flsh.  Such  quantities  are  sometimes  taken  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  take  care  of  them  all.  They  are  used  fresh,  and  are  also  salted. 

At  Cleveland  and  the  Dover  Bay  fisheries  the  Blue  Pike  is  the  principal  fish  and  very 
abundant.  They  are  taken  as  soon  as  the  fishermen  get  their  nets  in,  but  more  plentifully  at  the 
end  of  spring  and  fall  than  at  the  beginning  of  those  t-vo  seasons.  It  often  happens  that  such 
quantities  are  taken  that  they  cannot  be  disposed  of.  They  appear  to  be  increasing  every  year ; 
as  high  as  twenty  tons  are  reported  from  four  nets  in  one  day.  About  one-fourth  of  the  ca'ch  is 
salted ;  the  fishermen  say  that  the  early-caught  flsh  do  not  salt  so  well  as  those  taken  later.  The 
average  weight  is  about  one  pound,  those  coming  on  first  in  spring  averaging,  perhaps,  less  than 
this  weight,  but  the  late  runs  are  larger.  It  is  said  that  specimens  have  been  caught  among  the 
islands  at  the  west  end  of  the  lake  weighing  fifteen  ponnds.  All  the  fishermen  say  they  never  saw 
one  with  ripe  spawn.  Formerly  they  were  classed  as  "hard  fish,"  but  now  they  sell  as  "soft." 

At  Oswego  this  species  is  called  "Gray  Pike,"  is  quite  common,  and  unusually  silvery  in 
appearance.  At  Cape  Vincent  they  are  known  only  as  stragglers.  At  Chanmont  they  are  very 
rare,  and  at  Sacket's  Harbor  very  few  are  caught. 

The  "  Jack"  on  the  Ohio  River,  as  described  by  Jordan  in  the  lately  published  report  on  the 
fishes  of  Ohio,  reaches  occasionally  forty  pounds.  "  It  possesses  great  activity  and  strength,  and 
is  a  ravenous  destroyer  of  Perch  and  other  species.  Were  it  not  so  superior  in  every  way  to 
ethers,  this  habit  might  condemn  it ;  as  it  is,  we  regard  it  as  one  of  the  best  species  we  possess. 
In  the  South  it  is  eagerly  bought,  and  forms  the  principal  table  fish  for  the  various  places  of  resort, 
where  it  can  be  obtained."1  "The  'Blue  Pike,'"  says  Jordan,  "is  said  to  frequent  only  bayous 
and  inlets,  not  being  taken  in  the  deeper  waters  of  the  Lakes,  where  8.  vitreum  especially  abound. 
It  also  reaches  a  smaller  size,  according  to  Mr.  Klippart,  who  asks,  'Why  does  the  Blue  Pike 
frequent  the  bayous  and  get  to  be  no  more  than  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  to  weigh  not 
to  exceed  two  or  three  pounds,  if  it  is  identical  with  the  Wall-eyed  Pike  which  frequents  the  deep 
waters  of  tbe  lake  and  attains  a  length  of  three  feet  and  a  weight  of  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds!' 
This  species,  according  to  Mr.  Klippart,  is  at  the  Lake  Erie  fisheries  split  and  salted  with  the 
Sauger,  8.  canadense,  the  two  together  being  known  to  the  commercial  world  as  'Pickerel  No.  2,' 
and  bringing  about  two-thirds  the  price  of  Pickerel  No.  1,  which  is  8.  vitreum.m 

'COPE,  Kept.  Comm.  Fish  Penn.,  1881,  128. 
•Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  iv,  part  i,  p.  64. 


424  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  SAUGER. — STIZOSTEDIUM  OANADENSE. 

The  "  Sanger,"  known  also  as  the  "Gray  Pike,"  "  Sand  Pike,"  "Ground  Pike,"  "Pickering," 
"Pickerel,"  and  "Horse-fish,"  has  its  habitat,  according  to  Jordan,  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  River, 
Great  Lake  region,  Upper  Mississippi,  and  Upper  Missouri  Rivers,  also  in  the  Ohio,  where,  accord- 
ing to  the  fishermen,  it  has  been  introduced  from  the  Lakes  through  the  canals. 

"The  different  form  aad  coloration,  particularly  the  markings  of  the  dorsal  fin,"  writes 
Jordan,"  distinguish  this  species  at  once  from  Stizostedium  vitreum.  This  species  has,  moreover, 
always  fewer  dorsal  rays,  more  scaly  cheeks,  and  permanent  armature  of  the  operculum. 

"In  comparing  Saugersfroin  widely  separated  localities  certain  differences  appear,  which  are 
perhaps  sufficiently  constant  to  indicate  distinct  varieties.  Of  these,  three  are  perhaps  worthy  to 
be  designated  by  name.  The  common  Sauger  or  Sand  Pike  of  the  Lakes  (lAicloperca  grisea  DeKay ) 
should  bear  the  name  of  Stizostedium,  canadense,  var.  grisea.  The  Sauger  or  Pickering  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  was  the  original  Lucioperca  canaden&is  of  Col.  C.  H.  Smith.  It  should,  therefore,  be  the 
typical  variety,  canadensis.  Its  head  is  rougher  and  more  closely  scaled,  and  the  number  of 
spinous  points  on  the  opercle  is  greater.  The  'Sand  Pike 'of  the  Upper  Missouri  averages  rather 
slender,  with  a  long,  slender  nose  and  more  flattened  and  snake-like  head.  This  is  the  Lucioperca 
borea  of  Dr.  Girard,  and  may  be  called  var.  boreum,  if  the  difference  here  noted  prove  at  all  con- 
stant. 

"  The  Sauger  never  reaches  a  large  size,  the  largest  I  have  seen  being  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  in  length.  It  is  abundant  everywhere  in  the  Great  Lakes,  and  is  valued  as  food,  although 
less  highly  rated  than  its  relative,  the  Pike  Perch. 

"  It  is  plentiful  in  the  Ohio  River,  where  it  is  probably  indigenous,  although  some  claim  that  it 
has  been  introduced  there  through  the  canals." 

Mr.  Kumlieu  has  collected  many  interesting  notes  concerning  this  as  well  as  the  preceding 
species.  These  will  be  printed  at  a  future  time. 

THE  STRIPED  BASS  FAMILY. 

Fishes  of  this  family  are  common  on  both  sides  of  the  North  Atlantic.  The  Bass  of  Europe, 
Roccu«  labra-x,  is  one  of  the  favorite  food-fishes  of  that  region,  and  is  found  from  Tromsoo,  in 
Norway,  latitude  70°,  south  to  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is  abundant.  A  very  closely  related 
species  is  our  own  Striped  Bass,  or  Rock-fish,  Roccus  saxatilis,  which  is  found  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These  two  species  are  very  similar  in  form,  although  the  colors 
are  different,  the  American  Bass  being  conspicuously  striped,  while  that  of  Europe  is  silvery 
gray.  They  are  both  strong,  active,  and  voracious  fishes,  and  both  ascend  rivers,  although  the 
American  Bass  seems  to  be  much  more  addicted  to  life  in  fresh  water  than  its  transatlantic 
relative,  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  our  rivers  are  more  numerous,  larger,  and  much  more 
plentifully  stocked  with  the  fish  upon  which  the  Bass  rely  for  food.  They  ascend  the  Potomac  to 
the  Little  Falls,  the  Hudson  to  Albany,  the  Connecticut  to  Hartford,  and  the  Saint  Lawrence  to 
Quebec.  Before  the  erection  of  dams  in  the  Susquehauua  individuals  were  taken  as  high  up 
as  Luzerne.  Europe  has  two  other  species,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  here,  and  North 
America  has  three — the  White  Bass  or  Striped  Lake  Bass,  Roccus  clirysops;  the  Brassy  Bass  of 
the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley,  Roccus  interruptus;  and  the  White  Perch  of  the  Atlantic  coast, 
Roccus  americanus.  All  of  these  are  of  considerable  economic  importance,  though  the  Striped  Bass 
is  beyond  comparison  more  valuable  than  all  the  others  together. 


THE  STRIPED  BA8S  FAMILY.  425 

142.  THE  STRIPED  BASS—  ROCCUB  LINEAIUS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  Striped  Bass,  as  baa  been  already  stated,  occurs  in 
all  the  waters  of  our  coast  from  latitude  50°  to  latitude  30°.  In  the  North  it  is  called  the 
"Striped  Bass,"  in  the  South  the  "Rock-fish"  or  the  "Rock."  The  neutral  territory  where  both 
these  names  are  in  use  appears  to  be  New  Jersey.  The  fishermen  of  the  Delaware  use  the  latter 
name,  those  of  the  sea-coast  the  former.  Large  sea-going  individuals  are  sometimes  known  in 
New  England  by  the  names  ''Green-head"  and  "Squid-hound."  There  is  still  some  uncertainty 
regarding  the  southern  limits  of  the  distribution  of  this  species.  In  the  Saint  John's  River, 
Florida,  they  are  very  unusual.  Though  familiar  in  the  fisheries  of  that  region  since  1873,  I  have 
only  known  of  the  capture  of  two  individuals.  Mr.  Stearns  has  obtained  one  or  two  specimens  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  degree  of  their  abundance  in  those  waters.  He 
writes:  "They  are  occasionally  caught  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Gulf,  and  are  evidently  more 
common  about  the  months  of  the  Mississippi  River  than  elsewhere,  since  they  are  taken  in  this 
region  only  in  seines,  and  in  shallow  water  their  abundance  cannot  be  correctly  determined.  The 
earliest  account  I  have  been  able  to  obtain  of  the  capture  of  Striped  Bass  in  Pensacola  Bay  in  that 
of  Capt.  John  Washington,  of  Mystic,  Connecticut,  who  states  that  in  1850,  while  seine-fishing  from 
the  smack  'Francis  Parkes,'  he  surrounded  with  his  seine  a  large  school  of  fish,  which  were  quite 
unmanageable;  a  few  of  them  were  saved,  and  proved  to  be  large  Striped  Bass,  weighing  from 
fifteen  to  forty  pounds.  At  long  intervals  since  solitary  individuals  have  been  taken  at  various 
points  on  th«  coast.  At  New  Orleans  it  is  found  in  the  market  quite  often.  An  eighteen-pound 
specimen  was  sold  there  in  March,  1880." 

In  Hallock's  "Sportsman's  Gazetteer"  the  following  statement  occurs:  "It  is  constantly  seen 
in  rivers  of  fresh  water  at  great  distances  from  the  ocean,  even  as  far  up  the  Mississippi  as  Saint 
Louis,  and  it  is  common  in  White  River,  Arkansas,  and  in  all  the  rivers  of  the  Southern  States." 

While  there  can  be  no  question  that  straggling  individuals  of  this  species  have  been  taken  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  it  seems  probable  that  both  Mr.  Stearns  and  Mr.  Hallock  have  been  mistaken 
by  the  resemblance  of  this  species  to  the  Brassy  Bass,  Roccw  interrupts,  which  abounds  through- 
out the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley. 

Canadian  authorities  inform  us  that,  though  the  Bass  still  occur  along  the  New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  Scotia  shores  of  the  Gulf,  they  are  much  less  abundant  and  of  smaller  size  than  formerly. 
They  have  been  known  to  ascend  the  Saint  Lawrence  as  far  as  Quebec,  and  Mr.  Roosevelt  has 
seen  a  specimen,  a  female  fish,  which  was  taken  in  the  Niagara  River,  near  Lewiston.  The  Bass 
is  most  abundant  in  the  bays  and  inlets  about  Cape  Hatteras,  in  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 
Bay  region,  and  in  the  protected  waters  of  Long  Island  and  Southern  New  England.  In  winter 
they  occur  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  Altamaha  River,  and  are  not  unusual  in  the  markets 
of  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

HABITS. — The  Striped  Bass  is  not  migratory,  being  found  along  our  coast  in  winter  as  well  as 
in  summer,  and  in  our  markets  in  every  month  of  the  year.  Great  quantities  are  taken  in  winter 
in  the  rivers  tributary  to  the  Chesapeake,  and  in  the  rivers  of  New  Brunswick  quantities  of  them 
are  speared  through  holes  in  the  ice.  During  the  past  four  years  I  have  known  of  their  capture  in 
Long  Island  and  Block  Island  Sounds  and  in  the  Merrimac  River  in  December,  and  in  Martha's 
Vineyard  Sound  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Hudson  River  in  January.  Though  they  appear  to 
avoid  a  temperature  higher  than  65°  or  70°  they  are  not  sensitive  to  cold,  and  there  is  good 
evidence  that  they  frequently,  when  detained  throughout  the  winter  in  shallow  places,  enter  upon 
a  state  of  torpidity. 

FOOD.— They  are  very  voracious  feeders.    Entering  the  rivers,  they  prey  upon  small  fishes. 


426  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

They  are  particularly  abundant  at  the  time  of  the  spring  runs  of  the  shad  and  herring,  and  at  this 
season  are  particularly  plump  and  well  fed,  doubtless  owing  to  the  ease  with  which  they  can  obtain 
food.  They  also  frequent  the  rocky  shores  of  the  bays  and  sounds  at  high  tide  in  search  of  crabs, 
shrimps,  and  squids;  and  they  are  said  to  feed  upon  clams  and  mussels,  which  they  obtain  by 
delving  with  their  snouts. 

REPRODUCTION  AND  GROWTH. — They  spawn  in  the  late  spring  and  early  summer,  some  of 
them  in  the  rivers,  others  probably  at  sea,  although  this  has  not  been  definitely  ascertained.  The 
European  Bass  are  said  to  deposit  their  spawn  near  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  the  summer  months. 
From  North  Carolina  to  New  Jersey  the  spawning  time  appears  to  be  in  May;  in  New  Brunswick 
in  June.  Dr.  Blanding,  many  years  ago,  estimated  the  number  of  eggs  at  2,248,000.  Their  rate 
of  growth  is  very  rapid.  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott,  for  five  successive  years,  found  in  the  Delaware  River 
young  an  inch  long  in  the  second  week  in  June.  About  the  middle  of  October  these  had  grown 
to  the  length  of  four  and  a  half  inches.  The  young  fish— five  to  niue  inches  in  length — which  are 
taken  in  such  quantities  in  the  Potomac  in  February  and  March,  are  supposed  to  be  the  young  of 
the  previous  year.  Captain  Gavitt,  of  Westerly,  Rhode  Island,  has  caught  Bass  in  June  that 
weighed  from  one-half  to  one  pound,  put  them  into  a  pond  and  taken  them  out  in  the  following 
October,  when  they  weighed  six  pounds.  The  average  size  of  this  fish  probably  does  not  exceed 
twenty  pounds.  In  the  Potomac,  Hudson,  and  Connecticut  Rivers  the  largest  seldom  exceed 
thirty  or  forty  pounds,  though  in  the  Potomac  fifty-pound  fish  are  not  unusual.  The  Fish  Commis- 
sion has  for  several  years  had  a  standing  offer  of  a  reward  for  a  sixty-pound  fish  from  the  Potomac, 
but  none  has  been  forthcoming  as  yet.  The  largest  Striped  Bass  on  record  was  one  weighing  one 
hundred  and  twelve  pounds,  taken  at  Orleans,  Massachusetts,  in  the  town  cove.  Such  a  fish  would 
be  at  least  six  feet  in  length.  A  fairly  proportioned  Bass  thirty-six  inches  long  would  weigh  at 
least  eighteen  pounds. 

USES.— The  Striped  Bass  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  our  food-fishes,  its  flesh  bei'.g  firm,  finely 
flavored,  and  hard  enough  to  bear  exposure  to  the  air  for  some  time  without  injury.  It  is  also  the 
most  popular  game-fish,  next  to  the  salmon.  Those  in  the  markets  are  chiefly  obtained  in  seines 
and  traps  set  at  various  points  along  the  coast  from  the  south  side  of  Cape  Cod  to  New  Jersey. 
Great  quantities  are  also  taken  in  shad  seines  in  the  spring.1  They  may  be  readily  taken,  also, 
by  heaving  and  hauling  in  the  surf  with  menhaden  bait,  the  fish  being  tolled  by  the  use  of  great 
quantities  of  menhaden  ground  into  small  bits,  and  in  fresh  or  brackish  water  by  the  use  of  the 
artificial  fly.  At  various  points  on  the  coast  of  Southern  New  England  are  club-houses  supported 
by  wealthy  amateurs  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  these  sports.2 

1  Messrs.  Christian,  Austin,  Hoight,  McKrel,  Van  Nort  Brothers,  and  about  forty  others  from  Peekskill  and  Ver- 
planck's  Point,  have  about  four  hundred  nets  fishing  on  the  ice  between  Gees  Point  and  Warner's  Island,  and  from  the 
way  they  are  shipping  the  Striped  Bass  to  New  York  and  Peekskill  they  must  be  doing  quite  a  business.  On  the  14th 
and  15th  instant  (hey  shipped  about  600  pounds  each  dav,  and  on  the  16th  they  shipped  about  1,200  pounds,  and  on 
the  18th  they  had  over  1,000  pounds.  They  sell  them  at  wholesale  for  nine  and  ten  cents  per  pound,  and  at  retail  for 
twelve  cents.  They  use  nets  about  twelve  feet  square,  with  two  and  a  quarter  inch  meshes,  to  which  they  attach  lines 
and  heavy  weights,  and  sink  them  about  forty  feet  below  the  ice.  The  average  weight  of  the  Bass  is  about  one  and 
a  half  pounds,  but  a  large  number  have  been  cangut  that  weigh  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds.  They  lift  their  nets 
at  the  ebb  and  flood  tides,  but  are  usually  caught,  on  the  flood  tide.  The  river  being  clear  of  ice  from  this  point  all 
the  way  to  New  York  accounts  for  their  coming  from  down  the  river  to  this  place  to  fish. — Springfield  Republican, 
May  24,  1873. 

'"The  Island  of  Cuttyhnnk  is  about  sixteen  miles  from  Now  Bedford,  at  the  extreme  southwesterly  boundary  of 
Buzzard's  Bay,  whose  foaming  billows  wash  its  northern  shore,  while  the  ocean  itself  beats  npon  the  south,  and  near 
Penekese,  the  island  school  of  Professor  Agassiz.  The  Cuttyhunk  Club  own  about  three  hundred  acres  of  laud,  and 
have  the  exclusive  right  to  fish  on  the  shores  and  in  the  ponds  of  the  island.  When  the  club  was  first  formed  they 
stocked  one  of  the  ponds  on  the  island  with  Black  Bass,  and  these  have  multiplied  BO  plentifully  that  they  are  now 
caught  in  large  numbers.  No  fishing  wag  allowed  for  three  years  from  the  time  the  pond  was  stocked.  Perch  and 
trout  are  also  plenty  in  ponds  on  the  island.  Twenty-six  fishing  stands  have  been  built  at  Cuttyhunk,  and  they 


ABUNDANCE  OF  STRIPED  BASS.  427 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  Striped  Bass  are  believed  to  be  less  abundant  in  the  Gulf 
of  Saint  Lawrence  than  in  former  years;  similar  complaints  are  heard  from  the  Bay  of  Fnndy  and 
from  Cape  Cod,  where  the  period  of  diminution  is  believed  to  date  from  the  last  advent  of  the 
liluefish,  about  1850.  The  bass  fishery  in  Cape  Cod  Bay  was  formerly  of  great  importance,  but 
the  capture  of  this  fish  is  now  of  rare  occurrence.1  The  early  settlers  of  New  England  seem  to 
have  IMTII  more  impressed  by  the  abundance  of  Bass  than  by  any  other  circumstance  connected 
with  the  fisheries,  and  the  early  chronicles  are  full  of  allusions  to  their  exceeding  plenty  and 
excellence.  Capt.  John  Smith  saw  so  many  in  one  river  that  he  declares  that  he  thinks  be  might 
have  walked  across  on  their  backs  dry-shod.  While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  north  of  Cape 
Cod  their  numbers  have  decreased,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  elsewhere  on  our  coast  the 
fisheries  have  had  any  special  effect  upon  them.  A  Hessian  officer,  writing  in  1777,  declared  that 
enormous  numbers  were  at  that  time  brought  to  New  York,  and  the  same  might  be  said  at  the 
present  day.  Three  fishing  gangs  at  Bridgehampton,  New  York,  took  over  8,000  in  less  than  a 
week,  in  December,  1874.  Capt.  Charles  Ludlow  secured  at  one  set  of  his  seine  1,672  Bass,  or 
about  three  and  a  half  tons;  shortly  afterwards  a  New  London  fisherman  brought  in  419  Bass, 
185  of  which  had  been  caught  with  a  hook  in  three  hours.  Near  Norfolk,  Virginia,  1,500  have 
been  taken  with  a  single  set  of  the  seine.  A  few  years  ago,  it  is  stated  on  credible  authority,  that 
600  were  once  taken,  the  average  weight  of  which  was  eighty  pounds.  In  the  first  half  of  June, 
1879,  one  fisherman  near  Fire  Island,  New  York,  caught  and  sent  to  New  York  the  following 
quantities  of  Bass: 

Pounds. 

June   2 1,222 

June    4 1,137 

June   6 913 

June   6 1,521 

June    8 - 1,298 

June   9 1,255 

June  14 1,258 

June  18 1.5CO 


Total 10.164 

extend  completely  round  the  island.  These  stands  are  built  upon  prominent  rocks,  and  are  supported  above  the 
breakers  by  iron  rods.  Foot  bridges,  supported  in  the  same  way,  are  built  from  the  shore  to  the  stands.  The  stands 
are  all  named  or  numbered,  and  are  drawn  for  every  night  by  the  members  of  the  club.  A  member  drawing  a  stand 
can  fish  from  it  the  next  day,  or  it  can  be  used  by  any  one  else  by  his  permissiou.  The  stands  bear  such  nauiea  aa 
'Nashawena  Point,'  'Canepitset,'  'Old  Water  Line,'  'Cove  Point,'  'Little  BOBS," Big  Bass,' and 'Guff  Rocks.'  The 
stands  are  all  removed  after  the  season  is  over,  to  be  pnt  up  again  the  next  year.  'Central  Park'  seats  have  this 
season  been  placed  on  the  bluffs  round  the  island  at  convenient  points,  from  which  to  watch  the  fishing  at  each  stand, 
so  that  members  who  are  not  lucky  enough  to  secure  favorite  stands  can  sit  with  ease  and  enjoy  the  sport  of  their 
fellow-members.  The  favorite  fishing  is  for  Striped  Bass,  and,  during  the  best  of  the  season,  the  sport  is  commenced 
as  early  as  three  o'clock  in  the  morning.  A  record  is  kept  at  the  club  house  of  the  daily  catch,  by  whom  caught, 
where  taken,  on  what  station,  the  number  of  fish,  weight,  and  date.  Some  members  of  the  Cuttyhunk  Club  also 
belong  to  the  West  Island  Club,  which  controls  only  five  acres  of  land.  The  West  Island  Club  is  limited  to  thirty 
members,  with  an  admission  fee  of  $1,000."  (Correspondent.) 

'The  harbor  and  contiguous  waters  were,  in  early  times,  as  is  well  known,  richly  supplied  with  great  varieties 
of  fish.  Bass  were  abundant  many  years,  so  that  generally  three  hundred  quintals  were  ready  for  market  in  a  single 
season ;  few,  comparatively,  of  these  are  now  taken.  We  say  few  in  comparison  with  former  days.  They  are  still  taken 
in  goodly  numbers,  and  the  way  of  bass-fishing  at  Race  Point  affords  a  finely  athletic  exercise  for  chest  and  limbs.  The 
fisherman  stands  on  the  beach  and  throws  out  the  line  with  sinker  attached  as  far  as  strength  will  permit,  and  then 
hauls  in,  dragging  a  bouncing  fish,  if  the  throw  be  a  good  one.— History  of  Cape  Cod  (Freeman),  ii,  1862,  p.  623. 

Three  hundred  Bass,  of  good  size,  were  taken  at  one  haul  with  a  seine  on  Yarmouth  Flats  on  Tuesday  last. 
These  fish  are  taken  in  abundance  in  our  harbor  at  this  season  of  the  year.  Many  of  them  are  packed  in  ice  and  sent 
to  the  Boston  market,  where  they  bring  a  good  price.  "Going  a-baosing,"  as  it  is  termed,  is  both  a  pleasant  and 
profitable  amusement. — Bamstable  Journal,  July  30,  1829. 

Capt.  Sam.  T.  Soper,  Provincetown,  took  seven  hundred  Bass  last  Saturday.  Fish  were  seined.  Mr.  Stephen 
A.  Mayor  also  caught  three  hundred  Bluefish  off  the  harbor  one  day  last  week  at  one  haul.— liamtoble  Patriot, 
October  19,  1858. 

Wood,  writing  in  1634,  remarked:  "The  Bass  continue  at  Lynn  from  the  middle  of  April  to  Michaelmas"  (Sep- 
tember 29). 


428  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Allen  Look,  of  Tisbury,  Massachusetts,  testified  before  the  fishery  committee  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature,  in  1870,  that  in  1845  he  caught  twenty-seven  tons,  or  about  17,000  Striped 
Bass,  in  Tisbury  Great  Pond,  and  that  the  largest  catch  within  the  pond  from  1865  to  1870  was 
one  hundred,  taken  in  December,  1869.1 

The  following  extract  from  a  Newport  (Rhode  Island)  paper  for  1861  shows  how  abundant 
these  fish  have  been  in  past  years  in  Narragansett  Bay : 

"As  an  evidence  that  fish  are  not  scarce  in  our  waters,  the  recent  haul  of  Bass  by  hook  and 
line  is  evidence.  Within  a  week  the  market  has  been  more  than  supplied,  as  the  following  will 
bhow: 

"  Purchased  by  Samuel  Albro:  Of  Nason  &  Tenant,  1,339  pounds;  William  James,  960  pounds; 
W.  A.  Munroe,  429  pounds;  Dunwell  &  Gladding,  1,500  pounds;  James  Hazard,  357  pounds. 

"  Purchased  by  Carry  &  Co. :  Of  George  Crabb,  950  pounds ;  John  Heath,  130  pounds;  James 
Bead,  300  pounds;  Edward  Smith,  60  pounds;  G.  Dunwell,  50  pounds. 

"  Henry  Gladding  &  Co.  shipped  to  New  York  1,100  pounds.  Making  a  total  of  7,175  pounds 
for  one  week,  and  these  were  all  taken  from  the  rocks  at  the  south  end  of  the  city." 

The  Rock-fish  has  been  propagated  artificially  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  the 
first  experiment  having  been  made  by  Mr.  Holton  in  1873,  supplemented  by  more  satisfactory 
operations  in  1879,  under  the  direction  of  Major  Ferguson,  when  about  400,000  eggs  were  hatched 
out  and  turned  loose  in  Salmon  Creek,  North  Carolina.  The  species  was  introduced  into  Califor- 
nia some  years  ago,  and  Jordan  reported  in  1880  that  several  specimens  had  been  captured  along 
the  coast. 

143.  THE  WHITE  BASS— ROCCUS  CHEYSOPS  (Raf.)  GUI. 

This  species  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  "  White  Bass ";  occasionally  as  "  Striped 
Bass."  Its  greatest  abundance  is  in  the  Great  Lake  region,  although  it  has  a  wide  distribution  in 
the  Ohio  and  upper  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  and  is  found  in  many  streams  farther  south.  It 
frequents  chiefly  the  lakes  and  ponds  and  the  deeper  parts  of  the  rivers.  It  feeds  upon  minnows 
and  the  like,  usually  taking  the  hook  readily,  .and  is  considered  gamy  by  the  angler.  As  a  food- 
fish  it  ranks  high,  being  little  inferior  to  the  Black  Bass.  Its  usual  weight  is  from  one  to  three 
pounds.  The  White  Bass  is  said  to  -be  an  excellent  fish  for  cultivation  in  artificial  ponds.  Like 
most  of  its  relatives,  this  species  spawns  in  late  spring. 

"It  is  frequently  taken  in  the  Ohio  River,"  writes  Jordan,  "and  frequents  chiefly  deep  or  still 
waters,  seldom  ascending  small  streams.  It  is  said  to  thrive  well  in  ponds." 

This  is  doubtless  the  Silver  Bass  of  Canada  (le  Silver  Bass  du  Canada),  the  details  of  whose 
introduction  into  France,  and  successful  propagation  by  M.  Carbonnier,  from  1877  to  1879,  are 
recorded  by  that  experimenter  in  the  "Bulletin  of  the  Society  of  Acclimation  for  1881."' 

The  following  notes  upon  the  abundance  of  the  White  Bass,  Roccus  chrysops,  in  the  Great 
Lakes  and  bays  adjacent  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Kumlien: 

Two  instances  only  of  the  presence  of  this  species  at  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Apostle  Islands 
are  known  to  Mr.  Bantiu.  Some  of  the  other  fishing  points  of  that  region  are  as  follows :  Sand 
Island,  York  and  Rock  Islands,  Magdalen  Island,  Chequamegan  Point,  and  Siscourtand  Fry  Bays. 

1  Four  hundred  Bass  were  taken  at  a  single  haul  in  Tisbury  Great  Pond,  Martha's  Vineyard,  on  one  day  last  week, 
and  shipped  to  New  York.— Gloucester  Telegraph,  November  23,  1870. 

A  cargo  of  four  hundred  and  nineteen  Striped  Bass,  one  of  which  weighed  more  than  fifty  pounds,  was  brought 
into  New  London  by  an  old  fisherman  a  few  days  since.  One  hundred  and  eighty-five  of  them  were  caught  with  a 
hook  and  line  in  three  hours.— New  York  Evening  Post,  December  1,  1874. 

•Bulletin  Mensnel  de  la  Soci6te"  d'Aoclimation,  viii,  No.  2,  p.  10. 


THE  NY  111  I  "I-:  IJASS  IN  TUE  GREAT  LAKES. 

In  nil  other  parts  of  Lake  Superior  this  fish  is  not  recorded  as  being  known.  In  the  flatting 
^rounds  at  the  north  end  of  Green  Bay,  White  Bass  are  known  only  as  stragglers.  Farther  down 
the  bay,  about  Cedar  River,  they  are  rare,  but  are  more  common  on  the  shoals  between  Menom- 
onee  ami  IVshtego.  They  are  taken  principally  in  September,  are  important,  and  command  a 
ready  sale.  They  do  not  frequent  deep  water.  Between  Peshtego  and  Lougtail  Point,  including 
the  fishing  points  at  Maple  Bend,  Peusaukee,  Gail's  Point,  and  Oconto  Bay,  White  Bass  are  rather 
common,  and  important  during  August  and  September;  at  other  times  they  are  seldom  taken. 
They  are  caught  in  the  pound-nets,  are  much  sought  for  early  in  autumn,  and  are  shipped  princi- 
pally to  Saint  Louis. 

The  White  Bass  is  a  beautiful,  clean-looking  fish,  presenting  a  fine  appearance  and  bearing 
shipment  well.  At  Green  Bay  City,  the  southern  extremity  of  Green  Bay,  this  species  is  abundant. 
On  the  eastern  shore  of  Green  Bay,  bordering  upon  the  counties  of  Door  and  Kewaunee,  and 
as  far  north  as  Saint  Martin's  Island,  they  are  taken  in  small  quantities  in  autumn,  but  are  not 
abundant  enough  to  be  shipped. 

At  Jacksonport,  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  a  few  White  Bass  are  taken  in  autumn. 
At  Two  Rivers  they  are  not  rare  in  September.  A  couple  of  dozen  may  be  found  among  one  or 
two  thousand  pounds  of  fish,  and  then  may  be  entirely  absent  for  a  long  time.  At  Manitowoc 
they  are  often  taken  in  some  numbers  in  September,  when  large  runs  sometimes  occur,  and  then 
none  are  taken,  perhaps,  for  two  or  three  years.  During  the  last  three  years  very  few  have  been 
taken.  Mr.  Patterson,  of  that  district,  thinks  the  bass  family  is  increasing  in  the  vicinity  of 
Manitowoc. 

At  Milwaukee  White  Bass  used  to  be  so  abundant  that  they  were  largely  caught  on  hooks  off 
the  piers,  but  now  only  a  few  are  taken  in  the  pound-nets.  At  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan 
\VliiteBasscorae  in  great  numbers  in  April  and  September,  entering  the  river,  but  not  being 
taken  to  any  extent  in  the  pound-nets.  The  principal  fisheries  of  that  region  are  those  of  New 
Buffalo  and  Michigan  City.  Here  they  run  small,  and  are  of  no  commercial  importance. 

White  Bass  are  .abundant  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  between  New  Buffalo  and 
Saugatuck,  making  their  first  appearance  during  the  warm  days  of  May  or  June.  At  this  time  they 
strike  in  from  the  lake  in  great  numbers.  They  remain  about  the  mouth  of  Saint  Joseph's  River 
till  September,  and  sometimes  October,  and  even  ascend  the  river  several  miles.  After  September 
they  work  out  into  the  lake  again.  They  associate  with  the  Black  Bass  in  schools.  They  are  not 
sufficiently  abundant,  however,  to  be  of  any  commercial  importance,  as  no  seining  is  done;  if  that 
kind  of  fishing  were  carried  on,  almost  any  number  might  be  taken.  The  White  Bass  is  considered 
one  of  the  "  game"  fish.  Specimens  have  been  taken  weighing  over  three  pounds.  When  coming 
in  from  the  lake  to  the  river  they  are  very  light  in  color,  but  become  darker  during  their  stay. 
Mr.  1 1  a  i  rli  has  put  specimens  in  his  fish  ponds,  the  bottom  of  which  is  of  black  muck,  and  these 
have  become  black  on  the  back. 

Along  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  from  Allegan  County  to  Leelenaw  County,  they  are 
reported  as  quite  common,  especially  about  Manistee,  Ludington,  and  Point  au  Sable,  but  as 
having  been  less  abundant  this  year  (1880)  than  usual.  At  Grand  Haven  they  are  plentiful  and 
of  a  large  size.  About  and  in  Grand  Traverse  Bay,  Little  Traverse  Bay,  and  Fox  Islands,  they 
must  be  of  great  rarity,  the  first  instance  of  their  occurrence  known  to  Miller,  in  this  region,  having 
been  in  Little  Traverse  Bay  during  the  summer  of  1880.  Off  the  shores  of  Emmet,  Cheboygan, 
and  Presque  Isle  Counties,  Michigan,  which  coast  line  includes  the  northeast  portion  of  Lake 
Michigan,  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw,  and  the  northwest  portion  of  Lake  Huron,  White  Bass  are  by 
all  pronounced  rare.  Captain  Coats  reports  the  capture  of  three  in  1880,  and  thinks  they  are 


430  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

decreasing  in  abundance;  and  Captain  Dingman  says  he  has  not  taken  half  a  dozen  in  fifteen 
years'  fishing.  Some  report  them  as  more  plentiful  about  river  mouths  and  bayous.  At  Alpena, 
Thunder  Bay,  Mr.  Case  knows  of  but  four  or  five  White  Bass  having  been  caught. 

On  the  fishing  grounds  of  Saginaw  Bay,  including  also  those  of  Charity  Islands,  a  very  few 
White  Bass  are  occasionally  taken  in  May  and  the  first  part  of  June.  They  were  never  abundant 
in  this  region.  South  of  Saginaw  Bay,  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Huron  as  far  as  Port  Huron, 
White  Bass  are  not  at  all  abundant,  and  are  now  far  less  abundant  than  formerly.  Those  now 
taken  are  captured  principally  in  the  Saint  Clair  Eiver,  though  they  occur,  sparingly,  however,  on 
both  the  American  and  Canadian  shores  of  the  lake  between  Point  aux  Barques  and  Port  Huron. 
From  Toledo  to  the  mouth  of  the  Detroit  Eiver,  Lake  Erie,  they  are  now  rather  rare,  so  much  so 
as  to  render  them  of  no  commercial  value.  Formerly  they  were  plenty.  In  Lake  Erie,  about  the 
mouth  of  Manmee  Bay,  White  Bass  are  not  so  abundant,  as  they  once  were.  They  now  occur 
principally  iu  the  bay,  ascending  the  Maumee  River  until  prevented  by  obstructions.  At  present 
they  are  not  taken  in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  of  any  commercial  value.  No  reason  can  be 
assigned  for  their  sudden  decrease  in  this  locality.  In  1865  a  catch  of  from  ten  to  thirty  tons  was 
an  event  of  no  rare  occurrence,  and  now  it  is  seldom  that  more  than  one  to  two  hundred  pounds 
are  taken  at  a  lift. 

On  the  fishing  grounds  of  Ottawa  City,  Toussaint,  and  Locust  Point,  White  Bass  are  now  quite 
rare  and  of  no  importance.  Formerly  they  were  very  abundant.  On  the  reefs  off  Port  Clinton 
they  are  still  taken  in  some  quantities  with  the  Black  Bass.  On  these  reefs  no  driving  is  possible, 
but  the  leads  are  buoyed  up  across  the  reefs,  and  the  heart  and  pot  stakes  are  set  in  the  mud  oft 
the  rocks. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Huron  fisheries  and  Sandusky  Bay,  White  Bass  have  decreased  very 
much  within  a  few  years,  and  in  fact  are  now  rather  scarce.  At  present,  in  early  fall  and  late 
spring  a  few  are  taken ;  some  years,  almost  none.  They  occur  at  all  the  fisheries,  without  any 
apparent  choice  of  locality.  They  are  a  good  market  fish,  bnt  do  not  keep  well  during  warm 
weather;  are  sold  fresh,  if  possible,  but  a  good  many  are  salted.  Bank  higher  than  the  herring. 
This  species  is  now  almost  extinct  on  the  same  grounds  where  they  were  once  fairly  swarming. 
The  following  is  said  to  be  true,  and  many  prominent  men  of  Sandusk'y  offer  to  corroborate  it, 
unlikely  as  it  sounds:  In  May,  1855,  off  Marble  Head  light-house,  with  a  twenty- two-foot  net, 
sixty  rods  leader  and  old-fashioned  funnel,  were  taken  out,  at  one  lift,  forty  tons  of  White  Bass! 
This  was  at  that  time  the  only  pound  between  Huron  and  Marble  Head.  On  the  same  ground, 
from  March  28  to  May  4,  twelve  hundred  dollars'  worth  were  taken  in  one  net.  For  many  years 
they  were  considered  the  most  abundant  fish  in  the  vicinity  of  Sandusky.  It  is  also  thought  that 
they  were  the  most  destructive  of  all  fish  to  the  white  fish.  Mr.  Anthony  says  he  saw  in  1848,  on 
the  Ottawa  beach,  the  white-fish  eggs  driven  up  on  the  shore  inches  deep  after  a  heavy  gale,  and 
it  was  well  known  to  the  fishermen  that  in  spring  the  White  Bass  swarmed  on  the  spawning 
grounds  of  the  white-fish  for  the  purpose  of  devouring  the  young  fish.  No  one  seems  to  have  any 
theory  about  their  sudden  and  mysterious  decrease.  It  is  also  remarked  that  simultaneous  with 
the  disappearance  of  the  White  Bass  the  herring  and  blue  pike  increased.  The  fishermen 
consider  them  so  destructive  to  other  fish  that  their  decrease  is  welcomed  with  satisfaction. 

The  white-bass  fishery  was  very  important  at  Huron,  Ohio,  some  years  ago,  but  the  fish 
have  decreased,  and  now  the  catch  is  almost  nominal.  At  Vermillion,  Ohio,  White  Bass  are  not 
very  abundant;  they  are  canght  principally  early  in  spring  and  during  the  first  few  days  of  autumn 
fishing.  They  average  less  than  one  pound  in  weight.  Formerly  they  were  more  abundant  and 
of  a  larger  size.  A  few  are  salted.  Between  the  mouth  of  Black  River  and  Brownhelm  Bay 


THE  WHITE  BASS  FISHERY  OF  OHIO.  431 

White  Bass  are  taken  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  small  pounds,  close  inshore;  most  of  the 
pound-nets  are  set  in  water  too  deep  for  this  fish.  Until  two  years  ago  they  were  abundant,  and 
after  that  time  (1878)  few  were  taken  until  the  fall  of  1879,  when  they  again  appeared  in  consider- 
able numbers.  The  average  weight  in  these  localities  is  about  one  pound.  They  are  graded  as 
"soft"  fish,  but  have  an  excellent  sale,  and  if  sold  separately  bring  a  higher  price  than  soft  fish. 
They  are  said  to  spawn  close  inshore  during  the  latter  days  of  May.  Between  Black  River  and 
Vermillion  there  are  now  only  three  nets  set  in  water  shallow  enough  to  take  them  in  abundance. 

At  the  Cleveland  and  Dover  Bay  fisheries  White  Bass  are  quite  plentiful,  much  more  so  than 
the  Black  Bass.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  average  size  in  different  years,  although  in  those 
years  when  they  are  small  they  are  none  the  less  numerous.  The  "runs"  occur  early  in  spring. 
They  are  classed  as  "soft"  fish.  At  Conneaut  and  Ash  tabula  they  are  considered  a  rare  fish. 
They  do  not  frequent  deep  water,  and  consequently  are  not  taken  in  the  gill-nets.  On  ihe  Lake 
Erie  shore  of  Lake  County,  Ohio,  White  Bass  are  quite  common.  About  five  tons  were  caught  at 
I'.iinrsvillc  in  the  autumn  of  1879.  They  are  generally  large  fish,  and  are  caught  at  all  seasons 
during  calm  weather,  but  strike  for  deep  water  during  wind  storms.  Off  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  Mr. 
Olds  says  he  has  known  of  the  occurrence  of  one  very  large  school,  but  they  are  generally  consid- 
ered quite  rare. 

At  the  principal  points  on  the  New  York  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  the  occurrence  of  White  Bass 
is  thus  noted :  At  Oswego  they  are  not  abundant.  They  occur  principally  in  the  lake,  but  are  also 
found  in  the  river.  At  Port  Ontario  only  one  or  two  specimens  have  been  known.  At  Cape 
Vincent  they  are  rarely  caught,  and  are  of  no  commercial  importance.  Those  consumed  are 
brought,  for  the  most  part,  from  Canada.  At  Chaumont  a  very  few  are  occasionally  canght ;  the 
fish  here  are  of  no  importance.  At  Sacket's  Harbor  very  few  occur.  They  have  slightly  increased, 
rather  than  the  reverse,  in  abundance. 

144.  THE  YELLOW  BASS— ROCCUS  INTERRUPTUS. 

This  species  is.  so  far  as  known  to  us,  always  known  as  the  Yellow  Bass.  It  is  found  through- 
out the  lower  course  of  the  Mississippi,  ascending  the  tributaries  which  are  deep  and  sluggish,  bnt 
not  running  past  rapids  or  into  the  upper  courses  of  the  rivers.  Jordan  states  that  its  range 
extends  up  the  Ohio  to  the  mouth  of  the  Wabash  or  beyond,  thoagh  it  does  not  seem  to  be  common 
anywhere  except  in  the  Lower  Mississippi.  It  pfobably  enters  salt  water,  but  of  that  wo  have  no 
certain  information.  It  is  taken  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  regions  where  found,  and  is  graded 
with  the  White  Bass,  which  it  much  resembles  in  size  and  color.  Little  is  known  in  regard  to  its 
habits.  The  criterion  by  which  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  White  Bass  is  the  low  membrane 
connecting  the  two  dorsal  fins.  Its  color  is  yellow,  not  silvery,  and  the  black  stripes  are  very 
prominent. 

146.  THE  WHITE  PERCH-ROCCUS  AMERICANUS. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  Striped  Bass  is  the  so-called  White  Perch,  Roccus  americanux.  This 
fish  occurs  in  brackish  water  in  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  even,  in  many  instances,  in  fresh-water 
ponds,  where  it  had  become  land-locked,  and  all  along  the  coast  from  Georgetown,  South  Carolina, 
to  Nova  Scotia.  Dr.  Yarrow  states  that  it  abounds  in  the  Tar  and  Neuse  Rivers,  North  Carolina. 
In  the  Chesapeake  and  tributary  streams  it  is  exceedingly  abundant.  It  also  abounds  in  the 
lakes  and  streams  of  the  Saint  John  River,  New  Brunswick,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia.  It  has  been  claimed  by  certain  observers  in  Florida  that  White  Perch  were  formerly 
abundant  in  that  region,  and  the  market-men  of  New  Orleans  state  that  they  were  common  in  Lake 


432  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Pontchartrain  until  the  "Bonnet  Carre"  crevasse"  changed  the  water  from  salt  to  fresh.  Mr.  Stearns, 
having  investigated  the  subject,  is  of  the  opinion  that  they  are  mistaken.1  The  habits  of  this  fish 
have  been  but  little  observed ;  in  fact,  it  has  been  the  custom  of  nearly  all  writers  on  our  fishes  to 
speaks  lightiugly  of  it.  It  found  an  earnest  advocate  in  Mr.  Thaddeus  Norris,  who,  after  protest- 
ing strenuously  against  the  statement  of  various  writers  that  it  is  rarely  brought  to  market  for 
food,  that  it  is  only  fit  for  chowder,  that  it  is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  merit  particular  notice, 
and  so  on,  goes  on  to  state,  what  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  in  season  the  White  Perch  is  the  pan- 
fish,  excelled  by  none  of  the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Washington,  Norfolk,  and  Richmond  markets; 
and  he  might  have  added,  had  he  been  writing  at  the  present  time,  of  the  New  York  market  also, 
for  there  is,  probably,  no  fish  of  its  size  which  is  more  universally  popular  throughout  the  Eastern 
States  than  the  White  Perch.  In  a  single  paragraph  Mr.  Norris,  who,  though  he  made  no  profes- 
sions of  scientific  skill,  has  been  one  of  our  best  observers  of  fishes,  has  given  almost  the  only 
reliable  information  which  has  ever  been  collected  regarding  this  species.  "Its  most  natural 
habitat  is  in  fresh  tidal  rivers,  where  it  is  found  on  flat  clay  and  muddy  bottoms,  and  in  shallow 
water.  It  is  frequently  found  far  above  the  terminus  of  the  tide,  and  is  often  more  abundant  in 
fresh  than  in  brackish  water  in  the  season  of  the  year  when  sought  for  by  anglers.  This  fish,  when 
found  in  salt-water  creeks,  is  darker  in  color,  but  there  is  no  specific  difference.  The  White  Perch 
is  a  congener  of  the  magnificent  Rock-fish,  and  is  frequently  found  feeding  in  the  same  place  and  in 
his  company.  Its  average  length  is  eight  or  nine  inches;  it  is  not  often  more  than  twelve,  though 
in  rare  instances  it  is  found  fourteen  inches  long. 

"  White  Perch  hibernate  in  the  deep  waters  of  our  bays,  and  ascend  the  fresh  tidal  rivers  soon 
after  the  ice  and  snow-water  have  run  off.  They  feed  greedily  on  the  spawn  of  other  fish,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  shad ;  on  insects,  crabs,  minnows,  and  on  the  migratory  schools  of  young  eels 
which  are  found  in  the  months  of  April  and  May  in  great  numbers  at  any  rapid  or  dam  obstruct- 
ing the  upward  flow  of  the  tide.  Perch  usually  spawn  in  May  and  then  resort  to  deeper  waters  to 
recuperate,  and  all  summer  long  are  found  by  the  angler  ever  swimming  around  the  deep-sunk 
pier  or  the  timbers  of  the  rickety  old  bridge,  snapping  at  shrimps  or  chasing  the  minnows ;  at 
flood  tide  high  up  amongst  the  water-lilies,  and  never  refusing  a  bait,  if  of  the  right  sort  and  prop- 
erly presented."* 

Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott  has  added  some  important  observations.  He  found  female  fish  heavy  with 
apparently  ripe  ova  as  late  as  June  10.  The  largest  specimens  of  White  Perch  taken  in  the  Del- 
aware weighed,  respectively,  one  pound  nine  ounces,  one  pound  thirteen  ounces,  and  two  pounds 
one  ounce.  These  were  caught  in  a  shad  net  in  May,  1865,  at  the  fishery  opposite  Trenton.  The 
average  adult  fish  may  be  said  to  measure  eight  inches  and  weigh  from  seven  to  nine  ounces.  He 
continues :  "  I  believe,  for  reasons  to  be  given,  that  the  growth  of  the  young  is  very  rapid,  and 
that  the  August  Perch  are  young  hatched  late  in  the  preceding  May  and  April ;  in  June  these 
August  Perch  measuring  about  two  and  a  half  to  three  inches  in  length.  .  .  .  I  should  judge 
that  spawning  occurred  between  May  10  and  June  10,  usually  nearer  the  former  than  the  latter 
date.  This  is  based  on  the  fact  of  having  gathered  very  young  fish,  the  age  of  which  I  guessed 
from  the  general  condition  and  amount  of  development  of  the  specimens.  After  the  middle  of 
June  the  White  Perch  are  found  in  localities  widely  different;  even  waters  with  a  dense  growth  of 
lily  and  river  weed  are  found  to  contain  them  in  apparent  health  and  vigor — spots  where  the  Rock- 
fish  could  not  live  a  day.  Still  later  in  the  summer,  as  the  young  Perch  become  quite  strong  and 

1  Certainly  the  Bonnet  Carr6  crevasse  never  drove  the  White  Perch  ont  of  Lake  Pontchartrain.  That  like  now 
contains  small  Sharks,  Trygon,  Pogoniat  Bairdiella,  and  hosts  of  fish  of  salt-water  habits,  with  legs  liking  for  fresh 
water  than  the  White  Perch. — D.  H.  JORDAN. 

'American  Angler's  Book,  p.  90. 


HABITS  OF  THi;  \\  I!  I  IT.   I'KUCH.  433 

of  some  size,  the  river,  although  in  and  above  tide- water,  fairly  teems  with  them.  At  this  season 
they  go  in  schools,  sometimes  of  large  sizo.  I  have  ki«own  of  twelve,  tifleen.  and  twenty  dozen 
August  Perch  being  taken  with  a  line  in  as  short  a  time  as  from  three  to  five  hours.  Fishing  in 
this  way  a  line  with  half  a  dozen  hooks  is  used,  and  worms,  sturgeon  spawn,  or  live  minnows  are 
used  as  bait.  These  schools  of  small  Perch  I  supposed  to  be  broods  of  the  preceding  May,  and 
that  they  kept  together  until  late  In  November.  They  pass  down  to  the  saltwater  and  there 
separate.  Larger  adult  fish  are  not  as  restless  as  these  smaller  ones,  and  are  found  in  deeper 
water,  and  usually  in  the  tide-waters.  In  their  feeding  habits  the  White  Perch  agree  very  closely 
with  the  rock-fish.  In  all  their  habits,  in  fact,  the  two  flsh  are  much  alike,  and  in  the  Delaware 
they  are  always  associated,  the  most  noticeable  difference  in  their  habits  being  the  ability  of  the 
Perch  to  remain  and  thrive  in  warmer  waters  than  the  Hock-fish  is  ever  found  frequenting."1 
So  much  has  been  said  by  the  standard  authorities  in  past  years  regarding  the  inferior  quality 
of  this  fish  as  an  article  of  food  that  it  seems  worth  while  to  recur  to  this  point,  and  to  state  that 
at  the  present  time  there  is  no  fish  found  in  the  markets  of  our  seaboard  towns  which  is  more 
generally  a  favorite  for  frying,  or,  as  the  phrase  goes,  as  a  pan-fish,  than  the  White  Perch. 

148.  THE  BLUEFISH  FAMILY— POMATOMID2E. 
THE  BLUEFIS  — POMATOMUS  SALTATRIX. 

NAMES. — This  fish,  which  on  the  coast  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States  is  called 
the  Bluefish,  is  also  known  in  Rhode  Island  as  the  "Horse  Mackerel";  south  of  Cape  Hatteras  as 
the  "Skipjack";  in  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  Maryland  it  is  said  to  be  called  the  "Green-fish." 
Young  Bluefish  are  in  some  parts  of  New  England  called  "Snapping  Mackerel"  or  "Snappers"; 
about  New  Bedford  "Blue  Snappers";  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Sea  Bass  they  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  "Bluefish."  About  New  York  they  are  called  "Skip  Mackerel,"  and  higher  up 
the  Hudson  River  "White-fish."  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  name  "Bluefish"  is  in  general  use. 

DISTRIBUTION. — This  species  is  widely  distributed — in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  Australia,  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  Natal  and  about  Madagascar;  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is  a 
well-known  and  highly-prized  food-fish  in  the  markets  of  Algiers,  though  rare  on  the  Italian  side. 
It  has  been  seen  at  Malta,  at  Alexandria  and  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  and  about  the  Canaries.  It  has 
never  been  seen  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Europe,  and,  strangely  enough,  never  in  the  waters  of  the 
Bermudas  or  any  of  the  Western  Islands.  On  our  coast  it  ranges  from  Central  Brazil  and  the 
Guiauas  through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  north  to  Nova  Scotia,  though  never  seen  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  From  Cape  Florida  to  Penobscot  Bay,  Blaefish  are  abundant  at  all  seasons  when  the 
temperature  of  the  water  is  propitious.  It  is  not  yet  known  what  limits  of  temperature  are  the 
most  favorable  to  their  welfare,  but  it  would  appear,  from  the  study  of  the  dates  of  their  appear- 
ance during  a  period  of  years  in  connection  with  the  ocean  temperature,  that  they  prefer  to  avoid 
water  which  is  much  colder  than  40°.  It  is  possible  that  the  presence  of  their  favorite  food,  the 
menhaden,  has  as  much  influence  upon  their  movements  as  water  temperature.  It  is  certain  that 
few  Bluefish  are  found  on  our  Middle  and  Southern  coast  when  the  menhaden  are  absent;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Bluefish  do  not  venture  in  great  numbers  into  the  Gulf  of  Maine  at  the  time  when 
menhaden  are  schooling  and  are  at  their  greatest  Jibundance.  Their  favorite  summer  haunts  are 
in  the  partially  protected  waters  of  the  Middle  States,  from  May  to  October,  with  an  average  tem- 
perature of  60°  to  75°.  The  menhaden,  or  certain  schools  of  them,  affect  a  cooler  climate  and 
thrive  in  the  waters  of  Western  and  Central  Maine  in  the  months  when  the  harbor  temperatures 
are  little  above  50°  and  55°,  and  that  of  the  ocean  considerably  lower. 

Professor  Baird  has  published  in  the  First  Report  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  an 

>  Report  U.  8.  Fi»h  CommU.,  part  ir,  1878,  p.  375. 
28  P 


434  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

exhaustive  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Bluefish  which  will  be  quoted  from  freely  in  this  chapter. 
The  presence  of  quotation  marks  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  source  of  the  paragraphs  taken 
from  his  essay  without  further  reference  to  his  name. 

"MOVEMENTS  AND  MIGRATIONS. — The  Bluefish  is  pre-eminently  a  pelagic  or  wandering  fish, 
and  like  many  others,  especially  of  the  Scombridai,  is  apparently  capricious  in  its  movements, 
varying  in  numbers  at  particular  localities  with  the  year,  and  sometimes  disappearing  from  certain 
regions  for  a  large  fraction  of  a  century,  again  to  return  as  before.  The  cause  of  this  variation  it 
is  impossible  to  explain,  being  due  ill  some  instances,  probably,  to  the  disappearance  ot  its  favorite 
food  in  consequence  of  its  own  voracity,  or  for  other  undetermined  reasons. 

"They  occur  during  the  summer  throughout  the  entire  range  indicated  for  the  United  States, 
but  are  much  larger  in  size  and  in  greatest  abundance  from  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  northward. 
From  New  Jersey  southward,  in  the  season  mentioned,  with  the  exception  of  an  occasional 
wandering  school,  they  are  generally  only  about  eight  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  representing, 
therefore,  in  all  probability,  individuals  of  the  second  year's  growth. 

"They  appear  to  have  a  regular  migration  along  our  coast,  presenting  themselves  later  and 
later  in  the  spring,  the  farther  they  are  found  to  the  north,  and  disappearing  in  the  inverse  order 
from  the  same  regions  in  the  autumn.  First  noticed  on  the  Carolina  coast  as  early  as  March  and 
April,  immense  schools  of  them,  bound  eastward,  are  seen  off  the  coast  of  the  Middle  States  from 
the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June,1  and  in  October  similar  bodies,  perhaps  embracing  fewer 
individuals,  pass  to  the  southward.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  in  the  autumn  some  schools 
move  well  out  to  sea,  and  are,  therefore,  less  likely  to  be  observed.  They  leave  the  northern  coast 
about  the  middle  of  October,  and  about  the  middle  of  November  appear  in  vast  numbers  off  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina,  where,  from  Nag's  Head,  in  Curritnck  County,  to  Cape  Lookout,  there  is 
a  very  extensive  fishery  prosecuted,  which  furnishes  Bluefish  for  the  Northern  markets.  It  is 
estimated  that  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty  crews  are  engaged  in  this  fall  fishing,  which  lasts 
generally  until  late  in  December.  At  this  time  individuals  may  be  taken  weighing  fifteen  to 
eighteen  pounds,  although  their  average  size  is  about  ten. 

"Their  occurrence  in  autumn  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  is  preceded  and  first  indicated 
by  the  vast  schools  of  menhaden,  which  they  follow  in,  several  miles  from  the  sea,  and  by  the 
usual  accompaniment  of  flocks  of  gulls  attending  them  to  take  a  share  in  the  feast.  Of  the  par- 
ticular mode  of  fishing  in  this  neighborhood  we  shall  take  occasion  to  speak  hereafter. 

"According  to  Dr.  Yarrow,  the  Bluefish  are  first  seen  in  spring  on  the  North  Carolina  coast 
(the  smaller  ones  first)  in  March  or  April,  when,  however,  they  are  much  less  in  size  than  the 
specimens  referred  to  as  occurring  in  the  fall.  The  precise  time  of  their  appearance  at  most  of  the 
points  farther  north  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  Whether  they  actually  migrate  from  south  to 
north,  and  rice  versa,  or  merely  come  in  from  the  outer  seas  in  regular  order,  as  is  believed  to  bo  the 
case  with  the  shad,  etc.,  has  not  been  settled,  although  the  former  supposition  appears  the  more 
probable.  They  reach  the  New  Jersey  coast  some  time  in  the  early  part  of  May,  and  usually 
appear  at  Newport  and  in  Vineyard  Sound  (the  time  varying  with  the  season)  from  the  middle  of 
May  to  the  first  week  in  June.  They  are  expected  at  Edgartown  from  the  25th  to  the  30th  of  May; 
but  I  am  informed  that,  on  their  first  arrival,  they  feed  at  the  bottom,  and  sometimes  for  a  while 
are  not  seen  at  the  surface  at  all,  seldom  being  taken  with  the  hook,  but  caught  in  large  numbers 
in  pounds  aud  with  the  gill-net,  usually  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  net.  According  to  Dr.  Yarrow, 


*In  the  Chesapeake,  according  to  Dr.  Wilkins,  at  Hunger's  Wharf,  Virginia,  the  Taylor  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  fish,  as  many  as  four  thousand  being  caught  at  one  lift  of  the  pound.  The  average  size  is  about  three 
pounds.  They  come  about  the  first  of  June  and  leave  early  in  October. 


Midi; ATION8  OF  TIIF.   HI,!   KF1SII.  435 

tW-.v  arc  not  taken  with  the  hook  alwnt  Beaufort  until  about  the  1st  of  July.  They  do  not  bite, 
however,  in  Vineyard  Sound  until  from  th«-  10th  to  the  15th  of  .June,  when  they  nppcar  on  the 
surface,  anil  are  caught  in  large  numbers  in  the  usual  manner." 

In  the  lirst  week  of  May.  1S7S,  about  a  thousand  liluefisli,  weighing  four  pound*  each,  were 
cauglit  oil'  Long  Island  at  Canarsie  and  West  IIani])ton.  This  is  about  two  months  earlier  than  is 
usual  for  them  to  be  taken  in  any  considerable  numbers. 

''  PKKIODICITY. — Great  interest  attaches  to  this  fish  in  consequence  of  the  changes  in  its 
abundance,  and  even  its  actual  occurrence  on  our  coast,  within  the  historic  period.  The  precise 
nature  and  extent  of  the  variation  has  not  been  established,  nor  whether  it  extended  along  the 
entire  const  or  not.  Its  earliest  mention  for  our  waters  is  in  the  work  of  Josselyn  ('New  England 
Karities  Displayed,'  KiTli),  where,  on  page  9C,  he  mentions  the  'blew-Hsh,  or  horse,'  as  being 
common  in  New  England  (his  residence  was  on  the  New  Hampshire  coast,  or  near  by  in  Maine,) 
and  'esteemed  the  best  of  sort  of  fish  next  to  rock-cod.'  He  says:  'It  is  usually  as  big  as  the 
Salmon,  and  a  better  meat  by  far.'  lie  also,  on  page  24,  catalogues  two  kinds  of  'Blew  fish'  or 
'Hound  fish';  the  'Speckeled  Iloumlflsh'  and  the  'Blew  Houudfish,  called  Ilorseflsh.'  There 
appears  to  be  no  species  to  which  this  reference  could  apply  excepting  the  subject  of  our  present 
article,  this  being  the  opinion  of  Mr.  J.  Hammond  Trumbull,  who  has  devoted  much  research  to 
determining  the  modern  equivalents  of  ancient  Indian  names  of  animals,  and  to  whom  I  am 
indebted  for  the  hint.  Mr.  Trumbull  also  remarks  that  in  a  manuscript  vocabulary  obtained  by 
President  Stiles,  in  1762,  from  a  Pequod  Indian  at  Groton,  Connecticut,  there  is  mentioned  the 
'  Aquaiindunt  or  Blue-fish,'  clearly  the  same  as  what  now  bears  that  name,  which  shows  that  this 
ti-li  was  found  in  Fisher's  Island  Sound  in  1762. 

"Again,  according  to  Zaccheus  Macy,1  the  Bltiefish  were  very  abundant  about  Nantucket 
from  the  first  settlement  of  the  English  on  the  island,  in  1659,  to  1703,  and  were  taken  in  immense 
numbers  from  the  1st  of  June  to  the  middle  of  September.  They  all  disappeared,  however,  in 
1764,  a  period  of  great  mortality  among  the  Indians  of  that  island.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  disease  which  attacked  the  Indians  may  have  been  in  consequence  of  an  epidemic  in  the  fish 
upon  which  they  fed,  or  else  that  it  invaded  both  fish  and  Indians  simultaneously,  resulting  in 
almost  their  entire  extermination." 

"According  to  Dr.  Mitchill,  this  flsh  was  entirely  unknown  about  New  York  prior  to  1810; 
but  they  began  to  be  taken  in  small  numbers  about  the  wharves  in  1817,  and  were  abundant  in 
1825.  Immense  numbers  were  caught  at  the  Highlands  in  1841.  The  doctor  remarks,  as  has  been 
done  repeatedly  by  others,  that  as  the  Bluefish  increased,  the  squeteague  or  weak  fish  diminished 
in  about  the  same  ratio. 

"According  to  Mr.  Smith,  of  Newport  (Rhode  Island),  his  father  used  to  catch  Bluefiish  some 
time  about  the  year  1800,  when  they  were  very  abundant  and  of  large  size,  weighing  from  sixteen 
to  eighteen  pounds. 

"Capt.  Francis  Pease,  of  Edgartown,  also  testified  that  his  father  spoke  of  large  Bluefish  at 
the  end  of  the  preceding  century,  some  of  them  weighing  forty  pounds.  This  leaves  an  interval 
between  1764  and  toward  the  end  of  the  century  in  which  no  mention  is  made  of  the  Bluefish,  and 
which  may  probably  indicate  its  absence,  as  during  that  time  there  were  many  works  published 

'Collections  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  for  1794,  iii,  1810. 

From  the  first  coming  of  the  English  to  Nantnckot  (1659)  a  large  fal-flsh,  called  the  bine-fish,  thiity  of  which 
would  fill  a  barrel,  was  caught  in  great  plenty  all  round  the  island  from  the  1st  of  the  sixth  monih  ( June)  till  tlie 
middle  of  tin;  ninth  month  (September).  But  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  year  1764  .  .  .  they  all  di.-u|t}M-ared, 
and  that  none  have  ever  been  taken  since.  This  has  been  a  great  loss  to  us."— Ibid.,  1792,  p.  159.  Zaccheus  Macy's 
Account  of  Nantucket." 


436  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

relating  to  the  local  history  and  domestic  economy  of  New  England,  and  which  would  doubtless 
have  taken  note  of  so  conspicuous  a  fish  had  it  been  present. 

"Whether  they  existed  uninterruptedly  during  the  century  intervening  between  Josselyn's 
time,  1672  (or  even  1659,  according  to  Macy),  and  1764, 1  am  at  present  unable  to  say.  According 
to  Captain  Pease,  they  were  known  about  Edgartown  at  the  end  of  the  last  century.1  As  already 
stated.  Dr.  Mitchill  speaks  of  their  first  making  their  appearance  about  New  York  in  1810.  They 
are  noted  as  having  been  seen  in  Vineyard  Sound  again  as  early  as  1820.  It  would  therefore  appear 
that  they  were  in  such  small  numbers  about  New  York  in  1810  that  the  young  only  were  noticed 
nocking  about  the  wharves,  and  that  in  ten  years  they  were  observed  as  far  east  as  Nantucket, 
where  the  specimens  seen  from  1824  to  1826  were  very  small,  not  over  four  inches.  The  next  year 
they  measured  seven,  and  the  third  year  ten  inches,  according  to  the  testimony  of  one  witness, 
although  this  does  not  represent,  in  all  probability,  the  rate  of  growth. 

"  According  to  Captain  Burgess,  of  Monument,  Massachusetts,  they  were  caught  about  Nan- 
tncket  in  1825,  and  were  very  abundant  in  1830.  Dr.  Storer  states  the  first  Bluefish  recorded 
as  having  been  noticed  in  the  present  century  north  of  Cape  Cod  was  captured  on  the  25th  of 
October,  1837.  Captain  Atwood  remarks  that  in  1838  he  saw  Bluefish  for  the  first  time  about 
Provincetown.  These  were  very  small,  the  largest  weighing  only  two  pounds.  In  a  few  years, 
however,  they  became  larger  and  more  numerous,  and  finally  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
exercise  a  very  marked  influence  upon  the  fisheries.  According  to  the  captain  (Proceedings  of 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  1863,  p.  189),  they  arrive  in  Massachusetts  Bay  in  a  body, 
coming  at  once,  so  as  to  almost  fill  the  harbor  at  Provincetown.  In  one  year  they  came  in  on  the 
22d  of  June,  and  although  the  day  before  eight  thousand  mackerel  were  taken,  the  day  after  not 
one  was  seen  or  captured.  He  says  that  they  leave  about  the  last  of  September,  with  the  first  cold 
northeasterly  storm,  although  stragglers  are  taken  as  late  as  December  at  Provincetown. 

"  According  to  Messrs.  Marchant  and  Peter  Sinclair,  of  Gloucester  (October,  1872),  Bluefish 
made  their  first  appearance  in  numbers  about  Cape  Ann  twenty-five  years  ago,  coming  in  great 
force  and  driving  out  all  other  fish.  They  are  now  much  scarcer  than  twenty  years  ago;  about  the 
same  as  tautog ;  some  seasons  scarcely  noticed. 

"Mr.  J.  C.  Parker,  an  aged  gentleman  of  Falmonth,  says  the  first  Bluefish  seen  at  Wood's 
Holl  in  this  century  was  taken  in  July,  1831 ;  but  his  father  informed  him  that  they  were  abundant 
in  the  preceding  century,  about  1780  or  1790,  at  which  time  they  disappeared;  and  that  when  the 
Bluefish  left,  the  scup  first  made  their  appearance.  They  are  also  noted  as  having  shown  them- 
selves at  the  head  of  Buzzard's  Bay  in  1830  and  1831,  and,  although  numerous,  were  of  small  size, 
measuring  about  a  foot  in  length. 

"To  sum  up  the  evidence,  therefore,  in  regard  to  the  periodical  appearance  of  the  Bluefish, 
vre  find  notice  of  its  occurrence  in  1672,  or  even  1659,  and  up  to  1764.  How  long  it  existed  in  the 
waters  prior  to  that  date  cannot  now  be  determined.  The  oral  testimony  of  Mr.  Parker  refers  to 
its  occurrence  at  Wood's  Holl  in  1780  or  1790;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  Smith  as  being  at 
Newport,  in  1800,  and  at  Edgartown,  Massachusetts,  about  the  same  time  by  Captain  Pease. 
Mitchill  testifies  to  its  occurrence  in  New  York,  of  very  small  size,  in  1810;  and  it  is  recorded  as 
existing  again  at  Nantucket  in  1820,  and  about  Wood's  Holl  and  Buzzard's  Bay  in  1830  to  1831 ; 
and  a  little  later  at  Hyannis.  In  1830  it  had  become  abundant  about  Nantucket,  and  in  the  fall 

'President  Dwight  hears  witness  to  the  fact  that  Bluefish  were  abundant  in  the  Narragansett  Bay  region  as  late 
*s  1780.  "  The  Horse  Mackerel  formerly  frequented  this  coast  in  immense  numbers,  and  in  the  season  were  constantly 
to  be  fonnd  in  the  market.  But  about  the  close  of  the  Revoluti  onary  war  they  forsook  our  waters  and  have  not  made 
their  appearance  since.  They  were  esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  and  are  the  largest  of  the  mackerel  species. — Note  on 
Fishes  of  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  Dwight's  Travels,  iii,  1822,  p.  50. 


I'KIMODiriTY   OF  Till:   1U.CKKISH.  437 

ot  is;;:  H  \v;is  first  noticed  in  Massachusetts  Buy;  and  then  year  by  year  it  became  more  and  more 
numerous,  until  now  it  is  very  abundant.  Several  accounts  agree  in  reference  to  the  very  hi  rye 
size  (even  to  forty  or  fifty  pounds)  of  tho.xe  taken  in  the  last  century. 

"  Further  research  into  ancient  records  may  tond  to  throw  more  light  on  the  early  history  of 
th"  I'.liiHish.  ami  even  materially  to  change  the  conclusions  already  reached.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  references  to  its  occurrence,  from  1780  to  1800,  are  on  the  testimony  of  aged  persons  who 
have  heard  their  lathers  speak  of  it,  although  I  find  no  printed  records  anywhere  in  reference  to 
it  between  ITtil  and  1810.  The  rate  of  progression  to  the  north  ot  Cape  God  I  have  at  present  no 
means  of  indicating,  although  they  probably  gradually  extended  farther  and  farther  north,  and 
may  possibly  occur  much  farther  east  than  we  have  any  mention  of  at  present. 

"During  the  present  century  the  maximum  of  abundance  of  these  fish  off  the  middle  coast  of 
the  United  States  appears  to  have  been  reached  from  1850  to  I860.  The  testimony  elicited  from 
various  parlies,  as  well  as  from  printed  records,  indicates  a  decrease  since  that  period  much  greater 
in  some  localities  than  others.  About  New  York  they  are  said  to  have  been  unusually  plenty  in 
the  summer  of  1871,  but  farther  East  the  diminution  which  had  been  observed  in  previous  years 
appeared  to  continue." 

Since  the  writing  of  the  above,  in  1871,  there  has  been  no  special  change  in  the  abundance  of 
Bluetish.  They  are  quite  sufficient  in  number  to  supply  the  demand  for  them  and  to  make  great 
inroads  upon  the  other  fishes,  some  of  which,  like  the  menhaden  and  mackerel,  would  perhaps,  if 
undisturbed  by  the  Bluettsh,  be  more  valuable  than  they  are  at  present.  They  have  now  been 
with  us  for  fifty  years.  Their  numbers  are  subject  to  periodical  variation,  of  the  cause  of  which 
we  are  ignorant.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  are  no  records  of  it  in  the  South  Atlantic  States. 
If  such  existed,  we  might,  perhaps,  learn  from  them  that  the  Bluefish  remained  in  those  waters 
while  absent  from  the  northern  coasts.  Only  one  statement  is  to  be  found  which  covers  this 
period,  although  Lawson,  in  his  "  History  of  North  Carolina,"  published  in  1709,  and  Catesby,  in 
his  "Natural  History  of  the  Caroliuas,"  published  in  1743,  refer  to  its  presence.  In  "Bartram's 
Travels,"  published  in  1791, ''Skipjack"  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  most  abundant  fish  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  River.  When  Bluefish  again  became  abundant  their  presence  was  first 
noticed  at  the  South,  and  they  seem  to  have  made  their  inroads  from  that  direction.  The  Bluefish 
was  unknown  to  Schoepf,  if  we  may  judge  from  his  work  on  the  "  Fisheries  of  New  York,"  published 
in  1787.  Dr.  Mitchill  recorded  their  frequent  capture  about  New  York  in  1814,  though  before  1810 
they  are  said  to  be  unknown  in  that  locality.  In  1825  they  were  abundant  here,  and  in  1841 
immense  numbers  were  captured  in  the  Vineyard  Sound,  and  about  Nautucket  they  were  on  the 
increase  from  1820  to  1S30.  It  is  certain  that  they  had  not  reapi>eared  in  182*2  in  Narragansett 
Bay,  for  in  "Bertram's  Travels"  it  is  stilted  that,  though  formerly  abundant,  they  had  not  been 
seen  in  that  region  since  the  time  of  the  Revolution. 

The  first  one  which  was  noticed  north  of  Cape  Cod  was  captured  in  October,  1837,  while  we 
have  no  record  of  their  appearance  about  Cape  Ann  before  1847. 

FOOD  AND  VOBACITY. — The  Bluefish  is  a  carnivorous  animal  of  the  most  pronounced  type, 
feeding  solely  upon  other  fish.  In  this  connection  it  cannot  be  out  of  place  to  reprint  Professor 
Baird's  remarks  upon  this  subject,  which  have  been  so  often  quoted  during  the  past  ten  years: 

"There  is  no  parallel  in  point  of  destructiveness  to  the  Bluefish  among  the  marine  species  on 
onr  coast,  whatever  may  be  the  case  among  some  of  the  carnivorous  fish  of  the  South  American 
waters.  The  Bluefish  has  been  well  likened  to  an  animated  chopping-machiue,  the  business  of 
which  is  to  cut  to  pieces  and  otherwise  destroy  as  many  fish  as  possible,  in  a  given  space  of  time. 
All  writers  are  unanimous  in  regard  to  the  destructiveuess  of  the  Bluefish.  Going  in  large  schools, 


438  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

in  pursuit  of  fish  not  much  inferior  to  themselves  in  size,  they  move  along  like  a  pack  of  hungry 
wolves,  destroying  everything  before  them.  Their  trail  is  marked  by  fragments  of  fish  and  by  the 
stain  of  blood  in  the  sea,  as,  where  the  fish  is  too  large  to  be  swallowed  entire,  the  hinder  portion 
will  be  bitten  off  and  the  anterior  part  allowed  to  float  away  or  sink.  It  is  even  maintained,  with 
great  earnestness  that  such  is  the  gluttony  of  the  fish,  that  when  the  stomach  becomes  full  the 
contents  are  disgorged  and  then  again  filled.  It  is  certain  that  it  kills  many  more  fish  than  it 
requires  for  its  own  support. 

"  The  youngest  fish,  equally  with  the  older,  perform  this  function  of  destruction,  and  although 
they  occasionally  devour  crabs,  worms,  etc.,  the  bulk  of  their  sustenance  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  is  derived  from  other  fish.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  find  a  small  Bluefish 
of  six  or  eight  inches  in  length  under  a  school  of  minnows  making  continual  dashes  and  captures 
among  them.  The  stomachs  of  the  Bluefish  of  all  sizes,  with  rare  exceptions,  are  found  loaded  with 
the  other  fish,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  thirty  or  forty,  either  entire  or  in  fragments. 

"As  already  referred  to,  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  merely  the  small  fry  that 
are  thus  devoured,  and  which  it  is  expected  will  fall  a  prey  to  other  animals,  but  that  the  food  of 
the  Bluefish  consists  very  largely  of  individuals  which  have  already  passed  a  large  percentage  of 
the  chances  against  their  attaining  maturity,  many  of  them,  indeed,  having  arrived  at  the  period 
of  spawning.  To  make  the  case  more  clear,  let  us  realize  for  a  moment  the  number  of  Bluefish 
that  exist  on  our  coast  in  the  summer  season.  As  far  as  I  can  ascertain  by  the  statistics  obtained 
at  the  fishing  stations  on  the  New  England  coast,  as  also  from  the  records  of  the  New  York 
markets,  kindly  furnished  by  Middleton  &  Carman,  of  the  Fulton  Market,  the  capture  of  Bluefish, 
from  New  Jersey  to  Monomoy,  during  the  season,  amounts  to  not  less  than  one  million  individuals, 
averaging  five  or  six  pounds  each.  Those,  however,  who  have  seen  the  Bluefish  in  his  native 
waters,  and  realized  the  immense  number  there  existing,  will  be  quite  willing  to  admit  that  prob- 
ably not  one  fish  in  a  thousand  is  ever  taken  by  man.  If,  therefore,  we  have  an  actual  capture  of 
one  million,  we  may  allow  one  thousand  millions  as  occurring  in  the  extent  of  our  coasts  referred 
to,  even  neglecting  the  smaller  ones,  which,  perhaps,  should  also  be  taken  into  the  account. 

"An  allowance  of  ten  fish  per  day  to  each  Bluefish  is  not  excessive,  according  to  the  testimony 
elicited  from  the  fishermen  and  substantiated  by  the  stomachs  of  those  examined;  this  gives  ten 
thousand  millions  of  fish  destroyed  per  day.  And  as  the  period  of  the  stay  of  the  Bluefish  on  the 
New  England  coast  is  at  least  one  hundred  and  twenty  days,  we  have  in  round  numbers  twelve 
hundred  million  millions  of  fish  devoured  in  the  course  of  a  season.  Again,  if  each  Bluefish, 
averaging  five  pounds,  devours  or  destroys  even  half  its  own  weight  of  other  fish  per  day  (and  1 
am  not  sure  that  the  estimate  of  some  witnesses  of  twice  this  weight  is  not  more  nearly  correct), 
•we  will  have,  during  the  same  period,  a  daily  loss  of  twenty-five  hundred  million  pounds,  equal  to 
three  hundred  thousand  millions  for  the  season. 

'•This  estimate  applies  to  three  or  four  year  old  fish,  of  at  least  three  to  five  pounds  in  weight. 
We  must,  however,  allow  for  those  of  smaller  size,  and  a  hundred-fold  or  more  in  number,  all 
engaged  simultaneously  in  the  butchery  referred  to. 

"We  can  scarcely  conceive  of  a  number  so  vast;  and  however  much  we  may  diminish,  within 
reason,  the  estimate  of  the  number  of  Bluefish  and  the  average  of  their  captures,  there  still  remains 
an  appalling  aggregate  of  destruction.  While  the  smallest  Bluefish  feed  upon  the  diminutive  fry, 
those  of  which  we  have  taken  account  capture  fish  of  large  size,  many  of  them,  if  not  capable  of 
reproduction,  l>eing  within  at  least  one  or  two  years  of  that  period. 

"It  is  estimated  by  very  good  authority  that  of  the  spawn  deposited  by  any  lish  at  a  given 
time  not  more  than  thirty  per  cent,  are  hatched,  and  that  less  than  ten  per  cent,  attain  an 


ii  oi-  Tin:  1:1.1  i:i'isn.  439 

age  when  they  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves.  As  their  age  increases,  t  lie  chances  of  reaching 
maturity  become  greater  and  greater.  It  is  among  the  small  residuum  of  this  class  that  the  agency 
of  the  r.lnetish  is  excreisi -il.  and  whatever  reasonable,  reduction  may  b«  made  in  our  estimate,  we 
cannot  doubt  that  they  exert  a  material  intlneiiee. 

"The  rate  of  growth  of  tlie  jilnelisli  is  also  an  evidence  of  the  immense  amount  of  food  they 
must  consume.  The  young  iish  which  first  appear  along  the  shores  of  Vineyard  Sound,  about  the 
middle  of  August,  are  about  live  inches  in  length.  By  the  beginning  of  September,  however,  they 
have  reached  six  or  seven  inches,  and  on  their  reappearance  in  the  second  year  they  measure 
alxmt  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  After  this  they  increase  in  a  still  more  rapid  ratio.  A  fish  which 
passes  eastward  from  Vine\ard  Sound  in  the  spring.  v.-.-iJmi-  ii\,-  pounds.  N  represented,  accord 
ing  to  the  general  impression,  by  the  ten  to  fifteen  pound  fish  of  the  autumn.  If  this  be  the  fact, 
the  tish  of  three  or  four  pounds  which  pass  along  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  in  March  return  to 
it  in  October  weighing  ten  to  fifteen  pounds. 

"As  already  explained,  the  relationship  of  these  fish  to  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  sea  is 
that  of  an  unmitigated  butcher;  and  it  is  able  to  contend  successfully  with  any  other  species  not 
superior  to  itself  in  size.  It  is  not  known  whether  an  entire  school  ever  unite  in  an  attack  upon 
a  particular  object  of  prey,  as  is  said  to  be  the  case  with  the  ferocious  fishes  of  the  South  American 
rivers  ;  should  they  do  so,  no  animal,  however  large,  could  withstand  their  onslaught. 

"  They  api>ear  to  eat  anything  that  swims  of  suitable  size — fish  of  all  kinds,  but  perhaps  more 
especially  the  menhaden,  which  they  seem  to  follow  along  the  coast,  and  which  they  attack  with 
such  terocity  as  to  drive  them  on  the  shore,  where  they  are  sometimes  piled  up  in  windrows  to  the 
depth  of  a  foot  or  more. 

"  The  amount  of  food  they  destroy,  even  if  the  whole  of  it  be  not  actually  consumed,  is  almost 
incredible.  Mr.  Westgate  (page  33)  estimates  it  at  twice  the  weight  of  the  fish  in  a  day,  and  this 
is  perhaps  quite  reasonable.  Captain  Spindle  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  will  destroy  a  thousand 
fish  in  a  day.  This  gentleman  is  also  of  the  opinion  that  they  do  much  more  harm  to  the  fishes 
of  the  coast  than  is  caused  by  the  pounds.  They  will  generally  swallow  a  fish  of  a  very  large  size 
in  proportion  to  their  own,  sometimes  taking  it  down  bodily ;  at  others,  only  the  posterior  half. 
The  peculiar  armor  of  certain  fish  prevents  their  being  taken  entire;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  the  head  of  a  sculpin  or  other  fish,  whose  body  has  evidently  been  cut  oft'  by  the  Bluefish. 
In  the  summer  time  the  young  are  quite  apt  to  establish  themselves  singly  in  a  favorite  locality, 
and,  indeed,  to  accompany  the  fry  of  other  fishes,  usually  playing  below  them,  and  every  now  and 
then  darting  upward  and  capturing  an  unlucky  individual,  while  the  rest  dash  away  in  every 
direction.  In  this  manner  they  attend  upon  the  young  mullet,  atheriuas,  etc.  They  are  very  fond 
of  squid,  which  may  very  frequently  be  detected  in  their  stomachs.  In  August,  1870,  about  Fire 
Island,  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith  found  their  stomachs  filled  with  marine  worms,  a  species  of  Heteronerei*, 
which,  though  usually  burrowing  in  the  mud,  at  that  season  swims  freely  toward  the  surface 
in  connection  with  the  operation  of  reproduction.  This,  like  the  squid,  is  a  favorite  bait  for  the 
Bluetish  ;  and  they  appear  to  care  for  little  else  when  these  are  to  be  had.  This  fact  probably 
explains  the  reason  why,  at  certain  seasons,  no  matter  how  abundant  the  fish  may  be,  they  cannot 
be  taken  with  the  drail  or  squid  boat."1 

'The  following  extract  from  the  '•  Gloucester  Telegraph  "  of  June  4,  Ib70,  gives  an  idea  of  their  influence  upon  other 
fishes: 

"ABUNDANCE  OF  FISH  IN  NEW  JERSEY — 1870. — Accounts  from  New  Jersey  say  that  the  Blneflsh  came  in  at  Barne- 
gat  Inlet  last  week,  sweeping  through  the  bay,  over  flats  as  well  as  through  the  channel,  driving  million*  of  bushels  of 
bunkers  before  them  and  tilling  the  coves,  creeks,  ditched,  and  ponds  iu  the  meadows  lull.  At  Liltle  Egg  Harbor 
Inlet  they  drove  shad  on  shore  so  that  people  gathered  them  up  by  wagon-loads.  Fish  lie  in  creeks,  ponds,  etc.,  along 


440  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Bluefish  are  believed  to  have  bad  a  very  important  influence  upon  tbe  abundance  of 
other  species  on  some  parts  of  tbe  coast.  This  has  been  noticed  especially  on  the  north  side  of 
Cape  Cod.  South  of  Cape,  Cod  the  small  fish  occur  in  such  enormous  abundance  that  even  the 
voracity  of  millions  of  Bluetish  could  hardly  produce  any  effect  upon  them.  Captain  Atwood  has 
recorded  his  belief  that  the  advent  of  the  Bluefish  drove  away  the  plaice  or  large  flounder  from 
those  waters,  not  so  much  by  their  direct  attacks  upou  them  as  by  destroying  the  squid  upon 
which  the  latter  formerly  subsisted.  He  is  also  of  the  opinion  that  the  mackerel  once,  for  a  time, 
were  affected  by  them.  The  mackerel  have  since  returned  to  those  waters  in  their  wonted 
numbers,  but  the  Bluefish  are  not  now  sufficiently  plenty  north  of  Cape  Cod  to  interfere  with  them. 
The  flight  of  the  mackerel  was  not  an  unmitigated  evil,  however,  since,  as  Captain  Atwood  pointed 
out,  the  number  of  lobsters  for  a  time  was  very  considerably  increased.  The  mackerel  fed  upon 
their  eggs,  and  when  they  were  driven  away  by  the  Blnefish  the  lobsters  had  a  better  chance  to 
multiply. 

"The  Bluefish  sometimes  make  their  way  up  the  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance,  the  adults, 
however,  apparently  never  entering  the  perfectly  fresh  water.  They  are  found  in  the  Potomac  as 
far  north  as  Aquia  Creek,  and  also  far  up  the  Hudson;  indeed,  the  young  of  the  year  are  taken 
as  high  as  Sing  Sing  on  the  Hudson  and  other  tidal  rivers,  where  the  water  is  entirely  fresh." 

REPRODUCTION. — "Little  is  known  of  their  reproduction.  Dr.  Yarrow  does  not  give  any  facts 
in  regard  to  this  subject,  at  Fort  Macon,  except  that  spawn  was  seen  to  run  out  of  a  small 
female  caught  July  14.  Dr.  Holbrook  is  also  silent  on  this  head.  Mr.  Genio  C.  Scott  says  the 
spawning  beds  are  visited  by  the  parent  in  June,  and  consist  of  quiet  nooks  or  bays.  Mr.  It.  B. 
Roosevelt  states  that  very  diminutive  young  occur  in  immense  numbers  along  the  coast  at  the  end 
of  September  or  beginning  of  October  ('Game  Fish  of  America,'  186'J,  159).  I  found  the  young 
fish  at  Carson's  Inlet,  Beasley's  Point,  New  Jersey,  in  July,  1854,  two  or  three  inches  in  length, 
and  more  compressed  than  the  adult ;  but  farther  east,  on  Vineyard  Sound,  although  diligent 
search  was  conducted,  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  first  of  October,  with  most  efficient 
apparatus  in  the  way  of  fine-meshed  nets,  I  met  with  nothing  excepting  fish  that  made  their 
appearance  all  at  once  along  the  edge  of  the  bay  and  harbor. 

"  According  to  Captain  Edwards,  of  Wood's  Holl,  a  very  accurate  observer,  they  have  no 
spawn  in  them  when  in  Vineyard  Sound.  This  statement  is  corroborated  by  Captain  Hinckley; 
and  Captain  I  la  lift  i,  of  Hyannis,  'does  not  know  where  they  spawn.'  The  only  positive  evidence 
on  this  subject  is  that  of  Captain  Pease,  who  states  it  as  the  general  impression  about  Edgar- 
town  that  they  spawn  about  the  last  of  July  or  the  first  of  August.  He  has  seen  them  when  he 
thought  they  were  spawning  on  the  sand,  having  caught  them  u  short  time  i  efore,  full  of  spawn, 
and  finding  them  afterward  for  a  time  thin  and  weak.  He  thinks  their  spawning  ground  is  on 
the  white  sandy  bottom  to  the  eastward  of  Martha's  Vineyard,  toward  Muskeeget.  While  not 
discrediting  the  statement  of  Mr.  Pease,  it  seems  a  little  remarkable  that  so  few  persons  on  the 
eastern  coast  have  noticed  the  spawning  in  summer  of  the  Bluefish ;  and,  although  there  may  be 
exceptions  to  the  fact,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  spawning  ground  is  in  very  early  spring,  or 
even  in  winter,  off  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island  or  farther  south.  It  is  not  impossible  that,  at  a 

tbe  meadows  two  feet  deep,  so  that  one  can  take  u  common  fork  nnd  pitch  them  into  a  boat  or  throw  them  on  the 
bank.  In  some  places  they  lie  in  windrows  on  the  meadows  where  the  tide  has  taken  them,  so  they  take  large  wood- 
scows  alongside  and  load  them." 

1857. — "BliietUh  were  very  plenty  off  our  shores  in  the  early  part  of  autumn.  They  are  great  enemies  to  the 
menhaden  ;  and  for  several  days  such  a  war  raged  that,  the  benches  were  strewn  with  dead  tish,  chiefly  of  the  latter 
species.  Mr.  Lewis,  the  historian,  said  that  in  two  tides  he  picked  up  nine  bushels  and  buried  them  in  his  garden  for 
manure.— LKWIS  AND  NKWIIALL,  p.  452.  History  of  Lynn., 


MOVEMENTS  OF  YOUNG  BLUEFISH.  441 

suitable  period  after  spawning,  the  young,  in  obedience  to  their  migratory  instinct,  may  move 
northward  along  the  coast,  -rowing  rapidly  us  they  proceed.  This  explains  the  almost  sudden 
appearance  of  fish  of  five  inches  about  Wood's  Holl. 

••  We  have  the  statement  of  Dr.  Yarrow  that  vast  schools  of  small  Blueiish  were  met  with  in 
Beaufort  Harbor  during  the  last  week  iu  December,  1871.  These  were  in  company  with  small 
schools  of  young  menhaden  and  yellow-tail  shad,  and  were  apparently  working  their  way  toward 
the  sea  by  the  route  ot  the  inlet.  When  observed,  they  were  coining  from  the  southward  through 
the  sound,  moving  very  slowly,  at  times  nearly  leaving  it,  and  then  returning.  The  largest  were 
about  four  inches  in  length,  and  others  were  much  smaller;  and  as  many  as  twenty  schools  were 
observed  from  the  wharf  at  Fort  Macon,  each  of  them  occupying  an  area  of  from  sixty  to  eighty 
feet  square,  and  apparently  from  four  to  six  feet  iu  depth.  I  would  not  be  much  surprised  if  these 
fish  should  prove  to  have  been  spawned  late  in  the  year  oft  the  southern  coast." 

Diligent  research  by  numerous  inquirers  during  a  period  of  ten  years  has  failed  to  add  any- 
thing of  importance  to  what  Professor  Baird  has  already  stated  in  the  paragraph  above  quoted, 
and  it  may  be  regarded  as  almost  certain  that  Blueflsh  do  not  spawn  in  our  inshore  waters.  The 
only  important  contribution  to  our  knowledge  on  this  subject  is  found  iu  the  notes  of  Mr.  Silas 
Stearns,  who  believes  that  he  has  abundant  evidence  of  their  spawning  iu  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
His  remarks  are  quoted  in  full  below.  The  Hon.  Kobert  B.  Roosevelt  records  that  ho  observed 
the  bluetish  fry  less  than  an  inch  iu  length  in  the  inlet  of  Far  Rockaway,  New  York,  on  the  10th 
of  July. 

SIZE. — "The  size  varies  considerably  with  season  and  locality,  those  spending  the  summer 
on  the  southern  coast,  according  to  good  authority,  rarely  exceeding  two  or  three  pounds  in 
weight,  and  being  generally  considerably  less.  The  largest  summer  specimens  are  those  found 
farther  to  the  eastward,  where  they  are  not  uufrequeutly  met  with  weighing  from  ten  to  fifteen 
pounds,  although  this  latter  weight  is  quite  unusual.  Mr.  Snow,  however  (page  44),  mentions 
having  seen  one  of  twenty-two  pounds,  and  others  give  as  their  maximum  from  fourteen  to 
twenty.  The  average  size  of  the  schools  in  Vineyard  Sound,  during  the  early  season,  is  from  five 
to  seven  pounds.  The  schools,  however,  that  make  their  appearance  in  October  embrace  many 
individuals  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds.  It  is,  therefore,  not  improbable  that  the  difference 
between  the  first-mentioned  average  and  the  last  represents  the  increase  by  their  summer  feediug. 
As  already  remarked,  Bluefish  in  the  last  century  sometimes  attained  a  weight  of  forty  or  fifty 
pounds  in  Vineyard  Sound;  according  to  Zaccheus  Ma«y,  thirty  of  them  would  fill  a  barrel." 

"Forest  and  Stream,"  June  25, 1874,  states  that  L.  Ilathaway,  esq.,  a  veteran  fisherman,  while 
fishing  from  the  bridge  at  Cohasset  Narrows,  Massachusetts,  with  rod  and  reel,  captured  a  Blue- 
fish  weighing  twenty-five  pounds.  The  largest  previously  caught  weighed  seventeen  pounds. 

"On  getting  ba«k  to  the  Carolina  coast  in  the  early  part  of  November,  according  to  Dr.  Yar- 
row's statement,  they  are  from  three  to  five  feet  in  length  and  weigh  from  ten  to  twenty  pounds. 
What  becomes  of  these  large  fish,  that  so  lew  of  them  are  seen  iu  the  early  spring,  it  is  impossible 
to  say.  If  it  be  really  true  that  they  are  much  scarcer  than  in  the  fall,  we  may  infer  that  their 
increased  size  makes  them  a  more  ready  prey  to  the  larger  fish  and  cetaceans,  or  that  they  have 
accomplished  their  ordinary  period  of  life;  possibly  that  they  have  broken  up  into  smaller  parties, 
less  conspicuous  to  observation,  or  that  they  have  materially  changed  their  locality.  The  average 
length  of  the  fish  that  appear  in  the  spring  off  the  coast  of  Virginia  and  the  southern  part  of  New 
Jersey,  according  to  Dr.  (Joues,  Dr.  Yarrow,  and  my  own  observations,  is  about  one  foot,  being 
probably  about  one  year  old.  As  a  general  rule,  those  of  the  smaller  size  keep  close  to  the  shore 
and  can  always  be  met  with,  while  the  larger  ones  go  iu  schools  and  remain  farther  outside. 


442  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"I  was  unable  to  obtain  any  very  young  fish  about  Wood's  Holl  in  1871,  the  smallest  found 
making  their  appearance  quite  suddenly  along  the  coast,  especially  in  the  Tittle  bays,  about  the 
middle  of  August,  and  then  measuring  about  five  by  one  and  one-fifth  inches.  By  the  end  of 
September,  however,  these  had  reached  a  length  of  seven  or  eight  iuches,  and  at  the  age  of  about 
a  year  they  probably  constitute  the  twelve  or  fourteen  inch  fish  referred  to  as  occurring  aloug  the 
southern  coast.  The  fish  of  the  third  year,  or  those  two  years  old,  are  possibly  the  three-pouud 
fish,  while  the  five  to  seven  pound  fish  may  be  considered  a  year  older  still.  Accurate  observa- 
tions are  wanting,  however,  to  determine  these  facts;  as  also  whether  they  require  two  years,  or 
three  or  more,  to  attain  sufficient  maturity  for  breeding.  As  far  as  I  know,  there  is  no  appreciable 
diflerence  between  the  sexes  in  their  rate  of  growth  or  weight,  excepting  that  the  female  is  likely 
to  be  a  little  deeper  in  the  body." 

A  Bluefish  weighing  one  pound  measures  about  fourteen  inches;  two  pounds,  seventeen 
inches;  three  pounds,  twenty -one  iuches;  four  pounds,  twenty-four  inches;  five  pounds,  twenty- 
six  inches;  six  pounds,  twenty-six  to  twenty-seven  iuches,  and  eight  pounds,  twenty-nine  iuches. 

STEARNS  ON  BLUEFISH  IN  THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO. — Mr.  Stearns'  notes  on  the  occurrence 
of  the  Bluefish  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  so  important  that  they  are  quoted  here  in  full: 

"The  Bluefish  is  abundant  in  West  Florida  and  as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi  River,  but  is 
rare  or  not  found  at  all  in  other  parts  of  the  Gulf.  At  Pensacola  and  vicinity  it  is  at  certain 
seasons  one  of  the  most  important  fishes  of  trade.  Here  it  is  caught  only  in  seines  and  when 
migrating,  during  the  mouths  of  April,  May,  June,  November,  and  December.  It  usually  appears 
ou  the  coast  in  April — sometimes  a  little  sooner — and  conies  from  the  southeast,  swimming  directly 
in  from  deep  water,  or  parallel  to  the  land,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  sea.  It  sometimes 
swims  near  the  surface,  either  to  sport  or  prey  upon  smaller  surface-swimming  fishes,  but  more 
commonly  at  some  depth  in  shoal  water  along  the  beach.  Many  schools  are  observed  through  the 
months  of  April,  May,  and  June  approaching  the  laud  from  the  eastward,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
there  are  several  distinct  'runs'  in  that  period.  These  'runs'  take  place  every  year,  although 
much  larger  some  years  than  others.  It  is  usually  the  case  that  the  fish  arriving  in  the  spring  are 
small,  averaging  two  and  a  half  pounds  weight,  and  that  those  caught  in  the  fall  are  larger,  aver- 
aging four  pounds  or  more.  A  few  very  large  individuals  are  found  in  both  seasons. 

"In  May  and  June  Bluefish  enter  the  bays.  They  remain  for  some  days  in  the  swift  tide- 
ways when  inside,  and  then  disappear  almost  entirely  from  observation.  A  few  are  taken  through 
the  summer  with  hook  and  line  in  the  bays  and  at  sea.  Excepting  the  smallest  ones,  all  the 
Bluefish  contain  spawn  when  they  arrive  in  the  spring.  With  the  larger  fish  the  spawn  is  nearly 
ripe,  and  with  the  small  and  intermediate  size  is  found  in  nearly  all  stages.  April  29, 1879, 1 
examined  two  female  Bluefish,  weighing  seven  and  eight  pounds,  and  found  spawn  almost  ripe 
enough  to  flow  from  the  oviduct.  The  same  day  others,  smaller  ones,  were  examined,  in  which 
the  ovaries  were  scarcely  visible.  The  spawning  season  of  the  Bluefish  includes  several  months, 
I  think,  which  are  May,  June,  July,  and  August. 

"There  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  spawning  iu  the  bays,  sounds,  and  bayous,  as  all  evidence 
gained  goes  so  far  to  prove  it.  On  June  18,  1878,  and  August  9, 1878, 1  caught  young  Bluefish  of 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  iu  length  in  Pensacola  Bay.  These  fry  were  very  active  and  gave 
me  no  little  trouble  in  capturing  them.  Their  color  was  a  brilliant  green,  which  faded  consider- 
ably when  placed  in  alcohol.  These,  with  others,  were  sent  to  the  National  Museum  with  my 
collections  of  that  year.  Many  other  specimens  of  about  that  size  were  seen  in  August,  but 
escaped  my  net.  During  the  months  of  November  and  December  many  small  schools  of  Bluefisb 
are  seeu  to  pass  out  of  the  inlets,  and,  if  there  is  not  much  surf,  to  follow  along  the  beach  eastward. 


BLUEFISH  IN  THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO.  443 

Blnclisli  of  all  sizes  may  be  seen  at  this  time,  the  smaller  ones  measuring  in  length  three  to  five 
inches,  the  intermediate  si/cs  ten,  twelve,  :mcl  nfteen  inches,  and  the  large  ones  from  the  last-men- 
tioned size  to  a  size  weighing  fifteen  or  eighteen  pounds.  Ton  pounds  is  not  an  unusual  weight 
for  large  Blueftsb,  but  those  of  eighteen  pounds  are  rare.  Blueflsh  are  said  to  be  more  abundant 
on  this  coast  than  formerly,  anil  any  change  in  the  last  five  years  has  tended  to  an  increase  rather 
than  a  decrease.  It  is  an  exceedingly  voracious  fish,  preying  upon  any  kind  of  fish  through  which 
its  teeth  can  cut  and  which  its  jaws  can  surround.  I  think  its  migratory  movement  on  this  const 
is  caused  more  on  account  of  its  food  becoming  scarcer  in  cold  weather  than  on  account  of  its 
being  influenced  by  the  change  of  the  temperature  of  the  water,  for  on  the  coldest  days  of  the  year 
(in  December)  Bluetisli  are  sometimes  caught  in  shoal  water  in  great  abundance  as  well  as  at  any 
other  time.  The  Bluefish  is  one  of  the  choicest  food-fishes  of  this  coast,  and  is  much  used,  both 
fresh  and  salted." 

!•:  \  i:  1.1.  ON  THE  BLUEFISH  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA. — Below  is  given  an  outline  of  the  winter 
Bhielish  fisheries  of  the  Southern  coast  as  gathered  from  notes  made  during  the  visit  of  Mr.  11.  E. 
Earll  to  that  region : 

The  large  fish  are  taken  in  two  localities — first,  a  few  miles  off  Cape  May,  and  again  on  the 
Carolina  coast  between  Cape  Henry  and  Ocracoke  Inlet.  They  are  most  abundant  between  Cape 
Hatteras  and  New  Inlet.  Small  fish  frequently  enter  the  sounds  during  the  summer  months,  and 
have  long  been  taken  by  the  residents.  The  larger  ones  seldom  enter  the  inlets,  but  remain  near 
the  outer  shore,  where  they  feed  upon  the  menhaden,  shad,  and  alewives,  during  the  season  of  their 
migrations  to  and  from  the  larger  sounds  in  fall  and  spring. 

Apparently,  the  first  that  was  known  of  the  presence  of  large  Bluefish  in  this  region  was  in 
18413,  when  a  quantity  was  taken  in  a  haul-seine  near  New  Inlet.  Gill-nets  were  first  used  for  the 
capture  of  the  species  in  this  locality  in  1847,  though  they  were  not  generally  adopted  till  several 
years  later.  The  first  vessel  visited  the  region  in  1866,  and  from  that  date  to  1879  six  to  twelve 
sail  came  regularly  to  the  locality.  The  fishery  reached  its  height  between  1870  and  1876,  when  in 
addition  to  the  vessels  fully  one  hundred  crews  of  five  men  each  fished  along  the  shores.  The 
catch  varies  greatly  from  time  to  time,  as  the  fish  are  constantly  on  the  move  and  often  go  beyond 
reach  of  the  seines  and  gill-nets.  Some  seasons  each  boat's  crew  has  averaged  four  or  five  thou- 
sand fish  weighing  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  each,  and  again  they  have  taken  almost  nothing.  Fre- 
quently the  bulk  of  the  catch  of  an  entire  season  is  taken  in  three  or  four  days. 

Since  the  winter  of  1877  and  1878  the  fish  are  said  to  have  been  much  less  abundant  and  of 
smaller  size.  In  the  winter  of  1879  and  1880  about  seventy-five  crews  were  engaged  in  the  fishery 
from  the  first  of  November  till  Christmas.  The  total  catch  did  not  exceed  fifty  thousand  fish 
averaging  six  pounds  each.  The  small  number  taken  is  partially  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  fish  were  so  small  as  to  readily  pass  through  the  meshes  without  being  caught. 

During  my  visit  in  May,  1880,  large  schools  of  Bluefish  were  reported  along  the  shore,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  shad  and  other  species  were  found  upon  the  beach  where  they  had  been 
driven  by  their  pursuers.  A  good  many  Bluefish  were  also  stranded  while  in  pursuit  of  their  prey. 
It  seemed  that  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  fish  have  permanently  left  the  coast,  or  that 
they  are  even  so  scarce  as  is  at  present  claimed,  for  the  men  have  fished  with  little  regularity,  and 
have  gone  only  a  short  distance  from  the  shore,  while  the  bulk  of  the  Bluefish  may  have  been 
farther  out. 

USES. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  our  food-fishes,  and  surpassed  in  public  estima- 
tion only  by  the  Spanish  mackerel  and  the  pompauo.  It  may  be  said  to  furnish  a  large  part  of 
the  supply  to  the  middle  and  Northern  States.  It  is  a  standard  fish  in  New  York,  Boston,  and 


444  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

other  seaports,  and  is  carried  in  great  numbers  into  the  interior.  Its  flesh  is  very  sweet  and 
savory,  but  it  does  not  keep  very  well.  lu  the  Vineyard  Sound  the  fishermen  are  in  the  habit  of 
crimping  their  fish,  or  killing  them,  by  cutting  their  throats  in  such  a  manner  that  they  bleed 
freely.  Every  one  who  has  opportunities  for  observing  admits  that  fish  thus  treated  are  far  supe- 
rior to  any  others.  Great  quantities  of  Bluefish  are  frozen  in  New  York  for  winter  consumption. 
They  aie  still  considered  unfit  for  food  on  our  Southern  coast,  and  even  in  the  markets  of  Washing- 
ton, District  of  Columbia.  I  have  frequently  been  stopped  by  fish-dealers  who  asked  me  to  assure 
their  customers  that  Bluefish  were  eatable.  They  are  growing  into  favor  everywhere,  however, 
just  as  they  did  in  Boston.  Captain  Atwood  tells  me  that  in  18C5  but  very  few  were  sold  in  Boston, 
and  that  the  demand  has  been  increasing  ever  since.  When  he  first  went  to  Boston  with  a  load 
of  Bluefish  he  got  two  cents  a  pound  for  them ;  the  second  year  they  were  scarcer  and  he  got  two 
and  one-half  cents,  and  the  year  afterwards  three  cents. 

147.  THE  COBIA  OR  CRAB-EATER— ELACATE  CANADA. 

This  fish,  known  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay  as  the  "Bonito"and  "Coal-fish,"  and  as  the  "Sergeant- 
fish"  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Florida,  and  in  Western  Florida  as  the  "Ling"  or  "Snooks,"  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  important  food-fishes  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  though  it  is  but  little 
known  elsewhere.  Like  the  Bluefish,  it  is  cosmopolitan  in  its  distribution,  having  been  recorded  in 
the  seas  of  China  and  Japan,  in  Southeastern  Hiudostan,  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  on  the  coast 
of  Brazil,  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  Bermudas,  where  it  is  called  the  "  Cubby-yew,"  and  along 
our  own  shores  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Cape  Cod.  DeKay  speaks  of  the  capture  of  a  single 
individual  in  Boston  Harbor.  The  species  was  originally  described  by  Linnaius  from  a  specimen 
sent  to  him  from  South  Carolina  by  Dr.  Garden.  The  name  "  Sergeant-fish"  refers  to  its  peculiar 
coloration,  several  stripes  of  brown  and  gray  being  visible  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  name 
"  Crab-eater"  appears  to  have  been  ascribed  to  the  fish  by  Dr.  Mitchill.  What  is  known  of  its  habits 
may  be  very  shortly  told.  Holbrook  remarks :  "  The  Crab-eater  is  a  solitary  fish  ;  it  prefers  deep 
and  clear  water  and  is  only  taken  singly  with  a  hook.  It  lives  on  the  coast  of  Carolina  late  in 
May,  and  is  occasionally  captured  until  September,  when  it  is  no  longer  seen  in  our  waters.  It  is 
exceedingly  voracious,  and  destroys  many  smaller  fish,  which  make  its  ordinary  food,  though  it 
does  not  reject  crustaceous  animals." 

Mitchill  cut  up  a  specimen  which  he  obtained  in  New  York  market  in  June,  1815,  which  had 
been  caught  in  the  bay.  He  found  its  stomach  distended  with  food  of  various  sorts,  including 
twenty  spotted  sand-crabs  and  several  young  flounders.  DeKay  tells  us  that  the  specimen  from 
which  his  description  was  taken  was  captured  in  a  seine  in  the  harbor  of  Boston  and  placed  in  a 
car  with  other  fish.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  he  had  destroyed  and  eaten  every  fish  in  the 
car.  These  fish  were  chiefly  sculpins  or  porgies.  Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke,  speaking  of  the  fish  fauna  of 
Florida,  remarks :  "  This  fish  I  have  never  seen  except  in  the  Indian  River,  where  it  is  a  common 
species,  lying  under  the  mangrove  bushes  in  wait  for  prey  like  a  pike,  which  it  much  resembles  iu 
form  and  iu  the  long  under  jaw  full  of  sharp  teeth."  The  size  is  from  two  to  three  feet.  It  attains 
the  length  of  five  feet  and  the  weight  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds.  Stearns  writes :  "  It  is  said  by 
Maj.  E.  B.  Staples,  of  Sarasota,  to  be  quite  common  iu  South  Florida." 

The  Cobia  breeds  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  in  1880  Mr.  R.  E.  Earll  succeeded  in  artificially 
fertilizing  the  eggs.  Dr.  Mitchill  speaks  of  its  availability  as  a  food  fish  in  the  highest  terms. 

148.  THE  TRIPLE  TAIL  OR  BLACK  PERCH— LOBOTES    SURINAMENSIS. 

The  Triple-tail  of  the  New  York  market,  Lvbotex  surinamensis,  known  iu  South  Carolina  as 
the  "Black  Perch,"  and  to  the  fishermen  of  Saint  John's  River  as  the  "Grouper,"  is  also  called 


TUT.  TKUM.I-:  TAIL  oi:  m.ACK  I'F.LTII.  445 

b\  various  authors  tin-  ••  I'.lack  Ti iple  tail."  :iinl  in  lS.-><;,  according  to  Gill,  was  called  in  New  York 
market  the  ••  Flasher."  It  is  remarkable  on  aeconnt  of  its  extraordinarily  \\iile  range,  having  been 
found  in  China,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  at  Smula  :ind  Molucca,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  in  the 
Mediterranean  about  Sicily;  at  Ceylon,  in  the  West  Indies  about  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  on  the  coast  of 
South  America,  from  Surinam,  whence  the  first  specimen  was  derived  and  from  which  locality  the 
species  takes  its  scientific  name,  and  along  the  coast  of  the  United  States  from  Saint  John's  Hiver 
to  Wood's  I  loll.  Massachusetts.  The  Triple- tail  is  a  short,  thick,  heavily  built  fish.  Thedorsnl  and 
aiii'l  tins  project  backwards  towards  the  base  of  the  caudal  HO  prominently  as  to  give  origin  to  the 
common  name.  When  alive  it  is  a  very  beautiful  species,  silvery  and  gray  in  color,  but  after  death 
it  soon  becomes  dingy — so  dingy,  in  fact,  that  many  of  the  common  names  are  prefixed  by  the 
adjective  -black."  I  saw  four  specimens  at  Jacksonville,  Florida,  on  the  5th  of  April,  1875.  The 
largest  weighed  about  ten  pounds  and  measured  nearly  two  feet  in  length.  The  species  is  abundant 
about  Charleston,  where,  according  to  Uolbrook,  it  appears  in  June  and  remains  until  September. 
It  feeds  upon  small  fishes  and  mussels,  and  is  said  to  take  the  hook  readily  when  baited  with  clams 
or  with  shrimps.  It  is  occasionally  taken  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  Professor 
Baird  obtained  specimens  about  three  inches  long  in  August  among  the  eel-grass  on  Tuckahoe 
Kiver  in  New  Jersey.  Stragglers  have  been  taken  at  New  York,  and  even  as  far  north  as  Wood's 
Holl,  Massachusetts.  They  are  occasionally  brought  to  the  New  York  market,  where  they  are 
highly  esteemed.  (Jill,  writing  in  1856,  said:  "I  saw  a  single  specimen  of  this  species  in  Fulton 
Market  last  year,  which  remained  exposed  on  the  stall  from  August  30  to  September  6.  It  did 
not  seem  to  be  known.  It  was  about  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  one  dollar  was  demanded  for  it." 
By  the  fishermen  of  Saint  John's  River,  Florida,  it  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  food-fishes,  and  ito 
large  silver  scales  command  a  high  price  at  the  fancy  shops,  where  they  are  sold  to  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  scale  works. 

149.  THE  MOON-FISH— CKETODIPTEBUS  FABER. 

The  Moon-fish  is  one  of  the  rarer  species  on  our  coast,  and  has  recently  come  so  much  into 
favor  in  New  York  that  among  connoisseurs  it  is  one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  food-fishes.  It 
is  also  highly  esteemed  by  residents  of  Washington  who  know  it,  being  abundant  in  the  markets 
of  that  city  in  summer.  In  the  northern  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  it  is  called  the  "Spade-fish"; 
from  Florida  to  Charleston  the  "  Angel-fish,"  a  name  which,  according  to  Schoepf,  appears  to 
have  been  current  during  the  last  century  at  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  where  it  is  called  the 
"Porgee"  or  "Pogy,"  and  at  New  York,  where  it  is  stated  to  be  found  in  summer.  "Three-tail 
Sheepshead"  and  "Three-tail  Porgee"  are  names  which  are  said  to  have  been  formerly  in  use 
among  the  New  York  fishermen. 

The  range  of  this  species  along  our  coast  is  very  wide.  It  has  been  found  in  Guatemala,  and 
perhaps  farther  south,  and  the  British  Museum  has  specimens  from  Texas,  Santo  Domingo,  and 
Jamaica.  It  is  said  to  be  somewhat  abundant  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  and  not  uncommon 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  They  are  occasionally  taken  about  New  York,  and  several 
individuals  have  been  obtained  by  the  Fish  Commission  at  Woods'  Holl.  It  is  occasionally  taken 
in  Southern  California,  abont  San  Diego.  It  attains  the  length  of  eighteen  inches  and  the  weight 
of  several  pounds.  The  large  adult  specimens  have  a  peculiar  globular  bone  in  the  head,  unlike 
anything  which  has  been  found  in  any  other  fish.  Two  species  have  been  recognized  by  American 
ichthyologists.  It  seems  probable  that  these  represent  different  ages  of  the  same  fish.  The  only 
study  of  its  habits  in  existence  is  the  following,  which  is  quoted  from  Mr.  Stearns'  manuscript: 

"  The  Spade-fish,  Chtetodipterus  fabcr,  is  common  on  the  West  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Louisiana 


446  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

coasts.  I  have  not  observed  it  in  South  Florida.  It  is  found  throughout  the  summer  and  fall  in 
the  bays,  about  wharves,  rock-piles,  and  old  wrecks,  where  crustaceous  animals  are  abundant.  In 
October  and  November  large  schools  are  seen  along  the  sea-beaches,  evidently  leaving  the  coast 
for  warmer  waters,  at  which  time  many  are  caught  by  seine  fishermen.  It  spawns  in  early  summer, 
and  the  young  are  seen  until  October.  I  have  seen  specimens  of  Spade-fish  fifteen  inches  long ; 
but  the  average  size  is  not  more  than  eight  inches.  It  is  an  excellent  pan-fish,  selling  readily  in 
market." 

This  species  is  known  to  the  fishermen  of  the  Saint  John's  and  Indian  Rivers,  Florida,  under 
the  name  "Angel-fish."  Holbrook  states  that  it  appears  on  the  shores  of  South  Carolina  in  May 
and  June,  and  is  then  taken  in  considerable  numbers  with  the  seine.  Jordan  states  that  it  is 
common  at  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  where  it  is  used  as  a  food-fish.  Lugger  remarks  that  it  is 
not  uncommon  in  the  salt-water  region  near  the  entrance  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  is  seldom,  if 
ever,  brought  to  the  Baltimore  markets.  DeKay  remarks  that  in  the  waters  of  New  York  it  only 
appears  periodically,  and  occasionally  in  great  numbers  during  the  summer  months.  About  1822 
they  were  caught  here  in  seines  in  great  numbers,  and  exposed  in  the  markets  for  sale.  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  such  incursion  has  since  been  observed.  On  the  coast  of  California,  where, 
according  to  Jordan,  it  is  occasionally  taken  about  San  Diego  in  the  kelp,  it  is  too  rare  to  be  of 
commercial  importance. 

150.  THE  EEMOEA  FAMILY— ECHENEIDID2E. 

This  family  is  represented  on  our  coast  by  five  species,  which  are  generally  known  as  "Suck- 
ers" or  "  Sucking-fishes."  They  are  among  the  most  remarkable  of  fishes,  the  first  dorsal  fin  having 
.become  transformed  into  a  sucking  organ,  by  means  of  which  the  fish  can  attach  themselves  very 
firmly  to  the  sides  of  vessels  or  to  the  gill-covers  or  sides  of  larger  species  of  fish.  One  or  two  of 
the  species,  such  as  the  E.  naucrates,  are  frequently  found  adhering  to  the  sides  of  vessels.  Others 
attach  themselves  to  sharks,  and  are  carried  by  them  from  place  to  place.  Since  they  are  them- 
selves excellent  swimmers,  the  purpose  of  this  peculiar  habit  is  hard  to  understand.  It  appears  to 
be  more  for  the  purpose  of  following  the  larger  fishes  in  order  that  they  may  share  the  fragments 
of  their  feasts.  Very  often,  especially  in  the  case  of  sharks,  the  fish  to  which  the  Suckers  attach 
themselves  become  very  much  emaciated  and  exhausted  by  the  effort  of  swimming  under  this 
impediment.  The  common  sword-fish  is  frequently  accompanied  by  one  of  the  Sucking-fishes,  which 
has  been  called  the  "Sword-fish  Sucker,"  Remoropais  brachyptera.  It  has  not  been  known  to  attach 
itself  to  any  other  fish.  The  "Bill-fish,"  Tetraptnrus,  has  another  species  of  sucker  peculiar  to 
itself,  the  Cuban  "Pega  de  lax  Agujas'?  Rhombochirus  osteochir. 

Mr.  Stearns  states  that  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  when  on  the  snapper  banks  fishing,  he  has  seen 
these  fish  leave  sharks  that  were  in  the  vicinity  and  remain  about  the  vessel  as  long  as  it  staid 
there  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  bait  that  had  been  thrown  overboard.  He  noticed  some  that 
were  four  or  five  feet  in  length.  These  "Sucking-fish  "  are  never  eaten,  and  are  interesting  chiefly 
as  enemies  of  other  more  important  species. 

The  Remora  was  one  of  the  first  fishes  observed  by  the  early  discoverers  of  North  America.  In 
Ogilby's  "America"  is  the  following  description  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Indians  used  those 
fishes  HR  aids  in  the  capture  of  other  larger  species.  The  incident  seems  to  have  occurred  about 
the  West  Indian  islands : 

"Columbus  from  hence  (from  Cuba)  proceeding  on  further  Westward,  discover'd  a  fruitful 
Coast,  verging  the  Mouth  of  a  River,  whose  Water  runs  Boyliug  into  the  Sea.  Somewhat  further 
he  saw  very  strange  Fishes,  especially  of  the  Guaican,  not  unlike  an  Eel,  but  with  an  extraordinary 


THE  GUIACAN  DESCRIBED  BY  COLUMBUS.  447 

great  Head,  over  which  hangs  a  Skin  like  a  Bag.  This  Fish  is  the  Natives  Fisher;  for  having  a 
I.ini'  or  liiiiiilsoui  Conl  thstm-d  about  him,  so  soon  as  a  Turtel,  or  any  other  of  his  Prey,  comes 
above  Water,  tlicy  give  him  Line;  whereupon  the  Guaican,  like  an  Arrow  out  of  a  Bowe,  shoots 
to\v;ml  the  other  Fish,  ami  then  gathering  the  Mouth  of  the  Bag  on  his  Ik-ad  like  a  Purse-net 
holds  them  so  fast,  that  he  lets  not  loose  till  hal'd  up  out  of  the  Water."1 

'Narrative  of  Voyage  of  Columbus,  in  Ogilby't  "America,"  1671,  p.  49  (with  very  onrioua  picture  of  Indian 
fishing). 


448  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


P.— BARRACOUTA,  MULLET,   PIKE,  AND   MUMMICHOGS. 

151.  THE   BARRACOUTA  FAMILY— SPHYR^ENID^. 

This  family  is  represented  on  oar  Atlantic  coast  by  several  species,  none  of  which  appear  to 
l>e  at  all  abundant  north  of  Florida,  except  one  species,  which  has  recently  appeared  in  consid- 
erable numbers  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Massachusetts,  and  which  is  recorded  by  Jordan  as 
abundant  in  its  young  state  in  Beaufort  Harbor,  North  Carolina.  This  species,  called  by  DeKay 
8phyrwna  borealis,  is  closely  related  to,  if  not  identical  with,  S.  spot  of  the  Mediterranean.  No 
specimens  of  greater  length  than  ten  or  twelve  inches  have  ever  been  taken,  and  individuals  of 
this  size  are  very  unusual,  though  smaller  ones,  ranging  from  two  to  six  inches,  are  occasionally 
found  in  large  schools  about  the  western  end  of  Martha's  Vineyard  and  about  Wood's  Holl, 
Massachusetts.  It  seems  incredible  that  the  young  should  occur  so  abundantly  in  these  waters 
and  the  full-grown  individuals  should  be  absent.  This  is,  possibly,  because  we  do  not  yet  know 
how  to  capture  them.  The  common  Barracouta,  or  "Barracuda,"  of  the  West  Indies,  Sphyrcena 
picuda,  occasionally  finds  its  way  into  our  northern  waters,  and  one  or  two  specimens  of  them  and 
other  West  Indian  species  have  been  taken  at  Wood's  Holl. 

8.  picuda  is  the  common  Barracouta  of  Key  West  and  the  southern  coast.  It  is  caught  with 
hook  and  line,  and  appears  occasionally  in  the  markets.  Mr.  Stearns  states  that  it  is  only  of 
average  merit  as  a  food-fish.  He  records  the  capture  of  several  very  small  specimens  belonging  to 
this  genus  in  Pensacola  and  Choctawhatchee  Bays  in  June,  1880.  In  the  West  Indies  this,  or 
some  closely  related  species,  grows  to  the  enormous  length  of  eight  feet  and  the  weight  of  forty 
pounds,  and  is  as  much  dreaded  as  the  large  sharks. 

Although  to  some  extent  used  as  food,  this  is  one  of  the  forbidden  fishes  of  the  Cuban  markets, 
there  having  been  instances  of  severe  sickness  caused  by  eating  its  flesh.  Since,  however,  a  large 
part  of  the  best  food-fishes  of  the  West  Indian  waters  are  tabooed  by  Cuban  law,  this  is  hardly  to 
be  regarded  as  a  fair  criterion.  In  the  Bermudas  both  Sphyrcena  picuda,  called  "  Sennet,"  and  8. 
spet,  which  is  called  the  "Barracuda,"  are  highly  esteemed  for  food  and  meet  with  ready  sale. 

On  the  California  coast  occurs  another  species,  Sphyrcena  argcntea,  which  is  everywhere  known 
as  the  'Barracuda,'  or  'Barracuta';  this  species  reaches  a  length  of  about  three  feet  and  a 
weight  of  twelve  pounds. 

Professor  Jordan  remarks  concerning  it  as  follows:  "It  is  abundant  in  summer  from  San  Fran- 
cisco southward,  great  numbers  having  been  taken  every  where  from  Santa  Cruz  southward.  It  is 
found  mainly  at  a  distance  of  three  miles  or  more  from  the  shore.  In  open  water  it  will  sometimes 
take  a  still  hook,  but  near  the  shore  it  must  be  trolled  for.  It  arrives  in  late  spring  or  summer, 
at  different  times  in  different  places,  the  main  'runs,'  about  the  Santa  Barbara  Islands,  being  in 
July;  farther  north,  somewhat  later.  It  spawns  at  San  Pedro  about  the  1st  of  August.  In  Sep- 
tember it  usually  disappears,  but  the  young  often  remain  in  the  south  and  are  taken  with  the  seine 
in  the  winter.  It  is  not  known  whether  it  retreats  to  the  south  or  to  deep  water.  It  feeds  upon 
anchovies  and  other  fishes.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  important  on  the  coast. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  when  dried  and  salted,  and,  like  the  white-fish  and  yellow-tail,  then  sells  at 
a  price  higher  than  that  received  for  the  Alaska  codfish." 


Tin:  si: A  SKI; IT: NTS.  449 

162.  THE  DEAL-FISH  FAMILY— TRACHYPTERID2B. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  found  in  the  deep  parts  of  the  sea  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  though  none  have  yet  been  found  on  our  Atlantic  coast.  They  are  eel-shaped  fishes  of 
great  length  and  brilliant  colors,  and  have  even  been  described  under  the  name  of  "  Sea-serpent." 
It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  stories  regarding  the  "sea-serpent"  have  had  reference  to  some 
nii-mber  of  this  family,  and  to  this  family  most  of  the  descriptions  of  large  marine  animals  of  a 
serpent-like  nature  are  very  applicable.  Several  individuals  of  the  species  known  as  the  "Oar- 
nHh,"  Regalecus  Banksii,  have  been  cast  up  on  the  British  coast,  the  largest  in  Yorkshire,  in  1845, 
twenty-four  feet  in  length.  In  1860,  an  individual,  eighteen  feet  in  length,  ran  ashore  at  the 
Bermudas,  but  none  have  been  found  in  the  more  western  portions  of  the  Atlantic,  although 
descriptions  which  have  been  given  by  various  observers  would  indicate  that  they  occasionally 
appear  near  our  shores.  On  the  Pacific  coast  there  is  a  species  which  is  sometimes  cast  ashore  by 
the  storms,  Trachypterm  altivelis;  it  is  considered  by  the  Makah  Indians  to  be  the  King  of  the 
salmons,  and  they  will  permit  no  one  to  eat  the  flesh  upon  any  condition,  for  fear  the  salmon  will 
never  return.  It  is  curious  that  a  similar  tradition  exists  on  the  coast  of  Norway  regarding  a 
related  species  which  is  called  the  "  Sillkung,"  or  "  King  of  the  herring."  "  The  same  notion,"  says 
Jordan,  "  is  commemorated  in  the  generic  name  Regalecug." ' 

153.  THE  MULLETS— MUGIL  ALBULA  AND  MUGIL  BRASILIENSIS. 

NAMES. — There  are,upon  our  coast  two  species  of  Mullet,  the  differences  between  which  are 
sometimes,  though  not  always,  recognized  by  fishermen.  The  most  usual  species  is  the  Striped 
Mullet,  MH ;i it  aUnila;  the  other  is  the  so-called  "  White  Mullet,"  Mugil  brcuiliensw.  The  former  is 
the  larger,  and  has  eight  instead  of  nine  rays  in  the  anal  fin,  and  forty-two  instead  of  thirty -eight 
scales  between  the  gill  openings  and  the  base  of  the  caudal  fin.  There  has  been  so  much  confusion 
among  writers  regarding  the  species  of  this  family  upon  our  coast  that  it  has  until  very  recently 
been  impossible  to  define  precisely  their  geographical  range.  The  Striped  Mullet  occurs  in  the 
West  Indies,  the  Gulf,  and  from  Southern  California  to  Chili,  the  other  species  from  Southern 
Massachusetts  to  the  West  Indies,  and  from  Lower  California  to  Pem.  A  single  specimen  of  M. 
brasiliensi*,  was  taken  at  Provincetown,  in  November,  1851.  North  of  Xew  Jersey  the  capture  of 
a  large  individual  is  very  unusual.  In  July  great  numbers  of  them,  about  an  inch  in  length,  have 
been  observed  on  the  Connecticut  coast,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Noank;  the  fishermen  there 
call  them  by  the  name  of  "Blnefish  Mnmmichog."  On  various  parts  of  the  coast  they  have 
special  names,  which,  however,  do  not  appear  to  refer  to  special  peculiarities.  About  Cape 
Hatteras  the  names  "Jumping  Mullet"  and  "Sand  Mullet"  occur;  in  Northampton  County, 
Virginia,  "Fat-back,"  and  in  Southeastern  Florida  "Silver  Mullet"  and  "Big-eyed  Mullet." 
The  name  "  Fat-back"  is  also  in  use,  but  whether  this  name  is  used  for  Mullets  in  general,  or  simply 
for  those  in  particularly  good  condition,  I  have  been  unable  to  learn.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the 
Striped  Mullet  is  known  simply  as  the  "Mullet";  the  other  species  as  the  "Silver  Mullet" 

GENEBAL,  HABITS. — There  are  seventy  or  more  species  of  Mullets,  one  or  more  of  which  are 
found  on  every  stretch  of  coast  line  in  the  world  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones.  They  live 
in  the  sea,  and  in  the  brackish  waters  near  the  months  of  rivers.  They,  like  the  menhaden, 
though  indeed  to  a  still  greater  degree,  subsist  on  the  organic  substances  which  are  mingled  with 
the  in 1 11 1  and  sand  on  the  bottom. 

••In  order  to  prevent  the  larger  bodies  from  passing  into  the  stomach,  or  substances  from 

1  Kejc—halrc~K.mK  of  Herring. 
29  F 


450  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

passing  through  the  gill  openings,  they  have  the  organs  of  the  pharynx  modified  into  a  filtering 
apparatus.  They  take  in  a  quantity  of  sand  and  inud,  and  after  having  worked  it  for  some  time 
between  the  pharyngeal  bones,  they  eject  the  roughest  and  most  indigestible  portion  of  it.  Each 
branchial  arch  is  provided  on  each  side,  in  its  whole  length,  with  a  series  of  closely  set  gill-rakers, 
which  are  laterally  bent  downward,  each  series  closely  fitting  into  the  series  of  the  adjoining  arch ; 
they  constitute  together  a  sieve,  admirably  adapted  to  permit  a  transit  for  the  water,  retaining,  at 
the  same  time,  every  other  substance  in  the  cavity  of  the  pharynx.  The  intestinal  tract  is  no  less 
peculiar,  and  the  stomach,  like  that  of  the  menhaden,  resembles  the  gizzard  of  a  bird.  The 
intestines  make  a  great  number  of  circumvolutions,  and  are  seven  feet  long  in  a  specimen  thirteen 
inches  in  length."1 

ABUNDANCE. — Although  Mullets  are  abundant  almost  everywhere,  it  is  probable  that  no 
stretches  of  sea-coast  in  the  world  are  so  bountifully  supplied  with  them  as  those  of  our  own  South- 
ern Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  with  their  broad  margin  of  partially  or  entirely  land-locked  brackish 
water  and  the  numerous  estuaries  and  broad  river  mouths.  The  Mullet  is  probably  the  most  gener- 
ally popular  and  the  most  abundant  fish  of  our  whole  southern  seaboard.  Like  the  menhaden,  it 
utilizes  food  inaccessible  to  other  fishes,  groping  in  the  bottom  mud,  which  it  swallows  in  large 
quantities.  Like  the  menhaden,  it  is  not  only  caught  extensively  by  man,  but  is  the  main  article 
of  food  for  all  the  larger  fishes,  and  is  the  best  bait  fish  of  the  regions  in  which  it  occurs.  In  the 
discussion  of  the  habits  of  the  Mullet,  when  it  is  not  otherwise  stated,  the  Striped  Mullet,  which  is 
in  our  waters  by  far  the  most  important  species,  is  kept  chiefly  in  mind. 

Since  the  time  of  Capt.  John  Smith  every  observer  has  remarked  upon  the  great  abundance  of 
Mullets.  Numerous  correspondents  of  the  Fish  Commission,  from  Wilmington  south,  agree  that 
the  Mullet  is  far  more  abundant  than  any  other  species,  except  Mr.  Simpson,  who  thinks  that  at 
Cape  Hatteras  they  are  less  numerous  than  the  tailors  or  bluefish,  and  about  as  numerous  as  the 
fat-backs  or  menhaden. 

In  1875  circulars  were  sent  out  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  asking  information 
concerning  the  habits  of  the  Mullet.  The  replies,  although  suggestive,  were  not  sufficiently 
numerous  to  afford  the  data  necessary  for  a  complete  biography  of  this  species.  In  fact  its  habits 
are  so  peculiar  that  in  order  to  understand  them  it  will  be  necessary  for  some  naturalist  to 
devote  a  considerable  period  of  time  to  study  them  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  their  range. 
At  present,  therefore,  I  propose  to  present  first  the  results  of  my  own  observations  upon  this  fish, 
as  it  occurs  in  Eastern  Florida,  supplementing  them  by  the  observations  of  three  or  four  other 
observers  upon  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  excellent  study  of  the  Gulf  Mullet  from  the  pen  of  Mr. 
Stearns. 

MULLET  IN  EASTERN  FLORIDA. — They  abound  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  sometimes  running 
up  to  the  lakes,  and  along  the  coast  in  all  the  inland  bays,  or  "  salt-water  rivers".  It  is  probably 
incorrect  to  call  them  anadromous.  They  appear  to  ascend  the  rivers  to  feed,  and  the  relative 
saltncss  of  the  water  is  a  matter  of  small  importance.  Small  Mullet  are  abundant  all  the  year 
round,  and  so  are  scattered  individuals  of  a  larger  size.  Cast-nets  at  Mayport  take  them  through- 
out the  year.  I  have  taken  quantities  of  small  fish,  from  one  to  five  inches  long,  in  the  Saint  John's 
River  at  Arlington.  They  begin  to  assemble  in  schools  in  midsummer.  This  is  probably  prepara- 
tory to  spawning,  for  at  this  time  the  ova  are  beginning  to  mature.  In  midsummer  they  swim  at 
the  surface,  pursued  by  enemies  in  the  water  and  the  air,  and  are  an  easy  prey  to  the  fisherman. 
They  prefer  to  swim  against  the  wind,  and,  I  am  told,  school  best  with  a  northeast  wind.  They 
also  prefer  to  run  against  the  tide.  The  spawning  season  appears  to  continue  from  the  middle  of 

'This  description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Mullet  is  derived  from  GUnther'a  "Study  of  Fishes." 


MI  i.i.i T  IN  FASTI-UN  FLORIDA.  451 

November  to  tlie  middle  of  .January,  ami  the  weight  of  evidence  tends  to  show  that  they  spawn  in 
lu-ackish  or  salt  water.  Some  of  tbe  fishermen  say  that  they  go  on  the  mud-fiats  and  oyster-beds 
at  th<'  iimiitli  of  the  river  to  deposit  their  eggs.  What  becomes  of  them  after  this  no  one  seems  to 
know,  but  it  is  probable  that  they  spread  themselves  throughout  all  the  adjacent  rivers,  bays, 
and  sounds,  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  be  perceptible  to  the  fishermen,  who  make  no  effort  at  this 
lime  to  secure  the  spent,  lean  fish.  Many  of  them  probably  find  their  way  to  the  lakes,  and  others 
remain  wherever  they  find  good  feeding  ground,  gathering  flesh  and  recruiting  strength  for  the 
great  strain  of  the  next  spawning  season.  There  is  no  evidence  of  any  northern  or  southern  coast- 
wise migration,  the  habits  of  the  species  apparently  being  very  local. 

The  fisherman  recognizes  three  distinct  periods  of  schooling  or  separate  runs  of  Mullet.  To 
what  extent  these  are  founded  on  tradition,  or  upon  the  necessity  of  change  in  the  size  of  the  mesh 
tit  their  nets,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  "June  Mullet"  average  about  five  to  the  pound;  the 
''  Fat  Mullet,"  which  are  taken  from  August  20  to  October  1,  weigh  about  two  pounds;  these  have, 
i In-  fishermen  say,  a  "roe  of  fat"  on  each  side  as  thick  as  a  man's  thumb.  The  "Roe  Mullet" 
weigh  about  two  and  a  half  pounds,  and  are  caught  in  November  and  until  Christmas.  Between 
the  seasons  of  "Fat  Mullet"  and  "Roe  Mullet"  there  is  an  intermission  of  two  or  three  weeks  in  the 
fishing,  llow  to  interpret  these  curious  statements  is  surely  a  difficult  problem,  and  one  which 
can  be  solved  only  by  careful  study  of  the  fishes  themselves  at  these  seasons.  The  fishermen  insist 
that  these  schools  come  successively  down  the  river  and  proceed  directly  out  to  sea.  They  will  not 
believe  that  the  "Fat  Mullet"  and  the  "Roe  Mullet"  are  the  same  schools  under  different  circum- 
stances. I  would  hazard  the  suggestion  that  the  "  Fat  Mullet"  of  September  are  the  breeding  fish 
of  November,  with  roes  in  an  immature  state,  the  ova  not  having  become  fully  differentiated. 

The  largest  fish  appear  rarely  to  exceed  six  pounds.  This  is  exceptional,  however.  Mr.  W. 
II.  Tate,  of  Melton  &  Co.,  Jacksonville,  tells  me  that  he  never  saw  one  exceeding  seven  pounds, 
though  he  had  heard  of  one  weighing  fourteen.  He  showed  me  on  the  floor  of  the  fish-market  a 
line  indicating  the  length  of  a  very  large  one;  this  measured  twenty-nine  inches.  At  Mayport 
none  had  been  seen  exceeding  six  pounds  in  weight.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  cast-nets 
of  ten  feet  in  diameter  are  used,  but  most  Mullet  are  taken  iu  gill-nets,  which  are  swept  around 
the  school,  the  fish  being  easily  visible  at  the  surface.'  These  nets  are  from  seventy  to  ninety 
fathoms  long  and  forty  meshes  deep.  The  size  of  the  mesh  varies  with  the  season.  Very  few  are 
used  from  December  to  July,  but  where  they  are  used  the  mesh  two  and  one-half  to  two  and 
three-quarters  inches  is  preferred;  from  August  1  to  October  1,  for  "Fat  Mullet,"  the  mesh  is  three 
and  one-half  to  three  and  three-quarters  inches,  and  in  late  October,  November,  and  December,  for 
"Roe  Mullet,"  four  inches — at  least  so  said  my  informant,  an  intelligent  negro  fisherman.  At 
Mayport  there  are  two  sweep-seines,  seventy-five  fathoms  long  and  thirty  feet  deep,  belonging  to 
Kemp,  Mead  &  Smith,  used  iu  the  mullet  fishery. 

There  is  a  large  trade  in  fresh  Mullet  iced,  of  the  extent  of  which  I  could  gain  but  little  idea: 
they  are  shipped  chiefly  to  Central  Florida  and  Georgia.  Some  have  been  sent  in  ice  to  Atlanta. 
About  twenty  thousand  are  shipped  from  Yellow  Bluffs,  by  way  of  Jacksonville. 

It  is  the  general  opinion  of  the  fishermen  that  the  Mullet  have  greatly  diminished  in  abundance 
of  late  years,  and  that  they  are  not  one-third  as  plenty  as  they  were  ten  years  ago.  This  falling  off 
is  attributed  to  the  presence  of  steamers,  to  the  chances  of  the  seasons,  and,  most  of  all,  to  the  use 
of  small-meshed  seines,  which  catch  the  young  fish  in  great  numbers,  and  to  the  constant  fishing  by 
numerous  nete,  which  destroys  a  large  proportion  of  the  mother-fish  from  year  to  year.  Mr.  Isaac 

1  "Roe  Mullet"  are  often  taken  in  a  drift  gill-net.  When  the  net  is  being  get  it  is  customary  to  drum  with  the 
oars  on  the  gunwale  of  the  boat  to  make  the  fish  "gill"  better. 


452  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Balsam,  of  New  Berlin,  told  me  that  ten  or  twelve  years  ago  a  man  with  a  cast-net  could  easily 
take  four  or  five  hundred  Mullet  in  a  day,  while  now  it  is  difficult  to  get  any;  this  is  due  in  part 
to  their  shyness.  Mullet  were  comparatively  scarce  in  the  Saint  John's  in  1877,  though  plenty  in 
1876.  The  fishermen  with  whom  I  have  talked  favor  the  passage  of  laws  prohibiting  the  use  of 
gill-nets  with  a  smaller  mesh  than  three  inches,  and  thus  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  young  fish, 
and  of  a  close  time  during  which  fishing  shall  cease — for  instance,  from  Saturday  night  to  Monday 
morning.  And  then  they  say,  with  a  regretful  shake  of  the  head,  that  the  Mullet  always  ruu  best 
on  Sunday.  There  are  probably  one  hundred  or  more  mullet  nets  on  the  Saint  John's,  yielding 
an  average  of  perhaps  five  thousand  Mullet  each  annually.  The  fisheries  are  chiefly  carried 
on  by  negroes  in  small  boats,  dng-outs,  and  skiffs,  although  every  resident  fishes  for  Mullet  in 
summer  when  there  is  nothing  else  to  do,  and  when  the  Mullet  is  the  best  food  and  the  easiest 
obtained.  There  is  no  salting  business  of  commercial  importance  in  East  Florida,  though  consid- 
erable quantities  are  put  up  for  domestic  consumption.  Salt  Mullet  sell  at  the  rate  of  eight  or  ten 
dollars  a  barrel,  or  five  or  six  fish  for  twenty-five  cents.  I  had  an  opportunity  of  tasting  some 
salted  by  a  negro  at  Mill  Cove,  and  can  bear  testimony  to  their  excellence.  Their  flavor  is  more 
like  that  of  a  salted  salmon  than  of  a  mackerel,  and  they  are  hard,  toothsome,  and  not  at  all 
"muddy"  in  taste,  this  last  being  the  usual  charge  made  against  the  Mullet.  Usually  only  the 
"Fat  Mullet"  are  salted,  the  "Roe  Mullet"  coming  later  in  the  season,  when  they  can  easily  be 
shipped. 

To  prepare  a  Mullet  for  salting,  the  head  is  first  cut  off,  then  a  cut  is  made  on  each  side  of  the 
back-bone,  down  the  back,  and  the  bone  is  removed;  the  fish  may  then  be  spread  out  flat  and 
packed  in  a  barrel.  In  packing,  the  flesh  side  is  carefully  placed  up,  the  skin  down.  The  fish  are 
spread  out  flat  upon  the  skin  side  and  are  laid  in  tiers  across  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  each  tier 
being  covered  with  salt.  Care  is  taken  to  have  the  direction  of  the  bodies  in  the  different  tiers  at 
right  angles  to  each  other.  When  the  Mullet  are  scaled  before  packing  they  command  a  some- 
what higher  price.  Mullet  roes,  though  usually  eaten  fresh,  are  sometimes  salted  and  dried  in  the 
son.  In  this  condition  they  are  eaten  raw,  like  dried  beef,  or  are  fried.  Largo  ones  sell  for  ten 
cents  a  pair.  Fishermen  often  boil  the  heads  to  extract  the  oil,  which  they  use  to  lubricate  their 
guns. 

"In  the  Lower  Saint  John's,"  according  to  Capt.  David  Kemps,  an  experienced  Connecticut 
fisherman  who  has  lived  and  fished  for  twelve  years  at  Yellow  Bluffs,  "  the  Mullet  are  resident 
throughout  the  year,  though  most  abundant  in  September  and  October.  The  fishing  season  begins 
in  July  and  August  and  continues  until  December.  They  are  three  times  more  abundant  than  any 
other  species,  though  not  half  as  abundant  as  they  were  ten  years  ago.  The  decrease  in  numbers  is 
due  in  part  to  the  fisheries,  but  chiefly  to  the  great  number  of  steamers.  The  largest  Mullet  weigh 
eleven  pounds  and  are  twenty -three  inches  long;  this,  however,  is  above  the  average  size,  which 
measures  thirteen  inches  and  weighs  two  and  a  half  pounds.  They  attain  their  growth  in  four 
years,  each  year  adding  half  a  pound  to  their  weight.  They  school  best  in  easterly  weather,  the 
schools  being  largest  toward  the  end  of  the  season.  They  swim  at  the  surface,  and  usually  against 
the  wind.  The  "Fat  Mullet"  come  down  the  river  in  August  and  September,  and  rapidly  increase 
in  size,  becoming  "Roe  Mullet"  in  October  and  November.  They  feed  by  suction  and  on  blind 
mosquitoes.  They  run  out  into  salt  and  brackish  water  to  spawn.  They  are  supposed  to  spawn 
in  November,  on  the  shallows  near  the  month  of  the  river,  in  warm  and  brackish  water.  When 
they  are  caught  in  the  gill-nets  the  spawn  runs  out  of  them ;  it  is  of  the  size  of  No.  3  shot,  and 
red;  it  floats  at  the  surface  until  it  is  hatched,  which  takes  place  in  about  three  days.  They  spawn 
at  about  four  years  of  age,  the  fish  mixing  indiscriminately  in  the  schools.  Cat-fish  and  eels  prey 


MHLLET  IN  EASTI,|;N  FLORIDA.  453 

upon  the  eggs.  They  are  caught  chiefly  on  the  fltxxl-tides  with  gill-nets  and  seines.  A  gill  net 
seventy-five  fathoms  long  will  take  ten  thousand  in  a  season.  They  are  eaten  fresh,  commanding 
a  price  of  one  to  five  cents  a  pound,  and  are  salted  largely.  About  seventy-five  boats  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men  are  employed  in  the  Lower  Saint  John's." 

IN  THE  SAINT  MARY'S  RIVER. — "  At  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  Mary's, "  according  to  Mr.  W.  B. 
Myers, "  the  Mullet  is  resident  and  more  abundant  than  any  other  flsh,  especially  in  August,  Septem- 
ber, October,  and  November.  The  general  abundance  is  not  apparently  changed,  though  the  supply 
varies.  The  average  "  Finger  Mullet"  is  about  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  while  the  "  Sea  Mullet" 
ranges  from  eight  to  eighteen  inches,  weighing  from  eight  ounces  to  two  pounds.  They  never  leave  this 
region,  but  spend  the  whole  time  in  the  salt-water  bayous  along  the  coast.  They  frequently  run  up 
into  brackish  or  almost  fresh  water,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  feeding.  Fishes  of  all  sizes  and 
ages  mingle  together  in  the  schools.  Their  favorite  haunts  are  on  the  shallow  mud-flats  and  up 
little  creeks  or  "  rivers."  At  high  water  they  feed  among  the  black  rushes  or  marsh  grass.  The 
shallows  which  they  frequent  are  warmer  than  the  off-shore  water.  After  spawning  they  are 
generally  found  in  small  schools.  They  are  preyed  upon  by  porpoises,  sharks,  fish-hawks,  cranes, 
and  fjulls.  They  feed  on  bottom  mud  and  floating  scum,  also  on  shrimps.  They  spawn  around 
their  feeding-grounds  in  August  and  September,  and  young  Mullets  are  always  found  in  abundance 
in  company  with  the  old.  Fish-lice  are  found  in  their  gills.  At  Saint  Mary's  they  are  caught  exclu- 
-iv.'ly  in  cast-nets — the  Spanish  and  American  kinds — at  all  seasons,  but  chiefly  in  August  and 
the  fall  months.  They  are  usually  caught  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  ebb  and  first  quarter  of  the 
flood  tide.  They  are  caught  only  in  small  quantities  for  home  consumption,  and  are  more  in 
demand  than  any  other  flsh,  selling  for  about  eight  cents  per  pound.  Very  few  are  salted." 

IN  SOUTHEASTERN  FLORIDA. — At  Saint  Augustine,  according  to  Mr.  Peter  Masters,  Mullet 
are  resident,  but  most  abundant  in  September  and  October.  They  are  thought  to  have  dimin- 
ished, "owing,"  says  Mr.  Masters,  "to  the  gill-nets  on  the  Saint  John's."  They  move  in  and 
out  of  the  harbor,  over  the  Saint  John's  and  Smyrna  Bars.  They  run  into  fresh  water  three  months 
in  the  year.  They  spawn  in  deep  water  in  November  and  December.  Thirty  or  forty  men  with 
small  boats  are  engaged  in  the  fishery,  using  gill  and  cast  nets.  The  Mullet  is  the  favorite  food- 
fish,  commanding  a  price  of  three  or  fonr  cents  per  pound.  Very  few  are  salted. 

About  New  Smyrna,  says  Mr.  S.  C.  Clarke,  the  "Silver  or  Big-eyed  Mullet,"  though  resident, 
are  most  plenty  in  November,  December,  and  January,  and  have  for  years  retained  their  abundance, 
which  is  much  greater  than  that  of  any  other  flsh.  The  average  size  is  three  pounds,  though  they 
sometimes  weigh  four  or  five ;  the  female  is  the  larger.  They  are  always  to  be  found  in  shoal  water 
with  muddy  bottoms,  spending  the  winter  in  the  creeks  and  bays.  They  run  into  fresh  water  to 
feed.  They  swim  in  schools,  assorted  in  uniform  sizes,  rippling  the  surface  and  thus  attracting 
predatory  birds  of  all  kinds,  and  followed  by  predatory  fishes.  The  schools  break  up  after  the 
.spawning  season.  They  feed  upon  mnd  and  floating  scum.  They  spawn  in  large  schools,  in  strong 
currents,  in  Jannary  and  February;  the  eggs,  which  are  yellow  and  about  the  size  of  mustard  seed, 
floating  at  the  surface  in  the  currents  and  hatching  within  ten  days.  They  prefer  warm  water  for* 
spawning.  The  roe  often  runs  from  the  flsh  when  caught.  They  spawn  at  the  age  of  three 
years,  and  after  spawning  are  thin  and  unfit  for  food.  Young  flsh  are  seen  in  great  abundance  in 
shallow  water  near  the  shore;  they  are  preyed  upon  by  every  flsh  and  by  every  predatory  bird. 
Mullet  are  taken  with  nets  of  all  kinds,  usually  at  low  water.  Some  hundreds  of  barrels  are  put 
np  yearly  for  shipment,  commanding  the  price  of  six  to  eight  dollars.  They  are  also  used  for  oil 
manufacture,  and  for  manure. 

Mr.  H.  S.  Williams  states  that  in  the  Indian  River  the  Mullet  season  lasts  from  May  until  th« 


454  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANJMALS. 

last  of  December,  and  during  the  whole  time  they  are  so  numerous  that  scarcely  a  day  passes  in 
which  some  cannot  be  taken  with  proper  exertion.  In  September  they  usually  commence  schooling, 
the  schools  increasing  in  size  until  the  last  of  December,  when  they  go  outside  to  spawn,  returning 
in  January,  February,  and  March,  poor  and  tasteless.  In  November,  1876,  he  relates,  he  took  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  from  a  single  school  with  a  cast-net  in  less  than  an  hour's  time,  taking 
twenty-six  large  ones  at  a  single  throw.  During  the  dark  nights  in  October,  November,  and 
December,  the  Mullet  swarm  along  the  shore,  feeding  on  the  minute  animals  found  in  the  sand  and 
attached  to  the  rocks,  where  they  can  be  taken  in  great  numbers,  often  thirty  to  fifty  in  a  few 
minutes'  time.  They  are  preyed  upon  by  all  larger  fish,  from  cat-fish  to  sharks,  while  porpoises, 
ospreys,  eagles,  and  pelicans  consume  enormous  quantities.  The  Mullet  is  here  thought  very  fine 
either  stewed,  baked,  or  as  a  pan-fish.  From  the  first  of  November  to  the  end  of  the  season  they 
take  salt  as  well  as  mackerel,  and  every  resident  family  is  accustomed  to  cure  a  barrel  or  two  for 
private  use. 

STEARNS  ON  MULLET  IN  THE  GULP  OF  MEXICO. — This  chapter  will  be  closed  by  quoting  in 
full  the  observations  of  Mr.  Silas  Stearns : 

"The  Mullet  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  valuable  food-fishes  of  the  Gulf  coast.  It  is 
present  on  the  coast  and  in  the  estuaries  of  the  Gulf  throughout  the  year,  and  in  most  places  is 
pursued  by  fishermen  at  all  seasons,  yet,  for  so  common  and  important  a  fish,  its  habits  seem  to 
be  but  little  known  or  understood.  Intelligent  fishermen  of  long  experience  at  particular  points 
have  learned  many  details  regarding  their  local  movements,  which  may  disagree  in  many  respects 
with  those  at  some  other  point  a  hundred  miles  or  so  away.  A  few  months  spent  on  the  southern 
part  of  the  Florida  coast  has  led  me  to  believe  that  there  is  a  less  migratory  movement  of  Mullet 
in  that  section  than  along  the  northern  Gulf  coast.  It  is  probable  that  in  each  bay  or  section  or 
coast  Mullet  have  peculiar  habits  as  to  time  and  manner  of  arrival,  time  and  place  of  spawning, 
and  the  general  habits  of  old  fish  after  spawning  and  young  after  hatching.  It  is  also  likely  that 
their  manner  of  spawning,  feeding,  etc.,  is  the  same  everywhere.  My  own  observations  have  been 
chiefly  made  in  Pensacola  and  Ghoctawhatchee  Bays  and  Santa  Rosa  Sound,  which  take  in  fifty 
miles  of  coast  line.  In  this  section,  which  I  have  called  the  Pensacola  region,  there  is  a  spring 
'  run '  of  Mullet  composed  of  various  sizes  of  young  which  are  in  part,  no  doubt,  of  the  previous 
year's  hatching.  The  first  school  of  this  run  appears  on  the  coast  in  April  or  in  the  first  part  of 
May,  and  they  continue  to  come  for  two  or  three  weeks,  when  they  are  all  inside  and  scattered 
about  the  bay  shores.  These  fish  are  very  thin  on  their  arrival,  but  rapidly  fatten  and  grow  on 
the  feeding  grounds.  Some  of  these  contain  spawn  at  first,  and  in  some  it  is  developed  during 
the  summer. 

"In  September  and  October  there  is  a  'run'  of  large  fish,  which  comes,  as  the  young  one  does, 
from  the  eastward,  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  water  and  making  considerable  commotion.  Some 
years  there  is  but  one  large  school  in  the  'run'  and  at  others  many  small  schools,  and  it  is  thought 
Jhat  the  fish  are  more  abundant  when  they  come  in  the  latter  form.  At  Ghoctawhatchee  Inlet, 
when  the  spawning  grounds  are  near  by,  the  fish  come  in  with  the  flood  tide  and  go  out  again  with 
the  ebb  tide;  and  at  the  Pensacola  Inlet,  when  the  spawning  grounds  are  far  away,  they  come  into 
the  bay  and  stay  until  the  operation  of  spawning  is  over.  The  spawn  in  this  fall  'run'  is  fully 
developed,  and  is  deposited  in  October  and  November.  The  spawning  grounds  are  in  fresh  or 
brackish  water  at  the  heads  of  bayous,  in  rivers  or  heads  of  bays.  The  many  bayous  of  Choctaw- 
hatchee  Bay  are  almost  blocked  np  with  spawning  Mullet  in  October,  and  they  are  very  abundant 
at  the  head  of  Pensacola  Bay  near  the  mouths  of  fresh-water  rivers  at  that  time.  Although  I  have 
been  in  the  bayous  when  Mullet  were  supposed  to  be  spawning,  1  have  not  witnessed  the  operation, 


MII.I.KT  IN  THE  GULF  OP  MEXICO.  455 

nor  seen  any  prison  who  lias.  In  sucli  places  the  bottom  is  grassy,  sandy,  and  muddy,  the  water 
varyim:  with  the  tide  from  fn-sh  to  brackish,  and  of  a  temperature  varying  from  70°  to  75°  Fah- 
renheit. It  is  supposed  that  the  spawn  is  deposited  upon  the  bottom.  If  they  have  been  spawn- 
ing at  th<3  times  when  I  have  been  present,  I  would  say  that  the  operation  was  a  general  one. 
That  they  do  spawn  at  or  near  these  places  is  quite  certain,  for  they  go  to  them  with  spawn  and 
come  au.iy  without  it,  and  the  young  fry  first  appear  near  the  same  places.  Crabs  and  alligator- 
^•ars  are  abundant  in  such  places,  and  they  doubtless  destroy  great  quantities  of  the  eggs  and  fry. 
Ilet'oic  spawning  Mullet  are  very  fat,  but  after  the  operation  are  extremely  thin  and  almost  worth- 
less for  food.  Their  colors  also  undergo  some  changes,  at  sea  being  bright  blue  on  the  back,  which 
deepens  to  a  liyht  brown  in  the  bays  and  to  a  dark  brown  in  fresh  water.  By  these  character- 
istics it  is  not  difficult  to  determine  the  locality  where  a  lot  of  Mullet  are  caught. 

"Some  persons  of  this  coast  agree  that  Mullet,  or  any  other  sea-fish,  will  not  bear  sudden 
change  from  salt  to  fresh  water,  and  to  meet  this  argument  I  made  an  experiment  with  Mullet  in 
1S79.  I  took  a  dozen  or  more  medium-sized  Mullet  from  the  warm  shoal  water  of  the  bay  and 
placed  them  in  cool,  fresh  spring  water.  They  swain  around  very  rapidly  for  about  half  an  hour, 
then  sank  to  the  bottom  of  the  spring,  where  they  remained,  apparently  comfortable,  for  twelve 
hours.  Before  leaving  the  spring  I  returned  them  to  their  native  waters,  seemingly  in  as  good 
condition  as  when  first  caught.  The  bay  water  was  at  that  time  77°  Fahrenheit  and  the  spring 
water  71°  Fahrenheit,  a  difference  of  G°  and  a  change  from  pure  salt  to  pure  fresh  water. 

"After  spawning,  in  October  and  November,  the  Mullet  leave  these  bays  in  small  schools, 
going  directly  to  deep  water  if  the  weather  is  stormy,  and  following  the  beach  along  if  there  is  not 
much  surf.  Those  thai  have  been  in  the  bays  all  the  summer  leave  also  at  about  this  time,  many 
of  them  having  spawned  at  the  same  time  with  the  full  'run.'  A  few  of  these,  having  just  reached 
maturity,  are  found  with  spawn  nearly  all  winter;  also,  some  young  stragglers.  In  February, 
March,  and  April,  young  Mullet,  varying  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  are  found  in 
great  abundance  along  the  bay  shores.  Mullet  grow  to  about  eight  inches  in  length  the  first  year, 
to  twelve  or  thirteen  inches  the  second  year,  when  they  are  mature.  The  average  size  of  adults  is 
twelve  inches  in  length,  weight  about  one  and  a  quarter  pounds.  The  largest  I  have  seen  meas- 
ured twenty  inches  long  and  weighed  four  and  a  half  pounds.  It  was  caught  at  Charlotte  Harbor, 
Florida.  Mullet  of  that  size  are  extremely  rare  in  West  Florida.  Those  of  South  Florida  are 
much  larger,  as  a  rule,  than  those  found  farther  north.  There  they  are  also  far  more  abundant 
than  on  the  coasts  of  West  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas. 

"  In  October,  Charlotte  Harbor,  Sarasota  and  Paliuasola  Bays,  seem  to  be  the  headquarters  of 
all  the  Mullet  of  the  Gulf.  Tampa  Bay,  Auclote  River,  Homosassa  River  and  vicinity,  are  also 
favorite  spawning  places.  During  the  fall  they  move  in  such  immense  schools  that  the  noise  of 
their  splashing  in  the  water  resembles  distant  thunder;  and  to  persons  living  near  the  river  or  bay, 
their  noise,  kept  up  day  and  night,  becomes  very  annoying.  These  schools  are  followed  by  large 
numbers  of  sharks,  porpoises,  and  other  destructive  fishes,  as  well  as  pelicans  and  like  sea-birds, 
all  of  which  eat  of  the  Mullet  until  they  can  eat  no  more,  and  have  to  make  way  for  fresh  arrivals. 
In  spite  of  these  enemies  and  those  of  the  eggs  and  fry,  Mullet  are  as  plentiful  as  formerly, 
according  to  the  general  opinion  of  the  fishermen  of  the  coast. 

"The  Mullet  is  a  bottom-feeding  fish,  prefers  still,  shoal  water  with  grassy  and  sandy  bottom. 
It  swims  along  the  bottom,  head  down,  now  and  then  taking  a  mouthful  of  earth,  which  is 
partially  culled  over  in  the  mouth,  the  microscopic  particles  of  animal  matter  or  vegetable  matter 
retained,  and  the  refuse  expelled.  When  one  fish  finds  a  spot  rich  in  their  desired  food,  its 
companions  immediately  flock  around  in  a  manner  that  reminds  one  of  barn  yard  fowls  feeding 
from  one  dish.  The  Mullet  eats  very  little  compared  with  other  fish  of  ita  size.  It  preys  on  no 


456  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

other  fish,  and  is  preyed  upon  by  nearly  all  other  common  fishes  larger  than  itself.  It  does  not 
readily  take  the  hook,  but  can  sometimes  be  caught  with  a  bait  of  banana,  or  one  manufactured 
from  cotton  and  flour.  It  is  the  most  widely  distributed  fish  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  found 
on  the  sea-beach  everywhere,  in  all  the  bays  and  sounds,  and  even  far  up  fresh-water  rivers  and 
in  fresh-water  lakes  that  have  outlets." 

Concerning  the  other  species  of  Mullet,  Mvgil  bra»iliensis,  as  occurring  in  the  Gulf,  Mr.  Stearns 
writes: 

"  It  is  common,  and  is  found  in  company  with  the  Mugil  albula  and  usually  considered  with  it, 
and  the  old  fishermen  of  Pensacola  distinguished  it  and  have  given  it  the  above  name.  I  have 
found  spawn  in  them  in  May  and  June.  On  the  southern  coast  they  are  very  abundant,  and 
appear  in  Key  West  almost  daily  in  the  fall  and  winter." 

MULLET  IN  CALIFORNIA. — "On  the  California  coast  occurs  Mugil  albula,"  writes  Professor 
Jordan,  "  which  is  commonly  known  as  the  'Mullet.'  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  fifteen  inches. 
It  is  very  abundant  about  San  Diego,  and  thence  south  to  Mazatlan,  and  it  ranges  occasion- 
ally northward  as  far  as  Monterey.  It  enters  creeks  and  lagoons,  ascending  as  far  as  the 
brackish  water  extends,  in  the  winter,  and  thus  is  often  land-locked  in  great  numbers,  which  arc 
then  destroyed  by  the  sea-birds,  especially  by  the  pelicans,  and  a  few  are  taken  in  seines.  It  swims 
in  schools  in  the  bays,  and  its  presence  is  made  known  by  its  frequent  leaps  from  the  water.  It  is 
said  that  the  Mullet  has  long  been  known  at  San  Diego,  but  that  it  first  made  its  appearance  at 
San  Pedro  in  1877.  It  is  not  well  known  either  at  Santa  Barbara  or  Soquel,  although  now  occa- 
sionally taken  at  both  places.  Those  fishermen  who  have  given  the  matter  any  attention  assert 
that  the  Mullet  is  gradually  extending  its  range  northward.  It  feeds  on  mud  and  minute  organ- 
isms contained  in  it.  It  is  considered  a  good  food-fish  when  taken  from  the  ocean.  In  the  muddy 
lagoons  it  acquires  in  summer  a  rank  flavor." 

154.  THE  SAND  SMELTS  OB  SILVER  SIDES— ATHERINIDJE. 

The  "  Sand  Smelts"  or  "  Silver  Sides"  are  small  carnivorous  fishes  which  occur  everywhere 
along  the  coasts  of  temperate  and  tropical  regions.  They  are  lound  in  almost  countless  numbers 
in  brackish  water  and  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  living,  for  the  most  part,  within  a  few  yards  of  the 
shore,  where  they  prey  upon  other  small  fish,  upon  crustaceans,  and  upon  refuse  organic  matter, 
and  are  in  their  turn  the  prey  of  other  fish,  particularly  the  young  of  the  larger  fishes  of  prey 
which  create  so  much  havoc  farther  out  at  sea;  for  instance,  young  bluefish,  squeteague,  and 
mackerel.  In  general  appearance  they  resemble  the  smelt,  and  at  various  places  are  called  "  Sand 
Smelts"  and  "Green  Smelts."  They  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  true  smelt  by  the 
absence  of  the  adipose  second  dorsal  fin,  which  occurs  in  all  members  of  the  salmon  tribe,  and  by 
the  presence  of  the  small  spinous  dorsal.  The  most  important  species  on  the  Atlantic  side  is  the 
Green  Smelt  of  the  Connecticut  coast,  Menidia  notata,  also  called  in  some  parts  of  New  England 
the  "Friar,"  by  the  boys  about  Boston  the  "Capelin,"  about  New  York  the  "Sand  Smelt"  and 
"Anchovy,"  and  about  Watch  Hill  the  "  Merit-fish."  In  Beaufort  Harbor,  according  to  Jordan,  two 
other  species  of  the  genus  are  very  abundant  in  company  with  a  species  of  Ungraulis,  and  are 
known  as  "  Sardines." 

The  range  of  this  species  extends  from  Maine  at  least  to  North  Carolina.  They  spawn  all  along 
our  sandy  shores,  where  at  any  time  in  summer  tens  of  thousands  of  them  may  be  gathered  in  an 
hour  with  a  small  seine.  In  the  shallow  sandy  bays  the  young  fish,  about  an  inch  in  length,  were 
found  in  schools,  while  in  more  exposed  localities,  such  as  the  Napeague  Harbor,  Watch  Hill 
Beach,  and  the  north  part  of  Montank  Point,  the  largest  schools  of  adult  fishes  were  found, 
though  large  individuals  were  also  frequently  found  in  the  more  protected  coves.  They  swim  in 


HABITS  OF  THE  SILVER  SIDES.  457 

immense  schools,  generally  those  of  the  same  size  together;  they  vary  in  length  from  half  an 
inch  to  seven  inches.  They  apparently  breed  throughout  the  hot  season.  Individuals  two  and 
a  half  inches  long,  taken  in  the  Little  ITarbor,  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  July  2,  1875,  were  full 
of  ripe  spawn  and  milt  which  they  yielded  freely. 

Capt.  John  B.  Smith,  of  New  Bedford,  furnishes  an  interesting  account  of  the  spawning  of 
this  fish,  Menidia  notata,  as  witnessed  by  him  during  a  visit  to  the  head  of  Buzzard's  Bay,  on  the 
13th  of  June,  1872.  He  observed  great  numbers  of  the  fish  in  the  sedge  grass,  in  the  afternoon  of 
thai  day,  when  the  falling  tide  was  about  one-fourth  down.  The  fish  cainc  in  a  body  into  shallow 
water,  within  three  feet  of  the  shore,  then  darted  among  the  grass,  and  rolled  over  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  struggling  with  all  their  strength,  some  of  them  jumping  entirely  out  of  the  water 
while  in  the  operation.  The  eggs  were  then  to  be  seen  fastened  in  sheets  and  in  masses  to  the 
^ra-s,  like  frogs'  eggs  in  a  mill-pond.  These  were  about  the  size  of  No.  9  shot.  During  the 
operation  of  spawning,  which  lasted  about  a  minute,  the  fish  were  very  sluggish,  and  could  readily 
he  taken  with  the  hand.  The  number  of  fish  engaged  in  spawning  was  so  great  that  the  water 
was  quite  whitened  with  the  milt,  and  the  grass  was  so  full  of  the  eggs  that  they  could  be  taken 
up  by  the  handful.  Eels  and  small  fishes  of  various  kinds  were  attracted  there  in  great  numbers, 
helping  themselves  to  the  dainty  repast. 

In  addition  to  consuming  great  quantities  of  food  such  as  has  been  described,  it  was  found  that 
they  were  very  destructive  to  the  eggs  of  other  fishes.  Although  not  generally  eaten,  they  are  finely 
flavored  and  an  excellent  article  of  food,  not  very  greatly  inferior  to  smelt.  Uhler  and  Lugger  are 
quite  mistaken  in  their  opinion  that  this  species  is  the  gudgeon  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  which 
is  in  fact  a  fresh-water  fish,  Hybo  gnathus  regius,  together  with  one  or  two  other  species  which  are 
apparently  often  included  under  the  same  name. 

In  Florida  this  fish  is  re'placed  by  two  or  three  others  belonging  to  the  same  family,  which, 
though  very  abundant,  are  of  no  special  importance  except  as  food  for  other  fishes. 

On  the  California  coast  this  family  is  of  much  greater  importance,  two  of  the  species  being  in 
high  favor  as  food.  These  are  the  so-called  "California  Smelt"  and  "Little  Smelt"  Of  the  former 
Jordan  writes:  "This  species,  the  California  Smelt.  Atherinopsis  calif  or  niensis,  is  everywhere 
known  as  the  '  Smelt'  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  eighteen  inches,  and  the  average  size  as  seen 
in  the  markets  is  not  much  below  this.  It  ranges  from  Cape  Mendocino  to  Magdalena  Bay, 
inhabiting  especially  rocky  bays  sheltered  from  the  waves.  It  occurs  in  great  schools,  and  is 
extremely  abundant  It  is  non-migratory.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  worms  and  small  crusta- 
ceans. It  is  a  fish  of  fine,  firm  flesh  and  good  flavor,  although  a  little  dry.  From  its  great  abund- 
ance it  is  one  of  the  most  important  food  fishes  on  the  coast,  being  never  absent  from  the  markets. 
It  is  often  used  as  bait,  especially  for  the  rock- fish." 

Of  the  Little  Smelt  he  writes  as  follows:  "The  Little  Smelt,  Atherinops  affiniii,  or  Petite  Smelt, 
reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot.  It  associates  with  the  'California  Smelt,'  being  scarcely  less 
abundant.  It  is,  however,  more  often  found  in  sheltered,  sandy  bays  and  lagoons  than  the  other 
species,  and  is  sometimes  found  in  brackish  water.  As  a  food  fish  it  is  equal  to  the  California 
Smelt,  but  from  its  smaller  size  is  of  less  value.  Both  species  are  greedily  devoured  by  the  larger 
predatory  fishes." 

155.  THE  STICKLEBACK  FAMILY— GASTEROSTEID-E. 

The  Sticklebacks  are  represented  on  our  Atlantic  coast  by  three  species:  The  fonr-spined 
Stickleback,  Apcltf*  quadrants,  which  is  found  in  brackish  water  from  Cape  Ann  southward  at 
least  to  New  Jersey;  the  ten-spined  Stickleback,  Qasterosieus  pungitius,  associated  with  the 
preceding,  and  found  also  in  fresh  water;  the  two-spined  Stickleback,  Gasterosteu*  acuteatus, 


458  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

occuring  as  far  north  as  Newfoundland  and  south  to  New  York.  The  latter  species  also  occurs  on 
the  coast  of  California  north  to  San  Francisco.  The  Sticklebacks  are  great  favorites  with  persons 
who  own  aquaria  on  account  of  the  skillful  manner  in  which  they  build  their  nests.  The  two- 
spined  Stickleback  attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  inches.  Schools  of  them  are  sometimes  found 
swimming  in  the  open  sounds  in  midsummer.  On  the  California  coast,  in  addition  to  the  two- 
spined  Stickleback,  there  occurs  another  species,  G.  microcephalm,  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
coast  from  Southern  California  to  Puget  Sound.  In  Puget  Sound,  according  to  Jordan,  the  two- 
spined  Stickleback  is  abundant,  and  forms  an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  salmon  and  trout. 
The  stomach  of  Salvelinus  malma,  particularly,  is  often  full  of  them.  The  name  "  Salmon-killer"  is 
applied  to  them  about  Seattle,  but  whether  the  wounds  are  inflicted  by  their  sharp  spines  in  the 
stomach  of  the  salmon  is  not  known.  Ducks  catch  and  swallow  the  Stickleback,  and  are  often 
killed  by  them.  Excepting  as  food  for  other  fishes  they  have  no  value,  though  on  the  Prussian 
coast,  near  Dantzig,  where  they  abound,  they  are  said  to  be  used  for  feeding  ducks,  fattening  pigs, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  oil. 

156.  THE  SILVEE  GAR-FISHES— BELONIDJE. 

The  family  Belonidce  occurs  in  temperate  and  tropical  waters  all  over  the  world,  at  least  fifty 
species  being  known.  Its  members  are  easily  recognized  by  their  long,  lithe  bodies  and  by  the 
shape  of  their  jaws,  which  are  prolonged  into  a  long,  slender  beak,  provided  with  numerous  sharp, 
conical  teeth. 

"Swimming  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  Gar-pike  seize  with  these  long  jaws  small  fish 
as  a  bird  would  seize  them  with  its  beak;  but  their  gullet  is  narrow,  so  that  they  can  swallow  small 
fish  only.  They  swim  with  an  undulating  motion  of  the  body.  Although  they  are  in  general 
active,  their  progress  through  the  water  is  much  slower  than  that  of  the  mackerel,  the  shoals  of 
which  appear  simultaneously  with  them  on  our  coast.  Young  specimens  are  frequently  met  with 
in  the  open  ocean.  When  they  are  young  their  jaws  are  not  prolonged,  and  during  the  growth  the 
lower  jaw  is  much  in  advance  of  the  upper,  so  that  these  young  fishes  resemble  a  Hemiramphus."1 

The  name  "Gar"  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  Saxon  word  meaning  "needle,"  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  they  are  commonly  known  as  "Needle-fish."  On  the  Atlantic  coast,  however,  the 
usual  appellative  is  "Gar-fish."  In  Great  Britain  there  are  several  names,  such  as  "Sea-pike," 
"Mackerel-guide,"  "Green-bone,"  "Sea-needle,"  and  "Garrick."  They  are  also  here  called  "Gray 
Pikes,"  but  this  name  should  be  avoided  in  America,  having  been  appropriated  for  the  species  of 
Lepidosteug,  with  bony  scales,  inhabiting  the  rivers  of  the  South  and  West.  The  name  "Sea-snipe" 
is  said  to  be  also  occasionally  in  use,  as  well  as  "Bill-fish,"  which  is  also  applied  by  our  fishermen 
to  the  slender  species  of  the  sword-fish  family.  On  our  Atlantic  coast  are  at  least  four  species,  the 
most  common  of  which  is  Tylosurus  longirostris  which  is  found  in  Massachusetts  Bay  and  south  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  northern  parts  of  Central  America,  occurring  also  in  the  West  Indies. 
This  species  attains  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  ascends  the  rivers  for  great  distances,  having  been 
found  in  the  Connecticut  as  high  as  Hartford,  in  the  Susquehanna  at  Columbia,  and  in  the  Potomac 
above  Washington.  They  are  also  frequently  seen  in  the  harbors  along  the  coast,  but  are  rarely  suf- 
ficiently abundant  to  be  used  for  food.  DeKay  states  that  this  species  is  highly  prized  by  epicures. 

Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  its  habits  by  our  naturalists,  and  wo  are  again  obliged  to 
rely  upon  Mr.  Steams  for  our  information.  Ho  writes:  "It  is  common  on  all  points  of  the  Gulf 
coast.  At  present  it  is  found  at  Pensacola  only  in  the  summer  (about  eight  months),  but  on  the 
more  southern  coast  all  the  year.  It  is  a  surface-swimming  fish  that  preys  largely  upon  small  fish 
that  move  in  schools.  It  seems  to  be  rather  dull  of  observation,  and  I  have  often  watched  small 

1  Gttnther'g  "Study  of  Pishes,"  p.  620. 


HABITS  OP  THE  GAR-FISHES.  459 

schools  of  minnows,  that  perhaps  know  the  failing,  elude  it  for  a  long  time  by  huddling  together 
dinvtly  above  or  below,  when,  if  they  moved  to  either  side,  the  Needle-fish  would  be  sure  to  see 
them,  and  they  quite  rrrlain  to  lose  some  of  their  number.  Its  movements  are  very  rapid  and  its 
aims  most  sure.  I  have  seen  a  Needle  fish  of  fifteen  or  twenty  inches  length  seize  mullet  and  other 
fish  fully  one-third  of  its  own  size,  which  often  prove  more  than  it  can  manage.  They  are  some- 
times washed  ashore  dead,  with  some  spiny  fish  that  was  a  little  too  large  fixed  in  their  throats. 
The  Needle-fish  spawns  in  the  bays  in  May  and  June.  It  is  very  seldom  eaten  on  this  coast,  yet 
it  is  an  excellent  food-fish,  which  I  prefer  to  many  others." 

Tylosurus  hian*  is  a  species  recently  discovered  on  our  coast  and  abundant  throughout  the  West 
Indies. 

Tylosurm  caribbceug  is  a  giant  species,  of  which  one  or  two  specimens  have  been  found  at  Wood's 
Holl,  and  which  is  common  about  Cuba.  A  species  resembling  that  last  mentioned,  Tylosurtu 
Jonesii,  is  abundant  about  Bermuda,  and  is  emphatically  the  game  fish  of  those  islands,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  "  Hound-fish."  Individuals  attain  the  length  of  five  or  six  feet.  They  are  fished 
for  with  salmon  rods  and  artificial  flies  by  the  British  officers  in  the  garrison. 

A  related  species,  Tylosurus  vulgarit,  abounds  on  the  coast  of  Northern  Europe,  and  is  usually 
found  in  company  with  the  mackerel,  ranging  north  to  North  Cape,  and  occurring  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  Baltic,  but  apparently  not  often  found  south  of  the  English  Channel.  Great  num- 
bers are  caught  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  where  they  are  used  for  bait,  and  in  many  other  parts  of 
Europe  they  are  said  to  be  prized  for  food.  The  Germans  prepare  them  by  smoking  or  drying. 

"In  the  a  in  ii  in-:  months,"  writes  Buckland,  "Gar-fish  are  very  plentiful  on  the  Cornish  coast 
In  the  autumn  of  1867  scarcely  two  thousand  were  taken  in  the  seines  at  Mevagissey,  which 
fetched  good  prices,  as  they  are  much  eaten  by  the  Jews.  One  of  the  advantages  of  railway 
communication  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  before  the  opening  of  the  Cornwall  Railway  the 
fishermen  would  not  spend  time  by  catching  sea-fish,  for  which  there  was  no  demand,  so  that  what 
were  caught  were  used  for  manure.  Mr.  Hinkston,  of  Mevagissey,  inclosed  at  one  time  in  a  seine- 
net  one  thousand  at  one  time.  They  were  at  first  thought  to  be  mackerel,  but,  proving  to  be 
Gar-fish,  the  seine-net  was  opened  and  they  were  allowed  to  escape.  That  number  would  now 
commaiid  the  sum  of  £90.  In  by-gone  days  they  were  not  esteemed  by  the  Cornish  people  as  an 
article  of  food,  but  are  now  eaten  with  the  greatest  avidity." 

The  peculiar  green  color  of  the  bones  is  said  to  prejudice  many  people  against  them.  I  have 
myself  tasted  the  American  Gar-fish  and  found  it  exceedingly  palatable;  and  I  cannot  doubt  that 
at  some  future  time  they  will  be  highly  prized  by  our  people,  as  they  richly  deserve  to  be. 

A  species  commonly  known  as  the  "Needle  fish,"  Tylostirug  exilis,  exists  on  the  California  coast. 
It  reaches  a  length  of  about  two  and  a  half  feet  and  a  weight  of  little  more  than  two  pounds.  It 
is  found  from  Santa  Barbara  southward,  and  is  rather  common  in  the  bays,  its  habits  being  similar 
to  those  of  the  Atlantic  Gar-fish.  It  spawns  in  August.  It  feeds  upon  anchovies  and  similar  fishes. 
It  is  a  food-fish  of  good  quality,  but  is  not  sufficiently  common  to  be  of  much  economic  importance. 

157.  THE  FLYING-FISH  FAMILY— SCOMBERESOCIDJE. 

THE  FLYING-FISHES. 

This  group  is  represented  on  the  Atlantic  coast  by  several  species,  the  most  abundant  being 
probably  the  common  Exoccetus  Rondeletii.  They  are  usually  seen  quite  a  distance  out  at  sea, 
and  sometimes  fly  on  board  of  passing  vessels.  They  are  considered  excellent  food,  but  are  so 
rarely  taken  as  to  require  no  notice  here. 

Professor  Jordan  says:  "The  California  Flying- fish,  Exocatus  calif ornientu,  known  to  the 


460  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Italians  and  Spaniards  of  the  Pacific  coast  as  the  <  Volator,'  reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches 
and  a  weight  of  one  and  a  half  pounds,  being  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Flying-fishes.  It  is  found 
only  about  Santa  Barbara  and  the  Coronados  Islands,  where  it  is  excessively  abundant  in  the 
summer,  appearing  in  June  and  disappearing  probably  in  September.  This  fish  flies  for  a  distance 
sometimes  of  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  usually  not  rising  more  than  three  or  four  feet.  Its 
motions  in  the  water  are  extremely  rapid,  and  its  motive  power  is  certainly  the  movement  of  its 
powerful  tail  in  the  water.  On  rising  from  the  water  the  movements  of  the  tail  are  continued  for 
some  seconds,  until  the  whole  body  is  out  of  the  water.  While  the  tail  is  in  motion  the  pectorals 
are  in  a  state  of  very  rapid  vibration,  and  the  ventrals  are  folded.  When  the  action  of  the  tail 
ceases,  the  pectorals  and  ventrals  are  spread,  and,  as  far  as  we  can  see,  held  at  rest.  When  the 
fish  begins  to  fall,  the  tail  touches  the  water  and  the  motion  of  the  pectorals  recommences,  and  it 
is  enabled  to  resume  its  flight,  which  it  finally  finishes  by  falling  into  the  water  with  a  splash. 
When  on  the  wing  it  resembles  a  large  dragon-fly.  Th«  motion  is  very  swift;  at  first  it  is  in  a 
straight  line,  but  this  becomes  deflected  to  a  curve,  the  pectoral  on  the  inner  side  of  the  arc  being 
bent  downward.  It  is  able  to  some  extent  to  turn  its  course  to  shy  off  from  a  vessel.  The  motion 
seems  to  have  no  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  wind;  and  we  observed  it  best  from  the  bow  of 
a  steamer  off  Santa  Catalina  Island  in  early  morning,  when  both  air  and  water  were  free  from 
motion." 

Two  other  species  of  Scomberesocidce  occur  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Hemirhamphus  Rosce,  J.  &  G., 
inhabiting  San  Diego  and  San  Pedro  Bays,  is  too  small  and  too  scarce  to  be  of  any  value  as  a 
food-fish.  Scomberesox  brcvirostris  Peters  is  found  from  Tomales  to  Monterey,  and  is  sent  to 
market  when  taken.  It  is,  however,  extremely  rare  and  only  one  was  seen  by  Jordan. 

THE  SKIPJACK — SCOMBEEESOX  SATJRUS. 

The  Skipjack,  although  in  general  appearance  very  dissimilar  to  the  Flying-fish,  is  a  member 
of  the  same  family.  It  is  quite  similar  in  form  to  the  silver  gar-fish,  Tylosurus,  from  which  it  differs 
in  the  long  beak-like  jaws,  slender  and  flexible,  and  in  having  fiulets  behind  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins.  In  England  it  is  known  as  the  "Skipper,"  "Skopster";  also  in  the  books  as  the  "Saury," 
or  the  "Egypt  Herring,"  and  by  the  Scotch  as  the  "  Gawnook." 

This  species  is  probably  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  although  it  has  not  yet  been  recorded 
from  South  America.  On  our  coast  it  is  abundant  at  times  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland.  In  the  Eastern  Atlantic  it  ranges  from  the  Loffoden  Isles,  latitude  69°,  to  the 
Gape  of  Good  Hope,  specimens  having  also  been  observed  about  Saint  Helena;  it  does  not,  how- 
ever, occur  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is  replaced  by  an  allied  species,  Sayrus  Camperii,  which 
is  distinguished  from  it  by  the  absence  of  the  air-bladder.  On  the  New  England  coast  large 
schools  are  occasionally  seen  in  autumn,  and  this  is  the  only  part  of  our  Atlantic  seaboard 
where  they  are  of  any  special  importance.  Codfish  feed  upon  them  voraciously,  and  they  are 
sometimes  eaten  by  blnefish.  Storer  remarks:  "Large  quantities  are  yearly  thrown  upon  the  shore 
at  Provincetown,  but  are  considered  worthless,  while  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  towns  of 
Cape  Cod  it  is  taken  in  immense  numbers  and  considered  by  many  of  them  very  nutritious  food." 

DeKay  supposed  New  York  to  be  the  extreme  limit  of  the  southern  range  of  this  species,  hut  it 
has  been  observed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  at  Bedford,  North  Carolina,  by  Jordan. 

Neill  states  that  it  is  not  an  uncommon  fish  in  the  Frith  of  Forth.  Numbers  run  up  with  the 
flood-tide  in  the  autumn;  they  do  not,  like  other  fishes,  retire  from  the  shoals  at  the  ebb  of  the 
tide,  but  are  then  found  by  hundreds,  having  their  long  noses  stuck  in  the  slush,  and  are  picked 
up  by  people  from  Kincardine,  Alloway,  and  other  places.  The  fullest  account  of  their  habits 
is  the  following,  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Couch : 


IIABITS  OF  THE  SKIPJACK. 

"The  Skipper  is,  more  strictly  than  the  gar-pike,  a  migratory  fish,  never  being  seen  in  the 
channel  until  the  month  of  June,  and  it  commonly  departs  before  the  end  of  autumn.  It  does  not 
swim  deep  in  the  water,  and  in  its  harmless  manners  resembles  the  flying-fish,  as  well  as  in  the 
persecutions  it  suffers  from  the  ravenous  inhabitants  of  the  ocean.  The  methods  it  adopts  to  escape 
from  their  pursuit  are  peculiar.  It  is  sometimes  seen  to  rise  to  the  surface  in  large  schools  and  fly 
over  a  considerable  space.  But  the  most  interesting  spectacle,  and  that  which  best  displays  their 
great  agility,  is  when  they  are  followed  by  a  large  company  of  porpoises,  or  their  still  more  active 
and  oppressive  enemies,  the  tunny  and  bonito.  Multitudes  then  mount  to  the  surface  and  crowd  on 
each  other  as  they  press  forward.  When  still  more  closely  pursued  they  spring  to  the  height  of 
several  feet,  leap  over  each  other  in  singular  confusion,  and  again  sink  beneath.  Still  further 
urged,  they  mount  again  and  rush  along  the  surface  by  repeated  starts  for  more  than  one  hundred 
feet,  without  once  dipping  beneath,  or  scarcely  seeming  to  touch  the  water.  At  last  the  pursuer 
springs  after  them,  usually  across  their  course,  and  again  they  all  disappear  together.  Amidst 
such  multitudes — for  more  than  twenty  thousand  have  been  judged  to  be  out  of  the  water  together- 
some  must  fall  a  prey  to  the  enemy;  but  so  many  hunting  in  company,  it  must  be  long  before  the 
pursuers  abandon.  From  inspection  we  could  scarcely  judge  the  fish  to  be  capable  of  such  flights, 
for  the  fins,  though  numerous,  are  small,  and  the  pectoral  far  from  large,  though  the  angle  of  their 
articulation  is  well  adapted  to  raise  the  fish  by  the  direction  of  their  motions  to  the  surface.  Its 
power  of  springing,  therefore,  must  be  chiefly  ascribed  to  the  tail  and  the  flnlets.  It  rarely  takes 
bait,  and  when  this  has  happened  the  boat  has  been  under  sail,  the  men  fishing  with  a  'lash'  or 
slice  of  mackerel  made  to  imitate  the  living  body.  The  Skipper  has  not  been  commonly  taken  since 
drift-fishermen  began  the  practice  of  sinking  their  nets  a  fathom  or  two  below  the  surface,  a  cir- 
cumstance which  marks  the  depth  to  which  they  swim;  but  before  this  it  was  usual  to  take  them, 
sometimes  to  the  amount  of  a  few  hundred,  at  almost  evey  shoot  of  the  pilchard  nets." 

This  description  of  their  habits  is  doubtless  very  applicable  to  those  of  the  same  species  in 
the  Western  Atlantic.  I  have  frequently  seen  them  in  schools  springing  above  the  surface,  but 
have  never  had  an  opportunity  to  study  their  movements  closely.  The  Skipjack  probably  feeds, 
for  the  most  part,  on  soft  pelagic  animals,  the  teeth  in  their  jaws  being  very  minute.  Giinther 
states  that  the  young,  having  the  beak  is  still  undeveloped,  are  met  with  everywhere  in  the  open 
ocean,  in  the  Atlantic  as  well  as  in  the  Pacific. 

THE  HALF-BEAK — HEMIEAMPHUS  UNIFASCIATUS. 

Species  of  this  genus  are  abundant  all  over  the  world,  and  are  particularly  numerous  in  the 
West  Indies,  where  they  are  sometimes  known  by  the  Indian  name  "  Balahoo."  They  are  closely 
related  to  the  Skipjack,  but  have  the  upper  jaw  short  and  the  lower  jaw  prolonged  into  a  long, 
slender  beak.  Our  own  species  ranges  in  abundance  from  Gape  Hatteras,  through  the  West 
Indies,  to  Bio  Janeiro ;  stragglers  have  been  taken  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  and  a  single 
specimen  at  Danvers,  Massachusetts.  Stearns  writes  that  it  is  a  common  fish  along  the  Florida 
coast,  living  in  shoal  water,  and  although  so  different  in  appearance  is  confused  with  the  silver 
gar-fish,  Tyloaurit*.  On  some  parts  of  the  coast  it  remains  all  the  year;  in  others,  only  in  warm 
weather.  It  swims  in  small  schools,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  spawns  in  the  fall. 

158.  THE  PIKE  FAMILY. 

THE  PIKE— Esox  LUCIUS. 

The  Pike,  Esox  lucius,  is  one  of  the  very  few  species  of  fish  which  is  found  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  is  equally  familiar  to  the  inland  fishermen  and  anglers  of  North  America,  Europe, 


462  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

and  Northern  Asia.  Notwithstanding  its  broad  distribution  in  the  Old  World,  however,  the  genus 
Esox  may  be  claimed  by  Americans  as  pre-eminently  American,  since  all  the  known  species  occur 
in  North  America,  while  only  one  of  them  is  found  in  Europe.  The  Pike — the  "Hecht"  of  Ger- 
many; the  "Brochet"  of  France;  the  "Luccio,"  or  "Luzzo,"  of  Italy,  and  the  "Gadda"  of 
Sweden — is  easily  distinguished  from  the  allied  species  in  the  United  States  by  its  coloration, 
which  is  uniform  brown,  green,  or  black,  with  numerous  elongate  white  blotches  upon  the  sides. 
It  is  further  distinguished  from  the  Muskellunge,  Esox  nobilior,  by  the  fact  that  the  cheek  in  front 
ef  the  fore  operculum  is  covered  with  scales,  while  in  the  latter  the  lower  half  of  the  cheek  is 
entirely  naked. 

It  is  sometimes  known  as  the  "  Great  Lake  Pike."  The  name  "  Pickerel,"  which  in  England 
is  used  as  a  diminutive,  and  applicable  to  the  young  Pike,  has  in  this  country  been  appropriated 
to  represent  a  smaller  species  of  the  same  genus,  Esox  reticulatus,  etc.;  but  our  fishermen  are  not 
usually  so  skilled  in  ichthyology  as  to  be  able  to  distinguish  infallibly  between  a  small  Pike  and 
a  large  Pickerel :  consequently  there  is  frequent  confusion  of  nomenclature,  nor  is  this  lack  of 
precision  altogether  absent  from  the  writings  of  our  early  ichthyologists. 

The  earliest  biography  of  the  Pike,  written  with  reference  to  its  American  habitat,  is  that  of 
Richardson,  in  the  "Fauna  Boreali  Americana."  He  states  that  "by  the  Cree  Indians  it  is  called 
'Eithmyoo-cannooshffioo.'  As  it  takes  a  bait  set  under  the  ice  more  rapidly  than  any  other  fish  of 
the  same  districts,  it  forms  an  important  resource  to  the  Indian  hunter  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
when  the  chase  fails  him.  In  the  summer  it  is  occasionally  shot  while  basking  in  shallow  waters, 
but,  except  in  very  urgent  cases,  powder  and  ball  are  of  too  high  value  in  the  fur  countries  to  be 
thus  expended.  No  quadruped,  bird,  or  fish  that  the  Pike  can  capture  seems  to  be  secure  from  its 
voracity,  and  even  the  spring  perch  is  an  acceptable  prey  to  this  water  tyrant.  The  Pike  rarely 
weighs  more  than  twelve  pounds  in  the  northern  parts  of  America.  One  specimen,  taken  in  Lake 
Huron,  was  submitted  to  Cuvier's  inspection,  and  it  has  also  been  carefully  compared  with  English 
Pike  without  any  specific  differences  having  been  detected."1 

Richardson  further  remarks  that  the  Pike  was  not  mentioned  by  Fabricius  as  a  native  of 
Greenland,  and  has  not  been  found  on  the  islands  of  the  Polar  Sea.  It  has,  however,  been  recently 
discovered  by  Dr.  Bean  in  a  collection  received  from  the  island  of  Kodiak,  Alaska. 

The  Pike,  almost  universally  despised,  and  generally,  on  account  of  its  predacious  habits, 
regarded  by  the  fishermen  of  our  Great  Lakes  as  a  pest,  is  in  Europe  considered  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  game  fishes.  Walton  devotes  to  it  an  entire  chapter,  concluding  with  directions  how  to 
"roast  him  when  he  is  caught,"  and  declaring  that  "when  thus  prepared  he  is  'choicely  good' — 
too  good  for  any  but  anglers  or  honest  men."  Mr.  Chalmondeley-Pennell,  a  well-known  English 
writer  on  angling,  has  published  a  work,  of  considerable  size,  entitled  "The  Book  of  the  Pike." 

HABITS  OF  THE  PIKE  IN  EUROPE. — So  few  have  been  the  observations  in  this  country,  and  so 
much  has  Esox  lucius  been  confused  with  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  that  it  seems  impracticable 
to  compile  from  American  authorities  a  satisfactory  account  of  its  life  history,  and  in  default  thereof 
is  here  presented  a  synopsis  of  what  has  been  written  concerning  the  habits  of  the  species  in 
Europe,  by  Dr.  L.  Wittmack,  director  of  the  Agricultural  Museum  of  Germany.  It  is  not  proba- 
ble that  the  habits  of  the  fish  in  America  differ  materially  from  those  here  described :  still  the 
European  investigations  cannot  fail  to  be  interesting  and  suggestive  to  those  who  may  hereafter 
have  the  opportunity  to  study  the  fish  in  our  own  Great  Lakes. 

The  Pike  occurs  from  Northern  Asia  to  North  America,  and  from  Scandinavia  to  Italy.  It 
appears,  according  to  Kroyer,  to  be  absent  from  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of 

i  Fauna  Boreali  Americana,  p.  124. 


I1AI11TS  OF  THE  1'lKi;  IN  EUKOPE.  1C,;) 

Germany,  not  only  in  the  high  incuntain  regions,  but  along  the  sea-coast  of  Northern  Germany, 
and  even  close  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  highest  vertical  distribution  of  the  Pike  occurs  on 
the  northern  side  of  tin-  Alps,  in  Tyrol,  in  various  lakes,  from  that  of  Tristac,  2,070  feet,  to  that 
of  Halden,  3,618  feet.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Alps  it  occurs  in  certain  lakes  of  the  Tyrol,  and 
in  the  Lake  of  Reaction,  4,637  feet,  which  is  apparently  the  loftiest  point  of  its  distribution.  In 
Switzerland,  according  to  Tschudi,  it  ranges  to  the  height  of  3,398  feet." 

The  spawning  time  of  the  Pike,  as  is  shown  in  an  elaborate  table  presented  by  Wittmack, 
often  begins  iu  the  latter  part  of  February,  and  lasts,  depending  somewhat  upon  temperature  and 
the  weather,  into  March  and  April,  sometimes  even  into  May.  It  deposits  its  eggs  upon  water- 
plants,  especially  rushes  and  grasses.  Examples  one-third  of  a  meter  long  are  capable  of  repro- 
ducing their  kind. 

The  predacious  nature  of  the  Pike  is  proverbial.  It  eats  nearly  all  other  kinds  of  fishes, 
sparing  not  even  its  own  species,  and  also  devours  frogs,  mice,  rats,  and  even  young  ducks. 
Although  it  is  voracious  in  its  attacks  upon  its  prey,  it  remains  generally  in  quiet  and  seems  to 
prefer  quiet  and  slow-flowing  waters  rather  than  swift  streams. 

Wittmack  gives  a  number  of  statements  from  authorities  in  different  parts  of  Germany 
showing  the  annual  rate  of  growth  of  the  Pike,  which  appears  to  vary  from  two  to  three  pounds, 
the  maximum  size  attained  being  from  forty-five  to  seventy  pounds.  lie  cites  one  instance  in 
which,  in  two  summers,  a  few  individuals,  liberated  in  a  pond  full  of  a  species  of  carp,  grew  from 
the  weight  of  one  and  three-quarters  to  that  of  abont  ten  pounds. 

BENECKE  ON  THE  SPAWNING  OF  THE  PIKE. — The  breeding  habits  of  the  Pike  are  still  fur- 
ther described  as  follows  by  Professor  Benecke,  of  Konigsberg : 

"The  Pike  inhabits  all  of  our  waters  with  the  exception  of  shallow  and  rapid  brooks.  It 
prefers  clear,  quiet  water  with. clean  bottom;  is  usually  active  at  night  and  quiet  in  the  daytime; 
lurks  among  plants  in  convenient  corners,  whence  it  rushes  forth  with  arrow-like  velocity.  It  lives 
a  hermit  life,  only  consorting  in  pairs  during  the  spawning  season.  The  pairs  of  fish  then  resort 
to  shallow  places  upon  meadows  and  banks  which  have  been  overflowed,  and,  rubbing  violently 
upon  each  other,  deposit  their  spawn  in  the  midst  of  powerful  blows  of  their  tails.  The  female 
deposits  generally  about  100,000  yellowish  eggs,  about  three  millimeters  iu  diameter,  out  of  which 
in  the  course  of  fourteen  days  the  young  with  their  great  umbilical  sacs  escape.  The  spawning 
time  occurs  in  Eastern  Prussia  in  the  months  of  February  to  April,  and  occasionally  the  spawning 
of  the  first  Pikes  occurs  before  the  departure  of  the  ice.  When  well  nourished  the  Pike  grows 
very  rapidly,  and  in  the  first  year  often  reaches  the  length  of  more  than  a  foot,  and  sometimes 
eventually  the  length  of  seven  or  eight  feet.  Only  the  young,  rapidly  growing  Pikes  are  eatable, 
the  old  ones  being  dry  and  tasteless." 

PIKE  IN  THE  GREAT  LAKES. — In  his  excursion  around  the  Great  Lakes  for  the  purpose  of 
gathering  fishery  statistics,  Mr.  Kuinlien  obtained  the  following  notes  upon  the  abundance  of  the 
Pike: 

"  On  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  it  appears  to  be  resident  in  those  portions  of  the 
lake  off  Racine,  and  is  very  rarely  taken  in  gill  nets.  It  is.  however,  not  known  to  Waukegan  or 
Keuosha  fishermen.  At  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie  individuals  are  at  rare  intervals  taken  in 
pound-nets  set  in  the  deepest  water.  About  Sandusky  and  vicinity,  like  the  Muskellnnge,  they 
are  said  to  be  raiher  rare,  though  a  few  taken  in  winter  around  Put-in  Bay  Island  are  then 
regarded  as  residents  of  cold,  deep  water.  Above  Cleveland  they  are  not  known  to  the  fishermen, 
but  in  the  vicinity  of  Ashtabula  considerable  numbers  are  sometimes  taken  in  spring — one  or  two 
hundred  pounds  at  a  haul  of  a  pound-net.  On  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie  very  few  are  taken  in 


464  NATURAL   HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

pounds,  and  it  is  there  thought  that  they  keep  constantly  in  deep  water  and  seldom  approach  the 
shore.    They  are  very  salable  and  much  sought  after,  but  apparently  nowhere  abundant." 

THE  COMMON  PICKEREL — Bsox  RETICULATUS. 

This  fish  is  known  in  the  North  always  by  the  name  of  "Pickerel";  in  the  Southern  States  it 
is  usually  the  "Jack."  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  streams  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  Maine  to 
Alabama,  it  being  generally  abundant,  especially  in  clear,  grassy  streams  and  ponds.  It  is  not 
found  in  the  Lake  region,  nor  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  weight  of  seven 
or  eight  pounds,  but  is  usually  much  smaller.  As  a  food-fish  its  rank  is  rather  high;  its  flesh  is 
white  and  well  flavored,  but  is  rather  dry  and  not  very  tender.  It  is,  however,  a  very  undesirable 
fish  for  propagation,  from  its  inordinate  voracity.  They  are  "mere  machines  for  the  assimilation 
of  other  organisms." 

THE  BROOK  PICKERELS — Esox  AMERICANUS  AND  Bsox  TTMBROSUS. 

These  two  small  Pickerel  are  very  abundant,  the  former  in  the  coastwise  streams  east  of  the 
Alleghanies,  the  latter  in  the  Mississippi  Basin.  Neither  reaches  a  length  of  much  over  a  foot. 
These  have,  therefore,  little  economic  value,  and  from  their  voracity  are  undesirable  inmates  of 
streams  and  ponds. 

THE  MUSKELLTJNGE — ESOX  NOBILIOR. 

The  following  facts  regarding  the  abundance  of  Muskellunge,  Esox  nobilior,  in  the  Great  Lakes 
have  been  ascertained  by  Mr.  Kumlien: 

Among  the  islands  dotting  the  southwestern  part  of  Lake  Superior,  including  the  Apostle 
Islands,  Sand,  York,  and  Kock  Islands,  and  others,  this  fish  is  caught  in  small  quantities  in  the 
pound-nets.  The  Muskellunge  is  occasionally  caught  in  the  small  bays  indenting  the  shore  south 
of  Keweeuaw  Point  as  far  as  Huron  Bay,  and  with  it  a  large  and  much  lighter-colored  fish  that 
may  possibly  be  Esox  lucius.  This  latter  is  not  well  known  among  the  fishermen,  but  Mr.  Edgertou 
says  he  has  often  noticed  it,  and  has  remarked  that  the  general  aspect  was  different  from  that  of 
the  Muskellunge.  On  the  fishing  grounds  at  the  north  end  of  Green  Bay  this  is  a  rare  fish,  only 
half  a  dozen  or  so  being  taken  each  year.  When  it  occurs  it  is  found  at  any  and  at  no  particular 
point.  Not  a  single  specimen  of  this  fish  was  taken  by  Mr.  Nelson  in  ten  years'  fishing  in  the 
Cedar  River  district,  and  Mr.  Everland  in  thirty-six  years  has  not  taken  half  a  dozen.  They  are 
reported  of  occasional  occurrence  in  the  Menomonee  River,  but  are  not  found  in  deep  nets  far  out 
in  the  bay. 

Lower  down  on  the  west  coast  of  Green  Bay,  from  Longtail  Point  to  Peshtego  Point,  this  fish 
occurs  everywhere,  but  nowhere  in  abundance.  A  specimen  was  taken  at  Washington  Island  in 
1866  that  weighed  forty-four  pounds.  The  fishermen  of  this  stretch  of  coast-line  pronounce  it 
Musk-ka-long.  At  Green  Bay  City  this  fish  is  caught  frequently  weighing  forty  pounds.  It  is 
common  at  this  point,  i.  e.  the  southern  end  of  Green  Bay.  Ascending  the  eastern  shore  of  Green 
Bay  as  far  as  Saint  Martin's  Island  the  Muskellunge  is  very  rare,  beiug  known  by  name  only  to 
a  great  many  of  the  fishermen.  Following  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  southward  from 
Porte  des  Mortes  on  the  north  as  far  south  as  Manitowoc  this  fish  is  rare.  At  Jacksonport  two 
have  been  taken  in  seven  years.  At  Two  Rivers  only  one  has  ever  been  recorded,  viz.,  in  1878. 
At  Manitowoc  it  is  less  scarce,  being  caught  sometimes  in  pound-nets  and  more  frequently  in  the 
river.  At  Milwaukee  the  Muskellunge  occurs  in  the  lake  but  rarely ;  it  is  never  caught  in  gill- 
nets.  In  1868  Mr.  Schultz  took  one  in  a  small  seine,  in  the  old  harbor,  weighing  one  hundred 
pounds.  This  is  believed  by  Mr.  Kumlien  to  be  a  fact,  having  been  testified  to,  as  he  says,  "by  so 
many  reliable  persons."  He  adds:  "Formerly,  fish  of  this  kind  weighing  eighty  pounds  were  far 
from  rare." 


TIIK  MI  sKKi.i.rNr.K  ix  i.AKi:  HI  I;ON.  465 

On  the  !)th  of  April  a  lisli  of  this  speeies  four  left  in  length  \va*  taken  at  Racine;  head  to 
opeiviilum.  ten  indies;  to  eye,  tour  inches;  greatest  circumference,  twenty  :m<l  one  half  inehea; 
over  eye,  eighteen  indies;  at  gills,  eighteen  inches;  weight,  forty  five  pounds.  These  fish  are 
III-M-I-  here  taken  in  the  gill-nets;  they  are  resi, -cut  in  the  lake  about  Kadne  in  winter.  A  very  f.-w 
have  been  known  to  occur  at  Waukegaii.  On  tbe  south, •astern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  including 
the  lisheries  of  Saiigatuck.  South  Haven,  and  Saint  Joseph,  this  tish  is  reported  as  always  being 
of  a  large  si/e.  At  I.udinglon,  farther  north,  only  one  instance  of  capture  is  on  record;  it  is  also 
said  to  lie  \vry  rare  at  (Hand  IIa\en. 

r.ut  little  has  been  reported  regarding  the  occurrence  of  the  Muskelluuge  upon  the  numerous 
fishing  grounds  along  the  north  shore  of  the  southern  peninsula,  of  Michigan  between  Little 
Tra  \er.se  r,a\  and  Thunder  Bay.  It  is  generally  rare  through  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw, 
only  about  half  a  dozen  being  taken  each  season;  and  most  abundant  of  all  at  Les  Cheucaux 
Islands.  Captain  Coats  caught  one  here,  in  1874,  weighing  sixty-two  pounds.  These  tish  are 
rarely  taken  in  pound-nets,  and  are  chiefly  caught  with  hook  and  line  about  the  LesCheneaux  and 
Driiinmond  Islands.  Captain  Dingman  has  caught  only  one  in  his  pound- net  in  the  past  fifteen 
years.  All  caught,  of  which  he  has  heard,  have  been  large.  In  Thunder  Bay  about  a  dozen,  oil 
an  average,  are  taken  in  twelve  months.  In  Sagiiiaw  Bay  they  are  taken  in  about  the  same  num- 
bers as  in  Thunder  Bay.  Here  too  they  are  always  large  fish.  A  few  are  taken  iu  seines  along  the 
coast  between  Port  aux  Barques  and  Port  Huron.  A  few  also  are  taken  annually  in  the  Saint  Clair 
Ii'iver;  perhaps  a  dozen  or  two  altogether  in  this  region  during  a  year.  Between  Toledo  and 
Detroit  River,  Lake  Krie,  a  specimen  of  this  fish  is  taken  now  and  then  in  the  pound  nets.  When 
taken,  it  is  al  \\  ays  large.  The  same  remark  will  apply  to  the  vicinity  of  Toledo  and  Maumee  Bay.1 

MUSKELLUNGE  IN  LAKE  ERIE.— About  Locust  Point  a  few  are  taken  in  the  fall.  Twenty 
years  ago,  in  this  region,  including  the  fisheries  of  Ottawa,  Port  Clinton,  Toussaint,  and  Locust 
Point,  Musquellunge  were  taken  weighing  sixty  and  seventy  pounds.  In  SandAsky  Bay  speci- 
mens are  caught  of  forty-five  pounds  weight,  and  at  Kelley's  Island  one  was  caught  weighing 
li  fly -seven  pounds,  and  another  sixty-two  pounds. 

In  connection  with  the  Huron  (Ohio)  fisheries,  it  is  reported  that  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
fish  of  this  species  were  taken  in  seventy-five  nets  during  the  year  1879.  They  are  here  generally 
large,  and  are  always  taken  in  pairs.  Three  or  four  represent  a  year's  catch  of  this  fish  at  Ver- 
million,  Ohio.  About  Black  River,  Loraiu  County,  Ohio,  Amherst,  and  Brownhelm  Bay,  it  is 
very  scarce,  few  being  caught  in  nets;  all  that  are  taken  are  large.  Of  this  fish,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Cleveland  and  Dover  Bay  fisheries,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  very  rare,  and  is  becom- 
ing more  so  each  year.  Mr.  Sadler  says  he  took  one  weighing  eighty  pounds.  The  fishermen  say 
they  are  always  found  in  pairs. 

The  Muskellunge  is  taken  at  Conneaut  at  the  rate  of  half  a  dozen  in  ten  years.  Only  one 
specimen  was  taken  in  the  Painesville  pounds  in  1879.  At  Fairport  and  Willoughby,  Ohio,  no 
mention  is  made  of  its  occurrence.  Erie  Bay,  especially  at  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  New  York, 
Erie,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mills'  Grove,  Ohio,  is  famous  for  its  Muskellunge  fishing ;  this  past 
season  over  sixty  were  caught,  weighing  from  twenty  to  forty-five  pounds.  They  are  caught 
by  trawling.  Fancy  prices  are  paid  for  them ;  about  twenty-five  cents  per  pound  retail  in  the 
city  and  twelve  and  a  half  cents  when  shipped.  More  were  caught  during  the  season  of  1879 
than  ever  before. 

M  rsKELLUNGE  IN  LAKE  ONTARIO.— The  following  notes  relate  to  the  fishery  in  Lake  Ontario : 
AtOswego  the  fish  is  very  rare  on  the  American  side ;  at  Port  Ontario  one  is  occasionally  caught ; 

i  Mr.  Fred.  Alvord  states  that  he  procured  :i  Mngkellnuge  from  Maiiiuee  Bay,  in  1864,  weighing  eighty-fire  pound*. 
30  P 


466  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

at  Cape  Vincent  they  are  common,  especially  in  the  Saint  Lawrence.  Nine  have  been  brought 
in  in  one  day,  the  smallest  of  which  weighed  thirty-two  pounds.  They  are  not  now,  however,  so 
plentiful  here  as  formerly.1  At  Chaumont  very  few  are  caught.  Seven  years  ago  one  was 
captured  here  weighing  sixty-five  pounds.  At  Sacket's  Harbor  very  few  Muskellunge  are  caught. 

159.  THE  MUMMICHOG  FAMILY— CYPRINODONTIDJE. 

In  the  brackish  waters  along  our  coast  and  near  the  months  of  rivers,  as  well  as  in  many  of 
our  fresh- water  streams  and  lakes,  are  found  members  of  the  family  Cyprinodontidai.  These  are  all 
small  fishes,  the  size  of  adults,  rarely  exceeding  four  inches,  never  exceeding  six  or  eight  in  the 
largest  of  them,  Fundulus  majalin.  In  New  England  they  are  usually  known  by  the  Indian  name 
"Muminichog";  farther  south  by  the  name  "Brook-fish"  or  "Killifish,"  a  legacy  from  the  early 
Dutch  colonists,  and  in  other  localities,  especially  in  the  interior,  less  correctly  known  as  "Min- 
now." 

There  are  some  twenty  species  in  North  America,  none  commonly  used  for  food,  but  all  of 
much  more  importance  as  food  for  larger  fish,  and  frequently  used  for  bait.  The  common  species 
of  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Fundulus  gramJis,  is  known  at  Pensacola  by  the  name 
"Sac-a-lait,"  an  unexplained  French  name  also  applied  to  a  species  of  Pomoxys  at  New  Orleans. 
The  brackish-water  species  breed  in  summer,  and  young  are  found  in  immense  schools  among 
the  eel  grass  and  on  the  sandy  beaches  in  company  with  the  sand  smelt,  Menidia  notatum,  and  the 
allied  species. 

The  CyprinodontidcE  are  represented  in  California  by  Fundulus  parvipinnis  Gir.,  a  little  fish 
very  abundant  in  brackish  waters  from  Santa  Barbara  southward,  and  by  Cyprinodon  calif  or- 
niensis  Gir.,  a  small  species  once  found  at  Sail  Diego. 

These  fishes  are  particularly  interesting  to  the  physiologist,  from  the  fact  that  many  of 
them  are  viviparous,  and  that  the  anal  fin  of  the  adult  male  is  modified  into  a  copulatory  organ. 
The  two  sexes  of  the  species  thus  modified  are  usually  very  different  in  appearance,  and  might  be 
mistaken  for  members  of  different  genera.  Those  members  of  the  family  belonging  to  the  genera 
Cyprinodon  and  Fundulus  are  carnivorous,  while  Pcemlia  and  Mollienesia  feed  upon  mud. 

The  famous  "Blind  Fish  "of  the  Mammoth  Cave,  Amblyopsis  spelccus,  and  its  allies,  are  closely 
allied  to  the  Cyprinodon,  though  belonging  to  another  family,  Amblyopsidce.  These  fish  are  useless 
economically,  but  are  regarded  as  great  curiosities,  and  often  sold  for  considerable  sums. 

THE  BLACKFISH  OP  ALASKA — DALLIA  PECTORALIS,  Bean. 
By  E.  W.  NELSON. 

This  species,  known  as  the  "E-ruang-uk"  to  the  Eskimo  of  the  Lower  Yukon  and  adjoining 
region;  "E-lo-ki-nik"  to  the  .Mali-unit  Eskimo  in  Kotzebue  Sound  region;  "Chorruy  Ryba"  to  the 
Russian  fur-traders;  and  "Blackfish"  to  American  fur- traders,  though  insignificant  in  size,  exists 
in  such  numbers  in  all  the  grass-grown,  sluggish  fresh-water  streams  and  shallow  lakes  from  the 
vicinity  of  Kotzebue  Sound  on  the  north  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kuskoquiin  River  on  the  south,  and 
ii])  the  Yukon  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tanana  River,  and  for  some  distance  up  the  Lower  Kuskoquim, 
that  it  forms  a  very  important  source  of  food  supply  to  the  natives  within  these  limits.  In  the  low 
country  between  the  Lower  Yukon  and  Kuskoquim  Rivers  these  fish  exist  in  greatest  abun- 
dance, and  here,  also,  is  found  the  most  dense  Eskimo  population  in  Alaska.  In  this  region  alone 

1  By  the  north  iihoro  Indians  this  fish  was  called  "  Nosconouge."  A  very  old  man,  the  first  white  child  born  on 
Prince  Edward's  Island,  told  Mr.  McPherson  that  when  he  was-n  boy,  fifty  years  ago,  the  name  was  an  Indian  one, 
and  that  our  modern  word  "  Musk<'l)ui>i{e  "  is  but  a  corruption  of  the  old  Indian  word  "  Nosconouge." 


ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OP  THE  BLACKPI8H.  467 

a  population  of  nearly  three  thousand  Eskimos  rely  upon  this  fish  foronc  of  their  most  abundant 
and  certain  sources  of  food  supply.  The  fish  is  caught  in  wicker-work  traps  set  in  its  haunts — n 
wicker-work  or  brush  fence  leading  into  (he  funnel-shaped  mouth  of  the  trap  from  each  side.  In 
many  of  the  muddy  streams  and  ponds  the  water  fairly  swarms  with  these  "Blackflsb."  Every 
full,  especially  alter  the  ice  forms,  great  quantities  are  taken  and  packed  in  grass  bags  holding 
ii.'in  foriy  to  one  hundred  pounds  each.  These  bags  of  tish  freeze  into  a  solid  mass,  and  are  then 
stored  either  in  turf  covered  pits,  or  upon  platforms  erected  upon  four  posts,  and  thus  kept  for 
future  consumption.  They  are  eaten  either  raw  or  boiled  by  the  natives,  and  are  chopped  up  and 
ted  frozen  to  the  dogs. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  BLACKFISH. — It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  amount  of  these  fish 
used  annually.  It  is  well  within  the  limits,  however,  to  state  that  during  October,  November,  and 
December  at  least  1,500  pounds  per  day  are  taken  in  tho  roughly  triangular  region  between  the 
Lower  Yukon  and  Kuskoquim  Rivers.  This  amounts  to  138,000  pounds,  or  69  tons.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  year  they  are  fished  with  varying  success,  owing  to  different  causes,  and  for  this 
period  it  is  fair  to  allow  one-half  the  amount  just  mentioned,  thus  giving  103.5  tons  for  the  annual 
estimated  catch  in  this  region.  Over  the  remainder  of  the  territory  where  this  fish  occurs  my 
data  are  very  meager,  but  by  a  rough  estimate  I  would  allow  about  one-half  the  preceding  amount, 
or  51.7  tons,  raising  the  entire  estimated  amount  of  these  fish  used  to  155.2  tons  per  annum.  I 
have  been  very  cautious  in  making  the  estimate  small,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  careful  observation 
over  this  region  will  raise  the  amount  to  perhaps  double  that  given. 

The  Vega  expedition  under  the  command  of  Baron  Nordcnskjold  obtained  numerous  s\tec- 
imens  of  this  fish,  and  it  has  since  beeii  redescribed  by  Professor  F.  A.  Schmidt,  of  the  University 
of  Christiana,  under  the  name  Dallia  delicatissima.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Nordenskjold's 
specimens  belong  to  the  species  above  described. 


468  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


Q.— THE   SALMON    TRIBE. 

In  Dr.  Suckley's  "  Monograph  of  the  Genus  Salino,"  printed  in  1873,  forty-three  species  of 
Trout  and  Salmon  were  enumerated  as  members  of  the  fauna  of  North  America.  In  the  course  of 
the  extensive  revisions  of  our  ichthyology  which  have  recently  been  made,  this  group  has  been 
sedulously  studied.  Only  eighteen  species  are  retained  upon  the  list  as  amended  by  Professors 
Gill  and  Jordan.  While  the  number  of  species  has  been  lessened,  several  new  genera  have  been 
proposed,  and  many  changes  in  nomenclature  necessitated. 

According  to  the  latest  system,  the  old  genus  Salmo,  which  in  the  standard  works  on  angling 
includes  everything  called  by  the  names  "  Trout"  and  "Salmon,"  has  been  divided  into  groups. 
The  first,  for  which  the  name  Salmo  is  retained,  includes  the  Atlantic  Salmon  and  the  black-spotted 
species  of  the  west,  the  Rainbow  Trout  of  the  Pacific  slope,  Salmo  irideus,  the  Rio  Grande  Trout, 
«S'.  spilurus,  with  the  two  closely-related  forms,  more  widely  distributed  through  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ain region,  and  regarded  as  subspecies  of  this  type,  also  the  Steel  Head  of  the  Columbia,  <S'. 
Gairdneri,  and  the  common  Black-spotted  Trout,  A'.  Clarkii,  which  occurs  in  the  Upper  Missouri, 
in  Utah,  in  the  Columbia  River,  and  numerous  other  districts  of  the  Northwest.  In  this  same 
group  are  included  the  Quiunat,  or  California  Salmon,  and  its  allies,  which  will  be  discussed  here- 
after. These  have  been  placed  in  the  genus  OncorJiynchus. 

The  second  group  includes  the  Chars,  or  Red-spotted  Trout,  and  the  gray-spotted  species 
known  as  Salmon  Trout,  or  Lake  Trout.  These  are  assigned  to  the  genus  Salvelinws. 

160.  THE  SALMON— SALMO  SALAR.1 

"In  Aquitania  the  River  Salmon  surpasseth  all  the  fishes  of  the  sea,"  wrote  Pliny,  eighteen 
hundred  years  ago.  This  was  the  Salmon's  christening,  and  though  nearly  one  hundred  species  of 
the  family  Salmonldce  are  now  known  to  naturalists,  one  has  always  stood  pre-eminent,  like  a  Scot- 
tish chieftain,  needing  no  other  name  than  that  of  his  clan.  The  luxurious  Romans  prized  highly 
the  salmon  streams  in  their  Gallic  and  British  provinces,  if  we  may  trust  Pliny  and  Ausonius,  and 
that  this  fish  was  well  known  to  the  early  English  is  evinced  by  the  many  Saxon  names,  such  as 
"Parr,"  "Peal,"  "Smolt,"  "Grilse,"  "Kipper,"  and  "Baggit,"  given  it  in  different  stages  of  growth 
in  Great  Britain  and  America.  The  Normans  brought  over  the  name  of  Latin  origin,  which  they 
applied  to  the  perfect  adult  fish,  ready  for  the  banquets  of  the  conqueror.  When  Cabot  discovered 
Newfoundland,  in  1497,  he  found  Salmon  in  its  waters,  but  the  red  men  had  long  before  this  known 
the  art  of  killing  them  with  torches  and  wooden  spears. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Salmon  inhabit  the  North  Atlantic  and  its  affluents.  No  one  knows  how 
far  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle  they  range,  though  their  occurrence  in  Greenland,  Iceland,  Northern 
Scandinavia,  and  Middle  Labrador  is  well  established.  They  occur  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
•entering  the  Baltic  and  the  waters  of  Russia,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  the  White  Sea. 
They  abound  in  all  the  British  Islands,  where  they  are  protected  and  fostered  with  great  success, 
and  are  more  or  less  plenty  in  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Prussia,  ascending  the  Rhine  as  far 
as  Basle.  The  southern  limit  of  their  occurrence  is  in  Galicia,  the  northwestern  province  of  Spain, 

'This  chapter  is  based  upon  the  essay  on  the  Salmon  in  "The  Game  Fishes  of  North  America,"  by  G.  Brown 
Coode,  published  by  Charles  Scribner's  SODS. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  SALMON. 

in  latitude  43°.  "There  is  a  river  in  Maccdon."  says  Fliu-llcn.  in  "King  Henry  the  Fifth,"  -an. I 
there  is  also  moreover  a  liver  at  Monmoiith :  it  is  called  Wye,  at  Moninouth;  but  it  is  out  of  my 
prains.  what  is  the  name  of  the  other  river;  but  'tis  nil  one, 'tis  so  like  as  my  fingers  is  to  my 
tinkers,  and  there  is  salmons  in  both."  Fluellen  was  in  the  wrong,  for  there  are  no  Salmon  in  any 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  water  system. 

On  our  own  side  of  the  Atlantic,  their  presence  in  Hudson's  Bay  and  on  the  arctic  coast  of 
America  is  doubtful,  yet  probable.  They  range  far  north  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Labrador,  and  in 
the  waters  of  the  Great  Lake  system  up  to  Niagara. 

Nova  Scotia,  New  Hrmisvvick,  and  Maine  have  many  salmon  rivers;  New  Hampshire,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Connecticut,  a  few  very  good  ones.  The  natural  limit  of  the  southward  range  of  the 
Salmon  appears  to  be  in  latitude  41°,  near  the  Connecticut  River,  where  they  were  once  extremely 
abundant,  but  many  stragglers  have  been  taken  in  the  Housatonic  and  Hudson.  Much  effort  has 
been  made  in  trying  to  prove  that  the  Salmon,  of  which  Hendrick  Hudson  saw  "great  store"  in 
liiu'.i.  when  sailing  up  the  river  which  bears  his  name,  were  weak-flsh,  or  some  equally  remote 
species.  Surely  weak-fish  do  not  go  up  the  river  to  the  Highlands.  Salmon  have  from  time  to 
time  been  seen  in  the  Delaware,  it  is  said,  and,  if  this  be  true,  it  renders  the  story  of  Hudson  still 
more  credible. 

ABUNDANCE. — Wonderful  things  are  said  about  their  abundance  in  colonial  days.  Every  one 
has  heard  of  the  epicurean  apprentices  of  Connecticut  who  would  eat  Salmon  no  oftener  than  twice 
in  the  week. '  Like  many  other  good  ones,  this  story  seems  to  be  prehistoric,  and  was  doubtless  told 
of  some  other  fish  in  the  times  when  our  Aryan  ancestors  dwelt  on  the  plains  of  Central  Asia.  You 
may  find  it  in  Fuller's  "Worthies  of  England,"  where  it  has  the  same  archaic  and  indefinite  flavor 
which  is  so  evident  now  two  centuries  later.  "Plenty  of  them  in  this  country,"  wrote  Fuller, 
"though  not  in  such  abundance  as  iu  Scotland,  where  servants  (they  say)  indent  with  their  masters 
not  to  be  fed  therewith  above  twice  a  week."  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  one  hundred  years  ago 
salmon  fishery  was  an  important  food  resource  iu  Southern  New  England.  Many  Connecticut 
people  remember  hearing  their  grandfathers  say  that  when  they  went  to  the  river  to  buy  shad  the 
fishermen  used  to  stipulate  that  they  should  also  buy  a  specified  number  of  Salmon.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  century  they  begau  rapidly  to  diminish.  Mitchill  stated,  in  1814,  that  in 
former  days  the  supply  to  the  New  York  market  usually  came  from  Connecticut  River,  but  of  late 
years  from  the  Kennebec,  covered  with  ice.  Rev.  David  Dudley  Field,  writing  in  1819,  stated  that 
Salmon  had  scarcely  been  seen  in  the  Connecticut  for  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  The  circumstances 
of  their  extermination  in  the  Connecticut  are  well  known,  and  the  same  story,  names  and  date 
changed,  serves  equally  well  for  other  rivers. 

In  1798  a  corporation,  known  as  the  "Upper  Locks  and  Canals  Company,"  built  a  dam  sixteeu 
feet  high  at  Miller's  River,  one  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut.  For  two 
or  three  years  fish  were  observed  in  great  abundance  below  the  dam,  and  for  perhaps  ten  years 
they  continued  to  appear,  vainly  striving  to  reach  their  spawning  grounds;  but  soon  the  work  of 
extermination  was  complete.1  When,  iu  1872,  a  solitary  Salmon  made  its  appearance,  the  Saybrook 
fishermen  did  not  know  what  it  was. 

HABITS. — At  least  half  of  the  Salmon's  life  is  spent  in  the  ocean.  "  He  is  ever  bred  in  the  fresh 
rivers,"  said  Walton,  "and  never  grows  big  but  in  the  sea."  "  He  has  (like  some  persons  of  honour 

1  "Thr  Rliad,  bass,  and  Salmon  more  than  half  support  the  province.  From  the  number  of  seines  employed  to  catch 
the  fish  passing  up  the  lakes  one  might  he  led  to  suppose  that  the  whole  mnst  be  stopped,  yet  in  six  months'  time  they 
return  to  the  sea  with  such  multitudes  of  young  ones  as  to  fill  the  Connecticut  River  for  many  days,  and  no  finite 
being  can  number  them." — PKTKRS:  History  of  Connecticut,  1783. 

*  MITCHILL  and  FIELD. 


470  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

and  riches,  which  have  both  their  winter  and  summer  houses)  this  fresh  water  for  summer  and  the 
salt  water  for  winter  to  spend  his  life  in."1  Most  of  his  tribe,  however,  are  peculiarly  fresh-water 
fishes,  though  several  share  his  sea-dwelling  habit,  and  others,  like  the  Brook-trout,  descend  into  salt 
water,  when  not  prevented  by  barriers  oi  temperature.2  All  of  the  family  run  into  very  shoal  water, 
and  usually  to  the  sources  of  streams,  to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  all  of  them  seek  food  and  cool  tem- 
peratures in  the  largest  and  deepest  bodies  of  water  accessible.  I  am  inclined  to  the  view  that 
the  natural  habitat  of  the,  Salmon  is  in  the  fresh  waters,  the  more  so  since  there  are,  so  many 
instances — such  as  that  of  the  Stormonttield  Ponds  in  England — where  it  has  been  confined  for  years 
in  lakes  without  apparent  detriment.  The  "Laud-locked"  or  "Fresh-water"  Salmon,  known  also  in 
the  Saguenay  region  as  "  Winninish,"  in  the  Shubeuacadie  and  other  rivers  of  Western  Nova  Scotia 
as  the  "  Grayling,"  and  in  different  parts  of  Maine  as  "  Schoodic  Trout,"  "  Sebago  Trout,"  or  "Dwarf 
Salmon,"  probably  never  visit  salt  water,  finding  ample  food  and  exercise  in  the  lakes  and  large 
rivers.  In  some  regions  in  Maine  and  New  Brunswick  their  access  to  salt  water  is  cut  ofl'  by  dams, 
and  some  investigators  have  claimed  that  Land-locked  Salmon  did  not  exist  there  until  these 
obstructions  were  built,  some  fifty  years  ago.  This  hypothesis,  however,  is  not  necessary,  for 
in  the  Saguenay  the  Winninish  have  easy,  unobstructed  access  to  the  sea.  The  Salmon  of  Lake 
Ontario  and  its  tributaries  are  not  thought  to  enter  salt  water,  and  there  are  similar  instances  of 
land-locking  in  the  lakes  of  Northern  Sweden.  In  the  Maine  lakes  Salmon  feed  on  minnows 
and  other  small  fishes.  The  Salmon  while  it  remains  in  the  sea  or  in  the  brackish  estuaries 
takes  particular  delight  in  feeding  on  crustaceans  and  their  eggs,  small  shrimps,  and  young  crabs. 
When  in  the  rivers  they  eat  but  little,  though  they  are  at  times  eager  enough  for  food,  as  testify 
their  voracious  rushes  at  the  angler's  fly-hook.  The  absenteeism  of  the  Salmon  is  due  principally 
to  the  dearth  of  desirable  food  in  the  rivers.  The  young  fish  stay  in  fresh  water  for  one,  and 
frequently  two,  years.  When  they  pass  down  to  the  sea  they  weigh  but  a  few  ounces.  They  find 
congenial  food  and  begin  to  grow  rapidly.  The  broad  world  of  ocean  affords  them  new  opportu- 
nities for  adventure  and  self-advancement,  and  it  is  only  when  summoned  by  the  duties  of  family 
life  that  they  return  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  old  home.  When  Salmon  live  in  the  lakes 
they  prey  upon  minnows  and  other  small  fishes,  but  those  of  the  sea  delight  also  in  small  crusta- 
ceans and  their  eggs,  to  which  they  owe  the  vivid  color  of  their  flesh.  The  habits  of  successive 
generations  become  hereditary  traits,  and  the  differences  in  their  life-histories  seem  to  justify  the 
claim  of  the  Land-locked  Salmon  to  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  Salmo  salar,  though  it  is  hardly  to 
be  distinguished  except  by  its  lesser  size  and  some  slight  peculiarities  in  coloration.  It  is  to  be 
designated  as  Salmo  salar,  variety  sebago.  Although  both  originated  in  the  same  primitive  stock, 
it  is  not  probable  that  one  changes  to  the  other  except  after  many  generations,  under  the  influence 
of  forced  changes  in  their  environment. 

1  REPRODUCTION. — Although,  like  the  Trout,  and  unlike  shad,  Salmon  spawn  on  a  falling  tem- 
perature, not  depositing  their  eggs  until  the  water  is  at  least  as  cold  as  50°,  yet  they  seem  to 
enter  the  rivers  on  a  rising  temperature.  Yarrell  remarked  that  English  rivers  issuing  from  large 
lakes  afford  early  Salmon,  while  rivers  swollen  by  melting  snows  in  the  spring  months  are  later  in 
their  season  of  producing  fish,  and  yield  their  supply  when  the  lake  rivers  are  beginning  to  fail. 
In  America  the  Southern  streams  seem  to  yield  the  earliest  fish.  In  the  Connecticut  they  appear 
in  April  and  May,  in  the  Merrirnack  in  May  and  June,  in  the  Penobscot  most  abundantly  in  June 

\v\i  I..N:  Compleat  Angler. 

•The  notion  of  marking  Salmon  in  not  anew  one.  Walton,  writing  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  ago,  speaks 
of  observations  made  by  tying  ribbons  in  tho  tails  of  some  number  of  young  Salmon  which  were  taken  subsequently 
at  the  game  place,  "which  hath  inclined  many  to  think  t'  at  every  Salmon  usually  returns  to  the  same  river  in 
which  it  was  bred,  as  young  pigeons  taken  out  of  the  satin1  dove-cote  have  also  been  observed  to  do." 


SPAWNING  HABITS  OF  THE  SALMON.  471 

and  July,  though  some  come  as  curly  :is  April,  and  in  tin-  Miramicbi  from  the  middle  of  June  to 
October.  I  can  only  account  for  this  seeming  paradox  by  (he  theory  that,  while  Salmon  arc  not 
harmed  by  extreme  variation  of  temperature,  they  may  be  averse  to  sudden  changes,  and  though 
strongly  impelled  to  seek  the  spawning  grounds  are  prevented  by  the  eold.  I  have  ascertained 
that  the  eod  possess  very  little  animal  warmth.  The  temperature  of  the  blood  of  a  number  of 
individuals  caught  iu  twenty-five  fathoms  of  water  was  47°  Fahrenheit,  precisely  that  of  the  water 
at  the  bottom  whence  they  were  lifted.  Mackerel  swimming  at  the  surface  registered  59°  or  00°, 
while  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  ."iS0,  thus  indicating  that  they  possess  a  trifling  amount  of 
animal  heat.  The  Salmon  unquestionably  changes  its  temperature  with  that  of  the  surrounding 
water  iu  much  the  same  way,  and  if,  as  is  probable,  rivers  rising  in  the  mountains  are  colder  in 
early  spring  than  the  ocean  strata  frequented  by  the  Salmon,  here  is  a  possible  solution  of  the 
problem.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  English  rivers,  which  are  always  open,  there  are  no  regular 
seasons  of  ascent,  the  fish  constantly  passing  iu  and  out;  indeed,  Mr.  Atkins  thinks  it  pretty 
certain  that  large  Salmon  iu  prime  condition  are  running  into  the  Peuobscot  from  the  sea  every 
month  in  the  year.  It  is  likely,  also,  that  the  warmth  of  the  rivers  is  an  important  factor  iu  accel- 
erating the  vegetative  growth  of  the  eggs  iu  the  ovaries  of  the  mother  fish. 

The  movements  of  the  Salmon  are  not  so  intimately  related  to  the  temperature  of  the  water 
as  those  of  many  other  species.  They  are  not  sensitive  to  sudden  changes,  and  are  capable  of 
enduring  a  range  of  at  least  forty-five  degrees.  In  this  they  resemble  less  the  migratory  fishes 
than  the  permanent  residents  of  our  fresh  waters;  indeed,  it  is  quite  allowable  to  speak  of  them 
as  resident,  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole  colony  belonging  in  one  river  may  be  found  in  it  at 
any  season.  This  proportion  cannot  fall  much  below  two-thirds,  if  we  consider  that  the  fish  less 
than  a  year  old  would  make  up  at  least  half  its  number,  and  that  the  breeding  fish  are  iu  the 
rivers  six  or  seven  mouths  after  the  breeding.  The  breeding  fish  remain  dining  the  season  of 
greatest  heat  and  greatest  cold,  though  their  stay  after  they  have  de]M>sited  their  eggs  is  no 
doubt  chiefly  because  their  vitality  is  diminished  and  their  circulation  retarded  by  the  falling  tem- 
perature, depriving  them  alike  of  the  craving  for  food  and  the  power  to  seek  it.  Those  which 
spawn  early  are  believed  to  return  at  once  to  the  sea;  the  more  tardy  ones  often  remain  all 
winter,  and  are  carried  out  by  the  spring  freshets.  Salmon  eggs  are  not  injured  by  freezing,  and 
the  fish  are  unquestionably  quite  as  hardy.  English  fish-culturists  claim  that  their  Salmon  will  not 
thrive  where  the  water  is  warmer  than  GO0,  or  at  most  G5°  iu  the  summer,  but  Mr.  Atkins  kept  fish 
in  his  ponds  at  Bucksport,  Maine,  with  the  water  at  the  bottom  as  warm  as  74°  at  midday,  the 
means  of  bottom  and  surface  temperature  for  June,  July,  August,  September,  and  October,  1872, 
being  G0°.6, 65°.9,  6JP.8,  59°,  5Q0.3,  and  72°9, 73°.l,  73Q.G,  G2°.2,  64°.3,  respectively.  In  the  GaspS 
salmon  streams,  where  the  fish  are  in  the  perfection  of  activity,  the  temperature  of  the  pools  in 
July  ranges  from  40J°  to  59°. 

K  i :  i .  i  s. — At  the  approach  of  the  spawning  season  their  trim  shapes  and  bright  colors  disappear. 
They  grow  lank  and  misshapen,  the  fins  grow  thick  and  fleshy,  and  the  skin,  which  becomes  thick 
and  slimy,  is  blotched  and  mottled  with  brown,  green  or  blue,  and  vermilion  or  scarlet  These 
changes  are  chiefly  apparent  in  the  males,  whose  jaws  now  become  curved  so  that  they  touch  only 
at  the  tips,  the  lower  one  developing  a  large,  powerful  hook,  which  is  his  weapon  iu  the  savage 
combats  with  his  rivals  in  which  he  at  this  period  engages.  When  in  this  condition,  and  after 
spawning,  when  they  retrace  their  course  to  the  sea,  they  are  known  as  "Kelts." 

Having  entered  a  river,  they  press  on  to  its  headwaters,  where  the  earliest  of  them  arrive  two 
or  three  mouths  before  spawning  time.  As  soon  as  the  water  is  cool  enough  they  proceed  to  deposit 
their  eggs,  in  deep  furrows  which  they  plow  up  in  the  sandy  or  gravelly  bottom  of  the  stream, 


472  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

usually  near  the  verge  of  a  rapid.  European  observers  state  that  the  furrows  are  shaped  by  the 
noses  of  the  two  parent  fish,  every  nest  being  tilled  with  eggs  before  the  next  one  is  made,  and  the 
first  covered  up  by  the  sand  which  is  loosened  in  digging  the  second,  chiefly  by  the  action  of  the 
current.  Mr.  Atkins  observed  a  female  Land-locked  Salmon  excavating  a  nest  by  turning  on  her 
side  and  flopping  violently  against  the  bottom  with  her  tail,  while  the  male  was  engaged  in  driving 
away  rivals  and  predaceous  foes.  Spawning  is  not  accomplished  at  once,  but  the  eggs  are  deposited 
by  installments,  as  fast  as  they  mature,  during  a  period  of  from  five  to  twelve  days.  "When  the 
furrow  is  made,  the  male  and  the  female  retire  to  a  little  distance,  one  to  the  one  side,  the  other 
to  the  other  side  of  the  furrow;  they  then  throw  themselves  on  their  sides,  again  come  together, 
and  rubbing  together  both  shed  their  spawn  into  the  furrow  at  the  same  time."  This  is  the 
observation  of  Mr.  Ellis  on  the  European  Salmon,  and  a  similar  habit  has  been  observed  by  Mr. 
Whitcher  in  Canada.  In  the  tributaries  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  spawning  begins  by  the  middle  of 
October;  in  Maine,  with  both  Land-locked  and  Sea  Salmon,  a  week  or  two  later,  and  it  is  presumable 
that  in  the  Connecticut  it  will  be  found  to  occur  well  along  towards  December.  In  Great  Britain 
and  in  the  Rhine  the  season  begins  in  October  or  November,  continuing  in  some  rivers  till  February. 

Salmon  eggs  are  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  of  a  bright  reddish  or  yellowish 
hue.  English  fish-culturists  estimate  the  number  of  eggs  yielded  by  a  large  fish  at  1,000  to  each 
pound  of  her  weight ;  experiments  in  the  Penobscot  indicate  a  yield  of  not  more  than  5,000  or  C,000 
for  a  fish  of  eight  pounds,  and  about  15,000  for  one  of  forty  pounds.  In  the  Scotch  streams  the 
eggs  come  to  maturity  in  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  forty  days,  but  in  our  colder  waters,  at  a 
temperature  of  33°  through  winter  and  spring,  the  period  of  incubation  is  supposed  to  extend  over 
six  or  seven  months,  the  young  fish  not  appearing  until  May.  In  the  hatching-houses  the  period 
varies  greatly,  eggs  having  been  hatched  in  fifty-four  days  with  a  temperature  of  55°.  and  in  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  at  36°. 

YOUNG  FISH. — The  newly  hatched  Salmon  measures  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  has 
the  yolk-sac  adherent  from  four  to  six  weeks.  When  this  is  absorbed  it  begins  to  feed,  rising 
greedily  to  seize  any  minute  floating  object.  In  two  months  the  fry  has  grown  to  an  inch  and  a 
half,  and  begins  to  assume  the  vermilion  spots  and  transverse  bars  or  finger  marks  which  entitle 
it  to  be  called  a  "Parr,"  and  which  it  retains  while  remaining  in  fresh  water, sometimes  until  it  is 
seven  or  eight  inches  long.  It  continues  a  "  Parr  "  until  the  second  or  third  spring,  when,  in  prep- 
aration for,  or  perhaps  in  consequence  of,  a  descent  toward  the  sea,  a  uniform  bright  silvery  coat 
is  assumed,  and  the  Parr  becomes  a  "Suiolt."  After  remaining  from  four  to  twenty-eight  months 
in  the  salt  water  it  again  seeks  its  native  river,  having  become  either  a  "Grilse"  or  a  "Salmon." 
The  "Grilse"  is  the  adolescent  Salmon;  it  weighs  from  two  to  six  pounds,  and  is  more  slender  and 
graceful  than  the  mature  fish,  with  smaller  head,  thinner  scales,  more  forked  tail,  and  spots 
rounder,  more  numerous,  and  bluish  rather  than  jetty  black.  The  two  may  easily  be  distinguished 
even  though  both  should  be  of  the  same  size,  as  not  unfrequently  happens.  The  male  Grilse  is 
sexually  mature,  but  not  the  female,  in  America;  in  Europe  the  same  is  claimed  for  the  male  Parr 
and  the  female  Grilse.  "There  is  nothing  in  the  water,"  says  Norris,  "  that  surpasses  a  Grilse  in 
its  symmetrical  beauty,  its  brilliancy,  its  agility,  and  its  pluck.  I  have  had  one  of  four  pounds  to 
leap  from  the  water  ten  times,  and  higher  and  farther  than  a  Salmon.  Woe  to  the  angler  who 
attempts,  without  giving  line,  to  hold  one  even  of  three  pounds;  he  does  it  at  the  risk  of  his 
casting  line,  or  his  agile  opponent  tears  a  piece  from  its  jaw  or  snout  in  its  desperate  effort  to 
escape." 

Mr.  Atkins  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  great  run  of  Grilse  which  is  so  prominent  a 
feature  in  Canada  and  Europe  is  almost  entirely  absent  in  the  rivers  of  the  United  States,  the  fish 


THE  SALMON  IN  LAKE  ONTARIO.  473 

not  returning  until  they  have  beco me  ;i(lult.     In  rivers  where  (Irilse  are  found,  (In-  Salmon  al\va\> 

precede  them  in  their  ascent,  for  they  do  not  enter  fresh  water  until  toward  the  end  of  sum r. 

Who  '-mi  wonder  at  tin-  angler's  enthusiasm  over  "a  Salmon  fresh  run  in  love  and  glory  from 
the  seat"  Hear  Christopher  North's  praise  of  a  perfeet  tish  :  -She  has  literally  no  head;  but  her 
snout  is  in  her  shoulders.  That  is  the  beaulv  of  a  tish,  high  and  round  shoulders,  short  waisted, 
no  loins,  lui:  all  body  and  not  long  of  terminating — the  shorter  still  the  better — in  a  tail  sharp  and 
pointed  as  Diana's,  when  she  is  crescent  in  the  sky."  Mr.  Kilhonnie's  painting  in  Seribner's 
••Came  Fishes  of  North  America"  represents  a  thirty-pound  fish  drawn  to  a  scale  of  one-fourth. 
The  largest  on  record  was  one  of  eighty-three  pounds,  brought  to  London  in  1821;  the  Scotch 
tish  rarely  exceed  twenty-live  pounds.  Perley  speaks  of  a  sixty  pounder  taken  long  ago  in  the 
Kestigouchc:  in  is.-.j  many  of  forty,  and  one  of  forty-seven,  pounds  were  caught  in  the  CasoH- 
pcdiac.  Mr.  Frederick  Curtis'  M,,re  for  York  River,  Canada,  July  7,  1871,  shows  nine  fish 
ranging  from  seventeen  to  thirty-four  ami  averaging  twenty-six  and  a  quarter  pounds.  Another, 
for  tin-  same  locality,  July,  1876,  shows  one  hundred  and  ten  tish,  averaging  more  than  twenty-two 
pounds.  This  was  by  Mr.  Thomas  Reynolds,  who  caught  in  the  same  river  a  fish  of  forty-seven 
pounds,  the  largest  ever  killed  in  Gasp6  with  a  fly.  In  the  Penobscot  forty-pounders  have  occa- 
sionally been  taken,  but  not  more  than  one  out  of  a  thousand  weighs  thirty,  and  the  common 
size  is  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds.  A  fish  two  feet  long  would  weigh  about  six  pounds;  one  of 
thirty  inches,  nine  or  ten;  one  of  three  feet,  sixteen  to  seventeen;  and  one  four  feet  long,  nearly 
fifty.  A  score  of  twenty-two  days'  flshiug,  with  four  rods,  in  the  Godbout,  in  June  and  July,  1865, 
foots  up  four  hundred  and  seventy-eight  fish,  averaging  nine  and  three-quarters  pounds.1 

SALMON  IN  LAKK  ONTARIO.— The  following  notes  by  Mr.  Kumlieu  on  Salmon  in  Lake  On- 
tario possess  much  interest:  "At  Oswego  they  were  formerly  very  abundant  and  very  important; 
they  used  to  go  up  the  river  (Oswego)  to  the  falls.  In  the  last  eighteen  years  they  have  gradually 
decreased  till  now  they  are  caught  only  as  stragglers.  Forty  have  been  speared  by  one  man  in 
a  day.  Navigation  and  various  kinds  of  mill  refuse  have  driven  them  away.  A  few  years  after 
the  dams  were  built  they  yet  came  in  abundance,  and  tons  of  them  were  speared  from  the  dams, 
but  they  have  gradually  grown  less  till  now  only  an  occasional  straggler  is  caught. 

"At  Port  Ontario,"  Air.  Harrington  says,  "in  1879  only  a  very  few  were  caught  in  the  wines. 
For  the  last  three  or  four  years  have  been  scarce  in  the  river.  I  think  it  is  because  the  mills  and  fac- 
tories— especially  the  book-board  mill  at  Pulaski — throw  the  refuse  into  the  river.  They  have  not 
been  plenty  in  the  river  as  far  up  as  Pulaski  since  1875.  It  is  currently  reported  that  considerable 
Lumbers  were  caught  in  the  river  five  or  six  years  ago,  and  disposed  of  on  the  sly.  They  seem 
to  have  turned  their  course  from  this  river.  Of  late  years  a  few  weighing  eighteen  to  twenty 
pontids  have  been  taken ;  we  used  to  consider  twelve  pounds  an  average.  Some  weighing  thirty 
pounds  have  been  taken." 

••At  Pulaski,  Mr.  J.  A.  Mathew.son  &  Hro.  (Mathewson  has  fished  here  the  last  fifty-live  years) 
report  as  follows  on  the  salmon  fisheries:  "In  October,  1836,  two  men  took  two  hundred  and  thirty 
Salmon  between  8  p.  m.  and  11',  with  spears  and  fire  jacks,  and  after  12  till  morning  two  other  men 
in  the  same  skiff  took  two  hundred  odd,  the  average  weight  of  the  entire  lot  being  fourteen  and 
three  -quarters  pounds.  We  have  had  fifteen  hundred  fresh  Salmon  in  the  lish-hoiise  at  one  tiine. 
When  a  freshet  occnred  in  June  a  few  would  always  come  up.  and  sometimes  a  few  early  in  the  spring. 
Any  time  from  June  till  winter  when  there  was  a  freshet  they  were  sure  to  come.  The  principal 
time,  however,  was  in  fall,  during  September,  October,  and  November.  Twelve  skiffs  in  one  night 

1  Nouui* :  American  Aiigh T,  p.  117. 


474  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

have  takeii  au  average  of  three  hundred  Salmon  each.  For  the  last  twenty  years  the  catch  has 
been  nothing  to  what  it  used  to  be,  though  some  are  taken  even  now.  The  gill-nets  stretched 
across  the  mouth  of  river  assisted  to  a  large  extent  in  causing  the  decrease.  The  fish  used  to  run 
up  to  the  falls,  ten  miles  above  Pulaski;  now  there  are  two  dams  in  the  way.  They  never  could  go 
above  the  falls,  as  they  are  one  hundred  aud  eight  feet  in  perpendicular  height.  I  think  the  mills 
(factories),  tanneries,  etc.,  are  prolific  causes  of  the  disappearance  of  Salmon.  Lime  is  one  of  the 
worst  things  thrown  into  the  river;  vats  of  refuse  lime  have  been  emptied  when  the  river  was  full 
of  lish,  aud  upon  the  next  they  were  gone.  Lime,  tan-bark,  sawdust,  and  gill-nets  have  driven 
the  Salmon  from  our  river. 

"There  were  formerly  three  salmon  streams  in  this  vicinity — Grindstone  Creek,  Deer  Creek, 
and  Salmon  River — aud  each  stream  had  a  dift'erent  type  of  fish.  Au  experienced  fisherman  could 
readily  tell  from  which  stream  a  fish  was  caught,  though  they  are  but  four  miles  apart.  In  Deer 
Creek  the  fish  were  long  aud  slim,  in  Grindstone  short  and  chubby,  and  in  Salmon  River  large  and 
heavy. 

"The  largest  specimen  ever  caught  here  weighed  forty-four  aud  three-quarters  pounds.  Some 
have  been  taken  as  small  as  one  pound.  A  few  will  coino  up  now  as  soon  as  there  is  a  freshet. 
There  is  a  fish-way  here  on  the  lower  dam,  but  its  construction  is  so  defective  that  very  few  if  any 
of  the  fish  are  able  to  get  over  it;  they  were  seeu  to  try  last  fall  and  fail.  They  are  caught  (aud 
always  were)  with  a  large  three-tined  spear  from  a  skiff  with  a  jack-lantern.  Two  thousand  have 
been  landed  at  the  bridge  in  one  night." 

"Mr.  Cross  says:  'They  often  went  over  the  dam  before  the  apron  was  put  in,  but  now  they 
must  jump  along  a  twenty-foot  apron  besides  the  height  of  the  dam  (eight  feet).  The  way  it  is 
now,  a  few  manage  to  get  as  far  as  the  first  pocket  aud  then  fall  back  again.  Forty  years  ago 
the  salmon  fisheries  on  this  river  brought  more  money  to  the  people  than  all  the  machinery  now 
on  the  river.' 

"At  Cape  Vincent  they  were  formerly  taken  on  the  lake  shore  during  the  migrations.  Never 
went  up  the  Chaumout  Bay.  No  rivers  here  to  spawn  in.  Never  seemed  abundant  in  the  Saint 
Lawrence  only  as  they  passed  by.  Even  now  one  is  occasionally  taken  in  the  gill  nets  in  the 
lake. — (McPhersou.) 

"At  <  'ha u mon t  four  were  caught  in  1879;  were  formerly  common  during  their  migrations. — 
(Dewy.) 

"At  Sacket's  Harbor  very  rarely  taken  now;  used  to  get  them  at  Phillips  Point  as  they  were 
passing  by." — (Clark.) 

161.  THE  SALMONS  OF  THE  PACIFIC. 

By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN. 
THE  STEEL-HEAD— SALMO  GAIRDNEBI. 

This  species  is  every  where  known  as  the  "Steel-head."  The  name  "Hard-head"  is  some- 
times applied  to  it,  and  it  is  known  to  the  Russians  as  "Seomga."  The  name  "Mykiss"  is  said 
to  have  been  formerly  applied  to  it  in  Kamtchatka.  Large  individuals  are  often  called  "Salmon 
Trout."  The,  Indian  name  "  Humaana"  is  said  to  be  given  to  it  on  the  Upper  Columbia.  It  reaches 
a  weight  of  twenty-two  pounds,  the  average  weight  when  fully  grown  being  about  sixteen.  Young 
specimens  are  very  scarce  in  our  experience.  It  is  found  from  Monterey  to  Karntschatka,  always 
close  to  the  coast.  In  the  Columbia  and  Frazer  Rivers  it  occurs  in  abundance  in  the  spring  at 
the  time  of  the  salmon  run.  None  have  yet  been  noticed  to  the  eastward  of  the  Cascade  Range, 


TIIlv   i;.\IM!()\V   AND  BLACK  SPOTTKD  TUOUTS.  475 

anil  so  far  as  appearances  go  it  is  a  permanent  inhabitant  of  river  mouths.  It  probably  spawns 
late  in  the  fall  or  in  the  winter.  a>  main  of  those  taken  at  the  firm  run  of  the  Salmon  are  spent 
lisli.  with  the  llesh  white  and  worthless. 

The  history  of  this  species  is  still  obscure.  According  to  Pallas,  it  migrates  singly,  from 
•June  to  September;  s.mie  remaining  all  tlie\ear  in  the  rivers,  returning  to  the  sea  in  May.  It 
feeds  iii  the  fresh  waters  on  any  living  thing.  Hence,  unlike  the  other  Trout,  which  during  the 
a>c'-ni  of  the  rivers  -row  lean  with  fasting,  breeding,  and  exertion,  this  species  is  plump  and  well 
fed.  and.  with  .s'.  ulrrliiiux  miiiiini  only,  does  not  perish  in  the  winter.  Elsewhere  than  in  the 
Columbia  this  speeies  is  highly  valued  as  a  food-tish.  When  taken  in  the  Columbia  in  spring  little 
or  no  use  is  made  of  it.  Its  llesh  is  pale,  and  its  bones  too  tirni  for  it  to  be  used  in  canning,  and 
at  that  season  the  old  individuals  taken  are  usually  spent  and  worthless.  In  the  Sacramento  it  is 
not  very  common. 

THE  UAINBOW  TROUT — SALMO  IRIDEUS. 

This  species  is  generally  known  as  the  "Brook  Trout,"  "Mountain  Trout,"  "Speckled  Trout," 
••(loldeii  Trout."  and  other  evanescent  names  arc  also  sometimes  applied  to  it.  It  does  not  reach 
a  weight  of  more  than  live  or  six  pounds,  so  far  as  we  know,  and  most  of  them  as  taken  are  H tiger- 
lings  ranging  from  four  inches  to  a  foot  in  length.  It  is  found  throughout  California  in  all  streams 
of  the  mountains.  It  is  said  to  occur  in  the  northern  part  of  Lower  California.  The  southernmost 
.-ecu  by  us  were  from  San  Luis  Key  Kiver.  We  have  seen  but  few  sjH'ci  metis  of  this  species  from 
salt  water.  These  weighed  from  three  to  five  pounds  each.  It  may  probably  run  into  the  sea 
from  streams  in  which  the  lower  waters  are  clear.  Specimens  referred  to  this  species  from  the 
iiorth  of  Mount  Shasta  are  perhaps  the  young  of  £  Gairdneri.  It  feeds  on  worms,  larva-,  and  the 
like.  For  a  Tront,  it  is  a  fish  of  little,  "gaminess"  or  activity.  It  is  not  often  brought  into  the 
markets  of  San  Francisco,  and  at  present  has  little  economic  importance,  although  of  course  a 
good  table-fish.  It  has  been  rather  extensively  introduced  into  the  waters  of  the  Eastern  United 
States. 

THE  BLACK  SPOTTED  TROUT — SALMO  PUBPURATUS. 

This  fish  is  known  as  the  "Trout,"  "Mountain  Trout,"  "Spotted  Trout,"  "  Black  Trout," 
"Silver  Trout,"  etc.,  in  the  mountains,  but  when  in  the  ocean,  full  grown,  as  "Salmon  Trout"  or 
"Steel-head."  The  Indian  name  "Freest!"  is  also  ascribed  to  it  on  the  Upper  Columbia.  It 
reaches  a  weight  of  thirty  pounds  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  but  may  be  found  in 
any  stream  or  lake  of  any  length  from,  two  inches  up  to  two  or  three  feet.  Unlike  if.  Oairdneri,  the 
young  are  very  common,  and  it  probably  begins  breeding  in  mountain  streams  at  a  length  of  less 
than  a  foot.  It  is  universally  distributed  through  the  Itocky  Mountain  region,  chiefly  east  of  the 
Sierra  southward,  but  reaching  the  sea  from  Mount  Shasta  northward.  It  occurs  iu  every  lake  of 
New  .Mexico,  Utah,  Western  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington. 
Every  stream  throughout  the  most  of  this  region  abounds  in  them,  and  in  1'uget  Sound  the  young 
of  every  si/.e  occur  in  the  salt  water  iu  abundance.  Individuals  are  occasionally  taken  along  the 
California  coast.  Local  variations  occur  in  abundance  Specimens  fiom  Seattle  have  the  scales 
notably  larger  than  those  Irotn  Victoria  and  Astoria,  which  agree  with  Utah  Lake  specimens  in 
this  respect.  Those  that  live  in  the  depti.s  of  shady  lakes  are  almost  black,  while  others  are  pale. 
Those  iu  the  sea  are  .silvery  and  only  faintly  spotted.  Only  iu  Lake  Tahoe  do  the  variations 
assume  any  marked  importance  (var.  Heiuhawi).  Individuals  intermediate  between  this  species 
and  £  Oairdneri  ate  not  rare,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  latter  is  simply  an  offshoot  from  this 
general  stock,  as  are  &  irideus  and  S.  gtomias.  It  feeds  on  any  living  ihing  it  finds  near  it.  In  the 


476  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

mountain  lakes  it  spawns  in  the  spring,  running  into  the  rivers  for  that  purpose.  Its  great 
enemies  at  that  season  are  the  various  species  of  suckers  and  chubs,  which  feed,  the  former  upon 
its  eggs,  the  latter  upon  the  young  Trout.  So  very  destructive  are  the  former  in  many  trout  lakes, 
as  Utah  Lake,  that  the  destruction  or  diminution  of  the  suckers  ought  to  be  accompli.-hed  by  law. 

A  parasitic  tape-worm,  Dibothrium  cordiceps,  Leidy,  is  said  to  frequently  infest  this  species,  so 
as  to  render  its  flesh  uneatable  in  the  summer,  in  the  Yellowstone  Lakes.  (Yarrow.) 

As  a  iood-flsh  this  Trout  is  excellent.  Large  numbers  of  the  variety  Henshawi  are  shipped  to 
the  market  of  San  Francisco.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  it  iu  parts  of  California,  I 
believe  with  success.  A  small  hatchery  has  been  established  at  Tahoe  City  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  stocked  a  small  branch  of  the  lake  in  which  summer  visitors  may  fish. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  this  species  is  likely  to  prove  much  more  valuable  for  introduction 
into  Eastern  waters  than  the  Rainbow  Trout.  It  is  more  active,  more  gamy,  reaches  a  larger  size, 
and  thrives  iu  a  greater  variety  of  waters. 

THE  Rio  GRANDE  TROUT— SALMO  SPILURUS. 

This  species  is  abundant  in  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Grande,  Rio  Colorado,  and  their  tribu- 
taries, being  the  finest  food-fish  in  New  Mexico  and  Western  Colorado.  It  has  also  been  taken  in 
Bear  River,  and  probably  is  found  in  most  of  the  mountain  streams  of  Utah,  being  in  general 
rather  southern  iu  its  distribution.  It  probably  inhabits  all  streams  within  the  circle  of  its  distri- 
bution, without  regard  to  the  direction  iu  which  they  may  flow.  We  have  not  seen  this  species  in 
life,  and  little  distinctive  is  known  of  its  habits.  It  is  probably  a  comparatively  recent  oifsboot 
from  S.  purpuratus.  As  in  other  species,  considerable  variation  is  shown  iu  specimens  from  differ- 
ent localities.  Its  usual  size  is  larger  than  that  of  8.  purpuratus. 

THE  DOG  SALMON — ONCORHYNCHUS  KETA. 

This  species,  during  the  period  of  its  run  in  the  fall,  generally  goes  by  the  name  of  "Dog 
Salmon,"  under  which  mime  the  males  of  the  Silver  Salmon,  and  even  of  the  Quinuat,  are  often  con- 
founded with  it.  The  Russians  now,  as  in  the  time  of  Pennant,  Piillas,  and  Walbaum,  call  it 
"  Kayko,"  the  name  "Keta"  (whale)  being  no  longer  in  use.  On  Frazer  River  the  name  (Mtisquam) 
is  now  "Qualocb,"  at  Seattle  (Nisqnally)  "Ktla-why,"  and  in  the  Chinnook  jargon  "Le-Kni." 
This  species  is  very  uniform  in  its  size,  and  averages  ten  to  twelve  pounds.  It  ranges  from  the 
Sacramento  River  to  Bering  Strait,  where  it  seems  to  be  ('.specially  abundant;  it  being  the  only 
Salmon  brought  from  there  in  a  recent  cruise  of  the  revenue  cutter  Corwin.  It  is  seldom  or  never 
seen  in  the  rivers  in  spring. 

THE  HUMP-BACKED  SALMON— ONOORHYNCHUS  GORBUSCHA  (Walb.)  Gill  &  Jor. 

This  species  is  known  to  the  Russians  still,  as  in  the  time  of  Pennant  and  Pallas,  by  the  name 
of  "Gorbuscha,"  {/orb  meaning  hump.  The  English  speaking  people  call  it  generally  the  "Dump- 
back  Salmon,"  and  often  the  "Dog  Salmon."  On  Frazer  River  it  is  known  as  "liolia"  or  "Hone" 
Salmon,  and  on  Puget  Sound  as  the  "Haddoh."  Thin  is  one  of  the  smallest  Salmon,  not  averaging 
over  four^r  five  pounds,  and  probably  never  exceeding  ten.  It  ranges  from  the  Sacramento  !  iver 
to  Alaska  and  Kamtchatka.  In  the  Sacramento  and  Columbia  it  is  only  an  estray,  on  the  latter 
river  being  sometimes  called  "Lost  Salmon."  Jn  PngH  .Sound  it  inns  in  large  numbers  in  late 
summer  and  fall,  like  the  Keta  or  Dog  Salmon,  ascending  every  little  stream.  Its  run  in  Puget 
Sound  takes  place  on  alternate  years,  a  fact  which  seems  to  be  well  established.  It  was  very  plenty 
in  1879.  None  were  noticed  in  1880,  but  stragglers  are  occasionally  taken  during  the  year  of 


THI-:  SII.YKI;  AM>  1:1. i  i:  i;i..\(  K  SALMONS.  477 

scarcity.  A  few  were  seen  by  us  <ni  the  Columbia  and  Sacramento.  We  are  told  that  this  species 
runs  every  year  in  Alaska.  During  its  run  in  I'u^et  Sound  the-  females  are  canned,  and  tbe 
males  are  thrown  away  or  jjivi-n  to  I  lie  Indians.  The  llesli  is  then  pale,  and  tin-  canned  product  is 

interior  in  quality.     In  economic  value  the   II p-baek  Salmon  is  far  inferior  to  the  Quinnat,  the 

llliie  hack,  and  the  Siher  Salmon,  and,  like  the  Dog  Salmon,  is  mainly  useful  in  furnishing  a  winter 
supply  of  food  to  the  Indians. 

THE  SILVER  SALMON — ONCOBHYNCHUS  KISUTCH. 

This  species  is  almost  everywhere  known  by  the  name  of  "Silver  Salmon."  It  has  also  a 
series  of  Kieal  names.  In  Kauitchatka  it  is  still  known  by  the  name  "Kisutch,"  in  use  in  Pen- 
nant's time,  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  name  "Bielaya  Byba,"  or  "White-fish,"  is  also  aseribed  to 
it.  On  1'ra/er  River  it  is  known  by  the  Musquatn  name  of  "Coho";  at  Seattle,  by  the  Nisqually 
name  of  "Skowitx";  about  Cape  Flattery  by  the  Makah  name  of  "Hoopid";  on  the  Columbia 
it  is  called  "Silver  Salmon"  or  "White  Salmon,"  and  southward  the  same  names  prevail.  It 
reaches  a  weight  of  twenty  pounds,  the  usual  range  being  from  seven  to  ten.  The  Silver  Salmon 
enters  all  the  rivers  from  the  Sacramento  to  Kamtchatka.  In  tbe  fall  it  is  abundant  in  probably 
all  the  rivers.  Few  or  none,  however,  are  seen  in  the  spring.  They  are  often  taken  with  seines 
in  I  'iiu<-i  Sound  at  all  seasons.  Like  the  other  fall-running  Salmon,  it  seldom  ascends  the  rivers 
to  any  great  distance. 

THE  BLUE-BACK  SALMON — ONCOBHYNOHUS  NEBKA. 

This  species  is  known  as  the  "Bed-fish"  to  the  English-speaking  inhabitants  of  Alaska  and 
Kauitchatka,  and  to  the  Bnssiaus,  now  as  in  the  time  of  Pennant  and  Pallas,  as  "  Krasnaya  Byba," 
which  signifies  red-fish,  the  name  having  reference  to  the  color  of  the  flesh.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  other  species  are  occasionally  confounded  under  this  name,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
present  species  is  the  one  to  which  it  is  chiefly  applied.  On  Frazer  Biver,  where  this  species  is  the 
most  important  Salmon,  it  is  known  as  the  '•  Suk-kegh."  Elsewhere  in  Puget  Sound  it  is  rarely  seen. 
In  the  Lower  Columbia  it  is  known  by  the  appropriate  name  of  "Blue-back";  in  the  Upper  Colum- 
bia as  "Bed-fish."  Its  average  weight  does  not  exceed  eight  pounds,  and  its  extreme  weight  is 
probably  not  above  fifteen.  Its  range  is  from  the  Columbia  Biver  to  Japan  and  Kamtchatka. 
It  runs  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  Columbia,  and  in  much  greater  abundance  in  Frazer  Biver, 
where  it  is  the  principal  spring  Salmon.  We  have  no  information  as  to  its  occurrence  in  California, 
or  as  to  its  entrance  into  any  of  the  streams  south  of  the  Columbia.  Like  the  Quinnat  Salmon,  it 
is  attracted  in  early  spring  into  all  those  streams  which  arc  fed  by  the  melting  snows,  and  into  no 
others.  Its  run  in  spring  on  the  Columbia  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  contemporaneous  with  that  of 
the  Quinnat  Salmon.  The  numbers  are,  however,  much  less,  and  I  think  that  its  run  is  over 
earlier  in  the  fall.  On  Frazer  Biver  it  runs  with  the  Quinnat,  or  a  little  earlier  in  the  -spring,  the 
run  mostly  ceasing  in  midsummer,  while  that  of  the  Quiunat  continues  on  through  the  fall  months. 
This  species  and  the  Quinuat  run  early  and  go  far  up  the  streams,  where,  after  spawning,  they  all 
die.  Iii  Puget  Sound  this  species  is  not  known  to  the  fishermen,  only  .stray  individuals  In-ing 
taken  there.  It  does  not  accompany  the  Silver  Salmon  and  Dog  Salmon  in  their  ascent  of  the 
Dwamish,  Puyallnp,  and  other  small  streams;  neither  is  it  caught  near  the  shore  when  out  of  the 
spawning  season,  as  the  other  species  are.  In  Alaska  and  Kamtchatka  we  are  told  that  the  Bed- 
fish  (ntrka)  and  King  Salmon  (chawytcha)  run  in  spring  and  early  summer,  while  the  other  species 
run  in  late  summer  and  fall,  the  Silver  Salmon  last. 

The  Blue-back  is  the  most  graceful  of  the  Salmons  and  the  most  elegant  in  color.  Its  flesh  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Quinnat,  but  less  firm  and  more  watery,  and  it  is  not  quite  so  rich  when 


478  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


canned.  Next  to  the  Quinnat,  it  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  different  species,  and  its  inferiority  is 
mainly  that  of  size.  At  the  canneries  four  Blue-backs  are  taken  as  one  Quinnat.  A  very  few  of 
the  Columbia  River  canneries  refuse  this  species,  in  order  to  be  able  to  say  that  they  can  the  Chin- 
nook  Salmon  only. 

BENDIRE  ON  THE  RED-FISH. — This  is  the  Red-t'sh  of  Idaho,  the  identity  of  which  was  first 
determined  by  Capt.  Charles  Bendire,  United  States  Army,  whose  field-notes  upon  its  appearance 
and  habits,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Museum,1  are  here  reproduced: 

"The  females  are  much  more  uniformly  colored.  The  head  is  considerably  tinged  with  steel 
blue,  and  the  red  tint  on  the  sides  is  more  or  less  clouded  with  blue  and  bronze.  Females  after 
spawning  show  considerable  amount  of  red,  only  after  spawning  I  noticed  that  the  red  coloring 
matter  deposited  in  the  skin  appears  to  be  drawn  from  the  flesh,  and  I  find  that  in  proportion  to 
the  bright  coloring  of  the  skin  of  the  fish  the  flesh  loses  this  tint.  In  some  instances  it  is  barely 
pink-colored  or  almost  white.  After  the  spawning  of  these  fish  they  are  brightest  outside  and 
palest  inside  (as  far  as  the  flesh  is  concerned).  The  average  size  of  a  number  of  males  by  actual 
weight  is  only  five  pounds,  and  of  females  only  three  and  three-quarters  pounds.  After  death, 
within  half  an  hour  the  color  of  these  fish  rapidly  changes  about  the  liead  and  becomes  a  dark 
olive  green  with  bluish  reflections,  in  some  instances  almost  bluish-black.  Among  any  number  of 
fish  there  is  almost  an  endless  variation  in  color,  caused,  perhaps,  by  some  remaining  a  longer 
time  in  the  lake  than  others.  Wallowa  Lake  is  about  four  and  01  e-quarter  miles  in  length  by  one 
and  a  half  to  two  miles  wide.  It  deepens  very  rapidly  out  a  few  feet  from  the  shore,  and  is  said 
to  be  four  hundred  feet  deep,  and  more  than  that  in  places.  Two  small  streams  flow  into  the 
lake,  and  these  form  the  spawning  ground  proper  for  these  fish  ;  and  as  there  are  falls  about  two 
miles  above  the  month  of  these  streams  over  which  the  fish  cannot  leap,  they  are  restricted  to 
rather  limited  quarters  for  spawning.  The  only  place  I  saw  any  of  these  fish  was  on  the  bar  near 
the  head  of  the  lake,  and  there  most  of  them  are  caught.  They  can  be  seen  in  schools  of  one 
hundred  or  more  at  almost  any  time  during  the  month  of  Augnst  and  later.  This  year  the  rtm 
has  been  very  light,  and  fishing  had  to  a  great  extent  stopped  when  1  arrived  at  the  lake  on  the 
last  day  of  August.  Four  fisheries  had  been  in  operation,  and  these  had  put  up  about  twenty 
thousand  pounds  of  fish.  I  believe  two  or  three  years  ago  it  had  been  the  practice  to  obstruct 
the  entrances  to  the  small  streams  at  the  head  of  the  lake  to  prevent  the  fish  from  miming  up 
these  streams.  This  year  this  was  not  done,  and  a  number  of  the  settlers  about  the  lake  seem  to 
be  anxious  to  have  the  fish  properly  protected,  and  it  is  not  at  all  too  soon  to  do  it,  either.  The 
placing  of  obstructions  in  the  above-mentioned  streams,  and  perhaps  this  year  of  gill-nets  on  the 
bar,  has  no  doubt  something  to  do  with  the  scarcity  of  these  fish.  But  the  most  abominable 
things  of  all  which  I  saw  personally  in  use  are  several  clusters  of  hooks  tied  together,  so  that  they 
form  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  about  three  inches.  Just  above  these  hooks  a  lump  of  Red-fish  eggs 
is  laid.  These  are  covered  with  mosquito-netting,  and  by  this  contrivance  thousands  of  young 
Red-fish  (the  settlers  call  them  "Shiners,"  others  call  them  "Trout,"  but  I  am  satisfied  that  it  will 
be  found  that  they  are  yearling  Red-fish)5  are  caught  and  salted  as  well  as  the  full-grown  ones. 
Now,  these  fish  are  only  about  four  inches  long,  and  for  every  one  caught  two  are  crippled  and 
die.  So  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  an  immense  number  are  destroyed  yearly,  as  some  parties 
make  it  a  business  to  salt  these  down  as  well  as  mature  fish. 

"I  examined  all  these  modes  of  fishing,  and  when  I  hooked  with  a  single  hook  about  one  out 
of  three  in  some  other  part  of  the  body  than  the  head,  it  can  readily  be  understood  how  murderous 

1  VoL  iv,  pp.  82-84.  »  No  doubt  of  it.— D.  8.  J. 


mi:  <vn  INN  A  i  SALMON.  475) 

such  a  contrivance  a-  tin-  above  mn-.i  I.e.  and  how  many  \onng  lisli  can  !><>  destroyed  h\ 
person  in  a  day.  They  bait  them  first,  and  \vlien  tliey  become  plenty  ust;  their  grappling  hook-,. 
"The  fishermen  at  the  lake  complain  that  the  Indians  dcMio\  Ilie  lish,  Inn  from  personal 
ohsci  vation  I  ean'l  al  all  agree  with  them.  It  is  (rue  lliat  nnmlirrs  of  Indians  come  (him  variuuri 
pans  of  the  eonntry  to  Wallowa  Lake  yearly  to  fish,  and  they  eateh  a  good  many.  While  I  was 
camped  at  the  lake  I  examined  the  eateh  of  every  Indian  that  passed  my  camp,  and  1  looked  at  as 
many  as  fifty  Indians  a  day:  each  one  had  from  six  to  twelve  tish  usually  tied  on  his  horse,  and  I 
found  that  there  was  about  one  female  to  ten  males,  and  most  of  these  were  spent  fish  which  had 
already  spawned.  They  arc  not  at  all  particular  about  this,  and  a  fish  which  may  be  all  bruised 
up  and  skinned  is  apparently  just  as  well  relished  by  them  as  a  i>erfectly  sound  one.  ami  even 
these  Indians  appreciated  the  fact  that  it  would  not  do  to  catch  too  many  females;  at  any  rate  tliey 
told  me  that  as  a  rule  they  let  the  females  go,  and  this  is  a  good  deal  more  than  most  of  our  white 
fishermen  are  willing  to  do.  Mostly  every  one  out  here  now  concedes  that  the  Ked  tish  is  not  a 
lesident  of  the  lakes  w  herein  it  is  found,  and  I  am  perfectly  satisfied  that  they  are  anadromous  and 
not  land  locked.  The  only  thing  'AS  yet  which  I  can't  understand  is,  how  do  they  get  lid  of  the 
hooked  nose  and  the  hum])  after  going  back  to  salt  water*  They  surely  ean't  all  die  ul'ler spawning, 
and  sometimes  one  that  weighs  as  much  as  ten  pounds  is  caught,  and  this  fish  is  certainly  older 
than  a  live-pounder;  and  it  would  not  be  presuming  too  much  to  assert  that  a  Salmon  of  that  size 
must  have  made  more  than  one  trip  to  sea.  While  in  the  lake  they  do  not  appear  to  eat  anything, 
and  the  stomachs  ot  several  which  I  examined  were  entirely  empty.  I  cannot  understand  how 
they  get  rid  of  their  long  hooked  nose  and  hump." 

162.  THE  QUINNAT  OR  CALIFORNIA  SALMON— ONCORHYNCHUS  CHOUICHA. 

By  LIVINGSTON  STONE. 

"In  Alaska  and  Kamtchatka,"  writes  Jordan,  "this  species  is  known  as  the  'King  Salmon,' and 
as  'Choweedia'  or  'Tchawytcha,'  a  name  easier  to  pronounce  than  to  spell,  to  the  Russians.  In 
Fra/er  Kiver  it  is  called  by  the  Mnsqnam  name  of  'Sah-Kwey';  in  Puget  Sound  it  is  called  the 
'Columbia  Kiver  Salmon,'  or  in  the  Chinnook 'jargon  'Tyee.'  On  the  Columbia  Kiver  the  name 
'Chinnook  Salmon'  is  in  universal  use.  Farther  south  the  name  'Salmon'  is  applied  to  this  species, 
while  the  others  receive  specially  distinctive  names.  The  Quinnat  Salmon  reaches  a  weight  of  sixty 
to  ninety  pounds,  being  the  largest  of  the  salmon  family.  The  average  weight  is,  however,  much 
less.  On  the  Columbia  River  the  average  is  twenty-two  pounds  each ;  on  the  Sacramento  River, 
about  sixteen.  It  is  probable  that  the  individuals  of  about  twenty  pounds'  weight  are  four  years 
old,  and  the  larger  ones  occasionally  taken  are  older,  having  probably  lived  through  one  or  more 
spawning  seasons.  Those  which  enter  the  river  late  in  the  fall  cannot  ascend  far  before  the 
necessity  for  spawning  comes,  and  such  may  be  able  to  return  to  the  sea,  and  thus  escape  the 
death  which  overtakes  all  that  spawn  far  inland. 

"In  all  streams  having  their  rise  in  the  snows  this  species  begins  running  as  early  as  March, 
and  the  run  continues  with  various  interruptions  until  the  spawning  time  in  the  fall.  When  a 
freshet  occurs  in  spring,  the  run  for  a  time  after  is  much  increased.  In  regard  to  this  sjiecies  and 
the  'Blue-back,'  it  would  appear  that  they,  when  adult,  enter  the  streams  whenever  cold  fresh 
water  comes  in  contact  with  them  in  the  sea.  After  entering  fresh  water  they  do  not  feed,  and 
they  continue  their  ascent  until  the  season  for  spawning  actually  overtakes  them.  Often  they 
ascend  hundreds  of  miles,  until  they  are  almost  worn  out,  and  after  the  spawning  act  all  that  have 
thus  ascended  die.  Those  streams  which  do  not  have  their  source  in  the  melting  snows  have  no 
spring  run  of  Salmon,  and  in  them  the  Quinnat  runs  only  after  the  fall  rains  have  set  in. 


480  NATUEAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"The  distribution  of  the  Quinnat  is  from  Ventura  River,  where  individuals  occasionally  run  in 
the  winter,  to  Kamtchatka.  It  also  occurs  in  the  rivers  of  the  corresponding  latitude  in  Asia 
The  abundance  of  this  species  has  probably  not  yet  materially  diminished  in  the  Columbia.  More 
than  a  million  and  a  half  have  been  canned  on  the  Lower  Columbia  dining  the  present  season 
(April,  May,  June,  July,  1880),  a  greater  number  than  has  ever  been  taken  before.  In  the 
Sacramento  the  numbers  have  doubtless  been  reduced  by  overnshing,  and  a  systematic  process 
of  keeping  up  the  supply  in  the  Columbia  by  means  of  hatcheries  will  very  soon  be  necessary. 

"The  Salmon  take  no  food  in  fresh  water.  In  the  headwaters  of  the  rivers,  in  the  clear  water, 
they  (at  least  the  males)  will  sometimes  take  an  artificial  fly.  In  the  ocean  they  take  a  trolling 
bait  readily.  They  then  feed  on  anchovies,  herring,  smelts,  sand  launces,  shrimps,  and  in  general 
on  any  living  object.  Even  at  the  time  of  first  entering  the  rivers  in  spring  the  stomach  is  found 
empty  and  contracted. 

"The  enemies  of  the  Salmon  are,  when  very  young,  the  chubs,  suckers,  and  other  small  fishes, 
which  prey  upon  the  eggs  and  young  fish.  In  the  ocean  their  chief  enemies  are  the  seals  of 
different  species,  who  bite  out  their  throats  and  destroy  very  great  numbers  of  them  all  along  the 
coast.  No  diseases  were  noticed  by  us,  except  those  produced  by  the  accidents  and  great  exertions 
accompanying  the  spawning  season. 

"The  economic  value  of  this  species  at  present  exceeds  that  of  all  others  on  the  Pacific  coast 
combined.  It  is  brought  fresh  to  the  markets  of  all  the  cities,  and  the  flesh  is  canned  for  export 
to  the  East  and  to  other  countries,  especially  to  England." 

NAMES. — The  first  scientific  name  by  which  this  fish  was  commonly  known  was  Salmo  quinnat. 
This  name  is  generally  reputed  to  be  derived  from  a  river,  called  the  Quinuault,  where  a  partic- 
ularly good  variety  of  this  Salmon  was  found.  This  the  writer  is  quite  positive  is  an  error.  The 
common  name  of  the  Salmon,  at  least  among  the  Columbia  River  Indians  that  lived  near  the  inouth 
of  the  Willamette,  was  "Quiunault,"  of  which  Quinnat  is  a  conuption,  and  the  scientific  name  was 
undoubtedly  taken  directly  from  the  Indian  name  of  the  fish.  The  river  might  have  been  named 
after  the  fish,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  the  fish  was  named  after  the  river. 

Not  long  ago  Professor  Jordan,  after  a  critical  examination  of  the  fish,  pronounced  it  to  be 
not  correctly  a  Salmon,  but  an  Oncorhynchus,  and  rechristened  the  fish  Oncorhynchus  quinnat, 
which  mime  it  held  till  last  summer  (1880),  when  Professor  Jordan  discovered  that  the  fish 
had  probably  been  described  by  Walbaum,  in  1792,  under  the  name  of  Salmo  chouicha,  and 
\  ielding  to  prior  authority  restored  its  original  name,  by  calling  it  Oncorhynchus  chouicha, 
which  name  it  will  now  probably  retain  until  a  more  captivating  successor  presents  itself.  The 
small  fish  which  were  called  by  Girard,  Suckley,  Jordan,  and  Copeland  by  the  appellations  Fario 
argyrew,  Salmo  argyreus,  and  Salmo  Warreni  were  without  doubt  the  young  of  the  Oncorhynchus 
chouicha,  and  the  names  will  now  be  given  up. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  distribution  of  this  Salmon  is  quite  limited,  being  at  present  restricted 
to  the  Pacific  slope  of  North  America,  between  the  neighborhood  of  the  bay  of  Monterey  and  the 
Alaska  border,  although  if  it  is  the  same  as  the  "King  Salmon"  of  the  Yukon  and  the  Alaska 
Rivers  its  range  extends  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  California  Salmon  is  taken  in  the  largest  quantities  in  the  Sacramento  and  Columbia 
Rivers,  these  being  the  largest  rivers  on  the  coast,  but  is  also  found  in  considerable  numbers  in 
the  smaller  rivers  of  California,  Oregon,  Washington  Territory,  and  British  Columbia,  notably  in 
the  Eel,  Russian,  Klamath,  Rogue,  and  Frazer  Rivers. 

The  adult  fish  vary  widely  in  size.  The  smallest  mature  fish  on  record  was  caught  in  the 
McCloud  River,  California,  and  weighed  about  four  pounds.  The  largest  on  record  was  caught  in 


HABITS  OF  YOUNG  CALIFOBNIA  SALMON.  481 

the  Columbia  River,  and  weighed  eighty-three  pounds.  The  writer  has  seen  one  on  the  Columbia 
that  weighed  sixty-seven  pounds. 

The  California  Salmon  is  easily  caught  with  hook  and  line  in  the  fresh-water  tributaries, 
where  it  goes  to  deposit  its  eggs.  It  does  not  readily  take  a  fly,  but  becomes  an  easy  victim  wlirn 
tempted  with  salmon  roe,  which  is  the  most  effective  of  all  baits  for  catching  thin  iNh.  When 
prime  it  very  much  resembles  in  appearance  the  well-known  Atlantic  Salmon  (Salmo  nalar)  in  the 
same  condition,  with  this  exception,  that  it  has  on  its  back  and  sides  nearly  black,  star-like  spots, 
while  the  Atlantic  Salmon  has  none,  when  fresh  from  the  ocean. 

The  California  Salmon  is  a  remarkable  fish,  and  has  had  an  extraordinary  career.  Fifty 
years  ago  it  was  hardly  known,  except  to  students  of  natural  history.  Now  it  is  known  and  eaten 
almost  all  over  the  world,  for  there  is  hardly  a  port  in  the  worid  where  ships  have  not  carried  the 
canned  Salmon  of  the  Columbia,  which  is  the  same  flsh  under  a  different  name;  and  not  only  has 
this  tisli,  in  the  form  of  food,  traveled  nearly  all  over  the  world,  but  the  living  embryos  of  the 
California  Salmon  have  been  transported  to  England,  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  Denmark, 
Russia,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  so  that  there  is  probably  no  one  fish  inhabiting  a  limited 
locality  which  is  known  over  the  world  in  so  many  different  places  as  the  California  Salmon. 

This  magnificent  fish  is  deserving  of  its  career.  If  splendid  proportions,  of  unsurpassed  vigor 
and  spirit,  it  has  no  equal  in  external  attractiveness  among  the  race  of  fishes,  except  its  own  cousins 
of  the  Atlantic  and  other  oceans,  while  as  regards  the  quality  of  its  flesh  and  its  marvelous  abun- 
dance in  its  habitat,  it  has  but  few  equals  in  the  world.  As  to  the  quality  of  its  flesh,  it  closely 
resembles  the  highly-prized  Salmon,  Salmo  salar,  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America,  which  has  no  superior,  and  as  to  its  abundance  I  need  only  say  that  nearly  two 
hundred  million  pounds  have  been  caught  in  the  Columbia  River  alone  during  the  last  six  years, 
without  producing,  according  to  the  most  recent  testimony  of  the  Columbia  fishermen,  any  serious 
diminution  of  the  river's  stock. 

DEVELOPMENT. — The  Salmon  begins  life  as  a  bird  does,  in  an  egg.  When  the  egg  first  leaves 
the  parent  fish  it  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  of  an  orange  tint.  In  a  few  days 
there  can  be  seen  in  the  egg  a  fine  dark  line,  which  is  the  first  visible  beginning  of  the  future 
salmon.  In  nineteen  days,  in  water  at  55°  Fahrenheit,  the  black  pigment  of  the  eye  logins  to  show 
through  the  translucent  shell.  In  thirty-five  days  in  the  same  water  the  young  Salmon  is  hatched. 
When  it  first  emerges  from  the  shell  it  is  about  an  inch  long,  and  carries  under  its  body  in  a  little 
round  sac  the  yolk  of  the  egg  it  came  from,  on  which  it  lives  by  absorption  for  about  a  month 
longer,  till  its  mouth  is  sufficiently  completed  to  take  food  and  its  other  organs  to  dispose  of  the 
food  it  takes.  When  it  first  hatches  it  is  a  clumsy-looking  and  an  awkwardly-moving  object, 
being  about  as  graceful  and  efficient  in  its  attempts  to  swim  like  a  flsh  as  a  human  beginner's 
attempts  are  to  ride  a  bicycle.  After  it  has  lived  in  its  sac  a  week  or  two  it  develops  a  disposition 
to  dive  and  hide  under  something,  which  it  does  with  a  pertinacity  which  is  both  characteristic  of 
the  full-grown  Salmon  and  prophetic  of  the  tenacity  of  purpose  it  will  show  in  ascending  its 
breeding  rivers  to  spawn.  This  irresistible  instinct  to  dive  and  hide  takes  it  still  deeper  under 
the  gravel  and  rocks  in  the  bed  of  the  river  which  formed  its  birth-place,  and  it  stays  here  in  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks  and  gravel,  as  snug  as  possible,  until  the  sac  of  food  which  nature 
started  it  in  life  with  is  gone,  and  it  is  obliged  to  work  for  a  living  or  starve.  It  would  not  be  safe 
for  the  little  helpless  creature  now  to  venture  out  of  the  rocks  and  gravel  where  it  was  born,  for  it 
would  undoubtedly  pay  for  its  rashness  by  becoming  food,  while  yet  alone,  for  the  larger  fishes 
above.  So  like  the  early  Christians  in  the  catacombs,  it  spends  a  large  portion,  if  not  all,  of  its 
earlier  life  in  or  close  by  the  under-world  where  it  was  born.  As  it  gets  larger  it  ventures  out  and 
31  v 


482  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

takes  its  chances  for  life  in  the  world  of  waters  above  it,  usually,  I  think,  going  up  some  brook  or 
keeping  near  some  rocks,  or  close  iusiiore  where  it  can  quickly  retreat  to  a  place  of  safety  when 
alarmed.  It  feeds  now  voraciously  on  whatever  it  can  find  in  the  way  of  smaller  fishes  and  insects 
and  other  auiiual  life  in  the  water,  and  in  a  few  mouths,  probably  not  over  six  or  seven,  it  joins 
the  host  of  its  comrades,  of  about  the  same  size,  which  are  preparing  to  go  to  sea,  and  forming  a 
school  which,  without  doubt,  gathers  myriads  of  recruits  as  it  proceeds,  it  hastens  with  all  its 
might  down  the  stream.  It  is  now  a  beautiful  silvery  fish  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  and  in  a 
1V\\  days  finds  itself  in  the  midst  of  the  allurements  and  dangers  of  the  great  unknown  ocean 
which  it  was  so  eager  to  seek. 

Strange  as  it  uii  y  seem,  very  little,  almost  nothing  in  fact,  is  known  of  its  ocean  history. 

We  know  that  the  Salmon  leave  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  at  stated  times  and  return  to  their  rivers 

• 
at  other  stated  times,  but  where  they  go,  or  how  they  fare,  or  what  motives  guide  their  course  in 

their  mysterious  ocean  sojourns,  no  one  knows.  From  analogies  derived  from  our  knowledge  of 
the  history  of  the  Atlantic  Salmon,  we  suppose  that  they  go  into  deep  water  when  they  leave  the 
rivers,  and  seek  the  best  feeding  places  they  can  find,  but  that  is  about  all  one  can  say  of  their 
ocean  history.  The  few  facts  that  we  know  of  this  portion  of  their  existence  are  pretty  much 
confined  to  the  following: 

They  are  found  to  have  deep-sea  fish  in  their  stomachs  when  they  first  make  their  appearance 
near  enough  to  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  to  be  captured,  which  points  to  the  deep  sea  as  their  ocean 
feeding  ground.  They  are  also  caught  by  the  fishermen  at  Monterey  Bay,  which  shows  that  they 
go  as  far  south  as  Monterey,  but  does  not  show,  what  some  claim,  that  the  course  of  their  migration 
is  southward,  for  there  may  be  hundreds  of  unknown  places  to  the  north  where  they  could  be 
caught  if  the  fishermen  were  there.  It  only  proves  that  some  California  Salmon  go  south  to 
Monterey.  One  thing  more  is  known  about  their  ocean  life,  and  that  is  that  they  are  often  caught 
with  marks  of  seals'  and  sea-lions'  teeth  upon  them,  which  shows  that  they  are  preyed  upon  in  the 
sea  by  these  enemies,  though,  perhaps,  it  is  only  in  their  journey  to  the  rivers'  mouths  that  they 
have  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  seals  and  sea-lions,  for  they  probably  have  a  capacity  for  standing 
deeper  water  than  their  just  mentioned  enemies. 

THK  RIVEE  ASCENT. — But  if  their  ocean  history  is  little  known,  their  inland  career,  if  I  may 
use  the  expression,  is  interesting  enough  to  make  up  for  it.  From  the  moment  the  Salmon  enters 
the  river,  which  it  is  sure  to  seek  once  in  one  or  two  years,  its  progress  is  one  of  interest.  It  first 
proceeds,  at  its  leisure,  to  the  head  of  tide-water.  Here  it  stops  awhile  and  seems  to  play  about 
between  the  fresh  and  salt  water.  Whether  it  shrinks  from  encountering  the  sudden  change  from 
salt  water  to  fresh,  which  is  probably  the  cause  of  its  dallying,  or  for  other  causes,  it  usually  spends 
two  weeks  or  more  hovering  about  the  border  line  between  sea  water  and  river  water.  When  it 
has  overcome  its  apparent  repugnance  to  making  the  change  to  fresh  water,  it  makes  a  rapid 
charge  up  the  river  for  the  clear  gravelly  streams  which  its  instinct  or  sixth  sense  tells  it  to  seek. 
Now,  paradoxical  or  unreasonable  as  it  may  seem,  it  stops  eating.  If  it  is  caught  a  short  distance 
above  the  head  of  the  tide,  the  undigested  remains  of  what  it  ate  iu  the  salt  sea  water  are  some- 
times found  iu  its  stomach,  but  after  that  nothiug,  absolutely  nothing,  is  ever  fouud  inside  of  the 
California  Salmon  to  show  that  it  has  eaten  a  particle  of  food  in  fresh  water.  As  a  proof  of  this 
statement  I  may  mention  that  out  of  a  great  many  thousand  specimens  that  have  been  examined 
no  food  has  been  iu  the  stomachs  of  any. 

After  the  Salmon  cross  over  the  line  into  the  fresh  water  above  them  they  begin  a  strange  and 
almost  inexplicable  journey.  In  the  case  at  least  of  the  Salmon  that  go  up  the  McCloud  River, 
they  begin  a  journey  which  is  a  long  fast,  and  ends  only  in  death.  If  they  could  be  credited  with 


SPAWNING    11 A  Mil  S  OF  THE  CALIFORNIA  SALMON.  483 

a  knowledge  of  what  lies  before  them,  none  of  the  martyrs  of  Christendom  could  elaim  greater 
merit  than  these  devoted  Salmon  that  march  on  unflinchingly  to  inevitable  death.  From  the  time 
the  Salmon  leave  the  border  land,  so  to  speak,  of  tidewater,  they  pursue  their  upward  con  me 
towards  the  rivers'  sources  with  an  inflexible  pertinacity.  Nothing  can  now  check  their  upward 
career,  except  an  obstacle  positively  insurmountable,  and  nothing  whatever  can  make  them  turn 
back.  They  steadily  pursue  their  way  through  the  deeper  and  stiller  waters  of  the  lower  portions 
of  the  rivers.  They  dash  furiously  up  the  rapids,  halting  awhile  usually  before  they  enter  them 
to  recruit  their  strength,  and  continue  to  rush  on  and  on  through  the  swiftest,  shallowest,  and 
roughest  waters  until  they  reach  suitable  places  for  depositing  their  spawn.  The  earliest  runs, 
that  is,  those  that  enter  the  rivers  first,  usually  go  farthest  up  the  stream.  Those  that  come  in  next 
seem  to  take  their  places  belo^v  them,  and  so  on  down  the  river,  so  that  there  is  a  series  of  sets  of 
spawning  lislies,  extending  from  the  head  of  the  river  down  as  far  as  suitable  spawning  grounds 
are  to  be  found ;  the  set  highest  up  the  river  spawning  first,  and  so  on  down  the  river  in  regular 
order.  If  the  Salmon  on  their  way  up  a  river  meet  with  anything  that  frightens  them,  like  a 
bridge  for  instance,  they  usually  stop  and  cautiously  examine  it  until  they  are  satisfied  that  they 
can  risk  the  venture,  and  then  they  all  together,  as  if  by  a  given  signal,  make  a  swift  rush  past  it. 
When  they  come  to  a  fall  they  show  more  perseverance  than  Robert  Brace's  famous  spider,  for 
they  try  innumerable  times  to  jump  it,  and  never  give  it  up  until  they  have  found  it  to  be  a 
hopeless  case  and  are  completely  worn  out  with  the  exertion. 

I  said  nothing  can  turn  them  back.  When  thoroughly  frightened  and  panicked,  however, 
they  act  like  stampeded  cattle  and  can  be  driven  down  the  river  in  droves.  The  Indians  take 
advantage  of  this  weakness  of  the  Salmon  in  one  of  their  methods  of  capturing  them.  They 
build  a  trap  nearly  across  a  river  that  is  not  too  deep  for  the  purpose,  and  then  great  numbers  of 
them  wading  into  the  stream  a  mile  or  two  above  the  traps  form  a  line  across  the  river,  and  with 
sticks,  poles,  and  branches  of  trees,  use  their  utmost  exertions  to  frighten  the  Salmon,  till  at  last 
the  fish,  too  astounded  and  panic-stricken  to  know  what  they  are  about,  turn  around,  and  heading 
down  the  river,  rash  with  all  their  speed  into  the  traps  that  are  waiting  for  them. 

In  their  course  up  the  river  it  does  not  discourage  them  if  the  water  is  shallow.  They  will 
push  on  where  the  water  does  not  cover  their  backs,  and  crowd  together  in  doing  so,  till,  as  some 
one  has  jokingly  remarked,  they  hardly  leave  room  for  the  water. 

There  is  something  amazing  about  these  pilgrimages  of  theirs  up  the  rivers.  The  wonder  is 
not  so  much  that  the  Salmon  go  without  food  for  so  long  a  time — the  black  bass  does  the 
same — nor  that  they  make  such  great  exertions  in  getting  up  the  rivers,  for  other  creatures 
make  greater  exertions  in  getting  their  food,  but  the  marvel  is  in  the  combination  of  these  two 
facts,  viz,  in  their  making  these  exhausting  efforts  without  taking  any  food  to  keep  up  their 
strength.  It  seems  incredibly  contradictory  to  nature's  laws  of  life  and  offers-a  puzzling  problem 
to  biologists  to  discover  where  the  fuel  comes  from  which  does  this  immense  amonnt  of  work, 
accompb'shed  by  the  migratory  Salmon  between  leaving  tide  water  and  completing  the  season's 
spawning. 

SPEED  OP  ASCENT.— Their  rate  of  progress  up  the  rivers  varies  between  very  wide  limits. 
The  earlier  runs  are  the  longest  time  on  their  way  up  the  river.  The  latest  runs  make  the  journey 
most  quickly.  The  fish  seem  to  regulate  their  speed  according  to  the  forwardness  of  their  eggs. 
When  their  eggs  are  very  small  or  almost  wholly  undeveloped,  as  is  the  case  with  the  earliest 
runs — that  is,  those  that  enter  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  first — they  seem  to  be  in  no  hurry,  but 
loiter  along  as  they  please,  and  probably  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  between  the  ocean  and  the 
fresh-water  line;  but  when  their  eggs  are  nearly  ripe,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Inter  runs,  they 


484  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

advance  as  if  they  had  no  time  to  lose,  as  indeed  they  have  not,  and  hasten,  apparently  at  the  top 
of  their  speed,  to  their  spawning  destinations.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  six  or  seven 
mouths  before  the  early  runs  of  the  Sacramento  Salmon,  which  enter  the  Golden  Gate  in  November 
and  December,  reach  the  sources  of  the  river  at  Mount  Shasta,  four  hundred  miles  from  the  river's 
mouth,  while  the  later  runs,  which  reach  Rio  Vista  about  the  1st  of  August,  arrive  at  the  McCloud 
River,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant,  in  ten  or  twelve  days. 

When  they  have  reached  the  vicinity  of  their  spawning  grounds  they  seem  to  rest  two  or 
three  weeks  in  deep  holes  and  eddies  of  the  river,  until  they  are  just  ready  to  build  their  nests, 
and  then  they  emerge  from  their  holes  and  literally  cover  the  rapids  for  miles,  in  the  clear  shallow 
water  of  which  they  can  be  seen  from  the  river  banks  by  hundreds.  They  now,  comparatively 
speaking,  lose  their  fear  of  danger,  and  will  not  leave  the  places  they  have  selected  unless  very 
closely  approached,  and  then  they  will  persistently  return  again  and  again  unless  actually  driven 
off  and  kept  off.  Here  comes  in  once  more  very  noticeably  the  marvel  of  their  living  without 
food,  for  they  now  for  many  days  stem  the  force  of  powerful  currents  every  moment,  day  aud 
night,  not  only  without  partaking  of  food,  but  in  many  instances  without  having  taken  any  food 
for  months.  A  copious  rain  starts  a  movement  along  the  whole  line  from  the  river  sources  to  tide 
water,  except  where  the  fish  are  actually  engaged  in  spawning,  and  during  the  rain  the  river 
currents  seem  to  be  full  of  Salmon  eagerly  striving  to  reach  higher  portions  of  the  stream. 

SPAWNING  HABITS. — After  the  Salmon  have  occupied  the  rapids  a  short  time,  they  pro- 
ceed to  build  their  nests  and  deposit  their  eggs.  They  scoop  away  the  gravel  from  a  selected 
spot  with  their  noses  and  sweep  it  off  with  their  tails,  until  they  have  made  clear  a  spot  a  few 
feet  in  diameter,  usually  about  circular  in  shape,  and  depressed  towards  the  center,  not  unlike  in 
form  a  common  hen's  nest.  The  eggs  and  milt  having  been  deposited,  the  nest  is  covered  over 
again  with  gravel  by  the  parent  fish,  which  use  their  noses  and  tails  as  before  to  move  the  gravel. 
This  being  done,  they  seem,  at  least  on  the  upper  tributaries,  to  act  as  if  they  realized  that  their 
life-work  was  ended.  They  do  not  hasten  back  to  the  ocean,  where,  if  they  reached  it,  they  would 
regain  their  pristine  health  and  vigor,  but  they  hover  about  the  vicinity  of  their  spawning  ground, 
growing  weaker,  more  emaciated  and  diseased  every  day,  till  death  comes  to  their  relief. 

Having  briefly  traced  the  Salmon's  career  from  the  ocean  to  the  final  stages  of  its  journey 
and  its  life,  let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  the  various  changes  which  gradually  transform  it  from  the 
healthy  and  magnificent  creature  of  the  ocean  to  the  pitiable  emaciated  object  calmly  awaiting 
its  final  summons  at  the  river's  source. 

When  the  Salmon  come  into  the  rivers  from  the  ocean  they  are  royal  creatures  wearing  a 
beautiful  silvery  coat  and  possessing  rare  symmetry  and  immense  vitality  and  muscular  vigor.  As 
long  as  they  stay  in  tide  water,  there  is  saltness  enough  in  it  to  keep  up  their  appetites,  and  they 
are  usually  sufficiently  successful  in  their  foraging  to  hold  their  own.  But  the  moment  they  cross 
the  line  into  the  fresh  water  of  the  rivers  above  them  they  lose  their  appetite,  they  take  no  more 
food,  and  from  that  day  they  fall  off  in  symmetry,  beauty,  and  vitality.  This  physical  deterioration 
always  bears  a  constant  ratio  to  the  proximity  of  their  time  of  spawning,  and  regularly  increases 
as  this  time  approaches.  As  this  spawning  season  occurs  at  different  periods  at  different  locations, 
no  specific  time  can  be  named  for  their  successive  stages  of  deterioration,  but  taking  the  salmon- 
breeding  station  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  on  the  McCloud  River  as  a  point  of  obser- 
vation, it  is  noticed  here  that  the  Salmon  which  pass  the  station  in  March  and  April  are  very  much 
like  the  tide  water  fish.  In  May  and  June  they  are  still  in  their  prime.  In  July  they  change  rapidly 
for  the  worse,  and  by  the  end  of  that  month  their  silvery  look  is  gone  and  they  are  of  an  olive- 
green  color.  The  males  are  deeper  and  the  females  are  broader.  Their  scales  are  nearly  absorbed 


TIIK   LAKK  TROUT.  4S.~) 

iuto  i lie  skin,  which  has  become  smooth  and  slimy.  The  heads  of  the  females  have  not  changed 
much,  but  the  heads  of  the  males  have  become  more  or  less  pointed,  their  jaws  have  developed 
rows  of  large,  white  teeth,  and  the  whole  expression  of  their  face  has  l>ecome  ferocious  and  repulsive 
in  the  extreme.  They  are  now  fast  losing  their  marks  of  nobility  with  which  nature  had  so  richly 
endowed  ihern  in  their  broad  ocean  domains.  They  begin  to  spawn  at  the  McCloud  station  I  In- 
latter  part  of  August,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end,  which  soon  comes;  their  downward  progress 
is  rapid.  They  grow  less  comely  in  appearance,  more  slimy  to  the  touch,  more  uusymmetricul  in 
form;  parasites  collect  by  thousands  in  their  gills  and  under  their  fins;  their  tails  and  fins  fray  off; 
a  white  and  loathsome  fungus  gathers  over  all  parts  of  them,  frequently  destroying  their  eyesight ; 
and  swarms  of  suckers — the  carrion-birds  among  fishes — wait  about  them  to  feed  upon  their 
lifeless  bodies  when  they  die.  For  some  unknown  and  strange  reason,  the  Salmon  in  the  higher 
tributaries  do  not  hasten  back  to  the  salt  water  which  would  clean  their  bodies  of  the  parasites 
and  fungus  and  restore  their  appetite  and  with  it  their  health  and  vigor,  but  they  linger,  with  a 
strange  iiulitVerence  to  their  fate,  around  the  spots  where  they  have  deposited  their  eggs,  waiting 
patiently  for  the  only  possible  relief  from  their  wretchedness,  which  is  death. 

Some  uninformed  persons,  who  have  uever  seen  these  fish  in  their  natural  habits,  have 
expressed  some  incredulity  in  regard  to  their  all  dying  after  they  have  spawned.  Under  this 
head,  1  will  only  say  that  it  is  probably  true  that  those  that  spawn  near  the  ocean  return  to  the 
ocean  and  recover  their  vitality,  but  those  that  pass  the  United  States  station  on  the  McCloud 
lliver  in  the  summer  never  do.  In  order  to  make  sure  whether  I  was  mistaken  in  my  views  about 
it,  I  took  the  testimony,  a  year  ago,  of  all  the  white  men  who  have  lived  or  worked  on  the  river, 
and  ot  all  the  Indians  I  could  reach.  It  was  the  unanimous  testimony  of  all  that  the  Salmon  which 
pass  the  McCloud  hatching  station  in  the  summer,  on  their  way  up  the  river  to  spawn,  die  in  the 
river  and  never  return  to  the  ocean. 

In  conclusion  I  will  say  that  the  Quiuuat  Salmon  has  been  a  favored  object  of  artificial 
culture.  It  was  among  the  first  of  the  fishes  to  receive  attention  from  Professor  Baird,  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  who,  in  1872,  deputized  the  writer  to  go  to 
the  Pacific  coast  to  collect  and  distribute  its  eggs.  Since  that  time  over  fifty  million  Quinnat 
Salmon  eggs  have  been  distributed  over  the  world,  or  hatched  for  the  benefit  of  the  Sacramento 
River.  Professor  Baird  has  in  some  instances  sent  them  as  far  as  Denmark,  Germany,  Russia, 
New  Zealand,  and  Australia. 

163.  THE  NAMAYCUSH  OE  LAKE  TROUT— SALVELIKUS  NAMAYCUSH. 

The  Lake  Trout,  or  Salmon  Trout,  is  a  non-migratory  species  inhabiting  the  chain  of  Great 
Lakes  from  Superior  to  Ontario,  as  well  as  Lake  Champlain  and  many  other  smaller  lakes  of  the 
United  States  and  of  British  America.  With  the  exception  of  the  doubtful  species  known  as  the 
"Siscowet,"  its  nearest  relative  is  the  Brook  Trout  of  the  Eastern  States,  Saltelinus  fontinali*.  The 
Lake  Trout  is,  in  fact,  a  member  of  the  same  group  of  the  salmon  family  with  the  Chare.  Gill 
and  Jordan  were  the  first  to  point  out  that  the  true  relations  of  the  Lake  Trout  are  with  the  Chars 
rather  than  with  the  Salmon.  The  Lake  Trout  is  peculiar  to  North  America  and  its  inland  seas, 
though  the  Char  and  the  Black-spotted  Trent  are  very  similar  to  European  forms.  Every  one  is 
familiar  with  the  phenomenon  of  the  Land-locked  Salmon,  these  fish  being  true  Salmon  for  a  time 
debarred  from  access  to  the  sea,  assuming  a  peculiar  coloration,  and  with  habits  modified  by  con- 
finement within  narrower  bounds  than  those  of  others  of  the  same  species  which  are  free  to  range 
between  river  and  ocean. 

The  Lake  Trout  appears  to  have  undergone  somewhat  similar  modifications.  It  is  a  Char, 
not  land-locked,  but  placed  under  conditions  directly  opposite  to  those  connected  with  those  which 


486  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

are  land-locked.    Certain  modifications  of  structure  have  resulted  from  access  to  nutritious  food 
in  almost  unlimited  quantity  and  from  existence  for  many  generations  in  extensive  bodies  of  water. 

SIZE. — The  most  striking  of  these  is  the  greater  size.  It  sometimes  attains  the  weight  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  while  our  common  Char,  Salvelinus  fontinalls,  even  under 
similar  conditions,  never  exceeds  fourteen  or  fifteen.  This  is  due,  perhaps,  to  the  greater  ease 
with  which,  for  hundreds  of  generations,  the  Lake  Trout  have  obtained  their  food.  They  are 
almost  always  found  in  the  same  lakes  with  one  or  more  kinds  of  white-fish,  whose  slow,  helpless 
movements  render  them  an  easy  prey,  and  upon  whose  tender,  luscious  flesh  the  Lake  Trout 
feeds  voraciously.  From  abundant  food  and  slight  exertion  results  bulk  of  body.  This  becomes 
hereditary.  Even  the  eggs  in  time  are  larger,  just  as  in  the  Land-locked  Salmon  they  are  smaller, 
than  in  the  parent  species,  and  the  young  fish  begins  its  career  with  an  advantage.  As  the 
nascent  species  gains  in  magnitude  the  scales,  always  small  like  those  of  the  Char,  increase 
iu  number,  that  the  growing  body  may  be  covered.  In  like  manner  an  additional  ray  or  two  may 
be  developed  to  re-enforce  the  dozen  supporters  of  the  dorsal  fin.  The  change  iu  dentition  is  a 
result  of  the  change  of  habits.  Feeding  upon  large,  strong-scaled  fish,  instead  of  insects  and  min- 
nows, natural  selection  provides  the  Lake  Trout  with  more  and  stronger  teeth.  It  would  perhaps 
seem  like  a  hasty  generalization  to  point  to  Salvelinus  fontinalis  as  the  form  from  which  the  Lake 
Trout  has  been  developed,  but  one  may  fairly  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  this  species 
alone,  of  all  the  Salmo  group,  is  usually  associated  with  the  fish  under  consideration,  occupying  the 
streams  which  flow  into  the  lakes  of  Northeastern  America,  and  frequently  entering  these  lakes. 
That  8.  fontinalis,  even  when  retaining  its  predilection  for  the  streamlets,  shows  a  tendency  to 
extraordinary  growth  when  ample  waters,  like  the  lakes  of  Maine  or  the  lower  stretches  of  the 
Nepigon,  are  accessible,  is  also  known. 

VARIATIONS. — The  Brook  Trout  shares  with  the  Lake  Trout  its  tendency  to  variations  in  size, 
shape,  and  color.  Every  lake  of  Northern  New  York  and  New  England  has  its  own  variety,  which 
the  local  angler  stoutly  maintains  to  be  a  different  species  from  that  found  in  the  next  township. 
Some  are  as  black  as  a  tautog,  some  brown  with  crimson  spots,  some  gray,  with  delicate  reticula- 
tions like  those  of  a  pickerel.  The  usual  type  to  be  found  in  the  Great  Lakes  is  brown  or  gray, 
dappled  with  lighter  shades  of  the  same  general  tint.  Naturalists  have  been  sadly  misled  by  their 
Protean  modifications.  The  "Namaycush"  of  the  North,  the  "Togue"  or  "Tuladi"  of  the  Maine 
and  New  Brunswick  Indians  and  lumbermen,  the  "Siscowet"  or  "Siskawitz"  of  Lake  Superior, 
the  "Trout"  of  Winnipiseogee,  and  that  of  the  Adirondack  lakes,  have  each  been  honored  with  a 
distinct  binomial. 

The  angling  authorities  still  refuse  to  admit  that  the  Lake  Trout  of  the  East  is  identical  with 
the  Mackinaw  Trout,  or  Namaycush,  supporting  their  views  by  accounts  of  their  very  different 
habits.  A  careful  study  of  the  dead  fish  is  sufficient,  however,  to  convince  a  trained  observer  that 
there  are  no  structural  characters  by  which  these  different  forms  may  be  separated  into  species. 
The  local  variations  should  undoubtedly  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  when  these  are  better 
understood  it  is  probable  that  zoologists  and  anglers  will  compromise  by  agreeing  to  consider  the 
most  strongly  marked  types  as  races,  or  breeds,  such  as  are  now  recognized  among  dogs,  pigeons, 
and  other  domesticated  animals.  Having  never  seen  the  fish  called  the  "Siscowet,"  Salvelinus 
siscowet,  I  cannot  express  an  opinion  as  to  its  distinctness  from  the  Mackinaw  Trout,  but  good 
ichthyologists  assure  me  that  its  peculiarities  are  very  slight,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  smaller  head- 
teeth,  and  fins,  and  the  stouter  body.  Since,  however,  it  is  always  distinguished  from  the  Namay- 
cush by  the  Indians  and  fishermen  of  Lake  Superior,  who  often  see  them  side  by  side,  it  seems 
probable  that  it  may  claim  at  least  sub-specific  rank.  The  matter  of  laud-locking  is  one  which 


VARIATIONS  OF  THK  LAKI:  TROUT!  487 

deserves  more  attention  than  it  ha.s  hitherto  received.  From  wluit  we  know  of  the  influence  of 
environment  upon  animals,  it  need  not  surprise  us  to  discover  that  the  fishes  of  each  . separate  lake 
possess  distinctive  characters,  rising,  perhaps,  to  sub-specific  value.  No  definite  proof  can  be 
gathered,  however,  until  large  series  of  specimens  from  each  body  of  water  have  been  examined 
and  compared. 

LAKE  TROUT  IN  THE  GREAT  LAKES. — The  Lake  Trout  reaches  its  greatest  perfection  in  the 
northern  parts  of  lakes  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superior,  where  it  is  quite  generally  known  as 
the  "Mackinaw  Trout."  In  the  lakes  of  Northern  New  York  the  same  species  occurs,  being  known 
b\  t lie  names  "Lake  Salmon,"  " Lake  Trout,"  and  " Salmon  Tront."  This  form,  which  is  consid- 
erably smaller  than  that  of  the  northern  lakes,  was  described  by  DeKay  under  the  name  Salmo 
conjinix,  and  was  observed  by  this  author  as  far  south  as  Silver  Lake,  in  Northern  Pennsylvania. 
Still  another  form  is  recognized  by  sportsmen,  which,  although  undoubtedly  specifically  identical 
with  that  of  the  Great  Lakes,  has  been  described  under  various  names,  such  as  Salmo  tonia  and 
Sa lino  Hymmetrifii. 

"This  fish,"  writes  Lauman,1  "is  found  in  all  the  great  lakes  of  New  Brunswick,  and  in  very 
many  of  those  of  Maine,  but  it  is  believed  not  to  exist  in  the  lakes  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  called  by  the 
lumbermen  the  'Togue';  the  Indians  designate  it  by  a  name  equivalent  to  'Fresh-water  Cod.'  It 
is  ion  ml  in  great  numbers  and  of  large  size  in  the  Eagle  Lakes,  at  the  head  of  Fish  River,  in  the 
Saint  Francis  lakes,  from  which  it  follows  the  river  of  that  name,  and  in  the  Matapediac  Lake, 
which  discharges  itself  into  the  Restigouche,  and  in  the  Miramichi  Lake,  at  the  head  of  that  river. 
In  Lake  Temisconata  this  fish  has  been  taken  of  the  weight  of  twenty -one  pounds.  It  is  there 
called  the  'TttladiS  It  is  often  taken  of  the  weight  of  twelve  pounds  and  upwards  in  the  Cheput- 
necticook  lakes,  at  the  head  of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Saint  Croix.  It  has  been  found  of  late 
years  that  this  species  of  fish  exists  in  considerable  numbers  in  Loch  Lomond,  twelve  miles  from 
the  city  of  Saint  John." 

Hainliu  writes:'  "This  Trout  inhabits  many  of  the  great  lakes  and  deep  mountain  torrents  of 
Maine  and  New  Brunswick,  but  it  is  believed  not  to  exist  in  those  of  Eastern  New  Brunswick, 
which  singular  hiatus  in  its  distribution,  perhaps,  may  be  explained  by  the  absence  of  deep  waters 
in  that  country.  It  haunts  the  deepest  waters,  where  the  cold  or  the  repose  to  which  it  leads 
favors  that  development  and  conservation  of  fat  which  is  indeed  a  characteristic,  and  it  steals  forth 
in  quiet  at  the  approach  of  twilight  or  at  early  morn  to  the  shoals  and  the  shores  in  quest  of  its 
prey." 

The  Winnipiseogee  Trout,3  somewhat  abundant  in  Lake  Wiunipiseogee  and  supposed  to  occur 
in  Lake  George,  is  also  a  form  of  this  species,  closely  related  to  the  Togue. 

The  popular  and  scientific  names  which  have  been  given  to  this  species  are  due  to  the  wonder- 
In  I  tendency  of  variation  in  size,  shape,  and  coloration  which  this  species,  like  the  Brook  Trout, 
exhibits.  Every  lake  in  which  they  occur  has  its  own  varieties,  which  local  authorities  believe  to 
be  quite  peculiar.  Some  are  black,  some  brown,  with  crimson  spots,  some  gray,  with  delicate 
reticulations  like  those  of  a  pickerel.  The  usual  type  to  be  found  in  the  Great  Lakes  is  brown  or 
gray  dappled  with  lighter  shades  of  the  same  general  tint.  Throughout  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan, 
and  1 1  in  on  the  fishermen  are  generally  of  the  opinion  that  there  are  at  least  two  kinds  of  Lake 
Trout.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  they  are  led  by  superficial  characters,  finding  it  con- 


1  Report  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  2,  p.  220. 
Kd.,  p.  356. 


lymmctrica.    PKESCOTT:  Silliman's  Journal,  2d  series,  ii,  p.  340.    Report  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
sion, Pt.  2,  p.  257. 


488  NATURAL  HISTORY  or  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

venient  to  give  names  to  the  extremes  of  development  in  different  directions,  and  neglect  to  take 
into  account  tbe  forms  intermediate  between  these  extremes.  Mr.  Kuinlien  studied  the  subject  in 
different  localities  in  the  summer  of  1880,  and  the  results  of  his  observations  are  here  presented. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Green  Bay  those  having  salmon-colored  flesh  were  called  "Black  Trout," 
while  others,  with  white  flesh,  were  known  as  "  Lake  Trout."  On  the  eastern  shore  of  Green  Bay, 
on  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  two  species  of  "Mackinaw  Trout"  are  recognized  by  the  fisher- 
men. About  Grand  Traverse  Bay,  Lake  Michigan,  two  varieties  are  also  recognized,  one  being  long, 
slim,  and  coarse-meated,  taken  in  shallow  water,  and  are  known  as  "Reef  Trout,"  or  when  very 
large  are  called  "Racers";  they  are  supposed  to  follow  the  schools  of  white-fish,  among  which  they 
are  always  taken;  those  of  the  other  form  are  called  "Pot-bellies,"  being  short  and  chubby,  aud 
invariably  taken  in  deep  water.  In  the  vicinity  of  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin,  two  forms  are  recog- 
nized, one  known  as  "Reef  Trout,"  corresponding  to  the  one  just  mentioned,  large  and  lank,  with 
tough  and  coarse  flesh,  while  the  other,  which  is  much  more  highly  prized,  is  taken  in  deep  water. 
At  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  two  forms  are  known :  one,  which  is  darker-colored  and  has 
red  flesh,  being  considered  by  far  the  more  valuable.  At  Grand  Haven  there  are  two  forms  of 
Mackinaw  Trout,  known  as  the  "Shoal-water  Trout':  and  the  "Deep-water  Trout."  In  the  vicinity 
of  Thunder  Bay,  Lake  Huron,  the  name  "Buckskin"  is  applied  to  one  variety,  which  is  held  in 
very  slight  esteem,  while  another  form  is  known  by  the  name  of  "Racer." 

The  angling  authorities  as  well  as  the  fishermen  refuse  to  be  convinced  that  ichthyologists  are 
right  in  including  all  the  Lake  Trouts  in  one  species;  the  former  are  especially  dissatisfied  that 
the  Lake  Trout  of  the  East  should  be  thought  identical  with  the  Mackinaw  Trout  of  the  North- 
western and  Great  Lakes,  and  they  support  their  views  by  reference  to  their  very  different  habits. 
Local  variations  should,  undoubtedly,  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  when  these  are  better 
understood  it  is  probable  that  zoologists  and  anglers  will  compromise  by  agreeing  to  consider  the 
most  strongly  marked  types  as  races  or  breeds,  such  as  are  now  recognized  among  dogs,  pigeons, 
and  other  domesticated  animals. 

NAMES.— In  addition  to  the  names  which  have  already  been  mentioned,  tbe  Lake  Trout  has 
other  appellatives,  such  as  "Lunge,"  in  Canada;  "Tyrant  of  the  Lake,"  "Laker,"  "Red  Trout," 
"Gray  Trout,"  "Black  Lunge,"  "Silver  Lunge,"  "Racer  Lunge,"  "Black  Salmon,"  and  "Lake 
Salmon."  The  name  "Tuladi"  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Lake  Toledi  at  the  head  of  the  Saint 
John  River,  of  New  Brunswick. 

IMPORTANCE. — "The  Trout  of  the  Great  Lakes,"  writes  Milner,  "is  one  of  the  three  most 
numerous  fishes,  and,  except  the  sturgeon,  attains  the  greatest  weight  of  any  of  the  Lake  species. 
It  is  captured  almost  exclusively  in  gill-nets,  and  in  some  portions  of  the  Lakes  they  take  them  in 
pound-nets  during  the  spawning  season.  In  winter  a  great  many  are  taken  in  the  bays  through 
holes  cut  in  the  ice." 

SPAWNING.— In  the  spawning  season  they  approach  the  shore,  but  do  not  ascend  the  rivers, 
and  although  they  are  known  to  exist  in  a  few  inland  lakes,  connected  with  the  main  lakes  by 
rapids,  there  is  no  record  of  their  having  been  seen  or  taken  in  the  outlets. 

The  observations  of  Mr.  Kumlien  concerning  the  relative  abundance  of  this  species  in  different 
parte  of  the  Great  Lake  region,  and  the  periodicity  of  their  movements,  are  deemed  of  sufficient 
importance  to  be  recounted  somewhat  at  length  below.  The  whole  subject  of  their  movements  is, 
however,  so  closely  connected  with  their  habits  during  the  spawning  season  that  it  is  perhaps 
desirable  to  discuss  first  their  breeding  habits.  The  spawning  season  in  Lakes  Michigan  and 
Superior  occurs  in  October.  Their  habits  at  this  time  have  not  been  studied  by  any  zoologists, 
the  visits  of  Milner  and  Kumlien  to  their  haunts  having  been  made  at  other  seasons  of  the  year. 


SPAWNING  GROUNDS  OF  THE  LAKE  TROUT.  489 

They  spawn  late  in  October,  coming  up  to  the  rocky  shoals  and  reefs  in  from  seventy  to  ninety 
feet  depth  of  water.  They  are  said  to  spawn  close  to  the  projections  and  edges  of  cavernous  rocks, 
the  eggs  settling  into  the  depressions,  where  they  doubtless  remain  until  hatched.  The  young  flsh 
make  their  entry  into  the  world  in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  though  in  a  batching  house,  with 
water  at  an  average  temperature  of  47°  Fahrenheit,  they  have  been  known  to  hatch  the  last  week 
in  January. 

Milner  remarks:  "The  universal  testimony  is  that  the  spawn  is  found  running  from  the 
females  in  the  latter  part  of  the  month  of  October,  the  flsh  coming  to  the  spawning  grounds  a 
week  or  more  earlier.  At  Detour,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Huron,  on  the  16th  of  October,  I  saw  a  large 
lift  of  Trout  brought  in  from  the  spawning  grounds;  the  ova  were  large  and  separated,  but  were 
still  entirely  retained  in  the  folds  of  the  ovaries,  and  the  fishermen  said  that  they  had  not  found 
them  running  from  this  flsh  as  yet. 

"The  localities  selected  by  the  Trout  for  their  spawning  ground  are  usually  rock  bottoms  in 
from  fifteen  fathoms  to  seven  feet  of  depth.  The  Trout  are  said  to  settle  close  to  the  projections 
and  edges  of  the  honey-combed  cavities  of  the  rock,  and  that  frequently,  when  a  loose  fragment 
of  the  rock  is  drawn  up  by  the  nets,  the  cells  are  found  to  contain  numbers  of  the  eggs." 

Mr.  Milner  counted  the  eggs  of  a  Mackinaw  Trout,  of  twenty-four  pounds'  weight,  and  found 
that  there  were  14,943.  The  average  weight  of  these  flsh  as  taken  in  the  gill-nets  was  about  five 
pounds,  though  fish  of  fifteeu  pounds  are  frequently  seen.  Mr.  Milner  obtained  authentic  accounts 
of  one,  taken  at  Mackinaw  in  1870,  which  weighed  eighty  pounds.  The  species  is  the  largest, 
except  the  sturgeon,  occurring  in  the  Great  Lakes. 

"The  knowledge  of  the  time  at  which  the  young  fish  make  their  appearance  is  limited  to  the 
experience  of  the  few  fish-culturiste  in  the  country  who  have  hatched  the  eggs.  In  water  of  an 
average  temperature  of  47°,  they  are  found  to  hatch  about  the  last  week  of  January.  At  the 
lower  temperatures  of  the  water,  in  a  state  of  nature,  their  development  would  be  retarded  for 
several  weeks. 

"Of  the  habits  of  the  young  Trout  I  am  entirely  destitute  of  information.  I  have  seen  one  of 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  learn  of  rare  instances  in  which  the  fishermen  have  seeu  small  ones." 

The  principal  spawning  grounds  of  the  Lake  Trout  are  the  following: 

I.  The  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  from  Duluth  northward  to  the  viciuity  of  Isle  Royale, 
comprising  the  whole  lake  coast  of  Minnesota,  and  in  all  the  small  bays  of  the  region. 

II.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Apostle  Islands,  in  the  western  part  of  Lake-  Superior,  especially 
about  Gull  Island. 

III.  Very  extensive  spawning  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  Huron  Bay,  Michigan,  particularly 
near  L'Ause  and  Bete-Grise  Bay,  and  on  a  reef  about  four  miles  from  Porte  Centre. 

IV.  Very  extensive  spawning  grounds  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Lake  Superior,  at  Big 
Presque  Isle,  Laughing  Fish  Island,  Sharp  Point,  and  Sauk's  Head,  Michigan. 

V.  On  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  from  Racine  north  ward,  particularly  upon  a  reef  about 
forty  miles  off  Milwaukee,  and  on  a  smaller  reef  about  six  miles  from  the  same  town.    On  this 
ground,  according  to  Milner,  a  large  type  of  Trout  has  been  taken  for  many  years,  also  on  certain 
shoals  in  the  vicinity  of  Green  Island  in  Green  Bay. 

VI.  On  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  from  Saint  Josephs  northward. 

VII.  In  the  vicinity  of  Detour,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Huron.    At  this  point,  according  to  Milner 
(also  according  to  Kumlien,  along  the  islands  off  Thunder  Bay  and  Harnsville),  the  spawning 
ground  was  so  close  to  the  shore  that  the  tips  of  the  floats  of  the  nets  set  upon  it  were  visible 
above  water. 


490  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

VIII.  On  the  Canadian  shore  of  Lake  Ontario. 

"Their  usual  home  at  other  seasons  than  the  spawning  period,"  remarks  Milner,  "is  in 
deep  water.  A  few  stragglers  approach  the  shore  and  are  taken  in  the  pound-nets  or  with  the 
hook  from  the  piers  extending  into  the  lakes.  In  the  northern  portions  of  Michigan  they  are  taken 
in  fifteen  fathoms  in  some  numbers  with  the  gill-nets,  and  more  plentifully  through  holes  cut  in  the 
ice  in  the  winter  time,  though  a  depth  of  over  thirty  fathoms  is  more  favorable  for  their  capture." 

Milner  made  the  following  remark:  "Pound-nets  have  not  made  extensive  inroads  upon  their 
numbers,  and  none  but  mature  fishes  are  taken." 

In  Green  Bay  alone  does  it  appear  that  small-meshed  gill-nets  have  interfered  with  the 
abundance  of  the  fish  by  capturing  their  young. 

The  best  study  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  Great  Lakes,  was  that 
made  by  Milner,  in  1871.  He  observed  that  in  Lake  Michigan,  except  in  the  spawning  season, 
they  remain  in  the  deepest  parts  of  the  lake.  In  their  autumnal  migrations  they  do  not  ascend 
the  rivers,  and  although  they  are  known  to  exist  in  a  few  small  inland  lakes,  connected  with  the 
main  lakes  by  rapids,  there  is  no  knowledge  that  they  have  ever  been  seen  or  taken  in  the  outlets. 
In  the  northern  parts  of  Lake  Michigan  they  are  caught  in  depths  of  fifteen  fathoms  in  small 
numbers  by  the  gill-nets,  and  more  plentifully  through  the  ice  in  winter,  chiefly  at  a  depth  of  more 
than  thirty  fathoms. 

FOOD. — They  are  ravenous  feeders.  In  Lake  Michigan,  where  a  careful  investigation  into  the 
nature  of  their  food  was  made,  it  was  found  that  they  were  preying  upon  the  cisco  (Coregowis 
Hoyi),  a  well-known  fish  closely  resembling  the  white-fish.  Mr.  Milner  was  inclined  to  combat  the 
generally  accepted  theory  of  the  fishermen  that  they  are  large  consumers  of  young  white  fish, 
stating  that  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  they  live  in  much  deeper  water  than  is  resorted  to  by  the 
yonng  white-fish,  though  Tront  straying  into  shoal  water,  or  migrating  upon  shallow  spawning 
grounds,  would  undoubtedly  prey  upon  the  smaller  white-fish  as  readily  as  they  would  upon  any 
other  species. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  Trout  to  swallow  a  fish  nearly  as  large  as  itself.  One  measuring 
twenty-three  inches  was  brought  ashore  at  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin,  from  the  mouth  of  which  some 
three  inches  of  the  tail  of  a  fish  ( Lota  maculosa)  projected.  The  "  lawyer,"  when  taken  from  the 
Trout,  measured  about  seventeen  inches.  "Their  exceeding  voracity,"  writes  Mr.  Milner,  "induces 
them  to  fill  their  maws  with  singular  articles  of  food.  Where  the  steamers  or  vessels  pass,  the 
refhse  of  the  table  is  eagerly  seized  upon,  and  I  have  taken  from  the  stomach  a  raw  peeled  potato 
and  a  piece  of  sliced  liver,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  pieces  of  corn-cobs,  in  the  green-corn 
season." 

Kumlien'3  observations  led  him  to  believe  that  large  Trout  feed,  to  some  extent,  upon  white- 
fish,  while  the  smaller  ones  cnp'nre  the  herring.  In  Green  Bay  the  fishermen  say  that  the  Trout 
leave  the  white-fish  spawning  beds  in  autumn  before  the  spawning  season  begins,  but  that  they 
are  not  accused  of  being  troublesome  spawn-eaters,  though  otherwise  extremely  voracious,  and 
especially  hurtful  to  tin-  white-fish  and  herring.  The  fishermen  of  Port  Huron  informed  him  that 
it  was  no  unrsnal  occurrence  to  obtain  white-fish  two  or  thr  e  pounds  in  weight  from  the  stomachs 
of  large  Trout.  Captain  Dingman,  of  Beaver  Island,  informed  him  that  the  Trout  do  not  come 
upon  the  white-fish  reefs  during  the  spawning  season,  and  that  they  do  -;ot  trouble  the  white-fish  at 
that  time.  In  that  vicinity  they  are  thought  to  prefer  herring  to  any  other  kind  of  fish.  A  twenty- 
pound  Tront  was  caught  off  Beaver  Islands  which  had  in  its  stomach  thirteen  herrings  and  was 
caught  biting  at  the  fourteenth.  They  are  as  omniverous  as  codfish,  and  among  the  articles  which 


I:\I:MH:S  OF  TIIF.  I.AKI:  TROUT.  491 

have  been  founil  in  their  stomachs  may  be  mentioned  an  open  jack-knife,  seven  inches  long,  which 
had  been  lost  hv  a  fisherman  a  year  before  at  a  locality  thirty  miles  distant,  tin  eans,  rafts,  raw 
potatoes,  chicken  and  ham  hones,  salt  pork,  corn  cobs,  spoons,  silver  dollars,  a  watch  and  chain, 
iind,  in  one  instance,  a  piece  of  tarred  rope  two  feet  long.  In  the  spring  wild  pigeons  are  often 
found  in  their  stomachs.  It  is  thought  that  these  birds  frequently  become  bewildered  in  their 
Might  over  tin-  lakes,  settle  on  the  water,  and  become  the  prey  of  the  Trout. 

In  the  review  of  localities  already  given  mention  has  been  made  of  many  large  individuals; 
the  only  estimate  of  average  accessible  is  that  by  Milner,  who  remarks:  "The  smallest  ones  that 
are  taken  in  any  numbers  arc-  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  these  are  not  very  numerous. 
The  average  weight  of  the  Lake  Trout  taken  in  the  gill-nets  is  nearly  five  pounds.  It  is  claimed 
that  in  years  past  they  averaged  much  higher.  They  are  quite  frequently  taken  weighing  fifteen 
pounds.  A  specimen  of  a  female  was  obtained  last  summer  at  Shoal  Island,  Lake  Superior, 
weighing  twenty-four  pounds.  One  taken  at  ({rand  Haven,  Michigan,  in  the  nn  nth  of  June,  1871 — 
a  female — weighed  thirty-six  pounds  and  one-half.  After  the  gills  and  entrails  were  removed  it 
weighed  twenty-nine  pounds.  It  measured  three  feet  six  and  one-half  inches  in  length. 

"The  tradition  of  the  largest  Trout  taken  is  preserved  at  each  locality,  ranging  from  fifty  to 
ninety  pounds.  One  that  I  am  satisfied  was  authentic,  from  having  taken  the  testimony  of  those 
who  saw  it  weighed,  and  having  the  story  confirmed  by  Father  Peret,  of  Mackinaw,  was  taken  at 
that  place  in  1870,  and  weighed  eighty  pounds." ' 

KXKMIES. — "There  are  no  species  of  fishes  in  the  lakes,"  writes  Milner,  "sufficiently  formidable 
to  be  considered  enemies  of  the  Trout  after  they  mature.  The  spawn  and  fry  probably  suffer  to 
some  extent  from  the  same  causes  that  the  ova  and  young  white-fish  do.  They  are  troubled  with  a 
few  parasites,  especially  a  tape- worm  that  is  found  rery  numerous  iu  the  intestines  of  some  of  them. 
Solitary  individuals,  known  among  the  fishermen  as  '  Racers,'  are  found  iu  the  summer  time 
swimming  sluggishly  at  the  surface.  They  are  easily  token  with  the  gaff-hook,  and  bite  readily  at 
any  bait  thrown  to  them.  They  are  always  very  thin  in  flesh.  Dissection  of  the  few  that  I  have 
taken  failed  to  find  any  adequate  cause  for  their  condition.  The  parasites  were  generally  present, 
but  not  in  any  larger  number  than  in  healthy  fish.  The  fishermen  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan  generally  keep  a  few  hogs.  The  ofl'al  of  the  white  fish  is  fed  to  them  freely,  but  they  are 
very  careful  to  allow  no  trout  oftal  to  be  thrown  in  their  way,  asserting  that  the  hogs,  after  eating 
Trout,  frequently  become  crazy  and  die.  The  only  plausible  explanation  of  this  fact,  if  it  is  a  fact, 
is  that  some  entozoon  of  the  Mackinaw  Trout  passes  through  one  stage  of  its  development  in  the 
hog,  and  occasions  disturbance  of  the  brain,  having  much  the  same  habit  as  the  cystic  Ccenurus 
does  in  the  sheep.  Dr.  Bannister  informs  me  that  the  opinion  prevailed  among  some  of  the 
Russian  residents  of  Alaska  that  a  tape-worm  was  occasionally  produced  in  the  human  subject  by 
eating  the  Chaiicicha,  Salmo  orientals  Pal.,  the  largest  species  of  Salmon  common  in  that  country. 
The  fact  that  it  was  quite  a  common  practice  to  eat  fish  frozen,  or  dried,  or  salted,  without  cooking, 
would  favor  the  introduction  of  auy  parasite  existing  in  the  body  of  the  fish." 

The  livers  of  Lake  Trout  are  thought  by  the  fishermen  to  be  poisonous.  Mr.  James  Patterson, 
of  Manitowoc,  Wisconsin,  cites  an  instance,  which  occurred  not  many  years  ago,  where  all  the  mem- 
bers of  a  family  were  poisoned  by  eating  trout  livers,  and  were  a  long  time  in  recovering  from 
the  effects. 

CULTUUK.— "The  Lake  Trout  has  for  years  been  the  subject  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
New  York  State  commissioners,  and  their  agent,  Seth  Green,  who  every  autumn  collects  mil  In. us 


MII.NKK  :  Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


492  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  eggs  from  the  fisheries  on  the  Canadian  side  of  Lake  Ontario  to  be  hatched  at  Caledonia,  New 
York,  for  distribution  to  the  lakes  in  the  interior  of  New  York.  The  experiment  has  lately  been 
made  of  planting  the  young  fish  in  running  water,  as  the  Susquehanna,  etc.;  but  it  yet  remains 
to  be  seen  how  they  will  thrive.  The  Lake  Trout  is  eminently  worthy  the  attention  of  States 
along  the  Great  Lakes,  since,  with  the  white-fish,  it  constitutes  by  far  the  most  important  element 
in  the  great  fisheries."  * 

In  the  fall  of  1857  and  1858  a  large  number  of  eggs  of  Salmon  Trout  were  obtained  for  Salton- 
stall  Lake,  in  Connecticut,  from  Lake  Ontario.  A  considerable  number  of  this  species,  obtained  in 
Lake  Ontario,  was  introduced  into  Newfound  Lake,  New  Hampshire,  in  1871,  by  the  State  com- 
missioner. The  enterprise  is  referred  to  more  fully  in  the  report  of  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission.1 

A  minor  experiment  in  hatching  Salmon  Trout,  or  Mackinaw  Trout  (Salmo  namaycush),  was 
made  by  Mr.  Samuel  Wilinot,  of  Newcastle,  Canada,  in  1868.  He  also  obtained  a  hybrid  between 
a  male  Salmo  solar  and  a  female  8.  namaycush.  The  next  published  records  we  have  of  experi- 
ments are  by  Seth  Green  and  by  N.  W.  Clark  in  1870.  Mr.  Clark's  was  with  but  a  few  eggs.  In 
an  address  before  the  legislature  of  Michigan  he  refers  to  the  fact  of  having  young  Salmon  Tront 
on  exhibition.  The  quantity  of  eggs  taken  by  Seth  Green  that  year  and  hatched  was  very  large, 
and  the  fish  proving  to  be  a  great  favorite  among  the  people  of  the  State  he  has  continued  to  breed 
it  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  has  been  widely  distributed  throughout  the  State.  The  greatest  draw- 
back in  the  culture  of  this  species  is  the  difficulty  and  danger  attending  the  procuring  of  the  eggs. 
The  spawning  places  of  the  fish  in  the  region  of  the  hatching  houses  are  in  the  open  lake,  and 
the  time  when  the  ova  are  ripe  is  in  October,  when  there  are  frequent  storms,  so  that  going  out  in 
an  open  boat  to  the  nets  is  a  task  of  hardship  and  danger,  and  has  resulted,  in  a  late  instance,  in 
the  loss  of  six  men,  one  of  them  Marcellus  Holton,  an  accomplished  fish-culturist  and  the  inventor 
of  the  Holton  hatching-box.  There  are,  however,  points  on  the  lakes  accessible  by  steamer,  though 
not  contiguous  to  the  breeding  establishments,  where  the  salmon-trout  spawning  grounds  are  near 
the  shore,  and  even  entirely  land-locked  from  wind  and  sea.2 

Neither  the  Mackinaw  Tront  nor  the  Siscowet  are  game  fishes  in  high  esteem,  though  the 
latter  is  taken  by  trolling  with  a  bright-colored  fly,  with  a  minnow  bait,  or  a  spoon-hook.  It  does 
not  rise  like  the  Brook  Trout,  and  its  play  is  likely  to  be  sluggish  and  sulky.  It  is  also  taken  with 
a  bottom  line  on  grounds  which  have  been  previously  baited.  The  Indians  of  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
display  great  skill  in  spearing  the  Mackinaw  Trout  through  the  ice,  luring  them  within  reach  by 
means  of  decoy  fishes  of  wood  or  lead.  By  far  the  largest  quantities  are  taken  in  pounds  and  gill- 
nets  in  the  Great  Lakes. 

In  Lake  Superior  Lake  Trout  are  caught  principally  in  September,  October,  and  November  in 
ponnds  and  gill-nets.  Formerly  they  were  fished  for  with  hooks  only,  but  of  late  years  this 
practice  has  been  abandoned  by  professional  fishermen.  In  the  Green  Bay  region  large  Trout  are 
caught  principally  with  hooks,  though  in  the  western  part  of  the  bay  and  in  Oconto  Bay  many  are 
taken  in  gill  and  pound  nets  in  deep  water.  Those  captured  in  the  gill-nets  are  thought  by  the 
fishermen  to  be  meshed' for  the  most  part,  while  these  nets  are  being  lifted ;  the  Trout  dart  after 
the  other  fish  which  have  been  gilled  and  thus  become  entangled.  In  Lake  Hurofi  they  are 
caught  entirely  with  gill-nets.  They  may  be  taken  with  hooks  baited  in  the  ordinary  way,  but 
can  hardly  be  said  to  afford  sport  to  the  angler,  since  they  allow  themselves  to  be  pulled  to  the 
surface  as  easily  as  codfish  do. 

'Professor  BAIRD:  Report,  United  States  Fish  Commission, part  ii,  p.  Ixiil. 
'Report,  U.  8.  Fish  Commission,  part  ii,  p.  534. 


HABITS  OF  TIIE  LAKE  TROUT.  493 

The  Togue  or  Lunge  of  our  northeastern  boundary  is  held  in  much  higher  fuvor  by  the  angler. 
Hallock  states  that  the  young  fish  rise  freely  to  trout  flies  in  rapid  water,  while  the  adults  are 
extremely  voracious,  particularly  in  May  and  June,  when  they  can  be  taken  near  the  surface. 

Prof.  Arthur  L.  Adams,  in  "Field  and  Forest  Rambles,"  gi\vs  a  vivid  picture  of  the  habits  of 
this  peculiar  type:  "It  repairs  to  shallows  to  feed  on  Trouts,  smelts,  and  the  like;  indeed,  the  last- 
named  flsh  would  appear  to  constitute  its  favorite  winter  subsistence.  It  preys  extensively,  also, 
on  eels  and  cyprinids,  and  is  in  fact  a  tyrant  with  an  appetite  so  voracious  that  quantities  of  twigs, 
leaves,  and  fragments  of  wood  are  constantly  found  in  its  stomach.  The  great  monster  will  some- 
times rise  to  spinning  tackle,  but  in  so  sluggish  and  undemonstrative  a  manner  that  the  troller 
may  fancy  ho  has  caught  a  water-logged  pine  or  stone.  In  this  way  I  had  my  line  checked  in 
Schoodic  Lake,  when,  striking  gently,  I  found  I  had  missed  a  large  Togue,  whose  trenchant  teeth 
had  mtvde  a  series  of  deep  furrows  in  the  chub  with  which  the  hook  was  baited.  It  is  naturally 
sluggish  and  inert,  and  apparently  much  of  a  bottom  feeder.  As  we  glided  along  the  shore  of  one 
of  the  islets,  composed  more  or  less  of  granitic  bowlders,  our  attention  was  directed  by  the  guide 
to  a  large  black  object  on  the  bottom,  among  a  mass  of  stones.  This  he  asserted  was  a  monster 
Togue,  which,  if  such  was  the  case,  must  have  exceeded  three  feet  in  length;  moreover,  he  showed 
us  two  notches  on  the  side  of  his  canoe,  representing  the  dimensions  of  an  enormous  individual 
which  an  Indian  had  speared  in  the  same  waters  during  the  spawning  season,  the  admeasurement 
being  no  less  than  four  feet  five  inches." 

TROUT  IN  THE  GREAT  LAKES. — The  following  facts  concerning  the  abundance  of  the  Lake 
Trout  in  different  parts  of  the  Great  Lakes  were  gathered  by  Mr.  Kumlien  in  1880: 

"In  the  western  part  of  Lake  Superior,  according  to  common  testimony,  the  Lake  Trout  is 
second  in  importance  to  the  white-fish;  they  constitute  about  one-half  of  the  catch  of  the  gill-nets. 

"In  the  vicinity  of  Whitettsh  Point  the  Lake  Trout  is  more  abundant  than  any  other  species. 
The  average  size  is  from  ten  to  sixteen  pounds.  About  the  Apostle  Islands  they  are  abundant  at 
all  times  and  in  all  places;  one  was  caught  at  Oak  Island  weighing  fifty -seven  and  one-half  pounds 
when  dressed.  In  the  fall  the  best  fishing  grounds  are  off  Isle  Royale,  and  nearly  all  the  gill-nets 
are  fishing  there;  it  is  not  unusual  for  a  single  net  to  take  one  or  two  barrels  at  a  setting.  In 
Huron  Bay  and  vicinity  Lake  Trout  are  abundant  everywhere,  except  in  the  most  shallow  bays, 
especially  about  Stanard's  Rock.  On  this  reef,  in  1880,  one  Mr.  Egerton  caught  with  one  hook 
enough  Trout  to  weigh,  after  dressing,  six  hundred  pounds.  In  the  winter  of  1878  one  specimen 
was  caught  through  the  ice,  in  a  gill-net,  at  Porte  Centre,  that  weighed  seventy-four  pounds. 
Thirty-five  and  forty  pound  flsh  are  common  on  the  off-shore  shoals.  On  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Superior,  from  Grand  Island  to  Sauk's  Head,  this  species  is  more  abundant  than  any  other. 
They  are  caught  principally  in  September,  October,  and  November.  In  the  vicinity  of  Grand 
Island,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Parker,  a  local  authority,  there  has  been  no  marked  decrease  in 
numbers  during  the  past  fifteen  years.  Individuals  weighing  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds  are  by  no 
means  unusual,  and  much  larger  ones  are  reported. 

"In  Green  Bay,  Lake  Trout  are  reported  to  be  far  less  common  than  formerly.  In  the 
southern  part  of  this  bay,  in  the  vicinity  of  Bay  City,  they  are  now  rare;  somewhat  more 
abundant  from  Oconto  to  Peshtigo,  though  not  taken  to  any  considerable  extent,  and  north  of 
Meuornonee  they  are  less  plentiful  than  about  Oconto.  Seven  to  ten  years  ago,  at  Washington 
Island,  it  was  not  an  unusual  thing  for  men  trolling  for  Trout  to  fill  their  boat  in  a  short  time,  but 
this  cannot  now  be  done.  The  decrease  is  accounted  for,  by  local  observers,  by  the  injudicious 
use  of  small-meshed  pound-nets,  which  are  supposed  to  capture  great  quantities  of  young  Trout. 


494  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  largest  individuals  on  record  from  this  locality  relate  to  one  specimen,  .caught  in  1864  at 
Grand  Haven,  which  weighed  eighty-eight  pounds,  and  one  taken  at  Oconto  in  1876  weighing 
forty-five  pounds.  At  the  north  end  of  Green  Bay  they  are  reported  as  very  abundant  at  all 
seasons,  though  less  common  than  the  white-fish.  They  are  most  common  about  Saint  Martin's 
and  Gull  Islands.  In  the  fall  and  spring  they  are  less  abundant  towards  the  heads  of  the  bays. 
About  Milwaukee  they  are  abundant,  particularly  at  the  spawning  season,  though  not  so  plentiful 
as  formerly.  A  little  farther  north,  in  the  vicinity  of  Manitowoc,  they  are  plentiful.  In  1855  Mr. 
Patterson  caught  one  that  weighed  fifty-seven  and  a  half  pounds,  dressed.  Capt.  J.  Gaguon  says 
that  he  has  often  taken  a  dozen  at  a  single  lift  which  would  average  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds 
in  weight ;  these  were  taken  in  ninety  fathoms  of  water,  about  fifteen  miles  from  shore,  off  Two 
Rivers.  The  "Salmon-fleshed"  and  "  White-fleshed"  Trout  are  both  found,  but  the  former  is  f;ir 
the  more  abundant  and  sells  much  more  readily.  At  Racine  they  are  very  abundant  and  of  con- 
siderable importance.  During  spawning  time  they  are  taken  plentifully  on  a  reef  a  short  distance 
north  of  the  city,  but  it  is  thought  that  they  are  decreasing  in  numbers.  At  Waukegan  they 
are  abundant  in  June  and  July  and  in  the  fall  months,  but,  since  the  pound-nets  are  taken  up  in 
September,  few  are  caught  late  in  the  fall.  The  fishermen  claim  to  be  able  to  tell  from  which 
locality  any  fish  has  been  obtained,  those  from  the  clay  bottom  being  short,  thick,  and  fat,  resem- 
bling the  Siscowet.  Individuals  have  here  been  caught  which  weighed  sixty-five  pounds.  The 
common  weight  for  a  "  Racer"  is  twenty-five  pounds,  and  from  this  up  to  forty  pounds. 

"In  the  vicinity  of  Chicago,  according  to  Nelson,  Lake  Trout  are  common  in  spring  and  fall. 
They  commence  running  in  the  middle  of  April,  and  are  taken  at  that  time  with  set  lines  at  a  short 
distance  out  from  the  shore.  "They  are  taken  most  plentifully  in  spring,"  continues  Kumlien, 
"when  the  fishing  first  begins  and  before  the  runs  of  white-fish  come  on;  at  this  time  they  are 
caught  in  from  twelve  to  sixteen  fathoms.  Later  they  retreat  into  the  lake,  where,  at  a  distance 
out  from  seven  to  nine  miles  from  shore,  they  are  found  at  all  seasons." 

"At  New  Buffalo  and  vicinity  the  Trout  make  up  about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  amount  of  fish 
taken.  Fourteen  years  ago  fish  of  from  fourteen  to  twenty  pounds'  weight  were  obtained  at  every 
lift  of  the  nets,  but  now  they  are  much  smaller.  The  largest  ever  kuown  here  weighed  sixty-two 
pounds  dressed. 

"On  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  the  Lake  Trout  is  next  in  importance  to  the  white-fish. 
At  Ludingtou,  Manistee  County,  they  are  very  abundant.  The  runs  begin  early  in  May,  but  they 
decrease  in  number  until  July,  after  which  none  are  taken  until  October.  Gill-net  fishermen 
obtain  them  throughout  the  winter  in  deep  water.  At  Grand  Haven  they  are  said  to  be  equally 
common  all  the  year  round,  possibly  because  there  are  no  spawning  grounds  in  the  vicinity. 

"In  the  vicinity  of  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw,  in  the  northern  part  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan, 
Mackinaw  Trout  is  considered,  next  to  the  white-fish,  the  most  important  species.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  general  opinion  among  the  fishermen  that  they  are  much  too  numerous,  for  they  are  thought  to 
be  very  destructive  to  young  white-fish.  As  many  as  nine  thousand  pounds  have  been  packed  for 
shipment  at  Mackinaw  in  one  day.  They  were  formerly  bought  by  the  "  count,"  as  they  ran,  at  three 
cents  apiece.  On  Spectacle  Reef,  according  to  Captain  Ketchuin,  two  men  lifting  their  nets  every 
two  hours,  have  caught  thirty-six  hundred  pounds  in  one  night.  In  the  vicinity  of  Spectacle 
Reef  Captain  Coats  reports  them  as  even  more  abundant  than  the  white-fish,  though  he  thinks 
that  at  least  eight  times  as  many  white-fish  as  Trout  are  shipped  from  Mackinaw.  It  is  believed 
by  the  fishermen  of  Grand  Traverse  Bay  that,  when  the  moon  is  full,  the  Trout  are  much  more 
abundant  than  white-fish. 


ABUNDANCE  OF  LAKI!  Tl.oUT.  495 

"On  the  Michigan  shore  of  Luke  Huron,  about  Thunder  Hay,  Lake  Trout  an-  very  uliuudaut 
in  August,  ami  cs|,eeially  about  Thunder  I'.a.v  Island,  whore  the  men  employed  ut  the  life  saving 
station  -ained  quite  a  revenue  by  fishing  for  them.  The  best  and  most  productive  grounds  in  this 
vicinity  are  near  Harrisonville  and  southward  along  the  coast  for  a  few  miles.  There  are  some 
fishing  grounds  north  of  North  Point  where  all  the  Trout  are  said  to  be  very  large.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Saginaw  Hay  they  are  abundant,  but  will  not  rank  commercially  higher  than  fourth  or  fifth. 
Not  many  are  taken  in  the  pounds  in  Saginaw  Bay,  but  the  deep-water  pounds,  especially  those 
about  the  Charity  Islands,  obtain  a  few.  In  April  few  fish  other  than  Trout  are  taken  in  the  gill- 
nets.  In  the  vicinity  of  Port  Huron  they  are  very  abundant,  and  it  is  the  prevailing  opinion 
among  the  fishermen  that  they  are  increasing  in  numbers,  more  being  taken  now  than  ever  before. 
Very  few  enter  the  Detroit  River.  In  the  western  part  of  Lake  Erie,  about  Toledo,  they  are 
exceedingly  rare,  and  unknown  to  many  of  the  fishermen  at  Port  Clinton.  No  instance  of  their 
capture  is  on  record,  and  at  Locust  Point  they  occur  only  very  rarely.  About  the  islands  off 
Sandusky  they  have  in  two  or  three  instances  been  captured,  and  at  the  other  fisheries  in  this 
vicinity  local  authorities  do  not  think  that  more  than  five  or  six  are  taken  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
About  Huron  and  Vermillion,  Ohio,  they  are  also  very  rare.  It  sometimes  happens  that  one  or  two 
are  taken  in  the  course  of  a  year's  fishing;  those  which  are  here  taken  are  always  small,  scrawny, 
and  sickly.  The  same  statements  are  made  concerning  Black  River  and  Cleveland.  Some  are 
taken  at  Cleveland,  but  never  more  than  three  or  four  in  a  year.  About  fourteen  years  ago  four 
were  taken  in  Browuhelm  Bay,  but  none  since.  They  have  never  been  taken  at  Black  River;  a  man 
who  has  fished  there  for  twenty-five  years  has  never  seen  one.  In  the  vicinity  of  Couneaut,  Ohio, 
a  few  are  occasionally  taken  in  the  spring.  At  Painesville,  Ohio,  they  are  rare.  In  1869  only  a 
single  specimen  was  taken,  and  in  1878  only  six.  The  wandering  gill-netters  who  fish  oft"  Paines- 
ville  sometimes  capture  a  few  in  deep  water.  The  only  locality  in  Lake  Erie  where  they  are 
at  all  abundant  is  at  Barcelona,  New  York,  where  there  is  said  to  be  an  extensive  spawning 
ground  five  or  six  miles  long,  and  about  three  miles  from  the  shore.  Some  years  ago  the  fisher- 
men used  to  load  their  boats  with  Trout,  sometimes  as  many  as  eighteen  hundred  pounds  of 
dressed  fish  being  taken  with  a  small  gang  of  nets.  At  Conneant  a  few  are  taken  in  the  spring. 
In  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie  they  are  caught  to  some  extent,  especially  in  the  very  deep  water 
off  Erie  Bay,  though  they  are  not  very  plentiful.  Off  Dunkirk  they  are  much  more  common,  and 
in  I860  a  specimen  four  and  one-half  feet  in  length,  weighing  seventy  pounds,  was  captured.  The 
fish  dealers  of  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  claim  that  the  Trout  here  taken  are  very  different  from  those 
of  Lake  Superior;  as  a  rule,  only  those  with  white  meat  are  found. 

"In  Lake  Ontario,  especially  in  its  eastern  portion,  about  Cape  Vincent,  they  are  very  abund- 
ant, and  in  the  headwaters  of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  as  far  down  as  Alexandria  Bay ;  they  enter  the 
river  only  in  winter  and  for  the  purpose  of  feeding.  In  abundance  they  rank  far  below  the  white- 
fish,  three  times  as  many  white-fish  as  Trout  being  usually  taken.  In  Chaumont  Bay  they  are 
becoming  less  common,  and  at  the  present  time  are  not  very  abundant,  ranking  sixth  in  importance, 
while  at  Cape  Vincent  they  are  third.  The  Trout  handled  at  Chaumont  are  almost  entirely  from 
Canada,  and  the  dealers  do  not  depend  upon  the  supply  from  American  waters.  At  Oswego  they 
are  caught  in  the  lake,  though  not  entering  the  Oswego  River.  They  are  not  plentiful  at  Port 
Ontario,  although  they  have  been  in  some  seasons  past.  Since  alewives  came  few  Trout  have  been 
caught.  The  alewives  are  now  so  abundant  that  the  Trout  do  not  come  near  the  shore  to  seek  for 
food.  In  1860  thirteen  hundred  pounds  were  caught  in  one  night  on  five  hundred  hooks." 


496  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  SISOOWET — SALVELINUS  NAMAYCUSH  VAR.  SISCOWET. 

The  Siscowet,  or  "Siskawite,"  is  a  form  of  Lake  Trout  which,  according  to  many  authorities, 
is  a  distinct  species,  and  which  has  been  observed  only  in  Lake  Superior.  Having  never  seen  the 
fish  in  a  fresh  condition,  I  cannot  express  an  opinion  as  to  its  distinctness  from  the  Lake  Trout,  but 
good  ichthyologists  assure  me  that  its  peculiarities  are  very  slight,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  smaller 
size  of  the  head,  teeth,  and  fins,  and  in  its  having  a  stouter  body.  Since,  however,  it  is  always 
distinguished  from  the  Lake  Trout  by  the  Indians  and  fishermen  of  Lake  Superior,  who  often  see 
them  side  by  side,  it  seems  possible  that  it  may  claim  a  sub-specific  rank.  It  was  first  described 
in  1850,  in  Agassiz's  "Lake  Superior,"1  under  the  name  Salmo  siscowet.  Herbert,  in  his  "Fish  and 
Fishing,"  p.  17,  gives  the  following  description  of  its  peculiarities : 

"This  fish,  like  the  former  species,  came  frequently  under  my  eye  during  my  late  northern 
tour;  and  I  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  a  barrel  of  him  in  his  pickled  state,  which  I  procured  at 
the  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  on  the  strength  of  which  I  can  recommend  him  to  all  lovers  of  good  eating 
as  the  very  best  salt  fish  that  exists  in  the  world.  He  is  so  fat  and  rich  that  when  eaten  fresh  he 
is  unsufferably  rank  and  oily,  but  when  salted  and  broiled,  after  being  steeped  for  forty-eight 
hours  in  cold  water,  he  is  not  surpassed  or  equaled  by  any  fish  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  Since 
my  return  he  has  been  tasted  by  very  many  gentlemen  of  my  acquaintance,  and  by  no  one  of  them 
has  he  been  pronounced  anything  less  than  superlative.  His  habits  closely  resemble  those  of  the 
'Namaycush,'  and,  like  him,  I  cannot  learn  that  he  ever  takes  the  fly  or  is  ever  taken  by  trolling. 
I  do  not,  however,  believe  that  either  of  these  methods  is  often  resorted  to  for  his  capture, 
although  there  are  many  scientific  fly-fishers  about  the  Sault,  and  the  Brook  Trout  of  those  waters 
are  principally  taken  with  large  and  gaudy  lake-flies.  The  average  weight  of  the  'Siskawitz'  does 
not  exceed  four  or  five  pounds,  though  he  is  taken  up  to  seventeen.  His  excellence  is  so  perfectly 
understood  and  acknowledged  in  the  lake  country  that  he  fetches  double  the  price  per  barrel  of 
his  coarser  big  brother,  the  'Namaycush';  and  he  is  so  greedily  sought  for  there  that  it  is  difficult 
to  procure  him,  even  at  Detroit,  and  impossible  almost  at  Buffalo." 

Milner  states  that  the  Siscowet  lives  at  depths  greater  than  forty  fathoms,  and  feeds  chiefly 
upon  a  species  of  fresh-water  sculpin.  It  spawns  in  September  in  deep  water.  The  average  size  is 
about  four  and  one-half  pounds.  Two  five-pound  fish  yielded  respectively  2,796  and  3,120  eggs. 
This  species,  like  the  Lake  Trout,  is  for  the  most  part  taken  in  gill-nets. 

Mr.  George  Barnston,  of  Montreal,  Canada,  formerly  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  who  made 
an  extensive  natural-history  collection  on  Lake  Superior,  claims  that  there  is  a  third  species  of 
Lake  Trout,  different  from  the  Siscowet,  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  called  the  "Mucqua" 
or  "Bear  Trout." 

Mr.  Robert  Ormsby  Sweeny,  chairman  of  the  Minnesota  fish  commission,  in  a  letter  dated 
Saint  Paul,  Minnesota,  October  19,  1880,  conveys  the  following  information  concerning  the  Sisco- 
wet, which  is  more  precise  and  comprehensive  than  anything  hitherto  published: 

"I  have  not  only  examined  the  Siskowet  carefully  myself  and  compared  them  with  Agassiz's 
formulas,  but  asked  and  consulted  with  traders,  voyagers,  Indians  and  half-bloods,  and  fishermen, 
in  regard  to  their  habits,  size,  color,  weight,  etc.,  and  all  come  to  the  same  conclusion.  They  are 
not  possibly  a  'Namaycush'  and  should  never  be  considered  the  same  fish.  The  name  'Sis-ko-wet' 
is  an  Ojibewa  word,  and  means  literally  'cooks  itself.'  It  is  so  fat  that  you  can  set  fire  to  it  and 
cook  it  by  itself.  The  fish  when  fresh  is  most  deliciously  rich,  tasting  like  the  belly  of  a  mackerel, 
.UK!  with  salt  and  potatoes  to  the  hungry  fisherman  or  hunter  is  a  complete  menu.  The  'Namay- 

•P.  333,  plate  1,  fig.  3. 


SWKF.NY  ON  TIII:  siscoxvKT.  497 

r  is  dry  and  lacks  delicacy,  and  cannot  be  even  fried  without  pork  fat  or  lard.  Some  years 
ago  1  spent  a  winter  at  tin-  head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  our  diet  most  of  the  time  was  fish  and  pota- 
toes; only  twice  din-inn  the  winter  did  we  have  fresh  beef.  At  almost  every  meal  and  every  day 
we  had  lish  in  some  of  its  numberless  styles  of  preparation,  and  you  may  be  sure  1  became  <|iiito 
familiar  not  only  with  the  taste,  but  the  appearance  of  both  Namayeusli  and  Siseowet.  As  an 
edible  flish)  the  two  are  no  nearer  alike  than  fresh  mackerel  and  sucker,  but,  of  course,  that  would 
not  be  conclusive  if  ihere  were  no  other  differences. 

"The  amateur  is  likely  to  confound  the  Namayeusli  with  the  Siseowet,  but  when  the  differences 
are  once  pointed  out,  no  confusion  of  the  two  again  arises.  The  fishermen  recognize  them  before 
taken  from  the  water  when  hauling  in  the  nets;  even  the  Indian  children  know  them  at  a  glance. 
The  head  of  the  Siseowet  is  shorter  and  broader  in  proportion,  eyes  nearer  the  end  of  nose  and  are 
«  ider  apart;  the  whole  osseous  structure  of  the  head  lighter,  more  delicate  and  flexible,  particularly 
the  sub  niaxilliiries,  which  in  the  Namayeusli  are  heavy,  rigid,  and  rounded.  I  intended  to  send  you 
some  Namayeusli  heads  for  comparison,  but  all  of  those  procurable  have  had  tongues  and  gills 
removed,  so  that  the  heads  are  in  consequence  unnaturally  compressed  and  their  characteristic 
appearance  altered.  The  only  variation  from  Agassiz's  description  that  I  find  is  in  the  lingual 
teeth;  sometimes  there  is  a  furrow  or  a  groove  in  the  tongue,  and  between  the  'pair  of  lateral 
rows'  a  V-shaped  row  is  found,  but  this  is  so  inconstant  in  occurrence  as  to  be  the  exception.  The 
coloring  varies  in  different  specimens  considerably,  according  to  locality  from  whence  taken.  The 
spots  or  markings  are  unlike  those  of  the  Namaycush,  more  even  in  size  and  shape,  and  more 
decided  and  stronger  in  color,  and  I  can  clearly  see  in  some  specimens  that  the  spots  are  compound  or 
an  indistinct  quincunx  arrangement.  The  Nauiaycush  spawn  only  in  the  fall,  beginning  in  October. 
We  have  just  taken  half  a  million  eggs.  The  Siscowet,  I  am  told  by  the  fishermen  and  Indians, 
are  always  spawning,  or  that  ripe  females  are  taken  at  all  times  of  the  year.  At  first  I  thought  this 
an  exaggeration,  but  I  find  it  so  very  universally  reported  and  by  reliable  men  that  I  give  it 
credence.  They  are  very  rarely  found  at  the  lower  parts  of  the  lake.  They  begin  to  be  more 
plentiful  as  La  Pointe  is  reached  and  most  plentiful  along  the  north  shores  and  Isle  Koyale,  but 
still  they  are  a  rare  tish,  comparatively.  If  one  barrel  of  Siscowet  to  fifteen  Namayeusli  are  caught, 
they  are  said  to  be  very  abundant.  They  are  so  much  prized  that  they  bring  a  higher  price,  and 
it  is  rare  that  we  get  them  here  unless  in  winter  time,  when  they  are  frozen  and  brought  down 
fresh.  A  peculiarity  I  have  noticed  is,  in  winter  when  pulled  out  on  the  ice  they  puff  up  like  a 
pouter  pigeon  full  of  air  around  the  pectoral  region,  and  when  frozen  can  be  instantly  distinguished 
at  a  glance.  They  rarely  exceed  thirty  pounds  in  weight  and  thirty  six  inches  in  length,  I  am  told 
by  those  very  familiar  with  the  fishes  of  the  lake.  On  the  same  authority  1  learn  that  Namaycush 
reach  ninety  pounds'  weight  and  six  feet  in  length  sometimes.  I  have  just  had  a  talk  with  a  man 
from  the  lake,  and  he  says  this  season  they  are  catching  about  five  Siscowet  to  the  one  hundred 
Namayeusli  only.  Another  fact:  Siscowet  are  never  caught  alone,  but  always  among  Nainaycnsh; 
but  sometimes  no  Siscowet  are  seen  or  caught  for  weeks,  and  then  they  appear  and  disappear 
without  disturbing  the  movements  of  Namaycush.  You  will  find  it  impossible  to  keep  Siscowet  in 
alcohol,  but  I  think  the  camphor  water  and  glycerine  will  do  it.  I  have  succeeded  with  salmon 
thus,  although  in  alcohol  they  fall  to  pieces  as  if  they  had  been  boiled." 

164.  THE  SPECKLED  TROUT— SALVELINUS  FONTINALIS. 

The  following  chapter  is  a  reprint  of  Mr.  (mode's  essa\  upon  the  Speckled  Trout,  in  Scribner's 
"Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States": 

The  Speckled  Trout  must  have  been  discovered  at  a  very  early  day  by  the  first  settlers  of 
32  P 


498  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

North  America,  yet,  strangely  enough,  the  only  allusion  to  it  in  colonial  times  is  in  the  'Remon- 
strance of  New  Netherlaud,'  addressed  by  that  colony  to  the  States  General  in  1049.  It  was  first 
brought  before  the  world  of  science  in  1814,  when  Professor  Mitchill  named  it  Salnw  fontinalis,  a 
name  which  lias  become  almost  classical,  and  will  be  regretfully  set  aside  lor  the  more  recent  one, 
SaJrelinus  fontinalis. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  Speckled  Trout  has  its  home  between  latitudes  32£°  and  55°,  in  the  lakes 
and  streams  of  the  Atlantic  watershed,  near  the  sources  of  a  few  rivers  flowing  into  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  affluents  of  Hudson's  Bay.  Its  range  is  limited 
by  the  western  foothills  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  nowhere  extends  inore  than  three  hundred  miles 
from  the  coast,  except  about  the  Great  Lakes,  in  the  northern  tributaries  of  which  Trout  abound. 
At  the  south  they  inhabit  the  headwaters  of  the  Chattahoochee,  in  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Georgia 
Alleghanies,  and  tributaries  of  the  Catawba  in  North  Carolina.  They  also  occur  in  the  great 
islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence — Anficosti,  Prince  Edward's,  Cape  Breton,  and  Newfound- 
land. Temperature  is  of  course  the  chief  factor  in  determining  the  distribution  of  the  species,  and 
since  few  observations  have  been  made  in  the  field,  our  conclusions  must  needs  rest  on  a  study  of 
the  species  in  domestication,  an  instructive  though  not  entirely  reliable  method.  The  experience 
of  Messrs.  Green,  Stone,  and  Ainsworth,  indicates  that  Trout  cannot  thrive  in  water  warmer  than 
68°  Fahrenheit,  though  they  have  been  known  to  live  in  swift-running  water  at  75°.  Fishes  hatched 
in  artificial  ponds  may  probably  be  inured  to  greater  warmth  than  wild  fishes  can  endure,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  latter  are  often  found  in  water  warmer  than  60°  or  65°.  At  the  Oquossoc 
and  Cold  Spring  hatching  establishments  the  water  ranges  from  45°  to  49°  throughout  the  year. 
Below  30°  Trout  are  torpid  and  refuse  to  feed,  and  instances  are  on  record  of  their  reviving  after 
being  frozen  stiff'.  The  remarkable  variations  in  the  habits  of  Trout  in  different  regions  are  easier 
to  understand  in  the  light  of  these  facts.  The  identity  of  the  Canadian  Sea  Trout  and  the  Brook 
Trout  is  still  denied  by  many,  though  the  decision  of  competent  authorities  has  settled  the  question 
beyond  doubt.  This  being  admitted,  let  us  compare  the  habits  of  the  Sea  Trout  and  the  Salmon. 
Both  inhabit  the  ocean  a  part  of  the  year;  both  ascend  rivers  to  spawn;  both  change  their  sea- 
garb  of  silvery  gray  for  the  gorgeous  crimsons,  purples,  and  bronzes  of  the  pairing  season.  Some 
Salmon,  detained  by  barriers  or  by  their  own  preference,  become  permanent  denizens  of  fresh 
water,  where  they  reproduce  their  kind,  relinquishing  their  gray  coloration,  and  assuming  a  brighter 
dress  peculiar  to  themselves.  Does  not  the  analogy  still  hold  out,  and  do  not  our  Brook  Trout 
correspond  with  the  Land-locked  Salmon?  In  the  Long  Island  region  Trout  live  in  salt  water  in 
the  coldest  mouths,  when  its  temperature  is  below  50°.  North  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  at  the 
entrance  to  which  the  water  barely  registers  50°  in  midsummer,  they  inhabit  the  ocean  abundantly, 
except  at  the  spawning  time.  South  of  New  York  the  coast  reaches  of  the  rivers  appear  to  present 
a  barrier  of  warm  water  which  the  Salmon  do  not  seek  to  penetrate  from  without,  and  which 
immures  the  Trout  in  their  homes  in  the  hill  country  as  closely  as  would  a  mountain  wall. 

When  Trout  have  no  access  to  the  sea  they  still  contrive  to  avoid  a  change  of  temperature 
with  the  seasons.  In  midsummer  they  lie  in  the  bottoms  of  lakes  cooled  by  springs,  in  the  chan- 
nels of  streams,  or  in  deep  pools,  hirking  behind  rocks  and  among  roots.  In  spring  and  early 
summer  they  feed  industriously  among  the  rapids.  At  the  approach  of  cold  weather  in  autumn 
they  hasten  to  the  clear  shallow  water  near  the  heads  of  the  streamlets.  It  is  at  this  time  that 
they  deposit  their  eggs  in  little  nests  in  the  gravel  which  the  mother-fish  have  shaped  with  careful 
industry,  fanning  out  the  finer  particles  with  their  tails,  and  carrying  the  large  ones  in  their 
mouths.  After  the  eggs  are  laid,  the  parent  fish  covers  them  with  gravel,  and  proceeds  to  exca- 
vate another  neat.  The  same  nests  are  said  to  be  revisited  by  the  schools  year  after  year. 


SPAWNING  OF  THE  BROOK  TROUT.  499 

SPAWNING  IIAIUTS. — Of  tin-  Trout  Mr.  Milncr  writes:  "His  whole  wooing  is  the  most 
polite  attention  ;m<l  the  gentlest  of  persuasions.  Ho  moves  continually  to  and  fro  before  his  mate, 
parading  his  bright  colors,  while  she  rests  quietly,  with  her  head  up  stream,  vibrating  her  flns 
just  sullicicutly  to  keep  her  from  floating  down.  At  Waterville,  Wisconsin,  1  had  the  opportunity 
of  watching  their  habits.  A  pair  of  large  Trout  had  selected  a  spot  near  the  bank  of  the  stream, 
where  the  water  was  about  ten  inches  deep.  The  female  had  fanned  the  gravel  with  her  tail  and 
anal  lin  until  it  was  clivm  and  white,  and  had  succeeded  in  excavating  a  cavity.  They  were  fright- 
ened away  as  1  came  to  the  edge  of  the  bank.  Concealing  myself  behind  a  willow  bush,  1  watched 
their  movements.  The  male  returned  first,  reconnoitering  the  vicinity,  and,  satisfying  himself 
that  the  coast  was  clear.  s|>ent  a  half  hour  in  endeavoring  to  coax  the  female  to  enter  the  nest. 
She,  resting  half  concealed  in  the  weeds,  a  few  feet  away,  seemed  unwilling  to  be  convinced  that 
the  danger  was  gone;  and  he,  in  his  full,  bright  colors,  sailed  backward  and  forward  from  the  nest 
to  his  mate,  rubbing  himself  against  her,  and  swimming  off  again  in  a  wide  circle  close  along  the 
bank,  as  if  to  show  her  how  far  he  could  venture  without  finding  danger.  She  finally  entered  the 
nest." 

The  spawning  season  begins  iu  New  England  in  October,  continuing  from  three  to  six 
months,  ami  during  this  peiiod  the  fish  should  be  protected  by  stringent  laws.  Mr.  Livingston 
Stone  observed  that  in  his  |M)nds  at  Charlestown,  New  Hampshire,  spawning  began  October  12, 
and  ended  early  in  December;  at  Seth  Green's  establishment,  near  Rochester,  New  York,  it  began 
on  the  same  day,  and  continued  until  March.  At  the  former  station  spring  water,  with  a  uniform 
temperature  of  47°,  was  in  use,  while  at  Caledonia  the  eggs  were  kept  in  brook  water,  which  is 
colder  in  midwinter,  retarding  development. 

Tront  eggs  are  usually  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  although  varying  greatly,  and 
are  colorless,  red,  or  orange-lined.  The  quantity  yielded  by  a  fish  is  in  direct  proportion  to  its 
size,  the  average  being  from  tour  to  six  hundred.  Mr.  Stone  took  sixty  from  a  half-ounce  fish,  and 
eighteen  hundred  from  one  which  weighed  a  pound.  The  eggs  having  been  laid,  their  time  of 
development  depends  strictly  on  the  temperature  of  the  water.  According  to  Mr.  Ainsworth,  they 
will  hatch  in  one  hundred  and  sixty  five  days  with  the  mercury  at  37°,  one  hundred  and  three  at 
41°,  eighty-one  at  44°,  fifty-six  at  48°,  forty-seven  at  50°,  thirty-two  at  54°,  etc.  Seth  Green's  rule 
is  that  at  50°  they  hatch  in  fifty  days,  every  degree  warmer  or  colder  making  a  difference  of  five 
days.  After  the  eggs  are  batched  the  yolk  sac  is  absorbed  in  from  thirty  to  eighty  days,  and  the 
young  fish  begin  to  lead  an  independent  life.  Now  the  rate  of  growth  is  determined  by  the  amount 
of  food  consumed.  Some  two-year-old  fish  weigh  a  pound,  some  half  an  ounce,  as  Mr.  Stone's 
experiments  show.  In  domestication  growth  is  more  even.  Mr.  Ainswortli's  estimate  allows  an 
average  of  two  ounces  for  yearlings,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  for  two-year-olds,  half  a  pound  for  three- 
year-olds,  and  a  pound  for  four-year-olds.  Wild  fish  often  grow  much  faster.  One  of  a  large 
number  of  Rangely  Trout,  tagged  by  Mr.  George  Shepard  Page  in  1871,  and  caught  in  1873,  was 
found  to  have  grown  in  two  years  from  half  a  pound  to  two  pounds  and  one-quarter.  All  two- 
year-old  Trout  and  some  yearlings  can  reproduce  their  kind. 

SIZE. — The  sixe  attained  varies  in  different  regions.  Brook  Trout  seldom  exceed  two  or 
three  jtonnds,  and  a  five-pounder  is  thought  a  monster.  Saint  Lawrence  Sea  Trout  usually  weigh 
two  and  one-half  pounds,  though  they  are  not  seldom  caught  weighing  six  or  eight.  A  famous, 
locality  for  large  tisli  is  the  headwaters  of  the  Androscoggin  Kiver  in  North  western  .Maine.  Pro- 
fessor Agassiz  in  1860  obtained  one  of  them  which  weighed  eleven  pounds.  The  well-known  speci- 
men taken  by  Mr.  George  Shepard  Page  in  1867,  in  Rangely  Lake,  weighed  ten  jtounds  after  three 


500  NATURAL  HISTOUV  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

days'  captivity,  and  was  thought  by  experts  to  have  los'  a  pound  and  a  hall'  in  transit  from  Mimic 
to  New  Jersey,  where  it  died.  Its  length  w;is  thirty  inches,  and  its  circumference  eighteen. 
Another,  from  Mooselncmaguntic,  weighed  eight  and  one-half  pounds,  and  measured  twenty -live 
inches.  The  Nepigon  River  claims  still  heavier  fish.  Ilallock  mentions  one  said  to  have  weighed 
seventeen  pounds. 

VARIATION.— There  are  many  local  races  of  Trout;  the  same  stream  often  contains  dissimilar 
forms,  and  those  bred  in  different  hatcheries  may  easily  be  distinguished.  Whoever  has  seen  the 
display  ut  the  April  opening  of  the  trout  season  at  Mr.  Blaekford's,  in  Fulton  Market,  New  York, 
can  understand  the  jKtssibility  of  almost  infinite  variety  in  form  and  tint  within  the  limits  of  one 
species.  Fish  inhabiting  swift  streams  have  lithe,  trim  bodies  and  long,  powerful  tins;  those  in 
quiet  lakes  are  stout,  short  finned,  and  often  overgrown.  In  cool,  limpid  brooks,  with  sunlight, 
much  oxygen,  and  stimulating  food,  their  skins  are  transparent  and  their  hues  vivid;  in  dark,  slug- 
gish pools  they  are  somber  and  slimy,  and  are  called  "  Black  Trout."  Agassiz  noticed  that  those  of 
the  same  river  varied  accordingly  as  they  haunted  its  sunny  or  shady  side.  They  have  the  power 
of  changing  their  tint  at  will.  The  influence  of  the  nerves  over  color  was  neatly  demonstrated  by 
M.  Pouchet,  who  produced  a  white  side  in  a  Trout  by  destroying  the  eye  of  that  side.  In  the  sea, 
for  reasons  unexplained,  both  Trout  and  Salmon  lose  their  gay  colors  and  become  uniform  silvery 
gray,  with  black  spots.  In  the  sea,  too,  the  flesh  assumes  a  reddish  color,  due  no  doubt  to  the 
absorption  of  the  pigments  of  crabs  an.!  shrimps  eaten  by  the  fish,  lied  flesh  is  also  found  in 
-nine  inland  races. 

CHARACTERISTICS. — Our  Trout  are  strong  feeders,  but  are  dainty  rather  than  greedy.  They 
•consume  moderate  quantities  of  food,  and  it  suits  their  capricious  appetites  to  seize  their  prey 
while  living.  They  take  objects  at  the  surface  with  an  upward  leap  instead  of  downward  from 
above  like  the  Salmon.  Of  all  foods  they  prefer  the  worms  washed  out  of  the  bank,  then  gayly 
colored  flies,  water  insects,  little  fishes,  larva;,  and  the  eggs  of  fishes.  Those  in  domestication  are 
usually  fed  on  the  heart,  liver,  and  lungs  of  animals  killed  for  the  market. 

Their  daintiness,  shyness,  cunning,  and  mettle  render  them  favorites  of  tlie  angler,  who  lures 
them  into  his  creel  by  many  sly  devices.  The  most  skillful  fisherman  is  he  who  places  before  them 
least  obtrusively  the  bait  which  their  momentary  whims  demand,  or  a  clever  imitation  thereof. 
Trout  are  always  in  season  from  April  to  August,  and  in  some  States  for  a  longer  period. 

CULTURE. — They  have  always  been  the  pets  of  fish-culturists;  indeed,  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
•Garlick  and  Professor  Ackley,  who  inaugurated  in  1853  the  practice  of  this  art  in  America,  were 
made  with  this  fish.  They  become  thoroughly  domesticated,  and  are  as  much  under  the  control 
•of  their  owner  as  his  horses  and  cattle.  They  have  been  acclimatized  in  England  since  1808,  and 
are  always  on  exhibition  in  Frank  Buckland's  museum  of  fish-culture  at  South  Kensington.  The 
•"Domesticated  Trout,"  by  Livingston  Stone,  and  "Trout  Culture,"  by  Seth  Green,  are  books  which 
give  full  information  concerning  the  practical  details  of  trout-breeding. 

The  Trout  can  scarcely  be  considered  a  market  fish;  still,  about  five  thousand  pounds  of 
them,  mostly  domesticated,  are  brought  to  New  York  market  each  year,  principally  in  April  and 
May. 

165.  THE  SAIBLING,  OK  BAVARIAN  CHAR— SALVELINUS  ALPINUS. 

Like  the  Red-spotted  Trout  of  North  America,  the  Saibling  belongs  to  the  division  of  the  same 
family  known  to  the  English  as  "Chars,"  a  group  confined,  for  the  most  part,  to  fresh- water  lakes 
and  streams,  and  distinguished  from  the  true  Salmons  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  teeth  on  the 


THE  SAll'.UXG.  501 

little  triangular  bone  in  the  roof  of  tbu  mouth  known  to  anatomists  ns  the  "  vomer,"  from  its 
resemblance,  in  shape  to  a  plow^li.nr. 

The  Chars  are  also  distinguished  from  the  Salmon  by  their  very  small  scales,  ami  usually  by 
numerous  crimson  or  orange  colored  spots,  which  are  especially  conspicuous  in  the  breeding  season. 
The  Saibling  is,  in  its  habits,  perhaps  more  similar  to  the  well-known  Blue-backed  Trout  or  Oquasrn 
Trout  of  Kangely  Lake,  Maine,  than  to  our  Brook  Trout.  The  Chars  of  Kurope  are,  as  a  rule,  lake 
tishes  like  the  Saibling.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Chars  of  North  America  are  usually  found  in 
streams  and  rivers,  although  the  Oquassa  Trout,  just  mentioned,  and  the  Lake  or  Mackinaw  Trout, 
which  is  apparently  nothing  but  a  giant  Char,  together  with  the  closely  related  form  the  "Sisco- 
wef,"  resemble  in  their  habits  the  Chars  of  Kurope. 

VARIATION. — There  is  probably  no  group  of  lishes  in  which  individual  specimens  and  commu- 
nities inhabiting  certain  areas  of  water  show  more  tendency  to  variation  in  color  and  form  than  they 
do  in  the  salmon  family.  Dr.  Giinther  has  very  justly  remarked:  "We  know  of  no  other  group  of 
tishes  which  otters  so  many  difficulties  to  the  ichthyologist  with  regard  to  the  distinction  of  the 
species  as  well  as  to  certain  points  in  their  life-history.  Although  this  may  be  partly  due  to  the 
unusual  attention  which  has  been  given  to  their  study,  it  has  revealed  rather  a  greater  amount  of 
unexplained  fact  than  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  questions  raised.  The  almost  infinite  varia- 
tions of  these  tishes  are  dependent  upon  the  age,  sex,  and  sexual  development,  food,  and  the 
properties  of  the  water." 

No  one  who  has  ever  sevu  the  remarkable  display  of  Brook  Trout  at  the  annual  trout  opening 
at  Blackford's  in  New  York  can  fail  to  have  been  impressed  by  the  wonderful  d  i  tie  re  i  ices  which 
exist  between  individuals  of  the  same  species  from  different  localities — differences  which  lead  an 
untrained  observer,  or  even  an  ichthyologist  who  has  had  no  experience  in  the  study  of  this  group-, 
to  decide  at  once  that  several  species  were  represented  among  the  hundreds  of  specimens  lying  OD 
the  marble  slabs. 

The  tendency  of  modern  ichthyology,  with  its  more  exact  methods,  and  with  access  to 
better  and  more  comprehensive  material  for  research  than  was  formerly  available,  has  led  to  the 
rejection  of  many  of  the  nominal  species  formerly  recognized.  Out  of  the  forty-three  species  of 
Salmon  ten  years  ago  l>elieved  to  exist  in  North  America,  only  thirteen  or  fourteen  are  now 
recognized.  In  Giinther s  catalogue  of  "The  Fishes  in  the  British  Museum,"  published  in  18M, 
thirty-one  species  of  Chars  were  mentioned,  while  in  his  lately  published  "Study  of  Fishes"  the 
same  author  ventures  to  enumerate  only  thirteen,  all  others  being  regarded  as  insufficiently 
characterized.  In  his  treatment  of  the  Chars  of  Europe,  Giinther  is,  notwithstanding,  one  of 
the  most  conservative  writers,  for  he  catalogues  eight  species  of  these  fish,  while  most  other 
European  students,  following  the  lead  of  the  great  German  ichthyologist,  von  Siebold,  regarded 
them  as  members  of  one  polymorphic  species.  As  for  American  ichthyologists,  our  sympathies  are 
naturally  with  the  school  of  vou  Siebold.  It  is  difficult  to  believe,  in  the  light  of  our  own  obser- 
vations upon  the  salmon  family  in  America,  that  every  little  lake  or  group  of  lakes  in  Europe 
possesses  a  well-characterized  species  of  tish,  and  for  the  present  it  seems  safer  to  consider  the 
Chars  of  Europe  to  be  of  a  single  well-marked  species  which  undergoes  numerous  variations 
under  the  influence  of  changes  in  temperature,  elevation,  fowl,  and  light,  and  that  the  Saibling  of 
Bavaria  and  Austria  is  one  and  the  same  thing  with  the  "Ombre  Chevalier"  of  France  and 
Switzerland,  "Salmarino"  of  Northern  Italy,  the  "Torgoch"  of  Wales,  the  fresh-water  "Herring" 
of  Ireland,  the  "Char"  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  "Roding"  of  Sweden,  and  the  "Kulmund" 
of  Norway. 


502  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

DISTRIBUTION. — This  fish,  whether  it  be  regarded  as  a  single  species  or  several  related  species, 
is  distributed  over  all  of  Northwestern  Europe,  aud  possibly  also  over  a  portion  of  Asia,  although, 
since  the  Asiatic  representatives  of  the  genus  have  not  been  sufficiently  studied,  it  is  impossible 
yet  to  make  this  generalization.  They  are,  emphatically,  cold-water  fishes,  thriving  at  a  temper- 
ature little  above  the  freezing  point,  and  in  their  period  of  greatest  vigor  and  perfection  at  the 
approach  of  winter,  as  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  at  this  time  their  spawning  takes  place. 
No  fish  of  any  kind  has  ever  been  found  nearer  to  the  North  Pole  than  the  Char,  a  species,  Salve- 
linu*  (/returns,  having  been  discovered  by  the  last  English  polar  expedition  in  12°  north  of  the 
Arctic  Circle.  In  the  south  of  Europe  its  range  is  limited  by  the  Alps,  and  in  this  region  its  study 
has  brought  to  light  a  very  curious  fact  which  confirms  still  more  strongly  the  idea  just  spoken  of, 
that  the  fish  thrive  the  best  in  a  very  cold  climate.  In  the  extreme  north  and  in  the  extreme  south 
this  fish  reaches  its  greatest  perfection.  The  northern  species,  found  everywhere  in  the  lakes  of 
the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  and  Scotland,  is  a  fish  sometimes,  it  is  said,  attaining  a  length  of  four 
feet.  In  England  and  France  and  in  the  lower  lakes  of  Switzerland  it  is  comparatively  insignifi- 
cant, while  in  the  deep,  cold  Alpine  lakes  it  often  grows  to  two  feet  or  more  in  length,  and 
weigh  ten  or  twelve,  and  even,  in  exceptional  cases,  twenty-four  pounds.  The  highest  development, 
however,  seems  to  be  attained  in  the  largest  lakes — like  that  of  Geneva — while  in  the  shallower 
lakes,  higher  up  among  the  mountains,  they  are  smaller.  A  similar  phenomenon  is  exhibited  by 
certain  sub-arctic  plants,  which  thrive  in  the  extreme  north  and  upon  the  summits  of  the  Alps, 
becoming  dwarfed  or  almost  extinct  in  the  lowlands  between. 

It  is  interesting,  too,  to  compare  the  effect  of  temperature,  and  secondarily  of  elevation,  upon 
the  Saibling  and  upon  our  own  Red-spotted  Trout.  This  species  has  its  home  between  latitude  32J° 
and  55°.  in  the  lakes  and  streams  of  the  Atlantic  watershed,  in  the  mountain  sources  of  a  few 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  affluents  of 
Hudson's  Bay.  In  the  north,  for  instance  in  the  valley  of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  it  is  common  in  the 
lowland  streams  and  estuaries,  and  even  in  the  adjoining  parts  of  the  ocean,  and  here  it  attains 
its  greatest  development.  As  we  proceed  farther  south,  in  accordance  with  the  limitations  of 
temperature,  its  range  becomes  more  restricted,  aud  in  Southern  New  England  it  is  only  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year — at  the  approach  of  winter — that  they  find  their  way  into  the  lowland  streams 
•which  are  in  summer  too  warm  to  be  endurable,  aud  at  other  times  they  are  found  near  their 
sources  among  the  hills.  On  Long  Island,  however,  they  are  still  found  in  the  meadows,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  estuaries.  Passing  to  the  southward  of  New  York,  the  natural  southern  limit  of  the 
Salmon,  the  range  of  the  Trout  becomes  more  and  more  restricted  to  the  highlands:  and  although 
they  are  found  as  far  south  as  latitude  32°,  in  the  western  districts  of  the  Carolinas  and  the  extreme 
northern  part  of  Georgia,  they  there  occur  only  at  great  elevations  among  the  mountains  of  the 
Alleghany  chain.  South  of  New  York  they  are  effectually  land  locked  by  the  prevailing  high 
temperature  of  the  lowland  streams,  and  are  never  able  to  gain  access  to  salt  or  brackish  water. 
Their  supply  of  food  is,  consequently,  limited,  and  they  are  coufined  to  brooklets  among  the  mount- 
ains. Although  the  temperature  of  this  region  is  usually  very  favorable,  other  requisites  for  high 
development  are  lacking,  and  the  species  is  represented  throughout  the  southern  part  of  its  range 
by  diminutive  individuals.  A  similar  phenomenon  is  met  with  in  those  instances  where  the  Euro- 
pean Char  exists  in  the  high  and  comparatively  shallow  mountain  lakes  of  the  Swiss  and  Austrian 
Alps. 

In  the  southern  part  of  its  habitat  the  American  Brook  Trout  finds  its  environment  unfavor- 
able to  ite  perfect  development ;  on  the  other  baud,  the  European  Char  meets,  in  the  Alpine 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  CHARS.  ;,().', 

lakes,  conditions  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  lakes  of  Norway  and  of  Scotland,  and  under 
these,  favorable  conditions  has  survived  in  a  state  of  great  perfection. 

We  have  in  the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America  a  fish  closely  allied  to  the  Chars,  which,  under 
remarkably  favorable  circumstances,  with  plenty  of  room  and  an  immense  supply  of  rich  and  easily 
attainable  food,  has  developed  into  one  of  great  size  and  commercial  importance,  the  Lake  Trout, 
and  its  cousin,  the  Siscowet. 

RELATIONSHIPS. — The  various  Lake  Trouts  of  Maim-  and  Eastern  Canada,  found  in  the 
smaller  lakes  of  those  regions,  are  very  similar  to  the  European  Char.  The  American  species 
which,  however,  bears  the  closest  resem  lance  to  the  European  Char  is,  as  has  been  stated,  the 
Blue-backed  Trout,  or  Oquassa  Trout,  of  Rangely  Lake,  the  Red  spotted  Trout  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
Salreliniu  malma,  known  also  as  the  "  Dolly  Vanlen,"  being  very  similar  in  habits  to  the  Brook 
Trouts  of  the  East. 

The  resemblances  between  the  Saibling  and  the  Oquassa  are  as  follows : 

1.  They  inhabit  the  deepest  waters  of  their  lake  home,  and  are  never  seen  except  at  their 
spawning  season. 

2.  They  spawn  late  in  the  fall. 

3.  At  the  spawning  season  they  come  into  shallow  water  near  the  shores,  or  in  the  mouths 
of  streams,  and  may  be  taken  with  the  greatest  of  ease. 

4.  They  never  willingly  inhabit  streams  of  running  water. 

These  peculiarities  the  two  species  have  in  common,  and,  excepting  the  habit  of  autumn 
spawning,  they  share  them  with  no  other  members  of  the  family.  The  Saibling,  howevur,  is  a 
much  larger  and  finer  species  than  the  Oquassa,  and  it  is  hoped  that  it  may  be  adapted  for 
cultivation  in  many  of  the  smaller  lakes  in  which  our  Great  Lake  Trout  is  ndt  likely  to  thrive. 
It  is  regarded  as  a  very  excellent  food-fish,  and  is  doubtless  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  the  Lake 
Trout,  sharing  most  of  the  excellent  qualities  of  the  Brook  Trout. 

HABITS. — The  Saibling,  which  through  the  courtesy  of  the  German  Government  is  now  being 
introduced  into  the  United  States,  is  the  European  Char  in  its  highest  state  of  perfection.  The 
following  account  of  its  habits  is  translated  from  a  sketch  by  Dr.  Wittmack,  of  Berlin : 

"  The  Saibling  varies  much  in  form,  size,  and  color,  according  to  its  age,  sex,  and  habitat. 
'Jhose  which  come  from  the  highest  Alpine  lakes  are  always  small,  but  those  in  the  lakes  of  Switzer- 
land and  Savoy  have  higher  bodies,  larger  scales,  and  also  a  clearer  color — yellowish -white,  with  red 
belly.  This  form  was  formerly  considered  distinct,  and  was  known  as  the  'Ritter'  or  'Knight' 
among  the  river  Trout,  the  species  which  is  found  at  the  greatest  height  above  the  sea.  In  Swit- 
zerland, according  to  Tschudi,  it  is  found  at  a  height  of  4,400  feet ;  in  Bavaria,  according  to  von 
Siebold,  in  the  Green  Lake,  at  the  height  of  5,000  feet;  in  the  Tyrol,  in  the  Gaislacher  Sea,  at  the 
height  of  7,000  feet,  and  in  the  Pleuderle  Sea,  at  the  height  of  7,003  feet.  In  the  Green  Lake,  as 
well  as  in  other  Alpine  lakes,  this  is  the  only  species  of  fish  which  occurs.  It  seems  certain  that 
it  is  found  at  greater  heights  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western  Alps,  and  is  also  more  abundant. 
The  breeding  season  occurs  in  the  months  of  October,  November,  and  December,  and  continues 
until  February;  for  example,  in  certain  lakes  in  Steiermark.  In  Lake  Fuesseu  it  occurs  in 
October  and  November;  in  Lake  Messkirch,  where  they  are  artificially  propagated,  in  Febi  nary 
and  March;  in  the  lakes  at  Saltzberg  they  spawn  from  November  to  January,  and  apparently  also 
in  February;  and,  in  spite  of  the  extensive  fishery  during  the  spawning  time,  there  is  no  evidence 
of  a  decrease  in  their  numbers.  They  feed  upon  small  fish,  and  also,  when  at  liberty,  upon  the 
small  crustaceans,  daphnids,  and  cyclopids.  In  the  Alpine  lakes  these  constitute  their  only  food. 


504  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

hi  Germany  and  in  Austria  it  has  been  found  that  the  Saibling  is  one  of  the-  most  expensive  fish 
to  propagate  artificially,  on  account  of  its  food.  The  ordinary  size  of  the  Saibling  is  from  eleven 
to  twelve  inches,  and  its  weight  from  one-half  to  one  pound.  In  the  highest  lakes  they  are,  as  h;is 
been  mentioned,  smaller,  while  when  they  are  moved  from  such  lakes  into  those  that  are  deeper 
they  increase  rapidly  in  size.  In  the  Saltzberg  lakes,  where  they  are  taken  upon  certain  spawning 
grounds  from  November  to  January,  it  takes  about  five  of  them  to  make  a  pound,  bnt  large  speci 
meiis  of  three  to  twelve  pounds  are  taken  in  August  and  September.  In  the  Lake  of  Zug,  which, 
according  to  Hoch,  yields  more  Saibliug  than  any  other  lake  in  Switzerland,  it  takes  five  or  six, 
often  eight  or  nine,  to  make  a  pound.  In  the  Lake  of  Geneva  they  are  often  taken  weighing 
twenty  to  twenty -four  pounds.  Herr  Hoch  himself  saw  one  weighing  seventeen  pounds.'' 

To  this  may  be  added  a  paragraph  from  Millet's  "La  Culture  de  1'Eau."  "Itis  very  voracious, 
and,  like  the  Trout,  very  swift  and  active  in  its  movements.  It  habitually  feeds  upon  small  fishes, 
upon  crustaceans,  upon  mollusks  and  insects,  and  in  two  or  three  years,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, attains  the  length  of  fifteen  to  twenty  inches.  Its  flesh  is  very  delicate  and  savory,  and 
it  is  preferred  abont  Lake  Leman  to  any  other  fish." 

CULTURE. — The  Salbling  has  been  propagated  by  German  fish-culturists  for  a  period  of  ten 
years  or  more,  and  thrives  magnificently  in  captivity.  The  hatchery  at  Oussee,  in  Germany,  pro 
tluccs  yearly  three  or  four  hundred  thousand  of  artificially-brooded  Saibling,  and  plants  them  in  the 
neighboring  lakes.  In  the  tanks  at  the  late  International  Fishery  Exhibition  in  Berlin  were  ex- 
hibited many  superb  specimens  of  this  fish,  some  of  them  over  two  feet  in  length,  and  one  of  these 
was  sent  to  the  National  Museum  by  Herr  von  Behr,  president  of  the  Deutscher  Fischerei  Verein. 
It  is  as  large  as  the  famous  Rangely  Lake  Trout  caught  by  Mr.  George  Shepard  Page,  which 
everybody  has  seen  at  Blackford's  in  Fulton  Market. 

In  selecting  a  place  in  which  to  deposit  the  saibling  eggs  just  received,  the  Commissioner  of 
Fisheries  has  endeavored  to  find  a  lake  as  similar  as  possible  in  depth  and  temperature  to  the 
larger  Swiss  lakes,  and  he  has,  therefore,  sent  them  to  Lake  Winuipiseogee,  N.  H.  *Here  the 
whole  sixty  thousand  were  planted,  with  the  hope  that  by  placing  so  large  a  number  together  in 
a  lake  of  moderate  size  the  experiment  of  introduction  may  be  a  success.  It  is  a  question  of  some 
interest  which  of  the  many  European  names  of  this  fish  should  be  adopted  in  the  United  States 
should  the  experiment  of  acclimation  be  a  success. 

It  would  seem  most  appropriate  that,  since  the  fish  acquires  its  greatest  perfection  in  Germany, 
the  German  name  should  be  adopted,  particularly  since  the  German  fish-culturists,  who  have  so 
kindly  made  this  gift  to  the  people  of  the  United  States,  will  regard  as  a  compliment  the  adoption 
of  the  German  name  of  one  of  the  favorite  fishes  of  Germany. 

166.  THE  DOLLY  VARDEN  TROUT— SALVELINUS  MALMA. 
By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

This  species  is  known  in  the  mountains  as  "Lake  Trout,"  "Bull  Trout,"  "Speckled  Trout,"  and 
"Red-spotted  Trout."  In  the  ocean,  where  it  is  found  iu  large  numbers,  it  is  the  "Salmon  Trout." 
In  the  Sacramento  the  name  "Dolly  Varden"  was  given  to  it  by  the  landlady  at  a  hotel,  and  this 
name  it  still  retains  in  that  region.  As  none  of  the  other  names  are  distinctive,  this  one  may  well 
be  adopted.  In  Siberia  it  was  formerly  known  as  the  "Malma"  or  "Golet,"  The  Indian  name 
"Chewagh  "  is  ascribed  to  it  in  British  Columbia.  In  size  this  species  reaches  a  weight  of  fourteen 
pounds.  The  largest  I  have  seen  weighed  twelve  pounds,  which  weight  is  not  uncommon  in  the 


J01MIAN  ON  Till:   Dol. I. Y   VARDKN.  505 

ocean.  In  the  lakes  ii  averages  smaller,  ami  in  the  mountain  .streams  it  breeds  at  a  length  of  nix 
or  eight  inches.  In  all  tlicsc  peculiarities  it  agrees  with  its  n.-;ir  iclatix  e.  the  common  Hrook 
Trout  of  tlic  Atlantic  coast.  It  ranges  from  the  upper  waters  of  the  Sacramento  to  Katntcliatka 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Kocky  Mountain  chain,  and  for  the  most  part  in  and  west  of  the  Cascade 
ran^c.  From  IV.gct  Sound  northward  it  is  generally  abundant.  It  feeds  voraciously  in  the  salt 
\\atei  on  Miielt  of  various  sorts,  young  Trout,  sand  lances,  shrimps,  anchovies,  herrings,  and  even 
sticklebacks.  In  fresh  waters  it  probably  eats  whatever  living  thing  it  can  get.  Nothing  is  cer- 
tainly known  of  their  breeding  habits.  They  probably  spawn  late  in  the  fall  in  the  rivers,  and 
therefore  those  which  are  in  the  sea  must  be  to  some  extent  migratory.  They  are  taken  in  Froze- 
I.'ixer  at  the  time  of  the  eulachon  nin,  but  they  probably  then  ascend  the  river  to  feed  upon  the 
enlachon,  and  not  for  spawning  purposes.  As  a  food-fish  this  beautiful  species  ranks  high.1 

167.  THE  GRAYLING— THYMALLUS  TRICOLOR. 

The  following  essay  upon  the  Grayling  is  quoted,  in  a  modified  form,  from  Ooode's  Game 
I-'i.shes  of  the  I'nited  States. 

Disc •oVF.KY. — The  discovery  of  Grayling  in  Michigan  and  Montana  was  a  snrpiise  to  Amer- 
ican naturalists,  though  the  areas  to  which  this  distribution  is  restricted  are  so  small  that  one. 
can  hardly  wonder  at  the  delay  in  finding  them  out.  The  credit  of  discovering  them  is  di- 
vided between  Surgeon  .1.  F.  Head,  United  States  Army,  who  found  in  18M,  in  the  head- 
waters of  the  Missouri,  specimens  of  the  form  described  by  Milner  in  1874,  under  the  name 
Tlii/niiilluK  monlitnitfi,  and  Prof.  Manly  Miles,  of  Lansing,  Michigan,  whose  specimens  from  the 
Michigan  Peninsula  were  sent,  in  18C4,  to  Professor  Cope,  and  described  by  him  as  Thymallug 
tricolor.  A  third  species  occurs  in  Alaska,  and  in  the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  This 
\\as  tirst  found  by  Capt.  John  Franklin's  expedition  toward  the  North  Pole,  in  1810,  and  called 
Tlii/iiHilhix  signifer,  by  Sir  John  Richardson,  who  thus  describes  its  discovery:  "This  very  beaut  iful 
fish  abounds  in  the  rocky  streams  that  flow  through  the  primitive  country  lying  north  of  the  sixty- 
second  parallel  of  latitude  between  Mackenzie's  River  and  the  Welcome.  Its  highly  appropriate 
Ksi|iiimaux  name  ('Hewlook-Powak,')  denoting 'wing-like,' alludes  to  its  magnificent  dorsal,  and 
it  was  in  reference  to  the  same  feature  that  I  bestowed  njMm  it  the  specific  appellation  of  Niynifer, 
or  the  'standard-bearer,'  intending  also  to  advert  to  the  tank  of  my  companion,  Captain  Hack, 
then  a  midshipman,  who  took  the  first  specimen  that  we  saw  with  the  artificial  fly.  It  is  found 
only  in  clear  waters,  and  seems  to  delight  in  the  most  rapid  parts  of  the  mountain  streams."  As  is 
.mplied  in  these  remarks,  this  species  is  remarkable  for  its  immense  dorsal  fin,  which  is  nearly 
twice  as  high  as  the  body  of  the  fish. 

It  is,  however,  the  Michigan  Grayling  which  is  at  present  most  interesting  to  the  angler, 
the  others  being  so  remote  as  to  be  thoroughly  inaccessible.  Piofessor  Cope's  description  was 
printed  in  isti.1.  but  being  expressed  in  technical  terms,  and  published  in  the  proceedings  of  a 
scientific  society  not  generally  read  by  sportsmen,  it  attracted  little  attention.  Popular  interest 
was  first  ex'-ited  in  1873,  by  the  discussions  in  "Forest  and  Stream."  and  by  a  letter  from  Professor 
Agassiz,  published  extensively  in  the  daily  papers,  acknowledging  the  leeeipt  of  two  specimens 
sent  to  him  from  New  York  through  the  agency  of  Mr  Halloek,  who  had  received  them  from 
Michigan.  The  subject  was  then  taken  up  by  the  uewspaj>ers,  and  the  Grayling  was  soon  well 
known.  A  name  closely  associated  with  the  study  of  the  Grayling  is  the  honored  one  of  the  late 
.lames  W.  Milner.  In  1871,  Mr.  Milner,  in  company  with  Mr.  1).  H.  Fitzhugh.  of  Hay  C,ty.  Michigan, 
visited  the  Jordan  River  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  specimens  of  this  fish:  but.  although  many 


'For  PulLn'i  account,  Sv-u  Giluthe    vi.  144. 


506  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

were  seen  in  the  clear  cold  waters,  they  could  not  be  induced  to  take  the  hook  during  the  day  spent 
on  the  river.  In  1873  he  again  visited  this  region,  and  subsequently  published  several  popular 
articles  on  the  subject  of  "Graylings  of  North  America,"  which  constitute  one  of  the  very  few 
memoirs  finished  by  him  out  of  the  many  which  were  planned,  and  interrupted  by  his  untimely  death. 

DISTRIBUTION. — His  description  of  the  habitat  of  the  Grayling  is  excellent:  "In  the  center 
of  the  Lower  Peninsula  of  Michigan  is  a  wide,  elevated  plateau,  a  sandy  region,  with  a  soil  containing 
a  very  small  percent,  of  organic  matter,  and  coveied  with  a  forest  of  pines,  generally  the  Norway 
pine,  Pinna  resinosa.  Linn.,  growing  in  grand  dimensions,  the  long,  limbless  shafts  making  wide 
boards,  free  from  knots,  yet  but  little  utilized,  while  immense  forests  of  the  favorite  lumber 
material,  white  piue,  Pinm  strobus,  are  yet  uncut.  From  this  plateau  arise  several  large  streams 
and  rivers,  flowing  each  way  into  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan.  Among  these  are  three  rivers  of 
note,  the  Muskegon,  the  Manistee,  emptying  into  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  Ausable,  entering  into 
Lake  Huron.  Among  the  minor  streams  are  the  Gheboygan,  Thunder  Bay,  and  Rifle,  tributary 
to  Lake  Huron,  and  the  Jordan,  emptying  through  Pine  Lake  into  the  Traverse  Bays  of  Lake 
Michigan.  A  few  branches  and  streams,  spring-fed,  are  formed,  in  which  the  water  has  a  uniform 
degree  of  coldness  throughout  the  summer,  seldom  rising  above  52°.  The  rivers  Uifle,  Ausable, 
Jordan,  Mersey  branch  of  the  Muskegon,  and  the  headwaters  of  Manistee,  all  have  this  character, 
and  in  all  of  these,  and  only  in  this  limited  locality,  short  of  the  Yellowstone  region,  is  found  the 
already  famous  Michigan  Grayling." 

The  town  of  Grayling,  Michigan,  formerly  called  Crawford,  is  in  the  midst  of  this  district, 
and  the  headquarters  of  Grayling  fishermen.  The  Grayling  is  said  to  live  also  in  Portage  Lake, 
in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  State.  These  streams  seem  to  be  remarkably  cold,  being  fed  by 
numerous  springs.  Milner  found  the  Ausable  to  vary  between  45°  and  49°,  morning  and  evening, 
in  September;  and  Mr.  Fitzhugh  has  remarked  that  the  south  branch  of  this  river,  which  rises  in 
a  swampy  lake,  contains  no  Grayling  except  near  its  mouth,  where  its  volume  is  swelled  by  large 
springs,  and  its  water  becomes  clear  and  cold. 

The  Grayling  of  Europe,  ThymaUux  vulgar-lit,  is  also  restricted  to  cold  streams,  and  appears  to 
be  found  within  limited  areas.  It  is  found  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Lapland,  and  the  Orcades,  in 
Switzerland  and  Hungary,  and  southward  to  lakes  Constance  and  Leman,  and  Bavaria.  A 
Grayling,  possibly  of  different  species,  occurs  in  Lake  Maggiore,  and  others  have  been  recognized 
from  Russia  and  Siberia.  It  is  constantly  being  discovered  in  new  localities.  In  England  the 
species  was  formerly  known  as  the  "Umber."  ''And  in  this  river  be  Umbers,  otherwise  called 
Grailings,"  wrote  Uolinshed,  in  "The  Description  of  Britaiue,"  A.  D.  1577.  The  German  name, 
"AescLe,"  has  been  thought  to  refer,  like  "Grayling,"  to  its  color.  The  European  and 
American  fishes  are  so  similar  that  only  a  trained  ichthyologist  can  distinguish  them,  and  their 
habits  are  very  much  the  same.  Our  Grayling  spawns  in  April  in  the  Ausable,  that  of  Europe  in 
March  and  April,  and  sometimes,  it  is  said,  in  May.  Ours  rarely  grows  to  the  length  of  sixteen 
inches,  and  the  largest  Milner  could  find  weighed  less  than  two  pounds,  the  average  length  being 
ten  or  eleven  inches,  with  a  weight  of  half  a  pound.  The  European  fish  is  said  to  grow  to  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  the  weight  of  four  pounds  and  one-half.  Miluer  remarks:  "Like  the  Brook 
Trout,  their  natural  food  consists  of  the  insects  that  light  or  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  stream. 
Their  stomachs  were  found  to  contain  broken  and  partially  digested  specimens  of  coleoptera, 
neuroptera,  as  well  as  the  larvae  of  species  of  the  dragon-flies.  There  were  also  found  in  their 
stomachs  the  leaves  of  the  white  cedar,  Thuja  occidentalis,  which  drop  continually  on  the  surface 
of  the  stream,  and  are  probably  taken  because  the  fish  in  their  quick  darts  to  the  surface  mistake 


THE  MICHIGAN  GRAYLING.  507 

tin-in  tin  inserts  tailing  upon  the  water."  In  France  they  are  mini  also  to  devour  little  mollusks 
anil  tin  eggs  of  fishes. 

<  Yi.n  I:K. — The  propagation  of  tin-  Michigan  Grayling  was  attempted  a»  soon  as  its  existence 
was  known.  Mr.  Fn-tl.  Mather  anil  Mr.  Si-th  Green,  always  pioneers  iu  such  enterprises,  were  the 
first  to  attempt  it,  ami  they  were  soon  followed  by  others.  Mr.  Mather  was  first  on  the  Held, 
\  isiting  the  A  usable  between  March  U.~»  and  April  3,  1H74;  but  he  was  too  early,  for  the  fish  were 
not  H-, iily  for  him.  Mr.  Green  followed  on  April  28,  but  he  was  too  late,  the  fish  having  finished 
spawning.  Not  to  be  danntcil,  he  dug  over  one  hundred  fertilized  eggs  out  of  the  gravel  where 
tin-  lisli  had  left  them,  and  took  them  home  to  his  hatching  house.  In  1875  Mr.  Mather  visited  the 
river  lii-twren  April  0  ami  1-.  and  obtained  eight  thousand  eggs,  which  were  successfully  hatched. 
Young  tisli  have  been  introduced  into  various  streams  iu  Michigan  and  Western  New  York. 
Frank  IJuekland  tried  many  years  ago  to  introduce  the  English  Grayling  into  the  Thames  by 
transplanting  its  ova,  but  this  experiment  was  a  failure,  and  we  have  yet  to  learn  that  his  Ameri- 
can associates  have  been  more  successful  in  their  efforts.  An  interesting  fact  observed  in  the 
course  of  these  experiments  is  that  the  Michigan  Grayling  is  much  more  prolific  than  the  Brook 
Trout,  yielding  between  three  and  four  thousand  eggs. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  over  the  claims  of  the  Grayling  us  a  game-fish,  and  also  its 
excellence  for  food.  It  has  many  ardent  admirers  and  detractors.  The  enthusiasm  with  which  it 
was  greeted  ten  years  ago  has  somewhat  subsided,  and  it  seems  doubtful  whether  a  vote  of  the 
guild  of  American  anglers  would  now  place  it  in  the  first  rank  of  noble  fishes. 

"There  is  uo  species  sought  f.-r  by  anglers  that  surpasses  the  Grayling  in  beauty.  They  arts 
more  elegantly  formed  and  more  graceful  than  the  Trout,  and  their  great  dorsal  tin  is  a  superb 
mark  of  loveliness.  When  the  well-lids  were  lifted,  and  the  sun's  rays  admitted,  lighting  up  the 
delicate  olive-brown  tints  of  the  back  and  sides,  the  bluish-white  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  mingling 
of  tints  of  rose,  pale  blue,  and  purplish-pink  on  the  tins,  they  displayed  a  combination  of  colors 
equaled  by  uo  fish  outside  of  the  tropics." 

Mr.  Mather  describes  the  colors  of  the  Grayling  as  follows:  ''IJis  pectorals  are  olive-brown, 
with  a  bluish  tint  at  the  end;  the  ventrals  are  striped  with  alternate  streaks  of  brown  and 
pink ;  the  anal  is  plain  brown ;  the  caudal  is  very  forked  and  plain,  while  the  crowning  glory  is  the 
immense  dorsal.  .This  fin  rises  forward  of  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  in  a  fish  a  foot  long  it  is 
nearly  three  inches  in  length  and  two  high,  dotted  with  large,  brilliant-red  or  bluish-purple  spots, 
surrounded  with  a  splendid  emerald  green,  which  fades  after  death — the  changeable  shade  of 
green  seen  iu  the,  tail  of  the  peacock." 

168.  THE  LAKE  WHITE-FISH— COREGONUS  CLUPEIFORMIS. 
FROM  NOTES  OP  LUDWIG  KUMLIEN  AND  OTHERS — BY  R.  1.  GEABE. 

NAMES. — With  the  exception  of  the  local  name  "Otsego  Bass,"  said  to  be  applied  to  this  fish 
about  Otsego  Lake,  New  York,  we  have  never  heard  any  other  name  for  it  than  "  White-fish."  It 
is  found  in  all  the  Great  Lakes,  as  well  as  in  several  of  the  smaller  lakes  tributary  to  them,  and  in 
lakes  of  I'.ritish  America  northward,  perhaps  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  very  abundant, 
and  is  the  most  important  food-fish  of  the  Great  Lake  region.  In  quality  of  flesh  it  stands  pre- 
eminent among  our  fresh-water  fishes.  The  flesh  is  white,  tender,  and  juicy,  and,  unlike  the  flesh 
of  the  Salmon,  it  does  not  produce  satiety. 

SIZE.— The  largest  specimens  of  White-fish  are  found  in  Lake  Superior,  one  having  been 
taken  at  Whitefish  Point  weighing  twenty-three  pounds,  and  at  the  same  place  out  of  seventy- 
four  half-barrels  there  was  not  one  under  six  pounds  in  weight.  At  Duluth,  White-fish  weighing 


508  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

from  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  are  occasionally  taken.  Their  average  at  the  extreme  west  end  of 
the  lake  is  less  than  at  the  Apostle  Islands,  where  some  very  large  fish  are  caught.  At  Grand 
Island  the  fish  average  fourteen  pounds,  few  being  taken  weighing  less  than  ten  pounds.  In 
Green  Bay,  Lake  Michigan,  it  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  catch  with  deep  nets  fish  from  four 
to  seven  pounds,  and  in  one  lift  there  were  twenty  that  exceeded  five  pounds,  and  some  weighed 
eight  pounds.  About  ten  years  ago  a  White-fish  weighing  nineteen  and  three-quarters  pounds 
was  taken  near  Menoinouee.  The  Cisco,  a  variety  of  White-fish,  in  Green  Bay  attains  a  weight  of 
three,  pounds;  this  is  sometimes  called  the  "Meuoinonee  White-fish." 

Next,  in  respect  to  the  size  of  its  White-fish,  is  Lake  Michigan.  On  the  west  shore,  where 
large  fish  are  usually  taken,  in  the  vicinity  of  Manitowoc,  a  White-fish  weighing  twenty  two 
pounds  was  taken  in  1880.  At  the  south  point  of  Lake  Michigan,  the  average  weight  is  a  pound 
and  a  half.  Thirty-three  hundred  of  that  average  were  taken  out  of  thirty  gill  nets  at  one  lift. 
The  largest  specimen  ever  taken  here  weighed  fourteen  pounds  dressed.  At  Grand  Haven,  on 
the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  White-fish  average  about  two  pounds.  Higher  up  on  the  east 
shore  they  are  again  larger,  and  average  about  ten  pounds  each  in  weight. 

Lake  Erie  contains  White-fish  weighing  as  much  as  fourteen  pounds.  In  the  vicinity  of  Maumee 
they  are  larger  than  at  any  other  point  on  (he  lake.  In  187C  a  seventeen-pound  fish  was  taken 
at  Vermillion,  Lake  Erie;  and  in  1879  one  weighing  sixteen  pounds  was  captured.  They  are  often 
taken  weighing  ten  and  twelve  pounds.  Farther  east  the  average  size  becomes  smaller,  the  sea- 
son's average  weight  for  White-fish  at  Ashtabula,  Ohio,  being  not  more  than  two  pounds  and  a 
half.  Farther  to  the  east  they  are  smaller  still,  and  in  the  Detroit  River  they  do  not  exceed  a 
pound  and  thre;  -quarters  average  weight. 

In  Lake  Ontario  White-fish  average  two  and  a  half  pounds  for  those  taken  in  gill-nets,  while 
those  taken  in  seines  will  not  exceed  two  pounds. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  rate  of  the  growth  of  the  White-fish,  Mr.  George  Clark  tried  an 
experiment  to  which  lie  called  the  attention  of  the  Detroit  fishermen  in  the  following  words: 

"ATTENTION,    FlSHEKMEN." 

"The  14th  of  May  last  I  marked  a  number  of  White-fish  with  brass  tags  and  put  them  into 
the  Detroit  River.  The  tags  were  a  piece  of  brass  about  the  size  of  a  ten  cent  piece,  and  a  ring 
about  the  same  size,  and  a  similar  ring  linking  these  two  together.  The  largest  ring  I  put  in  the 
small  fin  on  the  back  of  the  fish  near  the  tail,  each  fish  weighing  about  a  pound  and  a  half,  the 
object  being  to  ascertain  the  growth  of  the  fish. 

"Fishermen,  one  and  all,  if  you  catch  any  of  these  fish,  will  yon  please  state  when  and  where 
caught,  weigh  and  measure  length,  and  send  them  with  the  tags  to  Crowel  &  Co.,  S.  John  and 
Buck,  of  Toledo;  the  Paxtons,  of  Monroe;  James  Craig,  A.  M.  Campau,  C.  Hnrlburt  and  J.  P. 
Clark,  of  Detroit;  B.  Reaume,  of  Springwells;  George  Clark,  of  Ecorse;  Mr.  Reaume,  of  Grosse  Isle. 

"I  hope  the  fishermen  on  the  Canadian  shore  will  take  an  interest  in  this  matter,  and,  it'  they 
catch  any  of  these  fish  will  please  send  them  with  the  abovesaid  specifications  to  the  aforesaid 
panics,  or  to  Davis  &  Co.,  and  Merrill,  fish  dealer,  in  Detroit,  or  George  Clark  &  Co.'s  fish  house, 
Detroit. 

"If  the  fish  cannot  be  sent,  please  send  the  exact  weight  and  length  of  the  fish,  with  the  tag, 
by  mail,  to  any  of  the  above  parties. 

"GEORGE  CLARK. 
"EcoKSE,  October  9, 1872." 

Mr.  Clark  never  heard  anything  from  these  iriarked  fishes. 


<;I;O\\TII  OF  I.AKI:  \\IHTKFISH.  509 

On  tin-  same  {Miint  Mi.  ri.irU.  wiiting  to  I'liile-sor  Baird  in  March,  isT'J.  sa\s:  "In  June, 
1S(!S,  I  made  a  sweep  with  a  seine,  eighteen  miles  from  the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron,  on  the  shore  of 
tin-  Like,  mill  caught  ai  oiii-  S\MT|>  lisli  I'rniii  three  or  four  inches  to  twenty  indies  in  length.  Some 
of  the  largest  lish  weighed  fifteen  |iiiiuiils.  1  concluded  that  they  would  increase  in  weight  from 
tlnvr fourths  of  a  pound  to  a  poiinil  each  year,  which  would  require  ten  or  fifteen  years  for  the, 
(i«h  to  get  its  growth.  ...  lie  [speaking  of  Mr.  Wilmot  of  the  Wilmot  Fishery  Company  nt 
Newcastle.  Ontario.  Canada)  has  gome  White-fish  two  and  a  half  years  old  last  November,  from 
some  eggs  which  he  procured  here.  The  largest  would  weigh  one  and  a  half  pounds.  From  this 
we  judge  the  lish  will  gain  in  weight  from  one  half  to  three-quarters  of  n  pound  each  year." 

MIGRATIONS. — Relative  to  the  movements  of  the  White-fish  in  Lake  Superior,  Mr.  George 
liarnston  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  young  and  immature  White-fish  confine  their  range  entirely  to 
shallow  waters  near  the  shore.  The  pound  nets,  set  in  twenty  to  forty-five  feet  of  water,  catch 
great  numbers  ofs  small  fish — seven  or  eight  inches  long  and  weighing  only  a  few  ounces.  The 
gill  nets,  usually  employed  in  water  not  less  than  seventy  to  ninety  feet  deep,  capture  very  few 
of  these  small  White-fish.  In  a  tour  of  Lake  Michigan  not  one  case  of  such  small  fish  being 
captured  in  a  gill-net — scarcely  any  under  one  pound — occurred.  Again,  a  pound-net  set  on  a 
thirty-six-foot  shoal,  six  miles  from  land,  at  Bay  de  Noquet,  contained  only  Xos.  1  and  2  fish.  It 
might  be  urged  that  the  small  fish  escape  through  the  meshes  of  the  gill-net ;  yet  it  is  more  than 
likely  that  occasional  ones,  entangled  about  the  body  and  fins,  would  be  taken,  it  being  conceded 
that  the  head  of  the  White-fish  is  to  a  slight  extent  better  guarded  against  entanglement  in  the 
mesh  than  that  of  its  congeners,  the  Lake  Herring  and  the  Cisco.  Again,  it  is  a  significant  fact 
that  no  young  White-fish  are  found  in  the  stomachs  of  the  Lake  Trout.  The  range  of  the  Trout  in 
siunmer  is  in  deep  water,  and,  if  the  young  White-fish  were  there  also,  the  Trout  would  surely  feed 
on  them.  The  conclusion  of  Mr.  George  Barnston,  then,  is  that  White  fish  do  not  migrate  at  all 
into  deep  water  until  they  have  attained  a  weight  of  one  and  one-fourth  pounds.  He  also  corrobo- 
rates Major  Long's  statement,  that  White-fish  ascend  Michipicoten  River,  Lake  Superior,  to  spawn ; 
"  but,"  he  says,  "they  cannot  and  do  not  run  up  far,  for  very  high  falls  and  long  sweeps  of  raging 
rapids  obstruct  their  course  in  both  the  main  river  and  its  tributary,  not  far  from  the  Great  Lake. 
Haifa  mile  above  the  station  I  have  assisted  in  seining  White-fish  at  the  spawning  season,  and 
succeeded  occasionally  in  making  a  good  haul.  These  fish  must  have  come  from  the  bay  or  lake, 
for  they  could  never  have  descended  the  falls  in  safety,  and  the  native  fishermen  (in  all  such  cases 
good  judges)  consider  them  lake  fish." 

The  line  of  migration  followed  by  this  fish  in  Lake  Michigan  is  unerring  and  stire,  and  it  is 
more  apparent  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  than  at  any  other  point  on  the  lake ;  in  the  spring 
they  always  couie  down  the  east  shore,  and  in  the  fall  the  west  shore.  About  Point  au  Sable  the 
runs  begin  in  Juno  and  finish  l>y  the  end  of  July,  commencing  again  in  September  and  continuing 
more  or  less  throughout  the  winter. 

During  the  last  six  years  the  White-fish  are  supposed  to  have  changed  their  route  of  migration 
in  the  vicinity  of  Vermillion,  Lake  Erie.  The  spring  run  here  comes  in  May  and  the  fall  run  in 
October.  The  runs  of  the  White-fish  by  no  means  occur  simultaneously  at  all  fishing  points  on 
Lake  Erie,  for  the  fishermen,  at  different  points,  are  fishing  for  them  as  soon  as  the  ice  disappears  in 
the  spring,  and  continue  until  the  ice  comes  again.  The  height  of  the  inns  may  generally  IK;  con- 
sidered as  occurring  during  May  and  the  fore  part  of  June.  Thence  on  until  the  end  of  July  iuay 
be  called  the  slack  time,  after  which  the  fishing  again  becomes  good,  and  continues  to  be  so  until 
the  end  of  September. 

In  the  spring  the  fish  work  from  the  west  end  of  the  lake  and  hunt  for  a  certain  depth  of 


510  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

water,  remaining  at  their  chosen  spot  until  August,  when  they  strike  shorewards.  Off  Erie,  Lake 
Erie,  the  water  is  shallow,  and  the  fishermen  are  obliged  to  go  out  six  to  fifteen  miles  for  White- 
fish  ;  but  off  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona  the  water  is  deeper,  and  consequently  shorter  trips  from  land 
will  suffice  for  fishing.  This  tends  to  show  that  White-fish  are  lovers  of  deep  water. 

In  Lake  Ontario,  about  Port  Ontario,  it  is  probable  that  the  White  fish  migrate  from  the  Cana- 
dian shore  to  the  American  shore  regularly.  In  1870  they  were  more  plentiful  on  the  American 
shore ;  ten  years  before  that,  again,  the  reverse  was  the  case.  In  1880,  following  the  rule,  they  have 
been  scarce  on  the  American  shore,  but  will  probably  in  a  few  years  migrate  again  to  this  side  of  the 
lake.  At  Kingston  Harbor  they  occur  regularly.  They  have  been  known  to  run  twenty  miles  up 
the  river  at  this  point;  this  is,  however,  unusual.  Sometimes  all  the  "Gray  Backs"  are  found  on 
the  Canadian  shore  just  before  the  regular  spring  run  of  the  White-fish  comes  on.  They  are 
nowhere  abundant  on  the  American  shore. 

Mr.  Peter  Kiel,  fishery  overseer,  Lake  Ontario,  says  that  White-fish  are  caught  in  early  spring 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore  in  about  two  hundred  feet  of  water,  but  about  the  1st  of 
June  they  approach  the  shore,  and  are  then  caught  in  great  numbers  on  their  favorite  feeding 
grounds,  a  sort  of  honey-combed  rock,  in  about  thirty  feet  of  water.  About  the  1st  of  August  they 
retreat  hastily  toward  the  deeper  and  cooler  portions  of  the  lake,  where  they  are  found  in  their  best 
condition.  About  the  middle  of  October  they  again  swim  shoreward  for  the  purpose  of  spawning, 
arriving  at  the  proper  locality  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  1st  of  December,  depending 
upon  the  severity  or  mildness  of  the  season,  for  they  do  not  deposit  their  spawn  until  the  water 
has  attained  a  temperature  of  about  40°  P.  After  spawning  they  again  retire  to  the  deep  water, 
remaining  there  until  the  next  spring. 

Mr.  Milner  has  contributed  the  following  facts  regarding  the  movements  of  the  White-fish  in  the 
Great  Lakes.  From  his  observations  it  will  appear  Ihat  the  migration  shoreward  is  dependent 
upon  the  locality;  depth  of  water,  temperature,  etc.,  are  points  which  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  Thus,  in  Lake  Michigan,  the  summer  migration  into  shoal  water  seems  to  be  almost 
universal,  while  in  Lake  Erie,  where  the  temperature  is  high  in  summer,  the  shoreward  summer 
migration  is  unknown. 

"The  assertion  was  sometimes  made  among  the  fishermen  that  the  scarcity  of  White-fish  at 
any  one  locality  was  no  reliable  indication  that  the  number  had  decreased,  but  that  the  schools 
had  probably  migrated  to  some  other  region. 

"At  Waukegan,  Illinois,  the  White-fish  come  into  shallow  water  in  the  greatest  abundance  in 
the  months  of  June  and  July.  The  same  habit  is  observed  in  various  localities  on  the  lakes, 
though  by  no  means  at  all  points.  Several  points  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  in  the  south 
half  of  the  lake,  the  vicinity  of  the  Apostle  Islands,  Lake  Superior,  and  at  the  Thunder  Bay 
Islands  of  Lake  Huron,  may  be  referred  to  as  localities  where  the  July  migration  occurs.  George 
Keith,  esq.,  a  factor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  at  Michipicoten,  in  1840,  affords  Sir  John 
Richardson  the  same  information  upon  the  habits  of  a  species  of  the  Coregonus  It  was  for  a  long 
time  a  difficult  matter  to  discover  the  reason  for  this  summer  run  on  the  shore,  if  indeed  it  has 
been  correctly  accounted  for.  The  contents  of  the  stomach  were  found  to  be  the  same  as  at  other 
seasons  of  the  year.  It  was  not  probable  that  the  White-fish  was  an  exception  to  all  its  congeners 
of  the  salmonoid  family,  and  preferred  the  warmer  temperature  of  shallow  water  to  the  colder 
waters  outside.  Besides,  the  schools  of  White-fish  were  always  found  to  leave  a  region  where  wide 
areas  of  shoal  water  existed  as  the  heat  of  summer  advanced.  The  theory  adopted  to  account  for 
this  summer  visit  to  the  shore  was  that  the  calm,  quiet  weather  of  the  summer  months,  from  the 
slight  disturbance  of  the  surface,  prevented  the  amount  of  aeration  to  the  water  that  occurred  at 


MIGRATION   OF  Till!   \VI1ITF.  FISH.  5H 

other  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  lisli  sought  the  shorn  when-  the  splashing  on  the  beach  and 
sand-bars  supplied  tin-  water  \vi:!i  the  requisite  uinouut  of  air,  just  as  other  species  of  this  family 
of  fishes  delight  in  rapids  anil  falls,  because  the  breaking  up  of  the  masses  of  water  supplies  it 
with  a  laii:e  amount  of  respiratory  gases. 

"In  waters  like  Lake  Hrie,  where,  according  to  the  Lake  Survey,  the  temperature  attains  as 
high  as  73°,  the  White  fish  seek  the  cooler  deep  waters  in  the  summer,  and  I  have  not  learned  of 
a  migration  upon  the  shore  at  any  point,  they,  perhaps,  preferring  a  less  amount  of  aeration  to  a 
high  degree  of  licat. 

"The  fact  that  in  the  month  of  August  the  White-fish  of  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Itapids  leave 
the  river  entirely,  and  do  not  return  until  in  September,  weakens  the  force  of  the  theory  that  the 
aeration  of  the  water  is  the  necessity  that  brings  them  to  the  shore  of  the  lake  in  the  summer. 

"Professor  Agassiz,  in  his  tour  of  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior  in  184!>,  found  the  White- 
tish  scarce  along  the  shore  and  at  the  rapids  in  the  month  of  August.  Among  the  Apostle 
Islands,  Lake  Superior,  and  in  most  of  the  deeper  portions  of  the  lakes,  no  scarcity  is  observed  at 
this  season  of  the  year.  At  the  rapids,  they  so  entirely  abandon  the  locality  in  August  that  the 
supply  offish  for  the  hotels  has  to  be  obtained  from  Point  Detour,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Huron. 

"It  was  a  disputed  point  among  the  Waukegan  fishermen  whether  the  migration  was  directly 
in  from  deep  water  or  along  the  shore.  The  fact  that,  in  some  instances,  the  schools  of  tish  struck 
the  in'ts  at  one  point,  and  afterwards  entered  the  uets  in  succession  along  the  line  of  the  shore, 
was  thought  by  many  to  prove  a  littoral  migration.  But  the  fact  was  that,  in  all  likelihood,  the 
advance  portion  of  a  school  would  touch  the  shore  at  some  point  and  then  move  in  either  direction 
along  its  line. 

"The  presence  of  large  White-fishes  in  numbers  at  certain  localities  on  the  north  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan,  of  a  size  that  are  never  taken  at  other  parts  of  the  lake,  would  indicate  a  local 
habit,  with  no  disposition  to  range  through  long  distances.  Another  observation  sustaining  the 
probability  of  this  is  the  fact  that  there  are  many  localities  on  the  Lakes  where  the  pound  nets,  a 
few  years  ago,  found  prosperous  fishing,  and  in  the  first  few  years  took  the  White-fish  in  great 
abundance,  but  found  afterwards  a  decrease  from  year  to  year  until  the  locality  was  abandoned, 
while  fifty  miles  away  the  business  still  continued  successful.  The  well-known  local  instincts  of 
the  Salmon  would,  to  a  slight  extent,  confirm  the  probability  of  like  instincts  in  its  related  genera. 
The  fact  that  certain  types  of  the  White-fish  are  peculiar  to  particular  localities,  as  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Itapids,  Bachewauna  Bay,  on  Lake  Superior,  indicates 
a  local  habit  through  many  generations  until  certain  characters  of  a  race  have  become  established. 
The  same  fact  has  been  stated  for  the  shad  on  the  Atlantic  coasts.  Some  observations,  made  in 
1871,  perhaps  indicate  the  opposite  of  all  the  foregoing  statements. 

"In  the  early  part  of  the  season  there  had  been  very  few  fish  caught  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  between  Chicago  and  the  Door  Islands.  South  of  Chicago,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Calumet 
River,  the  run  of  White-fish  was  in  excess  of  anything  had  for  years.  But,  about  the  15th  of  June, 
the  schools  of  fish  left  Calumet,  and  a  few  days  later  there  was  a  decided  improvement  in  the 
catch  at  Kvanston.  About  June  22,  the  lifts  at  Waukegan  began  to  be  heavier  than  they  hid 
In 'I'll  before.  During  the  first  week  of  July  the  fishing  was  observed  to  improve  at  Milwaukee, 
Manitowoc,  and  Bailey's  Harbor,  and,  a  little  later,  at  the  Door  Islands.  The  coincidence  in  dates 
rather  indicated  a  probability  that  the  same  schools  of  fish  that  clogged  the  nets  at  Calumet 
during  six  or  seven  weeks  had  ranged  northward  along  two  hundred  and  sixty  miles  of  coast. 
Still,  the  effect  on  the  fishing  would  have  been  the  same  if  it  had  been  the  migrations  of  schools 
of  fish  from  deep  water  at  these  points  in  to  the  shore.  In  order,  to  obtain  a  definite  knowledge  of 


512  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

their  babits  in  this  particular,  metal  tags,  with  numbers  indicating  the  locality,  were  distributed 
to  fishermen  at  twenty  points  along  the  lake,  to  be  fastened  to  the  fins  of  live  fish,  which  were 
then  to  be  released.  Instructions  were  at  the  same  time  sent  to  all  fishermen  to  report  the  capture 
of  h'sh  bearing  these  marks,  and  the  distances  from  where  they  were  taken  to  the  point  of  departure 
would  indicate  the  extent  of  their  migrations.  It  is  thought  that  but  tew  of  them  were  used.  A 
similar  proceeding  was  afterward  carried  out  by  Mr.  George  Clark,  of  Ecorse,  on  the  Detroit 
River,  but  none  of  the  fish  were  ever  heard  from. 

"Some  of  the  fishermen  of  the  west  shore  assert  that,  after  severe  storms  encroaching  on  the 
shore,  and  making  the  water  muddy  for  a  long  distance  out,  when  the  storm  subsides  there  is  a 
heavy  deposit  of  mud  on  the  bottom,  and  that  the  White-fish  abandon  the  locality  for  a  time, 
because,  as  they  surmise,  their  food  is  buried  in  the  sediment.  On  the  contrary,  after  ordinary 
storms,  there  is  generally  an  improvement  in  the  catch  of  fish,  probably  for  the  reason  that  the 
great  aeration  of  the  water  renders  them  lively  and  incites  them  to  move  about.  The  migration 
from  the  southern  portion  of  Lake  Michigan  is  of  yearly  occurrence,  about  the  middle  of  June,  and 
is,  without  doubt,  occasioned  by  the  large  extent  of  shoal  water  becoming  heated.  The  same  thing 
occurs  in  Green  Bay,  and  in  the  shoal  regions  of  the  western  end  of  Lake  Erie.  The  migrations 
into  shallow  water,  and  up  certain  streams,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning, 
will  be  con-idered  further  on.  This  migration,  and  the  summer  visit  to  the  shore,  are  the  general 
migrations  peculiar  to  the  White-fish,  while  the  departure  from  shoal  regions  in  summer,  and  from 
certain  localities  in  August,  are  local  peculiarities." 

ENEMIES. — This  section  of  the  natuial  history  has  been  fully  worked  up  by  Mr.  Milner  in  his 
"Report  on  the  Fishes  of  the  Great  Lakes,"  from  which  the  following  extracts  are  made: 

"The  largest  percentage  of  destruction  the  White-fish  suffers  is  without  doubt  in  the  ova 
stage.  The  spawn-eaters  of  the  Lakes  are  a  numerous  and  widely  distributed  list  of  animals, 
including  fishes,  amphibians,  and,  it  is  claimed,  divers  and  ducks.  The  destruction  of  the  spawn 
by  these  methods  is  immense,  and  far  exceeds  the  losses  while  in  the  stage  of  fry.  The  most, 
wholesale  devourer  of  the  eggs  is  undoubtedly  the  Lake  Herring.  On  opening  the  stomachs  of 
the  Herring  fiom  the  ponds  in  Detroit  River,  in  November,  they  were  found  to  contain  the  eggs  of 
White  fish.  At  first  it  was  considered  possible  that,  as  they  were  confined  in  the  ponds,  their 
eating  spawn  might  be  a  matter  of  necessity  ;  but  later,  at  Sandusky,  their  stomachs  were  found 
gorged  with  the  ova.  The  Herring,  the  most  numerous  species  inhabit  ing  the  spawning  grounds 
of  the  White-fish,  are  without  doubt  the  principal  agents  in  keeping  in  check  the  increasing 
numbers  supplied  from  the  fertilized  ova.  The  suckers,  sturgeon,  and  smaller  bottom -feed  ing 
fishes  are  found  with  spawn  in  the  stomach. 

"TliH  so-called  'water-lizard,'  Menobranchitx  latcraHn,  Say,  is  very  numerous  in  some  of  the 
streams  and  portions  of  the  lake  shore.  Mr.  George  Clark,  of  Ecorse,  Michigan,  had  a  minnow- 
seine  fitted  to  the  bag  of  a  sweep-seine,  and  at  one  haul  took  two  thousand  of  the  'water-lizards.' 
Estimating  the  extent  that  the  net  had  passed  over,  he  calculated  the  average,  number  of  lizards 
to  each  square  rod  to  be  four.  He  says,  further,  in  one  of  the  Detroit  papers,  'The  lizards  were 
so  gorged  with  White-fish  spawn  that  when  they  were  thrown  on  the  shore  hundreds  of  eggs 
would  fly  out  of  their  mouths.  .  .  .  Some  of  I  lie  larger  lizards  would  devour  the  whole  spawn- 
ing of  a  White-fish  in  a  day  or  two;  and  when  we  eonsiller  that  these  reptiles  are  feeding  upon 
eggs  from  November  till  April,  some  idea  may  be  lurm.il  of  their  vast  capacity  lor  destruction.' 

"Mr.  Browne,  of  Gland  Haven,  Michigan,  states  that  some  three  years  ago  an  epidemic 
seemed  to  prevail  among  the  Menubranvlti  in  Grand  IJiver  in  the  month  of  June,  and  that  their 
dead  carcasses  were  washed  ashore  by  hundreds,  so  thai  they  lined  the  banks  of  the  river,  and 


BNEMIKS  OF  T11E  WIIITK -FISH.  513 

the  inillmeii  were  obliged  to  throw  the  iMxlies  off  into  the  currout,  to  be  carried  down  Htrtuin  to 
prevent  the  offensive  stench  that  was  wafted  into  the  mills  from  the  decaying  remains. 

"A  fisherman  at  Evanston,  Illinois,  a  few  years  ago  had  nine  hundred  hooks  set  in  tho  lake, 
and  in  one  day  took  irotn  these  five  hundred  lizards,  removing  them  all  himself,  as  his  men, 
.sharing  the  popular  notion  on  the  Lakes,  believed  them  to  be  poisonous,  and  preferred  to  cut  tiwav 
hook  and  all  to  taking  hold  of  the  slimy  amphibian.  They  are,  of  course,  entirely  harmless  in 
this  particular,  and  make  no  more  attempt  to  bite  than  a  frog  does.  A  full  series  of  this  species 
was  this  season  collected  from  Detroit  River,  from  the  length  of  one  and  one-fourth  inch  to  thir- 
teen inches.  Later,  about  the  middle  of  the  monl !»  of  July,  Mr.  George  Clark  collected  a  quantity 
of  their  eggs,  proving  this  month  to  be  the  spawning  season  of  the  animal. 

"The  sturgeon  are  very  generally  believed  to  be  spawn-eaters.  Though  the  ova  of  the  White- 
tish  and  the  perch  have  been  observed  among  the  stomach  contents  of  this  fish,  the  principal  food 
has  always  been  found  to  be  snails,  the  fresh-water  genera  being  generally  represented,  tho 
weaker  shells  crushed  into  fragments,  and  the  stronger  ones  of  the  Paludinultc  and  even  Limncas 
remaining  unbroken.  Dr.  E.  Sterling,  of  Cleveland,  who  examined  the  stomachs  of  a  large  miinlH»r 
of  sturgeon  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Sandusky  fisheries,  made  the  same  observation.  There  are  few 
of  the  bottom-feeding  fishes  but  whose  stomachs  will  not  generally  be  found  to  contain  a  few  eggs, 
though  in  company  with  other  food  in  greater  quantity. 

lu  the  fry  stage  they  must  suffer  to  some  extent  from  the  piscivorous  fishes.  The  most  numer- 
ous and  voracious  of  their  enemies  is  likely  to  be  the  wall-eyed  pike,  Stizoxtedion  americana,  numer- 
ous in  the  shoal  waters  of  the  lakes  and  comparatively  rare  on  the  deeper  shores.  The  perch,  Perca 
Jiaveiicens,  are  very  generally  distributed  and  quite  numerous;  the  contents  of  their  stomachs  are 
generally  found  to  be  vertebrate  forms.  The  black  bass,  Micropterus  nigricans,  is  plentiful  in  Lake 
Erie,  but  as  its  ordinary  food  is  the  crawfish,  where  these  are  numerous  its  depredations  on  the 
schools  of  young  fish  would  be  of  comparatively  little  importance.  The  white  bass,  Roccus  chry- 
xops,  the  muskelluuge,  Esox  nobilior,  and  the  lake  pike,  Eaox  Indus,  do  not  inhabit  the  Lakes  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  be  very  troublesome  to  the  White-fishes.  It  is  the  prevailing  idea  on  the  Lakes 
that  the  Mackinaw  or  Salmon  Trout  feeds  largely  on  the  White-fish.  Here  as  everywhere  civilized 
man  disturbs  the  balance  of  nature,  and  becomes  the  great  enemy  to  all  forms  of  life  that  do  not 
conform  to  his  artificial  methods  for  their  protection.  Not  only  by  the  hundreds  of  artifices  for  the 
capture  of  the  White-fish,  but  in  the  foul  drainage  from  the  cities,  smelting- works  and  manufacto- 
ries, and  in  the  quantities  of  sawdust  from  the  mills,  they  are  driven  from  their  favorite  haunts  and 
spawning  grounds,  and  their  food  destroyed  by  waters  tainted  with  fatal  chemical  combinations." 

Mr.  Milner  mentions  the  natural  casualties  of  storms,  deposits  of  sediment  smothering  the 
eggs,  the  vegetable  growth  found  to  be  so  fatal  in  the  hatching  troughs,  as  causes  of  destruction 
to  immense  quantities  of  White-fish  spawn. 

Mr.  Lanman,  speaking  of  the  enemies  of  the  White-fish,  says  that  the  great  Gray  Trout  (Salmo 
ferox)  follows  the  White-fish  to  the  shore  and  preys  upon  it.  While  the  nets  are  set  for  White- 
fish,  the  fishers,  with  torch  and  spear,  attack  and  capture  the  Salmo  ferox,  frequently  of  large 
size;  and  hence  this  latter  fish  has  acquired  the  name  of  Tuladi  from  the  river  to  which  it  is 
attracted  by  its  favorite  prey. 

FOOD.— Mr.  Milner,  in  his  "  Report  upon  the  Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes,"  wrote  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  on  the  White-fish  : 

"The  food  of  the  White  fish  has  been  a  problem  inciting  numerous  conjectures  among 
fishermen,  sportsmen,  and  fish  culturists,  and  baffling  the  investigation  of  a  few  naturalists 
for  a  number  of  years  past.  To  Dr.  P.  R.  Hoy,  of  Racine,  we  think,  belongs  the  credit  of  first 
33  P 


514  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

discovering  correctly  the  character  of  their  food.  On  opening  the  stomachs  of  numerous  White- 
fish  he  at  first  failed  to  determine  the  character  of  the  stomach  contents,  until,  after  wash- 
ing the  half-digested  mass  in  a  basin  of  water,  he  found  the  sediment  to  be  full  of  small  Crus- 
tacea, whose  existence  in  the  lake  had  never  before  been  suspected.  My  examination  and  pre- 
servation of  the  stomach  contents  from  all  quarters  of  the  Lakes  confirmed  Dr.  Hoy's  observa- 
tions, and  discovered  a  few  other  small  forms  of  life  as  the  food  of  White-fish.  The  invertebrates 
found  were  of  crustaceans :  species  of  the  families  Oammaridce  and  Mysid<e  ;  of  the  rnollusks : 
species  of  the  genus  Pisidivm  ;  and  certain  insect  larv®.  A  few  fish-ova  were  frequently  found 
in  the  stomach,  and  it  was  not  unusual  to  find  a  little  gravel. 

"In  the  greater  portion  of  the  lake  the  Qammarida;  constituted  the  principal  food.  In  shallow 
regions  small  Conchifers  were  more  numerous.  At  Point  aux  Barques,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  where  a  very  large  type  of  the  White-fish  was  found,  the  stomach  contents  were  entirely 
of  the  Mysis  relicta  Loven.  In  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Rapids,  in  July,  a  mass  of  small  chrysalides 
was  found  iu  the  stomachs  of  a  number  of  White-fish.  In  October,  from  the  same  locality,  the 
larva;  of  the  caddis-fly  were  found  in  the  stomachs,  apparently  carefully  separated  from  their 
artificial  coverings.  Stomachs  opened  in  Lake  Superior  contain  principally  the  Mysidce.  At 
Rocky  Island,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Lake  Michigan,  a  vessel  with  a  cargo  of  wheat  was  lost 
a  few  years  ago.  The  fishermen  say  that  White-fish  were  taken  in  that  vicinity  for  several  years 
afterward  with  wheat  in  their  stomachs. 

"Rarely  White-fish  will  take  a  bait.  The  breakwater  protecting  the  Illinois  Central  Railway 
at  Chicago  was  formerly  a  favorite  fishing  place,  and  in  early  summer  was  often  lined  with  a  row 
of  boys  and  men  fishing  for  perch.  There  was  seldom  a  day  passed  but  that  a  few  White-fish 
were  taken.  Mr.  Trompe,  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  has  frequently  taken  them  in  that  locality  with 
a  hook  baited  with  a  May-fly,  Ephemeridte.  At  a  fishing  dock  on  Sand  Island,  one  of  the  group  of 
the  Apostle  Islands,  Lake  Superior,  there  were  a  few  taken  this  season  with  a  worm  bait. 

"  The  leech,  Ichthyobdella  punctata,  Smith,  parasitic  on  the  White-fish,  and  numerous  in  some 
localities,  was  in  no  instance  found  in  the  stomach.  This  corroborates  Dr.  Hoy's  observations. 
A  similar  fact  was  noticed  afterward  at  Detroit  River.  A  parasitic  crustacean,  a  Lerncea,  was 
found  adhering  to  the  White-fish  in  numbers,  and,  though  many  stomachs  were  examined,  iu  no 
instance  were  any  of  the  parasites  found  in  the  contents.  Both  the  Lerncea  and  the  Ichthyobdella 
are  related  to  species  made  use  of  as  food  by  the  White-fish,  as  near  in  the  one  instance  as  being 
in  the  same  class,  and  the  other  in  the  same  order.  The  mouth  is  constructed  for  nibbling  along 
the  bottom,  the  opening  being  directed  nearly  downward,  and  they  gather  in  the  small  life  of  the 
bottom  and  the  gravel  as  they  move  slowly  along. 

"  Dredging  in  the  lake  at  different  localities  and  examination  of  stomach  contents  at  numerous 
points  prove  that  the  crustaceans  and  the  mollusk  constituting  the  principal  food  of  the  White- 
fish  are  distributed  throughout  the  lake  bottom,  in  all  localities,  and  at  all  depths  over  about 
twenty  fathoms.  In  Torch  Lake,  a  deep  inland  lake  in  the  Grand  Traverse  region,  Michigan, 
where  a  large  type  of  White-fish  is  found,  the  dredge  brought  up  the  same  species  of  crustaceans 
and  mollusks  as  were  found  in  Lake  Michigan.  The  failure  to  find  food  in  the  stomachs  of  White- 
fish  has  frequently  resulted  from  the  fact  that  the  fish  examined  were  taken  from  the  pound-nets, 
where  they  had  remained  long  enough  to  digest  the  contents  of  the  stomach  before  they  were 
taken  from  the  water.  Fish  from  the  gill-nets  have  generally  the  food  in  the  stomach  only 
partially  digested,  while  a  hundred  fish  in  succession  from  the  pound-nets  may  be  opened  and 
every  stomach  found  empty. 

It  is  frequently  asserted  that  aquatic  vegetation  afforded  sustenance  to  the  White-fish.    The 


mi:  FOOD  OF  TIII-:  wnm:  nsn.  51  g 

investigations  in  the  past  two  years  did  not  result  in  any  confirmation  of  tins  notion,  ami  it  would 
not  accord  with  the  habits  of  any  specie*  of  the  family  of  fishes  to  which  the  lake  White-fish  belongs." 

A  list  of  the  precise  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  individuals  examined  by  Mr.  Milncr  is  now 
appended: 

"  Specimens  from  Outer  Island,  Lake  Superior,  contained  great  quantities  of  .Vi/.w'.s  relicta, 
Pontoporeia  lloyi,  and  Pinidium  abditum,  var.  abytsorum ;  and  with  these  were  a  few  specimens 
of  dipterous  larvio  of  the  genus  Chironomun,  a  small  worm  (Lumbricus  lacustris),  JJaphnia 
galeata,  J).  jtellucida,  and  a  small  species  of  Planorbis. 

"From  Sand  Island,  Lake  Superior,  Pontoporeia  Hoyi ;  larvae  and  pupae  of  Chironomus; 
Valrata  sincera,  and  Qyraulux  parvut. 

"  From  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  one  lot  contained  scarcely  anything  but  small  shells.  Among  these, 
Valrata  tricarinata,  V.  sincera,  var.  striatella,  Amnicola  generosa,  A.  palida  (I),  Gyrattlun  parvtu, 
and  a  species  of  Limntea  were  in  abundance ;  while  there  were  fewer  specimens  of  Gonioba#i« 
livescens,  Physa  vinosa  (1),  young,  Sphatrium  striatinum,  and  Pisidium  compresxum. 

"  Other  specimens  contained  nothing  but  the  remains  of  insects,  among  which  were  the 
imagos  of  two  species  of  Diptera ;  larvae  and  pupae  of  Chironomus ;  larvae  and  pupae  of  some 
specimens  of  Ephemeridce ;  great  numbers  of  the  larvae,  pupa-,  and  subimagos  of  a  species  of 
Hydropsyche,  and  the  larvae  of  a  species  of  some  other  genus  of  Phryganeidce. 

••  From  Ecorse,  Michigan,  specimens  contained  a  species  of  Hydrachna,  the  leg  and  the  scales 
from  the  wing  of  some  lepidopterous  insect,  and  a  species  of  Limncea. 

••  White-fish  which  I  examined  at  Isle  Koyale,  in  August,  1871,  contained  scarcely  anything 
but  Mysis  relicta  and  Pontoporeia  Hoyi. 

••  Ecorse,  Michigan — remains  of  a  small  fish  and  several  specimens  of  a  species  of  water- 
boatmen  (Corixa). 

••  Specimens  of  Goregonus  quadrilaterals  from  Madeline  Island,  Lake  Superior,  contained  a 
number  of  specimens  of  a  leech  (Nephelis  fervida)  and  a  neuropterous  larva  allied  to  Perla. 

"These  few  observations  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  White-fish,  like  the  different  species 
of  Trout,  feeds  on  a  large  number  of  species  belonging  to  very  different  groups  of  animals.  In 
this  brief  enumeration,  twenty-five  species  are  mentioned — nine  of  insects,  four  of  Crustacea,  one 
worm,  and  eleven  of  mollusks ;  and  these  are  undoubtedly  only  a  small  part  of  the  species  upon 
which  the  White-fish  really  feeds." 

Much  difficulty  was  experienced  by  Mr.  Milner  in  his  attempts  to  discover  the  food  required 
for  the  sustenance  of  some  young  White-fish  which  had  been  sent  to  him.  His  experiments, 
together  with  a  letter  written  to  him  by  Mr.  Briggs,  editor  of  the  "Lens,"  Chicago,  with  regard  to 
the  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  embryo  White-fish,  are  here  reproduced: 

"  Food  of  embryonic  White-fish. — The  young  fish  reached  Waukegan  in  safety,  and  were  placed 
in  five-quart  glass  jars,  and  an  experiment  begun  in  attempting  to  supply  them  with  suitable  food. 
A  numbered  label  was  pasted  on  each  jar,  so  as  to  keep  them  distinct.  Knowing  that  the  larger 
White-fish  fed  largely  on  crustaceans,  an  attempt  to  feed  them  on  food  of  this  character  was 
thought  worth  a  trial.  A  few  crawfish  were  procured  and  pounded  to  a  paste,  and  small  portions 
put  into  jar  No.  1 ;  the  young  fish  ate  it  readily.  They  were  fed  at  night,  and  the  next  morning 
every  one  of  them  was  found  to  be  dead.  Jar  No.  2  was  supplied  with  bread-crumbs,  and  the  fish 
were  seen  to  take  small  particles  in  their  mouths ;  they  did  not  die  so  suddenly.  Jar  No.  3  was 
supplied  with  sweet  cream,  but  no  evidence  was  afforded  that  the  occupants  fed  upon  it.  A 
quantity  of  rain-water  was  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  the  purpose  of  generating  minute 
forms  of  life,  and  a  teaspoonful  was  poured  into  jar  No.  4,  morning  and  evening,  in  hopes  that 


516  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

their  proper  food  was  of  this  character.  lu  jar  No.  5  a  variety  of  food  was  provided,  dry  fresh 
beef,  milk,  boiled  potato,  and  bread.  The  crumbs  of  bread  and  the  scrapiugs  from  the  beef 
were  all  that  the  fish  were  seen  to  take  into  their  mouths.  They  died,  one  after  another,  very 
rapidly,  and  iu  a  few  days  all  were  dead. 

"There  were  other  things  unfavorable  to  them,  in  these  experiments,  besides  the  lack  of  their 
natural  nourishment.  To  conduct  these  experiments  favorably,  they  should  be  placed  in  a  large 
vessel,  aud  a  stream  of  fresh  water  should  be  supplied  constantly  so  that  the  water  should 
continue  pure  aud  the  production  of  conferva?  be  avoided.  This  difficulty  of  procuring  a  suita- 
ble food  for  the  young  White-fish  has  been  tlte  experience  of  the  few  fish-culturists  who  have 
hatched  them. 

"A  set  of  specimens,  representing  young  fish  from  the  Detroit  Eiver,  from  the  troughs  at 
Clarkstou,  and  from  the  jars,  were  preserved  in  alcohol  and  submitted  to  Mr.  S.  A.  Briggs,  editor 
of  the  '  Lens,'  Chicago. 

"A  letter  from  Mr.  Briggs  contained  the  following : 

"CHICAGO,  May  28,  1872. 

"  My  I  >KA R  SIB  :  The  four  vials  containing  C.  albus  came  duly  to  hand,  and  have,  with  the 
alcohol  aud  water  in  which  the  specimens  were  preserved,  been  carefully  examined. 

"The  intestines  of  specimens  Nos.  77  and  78  from  Clarkston  were  entirely  destitute  of  organic 
matter  recognizable  under  a  power  of  400  linear,  which  ought  to  be  ample  for  the  purpose.  Those 
of  specimens  76  and  79,  from  Detroit  Eiver,  contained  numerous  specimens  of  two  species  of 
Diatomacece,  viz,  Fragilaria  capudna  and  Stephanodiscus  Niagarce.  The  former  is  a  filamentous 
form  which  grows  very  abundantly  iu  our  lake  inlets  attached  to  stems  of  lilies.  The  latter  is  a 
large  form  which,  from  its  peculiar  build,  contains  considerable  nutritious  material. 
"Very  sincerely,  yours, 

"  S.  A.  BRIGGS." 

Two  statements  of  a  more  general  character  are  made  regarding  the  food  of  the  White-fish 
in  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario;  the  one,  an  extract  from  a  letter  by  Mr.  John  W.  Kerr,  Hamilton, 
Ontario,  the  other  by  Mr.  Peter  Kiel,  of  Wolfe  Bay: 

"  The  White-fish  at  this  season  of  the  year,  fall  and  winter,  feed  on  small  shell-fish.  This  you 
cau  ascertain  yourself  by  analyzing  the  contents  of  their  stomach.  In  spring  and  summer  they 
feed  on  a  kind  of  shrimp-like  insect;  and  from  my  knowledge  and  experience  I  have  never  known 
them  to  change  to  any  other  kind  of  food  than  those  two  kinds  now  described  to  you  by  me." 

"The  White-fish  is  of  a  fine  organism,  and,  being  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  is  neither  preda- 
ceous  nor  yet  very  voracious  in  its  nature,  but  lives  on  the  most  simple  fare,  which  consists  princi- 
pally of  small  worms  and  insects  that  abound  iu  great  numbers  among  the  plants  and  porous 
rocks  on  the  bottom." 

SPAWNING  AND  DEVELOPMENT. — The  most  elaborated  discussion  of  (i)  the  habits  of  the  White- 
fish  at  the  spawning  season  (noted  day  by  day  in  the  journal  of  the  author),  concluding  with  a 
table  showing  the  relative  weight  of  ovaries  and  number  of  eggs  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the 
fish,  (ii)  the  development  of  eggs  and  embryo,  and  (Hi)  the  rate  of  the  young  White-fish's  growth, 
has  been  written  by  Mr.  Milner  in  his  "  Report  on  the  Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes,"  and  is  here 
given  in  full : 

(t)  The  habits  at  spawning  season. — "The  White-fishes  throughout  the  larger  portion  of  the 
Lakes,  come  into  shallow  water  to  deposit  their  spawn  about  the  middle  of  November,  just  at 
the  time  when  the  Salmon  Trout  has  finished  spawning  and  is  returning  to  deep  water.  At  this 


SPAWNING  OK  THE  WHITE  FISH.  517 

season  they  come  iu  from  deeper  water  in  vast  schools,  and  are  taken  in  large  quantities  by  the 
nets.  A  notion,  prevalent  among  the  fishermen  in  some  localities,  that  the  female  fishes  arrived 
first,  and  were  followed,  a  few  days  later,  by  the  male,  was  not  confirmed  by  my  observation.  The 
bottoms  on  the  spawning  grounds  vary  in  character  in  different  localities;  rock,  sand,  clay,  and 
mud  being  used  indifferently  lor  the  spawning  beds.  The  depths  at  which  they  spawn  range  from 
eight  feet  to  fifteen  fathoms;  the  larger  number  probably  spawning  in  depths  of  about  eight  or 
ten  fathoms.  In  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Kiver,  and  in  the  Detroit  River,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  they 
congregate  in  great  numbers,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  In  a  number  of  rivers  emptying  into 
Green  Bay  the  White-fish  was  formerly  taken  in  abundance  in  the  spawning  season.  Saw-mills 
are  numerous  on  all  of  these  streams  at  the  present  day,  and  the  great  quantity  of  sawdust  iu 
the  streams  is  offensive  to  the  fish,  and  has  caused  them  to  abandon  them.  In  one  or  two  rivers 
of  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  they  are  still  found  in  the  autumn. 

"The  Michipicoten  River  of  Lake  Superior,  on  the  authority  of  Major  Long,  who  commanded  an 
expedition  to  this  region  in  1823,  and  George  Barnston,  esq.,  of  Montreal,  Canada,  formerly  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  is  a  favorite  spawning  ground  of  the  White  fish.  The  Nepigon  River, 
which  our  steamer  entered  while  returning  from  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  about  the 
middle  of  October,  was  said  to  contain  schools  of  White-fish,  which  had  probably  entered  the 
river  for  the  purpose  of  spawning. 

"There  is  a  probability  that  there  was  a  time  when  the  White-fish  ascended  many  of  the  clear 
rivers  of  the  Northern  Lakes,  though  that  this  was  a  universal  habit  is  not  probable,  at  any  rate 
.since  the  white  man  has  been  in  the  country. 

"The  fishermen,  with  their  gill-nets,  follow  inshore  the  migration  of  the  White-fish  in  the 
month  of  October,  and  a  few  days  before  the  middle  of  November  the  spawn  is  ripe  iu  a  few  fishes, 
and  by  the  middle  of  the  mouth  is  running  freely,  so  that  boats  and  nets  are  covered  with  the 
.spawn  and  milt.  Just  at  the  time  the  ova  are  beginning  to  ripen,  the  Lake  Trout,  Salmo  namay- 
c-H«A,  has  finished  spawning,  and  is  leaving  for  deep  water.  The  White-fish  continue  to  spawn 
until  the  last  week  of  November  or  the  first  week  of  December,  when  they,  too,  leave  the  shore 
aiid  seek  deeper  water. 

"In  the  Detroit  River,  where  there  were  fine  opportunities  for  observing  the  fish  at  this  period, 
owing  to  tire  advantages  afforded  by  Mr.  George  Clark,  of  Ecorse,  we  found  that  the  fish  ascended 
the  river  about  the  last  week  of  September,  usually  following  the  same  course  among  the  islands 
year  after  year.  Mr.  Clark's  observations  on  the  migration  of  the  White-fishes  had  discovered 
that  they  ascended  much  farther  years  ago  than  they  do  now.  They  are  still  taken  as  high  up  as 
Cottrelville,  twelve  miles  up  the  Saint  Clair  River.  None  have  been  caught  above  this  point  for 
many  years.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  White-fish  are  not  known  to  descend  from  Lake  Huron 
into  the  Saint  Clair  River.  This  is  established  by  abundant  evidence  from  continued  fishing  at 
Fort  Gratiot,  where  Mr.  Clark,  between  the  years  1830  and  1842,  took  large  quantities  of  the  wall- 
eyed pike,  Stizostedion  americana,  taking  frequently  one  thousand  barrels  in  a  jrear.  The  catch  of 
White-fish  amounted  to  an  occasional  supply  for  his  own  table,  except  after  long-continued  storms 
from  the  northward,  when  the  fish  sometimes  entered  the  river  in  schools.  They  were  never  found 
in  this  portion  of  the  river  in  the  spawning  season. 

"The  same  fact  is  claimed  by  the  Indians  iu  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  River,  that  the  White- 
fishes  of  the  lake  above  never  descend  the  rapids,  while  the  White-fishes  of  the  river,  it  is  also 
asserted,  never  ascend  to  Lake  Superior.  There  is  not  as  good  evidence  for  the  truth  in  this 
locality  as  at  Fort  Gratiot;  still,  it  may  be  the  ca>c. 


518  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"Examining  the  fish  oil  tbe  30th  of  October,  it  was  found  that  the  spawn  of  the  White-fish  was 
hard  and  firm,  with  rarely  a  fish  approaching  ripeness.  On  the  1st  of  November,  in  the  picketed 
pond,  where  the  fishes  are  inclosed,  numbers  offish  were  seen  jumping  from  the  water,  principally 
the  Herring,  who  take  delight  in  this  exercise  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Occasionally  a 
White-fish  threw  its  bulkier  form  above  the  surface.  On  the  8th  of  the  month  Mr.  Clark  and  I 
were  out  on  the  piling  surrounding  the  pond,  and  found  the  White-fish  jumping  in  numbers,  so 
that  there  was  a  continual  splashing  of  the  water.  They  almost  uniformly  jumped  in  pairs,  and 
we  could  see  quantities  of  spawn  in  the  water  immediately  afterwards,  which  rapidly  sank.  Mr. 
Clark  and  I  both  succeeded  in  capturing  a  pair  in  the  act  of  leaving  the  water,  and  found  male 
and  female  with  milt  and  spawn  running  freely.  Mr.  Clark  made  use  of  a  fine  wire  scoop  as  the 
pairs  of  fish  disappeared  from  the  surface,  and  almost  invariably  took  a  quantity  of  spawn  from 
the  water.  The  males  were  uniformly  smaller  than  the  females.  I  succeeded  in  catching  a  pair  in 
which  the  female  weighed  seven  pounds,  and  the  male,  who  escaped  before  he  was  weighed,  did 
not  exceed  one  and  a  half  pounds. 

"November  9. — I  again  saw  the  White-fish  jumping  from  the  water  in  the  evening,  almost  uni- 
formly in  pairs.  Rarely  there  were  three  leaped  together,  one  female  and  two  males.  In  the  pairs 
there  was  always  a  large  one,  evidently  a  gravid  female,  and  a  smaller  one,  the  male.  At  this  sea- 
son of  the  year  it  is  easy  to  detect  the  difference  in  sex,  the  abdomen  of  the  female  being  swollen 
and  rounded,  while  the  males  are  leaner  and  angular  in  the  abdominal  lines.  I  saw  by  long  watch- 
ing that  the  males  were  worrying  the  females.  They  seemed  possessed  of  strong  sexual  ardor,  and 
followed  the  female  with  persistence,  keeping  close  against  her  and  with  the  head  about  even  with 
the  pectoral  flu.  Driven  by  the  persistent  attention  of  the  male,  the  female  arose  vertically,  he  fol- 
lowing, and  she  making  a  convulsive  effort  to  escape,  the  water  being  from  three  to  ten  feet  deep, 
they  threw  themselves  together  above  the  surface,  and  the  spawn  and  milt  were  emitted  at  the 
time  when,  from  their  position,  their  vents  were  approximated.  The  spasmodic  fluttering  ami 
effort  observed  suggested  a  sexual  orgasm.  At  times  I  saw  them  moving  rapidly  beneath  the 
water  in  the  same  close  contact,  and  the  male  with  his  snout  even  with  the  pectoral  fin  of  the 
female,  often  turning  together  with  the  white  of  the  belly  upward  as  she  turned  and  twisted  to 
escape  him.  Often  as  they  came  out  of  the  water  they  would  fall  apart  in  different  directions,  but 
the  male  invariably  turned  immediately  in  pursuit,  so  that  I  was  led  to  think  they  were  monog- 
amous, as  is  the  fact  with  their  relatives  the  Salmon  and  the  Speckled  Trout. 

"November  10. — The  White-fish  jumping  in  great  numbers  toward  sunset.  In  most  instances, 
when  near  by,  I  observed  a  quantity  of  eggs,  perhaps  three  hundred  or  five  hundred,  emitted  at 
once.  The  inilt  of  the  male  did  not  discolor  the  water.  The  same  actions  occurred  as  before 
observed,  springing  vertically  from  the  water  with  a  spasmodic,  fluttering  effort,  the  male's  head 
opposite  the  pectoral  fin  of  the  female,  turning  together  beneath  the  water  until  both  abdomens 
showed  upwards.  Occasionally  three  sprang  above  the  surface  together.  Sometimes  the  pair 
fluttered  along  the  surface  together  for  a  long  distance. 

"November  14  and  15.— Went  out  to  the  pond  at  midnight,  and  again  at  1  o'clock  a.  m.,  and 
found  the  White-fish  jumping.  The  fact  that  they  are  quiet  in  the  daytime,  previous  to  four  or 
five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  indicates  a  parallel  habit  to  that  observed  by  Seth  Green,  of  New 
York,  in  the  shad,  they,  as  he  asserts,  spawning  principally  in  the  night,  though,  unlike  what  was 
the  case  with  the  shad,  we  had  no  difficulty  in  finding  spawuers  in  the  forenoon  with  the  seine. 

"November  18. — The  fishing  stopped  all  along  the  river.  Visited  the  island.  Cold,  strong 
wind  from  the  southwest.  Thermometer  26°.  No  White-fish  to  be  seen  in  the  pond.  A  few 
Herring  coursing  around  the  piling. 


SI'AWMNc;   OK  TI1K   WM1TK  1-MSII. 


"Noveml>er  19. — Same  as  yesterday;  no  White-fish  to  bo  seen.  Caught  some  of  the  herring 
with  the  dip-net;  found  their  spawn  still  hard  and  small;  their  stomachs  were  full  of  White-fish 
sj)awn.  Mr.  Clark  and  1  took  a  boat  with  two  men  and  dredged  in  the.  river,  obtaining  a  quantity 
of  White-fish  eggs.  Nearly  all  were  dead.  Afterwards  dipped  a  quantity  from  the  pond,  nearly 
all  of  which  were  dead. 

"November  '20. — Made  another  visit  to  the  island.  No  White-fish  seen  in  the  pond.  Cold, 
freezing  weather. 

"On  the  U4th  and  25th  of  the  month,  while  at  Saudusky,  Ohio,  numbers  of  White-fish  were 
found  with  the  spawn  in  dift'erent  stages  of  ripeness,  though  a  majority  of  them  had  spawned. 

"After  spawning,  the  abdomen  of  the  female  fish  is  somewhat  flabby  and  wrinkled,  and  the 
fish  is  undoubtedly  relaxed  and  weak;  but  not  to  the  extent  that  the  Salmon,  as  well  as  certain 
other  species  of  the  Coregoni,  are  said  to  be  reduced.  The  male  shows  but  little  indication  of 
weakness. 

"A  series  of  ovaries  were  preserved  from  fishes  of  different  sizes,  and  a  count  made  by  weigh- 
ing the  entire  ovaries  and  then  counting  the  eggs  of  a  definite  fraction,  and  calculating  from  it  the 
number  of  the  whole.  Accurate  scales  were  used  for  this  work,  and  the  table  may  be  relied  upon 
as  correct: 


Weight  of  ti-h 

Weight  of 
ovariOL 

Number  of 
eg«»- 

Oviuxt. 

H 

21,210 

7| 

28,900 

10 

4.-,  DIM! 

H 

86,608 

"This  makes  an  average  of  about  ten  thousand  increase  for  every  additional  pound  weight  in 
the  fish,  which  is  precisely  Mr.  Seth  Green's  estimate,  from  his  observations  in  spawning  White- 
fish.  Considerable  variation  in  the  weight  of  an  equal  number  of  eggs  was  observed,  depending 
upon  the  stage  of  development  at  which  they  had  arrived  in  the  ovaries.  During  the  spawning 
season,  the  fish  from  the  river  were  found  to  have  very  little  in  their  stomachs. 

(it)  Development  of  eggs  and  embryo. — "It  has  been  proven  by  repeated  observations  by  fish- 
culturists  that  the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  which  the  eggs  are  placed  the  more 
rapidly  the  embryo  fish  develops  within  the  egg,  and  the  sooner  it  escapes  from  its  inclosure  in  the 
shell.  The  temperature  of  the  succeeding  mouths  after  the  spawning  period  probably  regulates 
to  a  considerable  extent  the  time  of  hatching  of  the  White-fish  in  the  Lakes. 

"On  the  llth  day  of  April,  at  Ecorse,  on  the  Detroit  River,  I  visited  Grassy  Island  in  company 
with  Mr.  George  Clark.  The  inside  of  the  bag  of  a  seine  was  lined  with  milliuet  and  dragged  in 
the  river,  bringing  ashore  a  great  quantity  of  mud  and  the  small  forms  of  life  inhabiting  the 
bottom.  Sifting  and  washing  out  the  mud  resulted  in  finding  one  little  worm-like  fish-embryo, 
one-half  inch  in  length,  which  I  at  once  suspected  to  be  the  specimen  sought  after.  Other 
attempts  with  the  seine  failed  entirely  of  taking  any  more.  Mr.  Clark  then  proposed  that,  we 
take  a  boat  and  search  carefully  on  the  surface  for  the  young  fish.  Taking  a  pail  and  dipper,  we 
shoved  off  our  boat,  and  Mr.  Clark  pulling  very  slowly  with  the  oars,  I  hung  over  the  gunwale,  and 
in  a  very  few  minutes  found  a  little,  active  fish  swimming  with  his  head  at  the  surface,  and  captured 
him  with  the  dipper.  He  proved  to  be  identical  with  the  one  taken  with  the  seine.  In  the  course 
of  half  an  hour  we  captured  forty,  all  of  the  same  size  and  state  of  development.  Most  of  them 


520  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

were  taken  within  five  or  six  inches  of  the  surface,  though  they  were  frequently  seen  coming  up 
from  as  far  below  as  they  were  visible.  They  were  nearly  white,  with  a  pair  of  large,  black  eyes, 
were,  very  active,  moving  continually,  propelling  themselves  with  a  constant  motion  of  the  tail, 
and  swimming  with  the  head  up  and  the  body  depending  at  an  inclination  of  about  50°.  They 
seemed  apprehensive  of  danger,  and  turned  quickly  from  the  dipper  when  it  came  near  them, 
occasionally  escaping.  They  had  no  gregarious  instinct  whatever,  and  though  occasionally  taken 
in  pairs  it  was  probably  an  accidental  circumstance. 

"On  April  14  we  again  visited  the  island  and  caught  a  number  more  of  the  young  fish. 

"A  few  days  later  Mr.  Clark  and  I  visited  the  breeding-house  of  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark,  of  Clarks- 
tou.  He  had  put  down  a  large  quantity  of  White-fish  ova  in  November,  and  had  taken  the  water 
flowing  over  the  eggs  from  a  pond  that  had  remained  frozen  over  nearly  all  the  winter.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  had  remaiued  at  34°  or  35°,  and  the  young  fish  had  begun  to  hatch  out 
on  the  1st  of  April,  and  about  the  9th  or  10th  were  all  out  of  the  shell.  This  temperature  is  prob- 
ably much  the  same  as  Detroit  River  at  Ecorse,  sixty-eight  miles  below  Lake  Huron,  the  current 
flowing  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  per  hour. 

"The  appearance  of  the  umbilical  sac  in  the  specimens  from  both  places  made  it  evident  that 
they  were  of  about  the  same  age,  and  indicated  the  fact  that  in  waters  that  are  frozen  over 
throughout  the  winter  the  young  White-fish  escape  from  the  egg  about  the  first  week  of  April. 

"The  temperature  of  Lake  Michigan,  Huron,  or  Superior  probably  does  not  descend  below 
about  40°  or  43°  in  ordinary  winters,  and  the  young  fish  would  be  likely  to  make  their  appearance 
a  week  or  two  earlier. 

"The  young  fish  lived  in  the  glass  jar  of  water  two  days,  were  then  transferred  to  an  eight- 
ounce  bottle,  and  carried  over  thirty  hours  by  rail  and  steamer,  and  did  not  arrive  at  their  desti- 
nation, Waukegan,  Illinois,  until  thirty-six  hours  after  they  left  Ecorse,  Michigan.  They  were  all 
in  good  condition,  and  were  placed  in  a  quart  jar  of  fresh  water.  There  were  thirteen  of  them 
altogether. 

"April  19.— The  young  White-fish  are  very  vigorous,  and  are  in  continual  motion.  The  water 
has  been  changed  once.  Although  the  yelk  sac  has  not  diminished,  they  act  as  if  seeking  food  in 
their  movements  around  the  jar.  They  open  their  mouths  very  wide.  Occasionally  they  take  in 
dust  masses  and  eject  them  again  as  if  they  were  unpalatable. 

"April  21. — Umbilical  sac  in  one  individual  diminishing. 

"April  22. — Umbilical  sacs  reducing  rapidly. 

"April  23.— Yelk  sacs  being  rapidly  absorbed.  The  membrane  on  the  anterior  part  of  dorsal 
line  is  also  slightly  diminished. 

"April  24. — The  umbilical  sacs  becoming  minute.  The  fin-membrane  anterior  to  position  of 
dorsal  becoming  absorbed.  At  the  center  of  the  anterior  ventral  section  of  fin-membrane  a  slightly 
opaque  white  spot  is  apparent.  In  front  of  the  anus,  and  on  lower  half  of  caudal,  are  similar  ones. 
The  color  of  the  head  is  assuming  a  greenish  tinge. 

"April  25.— The  globule  in  anterior  part  of  yelk  sac  has  become  divided  up  into  numerous 
smaller  globules,  scattered  like  beads,  or  more  like  a  row  of  bubbles,  through  the  length  of  the  sac. 
When  they  open  their  mouths  the  gill-arches  show  quite  distinctly.  Excrement  voided  by  some 
of  them. 

"April  28.— Umbilical  sac  entirely  absorbed.  First  dorsal  fin  becoming  well  defined.  Pos- 
terior section  of  dorsal  membrane  contracting.  Furcation  of  caudal  slightly  indicated. 

"After  an  absence  from  home  of  six  days,  I  returned  on  May  G  to  find  only  one  alive.    A 


1>K\  KI.Ol'MKNT  OK  THK  WHITE-FISH.  521 

brown  confervoid  growth  had  developed  in  the  water,  and  the  young  fish  attempting  to  swallow 
it  always  got  it  entangled  in  its  gills  and  soon  died. 

"  In  my  absence  I  visited  Clarkston  and  purchased  for  private  parties  from  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark 
one  thousand  young  Trout,  which  I  brought  safely  to  a  brook  two  miles  north  of  Waukegan,  Illinois. 
Mr.  Clark  gave  me  one  hundred  and  fifty  young  White-fish,  most  of  them  with  the  yelk  sac  only 
partially  absorbed.  The  difference  in  temperature  evidently  made  some  difference  in  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  umbilical  sac  disappeared,  as  the  young  fish  I  had  carried  home  were  in  the  same, 
stage  of  development,  April  14,  as  when  I  had  visited  Clarkston  previously.  Now,  May  1,  the  fish 
in  Mr.  Clark's  troughs  still  retained  considerable  of  the  sac,  while  on  the  28th  of  April  the  young 
fish  in  the  jar  had  lost  it  entirely.  The  jar  had  been  kept  in  a  moderately  warm  room,  with  a 
temperature  of  about  65°,  while  the  water  in  the  troughs  at  Clarkston  flowed  from  a  pond  that  had 
been  covered  with  ice  until  within  a  few  days  previous. 

(Hi)  Rate  of  Growth.—"  Further  research  for  the  youngfish  was  unavoidably  delayed  until  thelst 
of  July.  Towards  the  end  of  June,  from  a  seine-haul  at  Waukegan,  a  specimen  of  Coregonus  allnm, 
measuring  eight  and  three-tenths  inches  in  length,  one  of  C.  quadrilateralis,  measuring  seven  and 
four  tenths,  and  one  of  Coregonus  harengus,  measuring  three  and  four-tenths  inches,  were  obtained. 

"At  Sanlt  Ste.  Marie,  Michigan,  on  July  2,  with  an  Indian  in  a  birch  canoe,  the  vicinity  both 
above  and  below  the  rapids  was  explored  in  the  current  and  in  the  still  water  and  along  the  shores, 
to  find  the  smallest  grade  of  White-fishes  that  were  to  be  had.  Along  the  shore,  in  the  sharp 
current,  schools  were  found  of  which  the  smallest  taken  measured  four  inches  and  nine-tenths, 
and  the  largest  six  inches  and  one-tenth.  It  was  quite  evident  that  they  had  all  been  batched  the 
same  season.  Another  excursion  in  the  birch  resulted  in  nothing  materially  different.  The 
minimum  measurement  of  the  next  grade  taken  was  eight  inches  and  three  tenths. 

"At  Shoal  Island,  one  of  the  Apostle  Islands  of  Lake  Superior,  a  White-tlsh  was  taken  from 
the  pound-net  about  the  middle  of  August  measuring  six  inches  in  length,  and  another  measuring 
six  and  one-half  inches. 

"On  the  3d  of  December,  at  Point  Edward,  Canada,  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron,  two  speci 
inens  of  Coregonus  aJbus  were  obtained  from  a  seine,  one  measuring  six  inches  and  eight-tenths, 
and  the  other  seven  inches  and  seven-tenths. 

"It  is  very  probable  that  the  Shoal  Island  fishes  of  August  and  the  Point  Edward  one*  of 
December  3  were  the  larger-grown  individuals  of  the  same  generation  as  those  taken  at  Sanlt  Ste. 
Marie  in  Jnly.  The  difficult  point  to  decide  was  in  what  year  the  beginning  of  this  generation 
should  be  placed. 

"The  only  positive  data  with  reference  to  the  growth  of  White-fish  are  found  in  the  observa- 
tions of  Mr.  Samuel  Wilmot,  of  Newcastle,  Ontario,  in  charge  of  the  government  hatching  house  of 
Canada.  Mr.  Wilmot  reports  that  in  November,  1868,  he  placed  a  quantity  of  spawn  in  the  hatch 
ing  troughs  for  an  experiment,  and  in  the  following  March  and  April  a  large  number  of  young  fry 
made  their  appearance.  He  failed  in  finding  food  adapted  to  the  young  fish,  but  a  number  that 
escaped  through  the  screens  were  carried  down  to  a  small  pond,  where  they  seemed  to  thrive 
and  soon  became  well-developed  young  fish.  In  the  month  of  September  they  were  exhibited  at 
a  fair  in  London,  Canada.  They  were  then  about  five  inches  long.  In  December  the  young  fish 
had  attained  the  length  of  seven  inches. 

"Mr.  N.  W.  Clark,  of  Clarkston,  Michigan,  visited  Wilmot's  hatching-house  in  1871,  and  in  an 
address  before  the  house  of  representatives  of  Michigan  said:  '  Enough  is  known,  from  the  success 
of  Samuel  Wilmot,  esq.,  of  Canada,  to  sustain  as  in  the  assertion  that  they  (the  White-fish)  in- 


522  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

crease  in  weight  abont  three-quarters  of  a  pound  a  year,  as  those  he  had  when  we  saw  them,  last 
January,  we  judged  to  have  weighed  about  one  and  a  quarter  pounds,  being  then  about  eighteen 
months  old.'  These  are  the  only  records  of  observations  of  the  growth  of  the  White-fish,  and 
evidences  of  tliis  character  are  the  only  ones  of  any  value  of  the  rate  of  growth. 

"An  attempt  was  made  several  times  from  large  lifts  of  fish  lying  in  the  fish  shanties  to  arrange 
the  different  sizes  of  White-fish  in  series,  with  the  hope  that  some  evidence  of  the  rate  of  growth 
per  year  would  result.  It  was  always  found  that  the  row  of  fishes,  from  the  larger  to  the  smaller, 
assumed  the  form  of  a  spire-like  pyramid,  and  a  'straight-edge'  laid  at  their  heads  would  have 
touched  the  uoses  of  every  one  in  the  series,  and  on  the  opposite  end  it  would  have  touched  every 
tail,  so  perfectly  regular  was  the  gradation.  It  was  difficult  to  believe  that  the  White-fishes,  of 
from  nearly  five  inches  to  six  or  seven,  had  attained  these  dimensions  in  three  mouths  from  the 
little  half-inch  embryos  of  April  and  May,  though  none  of  less  size  were  found  with  the  most 
diligent  search. 

"Mr.  Wilmot's  young  fish  measured  about  five  inches  in  September  when  four  months  old. 
Experience  has  proved  that  there  is  a  more  rapid  growth  of  the  young  Trout  and  Salmon  afterward 
than  during  the  first  two  months.  The  observation  on  the  development  of  the  young  White-fish 
from  April  to  the  first  week  of  May  showed  the  slightest  perceptible  difference  of  length  and  bulk. 
If  we  assume  them  to  be  the  fish  of  this  season,  then  they  had  increased  ten  times  in  length  in  two 
months,  precluding  the  possibility  of  a  more  rapid  growth  afterward. 

"  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  fish  measuring  from  four  to  seven  inches  in  July  were  those 
of  the  previous  season's  hatching,  and  about  sixteen  months  old.  It  is  equally  probable  that  the 
Point  Edward  fish  of  seven  inches  are  those  of  the  same  season,  as  the  five  months  intervening  the 
1st  of  July  and  the  3d  of  December  should  have  produced  considerable  growth.  To  confirm  this 
opinion  we  have  Mr.  Wilmot's  statement  that  his  White-fish  had  attained  the  length  of  seven 
inches  in  December.  These  evidences  of  the  rate  of  growth  are  the  only  conclusions  we  have  been 
enabled  to  adopt  with  reference  to  the  size  attained  at  different  ages.  Nor  does  this  decide  the 
average  size  of  the  growth  of  the  White-fishes  the  first  and  second  seasons." 

The  act  of  spawning,  with  the  accompanying  movements,  is  thus  detailed  by  Mr.  Peter  Kiel, 
of  Wolfe  Bay : 

"From  thirty  years'  experience  as  a  fisherman,  and  after  obtaining  all  the  information  pos- 
sible from  others  on  the  habits  of  White-fish,  I  beg  leave  to  remark  that  during  the  month  of 
November  the  White-fish  are  known  to  unite,  or  join  in  pairs,  male  and  female,  and  that  they 
approach  the  shore  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  Should  the  weather  be  very  cold  they  move 
more  rapidly  and  arrive  at  their  destination  about  the  15th.  Their  favorite  place  is  a  sheltered  or 
land-locked  bay  or  inlet  having  a  sandy  or  gravelly  bottom.  When  in  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  of 
water  the  female,  endowed  with  an  instinctive  knowledge  that  her  time  has  come  for  depositing  a 
part  of  her  spawn,  selects  a  spot  and  commences  to  dig  vigorously  with  her  head,  at  the  same  time 
moving  the  tail  rapidly  to  stir  the  sand  or  gravel ;  in  a  short  time  she  forms  a  nest  about  two 
inches  deep;  the  male,  staying  close  by,  seems  to  be  attentively  watching  her  movements.  When 
the  nest  is  satisfactorily  arranged  she  ejects  a  quantity  of  spawn  into  it.  The  male  immediately 
darts  alongside  of  her  and  impregnates  it  with  the  milt.  He  then  moves  off'  a  little  way  while  she 
covers  it  partly  over  with  her  nose  and  tail.  They  remain  near  the  spot  two  or  three  days,  until 
all  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  same  nest,  when  they  return  to  the  deep  in  search  of  food,  leaving 
the  eggs  and  young  fish,  when  hatched  out,  to  shift  for  themselves.  In  the  mean  tiiue  the  spawn, 
being  heavier  than  water,  remains  on  the  bottom,  which  it  would  do  even  if  not  partly  covered 


SI-AUNIM;  ACT  or  THK  \VHITK  FISH.  523 

* 

over,  nature  having  provided  an  adhesive  substance  which  fastens  it  to  the  sand  or  gravel.  It 
remains  about  one  hundred  days,  when  the  young  ttsh  emerge  into  life.  While  they  were  exposed 
for  so  long  a  time,  we  cannot  tail  to  admiiv  the  beautiful  and  mysterious  laws  of  nature  manifested 
in  their  protection  from  the  severity  of  the  weather,  from  predaceous  wild  fowl,  from  voracious 
fish,  and  from  reptiles,  which  during  the  winter  are  in  a  semi-dormant  state.  As  soon  as  the  young 
fish  are  strong  enough  to  move  off  they  gradually  work  out  into  the  deep,  where  they  remain  three 
or  four  years,  when  they  attain  their  full  or  average  size,  and  move  round  periodically  with  the 
parent  nsh  to  their  various  t'et-ding  and  spawning  grounds. 

"  White-fish  are  very  prolific,  and  would  multiply  very  rapidly  if  not  destroyed  by  a  reckless 
mode  of  fishing.  Many  valuable  fishing  grounds  have  been  rendered  useless  by  hauling  seines 
during  the  breeding  season,  since,  in  such  case,  the  parent  fish  are  not  only  destroyed,  but  the 
spawn  is  disturbed  by  the  seines  dragging  along  the  bottom  so  that  it  will  not  hatch.  Another 
destructive  mode  of  fishing  is  to  set  gill-nets  across  the  mouths  of  bays  or  inlets,  where  the  fish, 
in  accordance  with  their  habit,  enter  in  periodically ;  these  nets  turn  their  course  some  other  way, 
and  it  will  be  clearly  understood  that  they  are  so  social  in  their  nature  that  in  whatever  direction 
the  main  body  of  them  incline  the  others  are  sure  to  follow.  Our  fishery  laws  have  done  much, 
already,  toward  the  prevention  of  such  abuses." 

Mr.  John  W.  Kerr,  overseer  of  the  Hamilton  district,  Ontario,  Canada,  wrote  the  following 
paragraph  in  a  letter  to  Professor  Baird,  on  the  spawning  of  the  White-fish  in  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario : 

"The  White-fish  spawn,  both  in  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  on  the  reefs  and  rocks,  during  Hie 
month  of  November.  The  eggs  dropping  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  are  protected  from  suckers, 
a  fish  always  on  the  alert  at  this  season  of  the  year  to  devour  the  eggs.  The  two  specimens  sent 
herewith  you  will  please  find  by  examination  differ  from  each  other  in  many  respects.  This  you 
will  be  able  to  find  out  to  be  the  case  only  by  close  study  and  observation.  The  Lake  Ontario  fish 
you  will  find  to  be  a  finer  and  superior  fish  than  the  Lake  Erie  White-fish,  both  in  delicious  deli- 
cacy of  flavor  and  taste,  and  the  whiteness  and  richness  of  the  flesh.  Still,  as  regards  the  food  for 
this  fish,  in  both  lakes,  I  have  in  every  instance  and  on  all  occasions  found  it  the  same.  The  fish 
live  by  suction. 

"  There  is  an  observable  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  White-fish  of  Lake  Ontario  as  compared 
with  the  shape  of  the  White-fish  of  Lake  Erie.  Thus  you  will  please  find  that  the  Lake  Ontario 
White-fish  are  rounder  and  broader  on  the  back,  while  the  Lake  Erie  White-fish  are  flatter  and 
sharper  on  the  back." 

ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION. — At  so  early  a  date  as  November,  1857,  according  to  Mr. 
Milner,  the  first  attempt  placed  on  record  was  made  by  Mr.  Carl  Muller,  of  New  York,  and  Mr. 
Henry  Brown,  of  New  Haven,  to  propagate  the  White-fish  artificially.  The  lake  which  it  was 
proposed  should  be  first  stocked  was  Lake  Saltoustall,  near  the  city  of  New  Haven.  Eggs  were 
procured  and  impregnated  artificially.  The  knowledge  of  the  art  was,  however,  crude,  pisciculture 
l>eing  in  its  infancy,  and  the  experiment  was  but  partially  successful.  The  eggs  were  packed  in 
moist  sand  and  placed  in  the  bee1  of  the  stream  on  their  arrival,  the  White-fish  eggs  on  a  sandy 
shoal  of  less  than  three  feet  in  depth.  The  presence  of  young  fish  in  great  numbers  in  the  following 
March  and  April  was  believed  to  result  from  the  eggs,  although  the  exceedingly  common  error  on 
the  Great  Lakes  of  mistaking  the  schools  of  small  cyprinoids  for  young  White-fish  (which  they  very 
much  resemble  except  in  the  absence  of  the  adipose  dorsal),  may  have  been  repeated  here.  In  the 
fall  of  1858  the  experiment  was  renewed.  There  has  been  no  reference  made  to  any  permanent 
results  from  this  experiment  in  the  reports  of  the  State  commissioners. 


524  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"A  more  successful  series  of  tests  were  begun  in  1868  by  Seth  Green  and  Samuel  Wilmot  in 
applying  artificial  culture  to  this  species,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark,  of 
Clarkston,  Michigan.  They  were  found  to  be  very  delicate  and  difficult  to  hatch  in  the  first  few 
years  of  experimenting,  but  methods  were  perfected  that  made  their  production  as  certain  and 
with  losses  nearly  as  small  as  in  other  species.  The  necessity  of  production  of  immense  numbers 
in  attempting  to  multiply  the  market  species  of  fishes  established  the  fact  that  the  apparatus  used 
in  trout-hatching  had  to  be  extended  over  a  wide  area  to  accommodate  them.  The  culture  of  the 
White-fish  and  the  Salmon  Trout  induced  modifications  of  apparatus  at  the  New  York  State  hatch- 
ing establishment."1 

On  page  548  of  the  same  report  Mr.  Milner  continues  his  observations: 

"A  few  extracts  from  a  letter  of  Mr.  Clark,  to  the  board  of  fish  commissioners  of  the  State  of 
Michigan,  will  advance  his  arguments  in  favor  of  brook  or  surface  waters  in  preference  to  spring 
water.  Mr.  Clark  began  his  experiments  with  White-fish  in  1869,  hatching  a  small  percentage  of 
the  eggs  he  procured : 

"'In  November,  1870, 1  started  again  for  Ecorse  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  more  spawn. 
Mr.  George  Clark,  at  his  fishery,  very  kindly  rendered  me  all  the  aid  in  his  power,  furnishing  the 
parent  fish  for  the  purpose  of  trying  further  experiments  in  this  new  enterprise.  I  succeeded  in 
obtaining  all  the  spawn  needed  for  further  trial,  but  he  was  so  anxious  to  make  it  a  success  that 
he  sent  his  man  to  me  with  an  extra  lot  which  he  thought  might  be  in  better  condition.  I 
succeeded  in  hatching  a  much  larger  proportion  of  them  than  the  year  before,  but  raising  them 
with  artificial  food  was  attended  with  no  better  success.  This  second  effort  and  failure  led  me  to 
investigate  the  cause,  and  after  much  thought  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  if  we  ever  succeeded 
in  making  this  branch  of  pisciculture  a  success,  we  must  study  the  principles  of  nature  more  than 
had  ever  been  done  before.  I  became  fully  satisfied  that  by  arranging  so  as  to  use  water  taken 
from  a  pond  or  lake  entirely  frozen  over,  it  would  retard  the  development  of  the  eggs  to  the  time 
required  by  nature,  which  proved  by  subsequent  experience  to  be  about  April  1.  I  then  consulted 
Messrs.  George  Clark  and  John  P.  Clark,  and  made  known  to  them  my  convictions,  and  so  strongly 
were  they  convinced  that  I  had  struck  the  key-note  to  insure  ultimate  success  that  they  proposed 
to  furnish  all  the  necessary  materials  and  a  portion  of  the  labor  to  enable  me  to  go  on  and  erect 
a  large  hatching  establishment.  This  was  located  about  'eighty  rods  below  the  spring  where  we 
had  been  experimenting  the  two  years  previous  with  the  unsatisfactory  results  above  stated. 
This  location  was  supposed  to  be  a  sufficient  distance  below  the  main  spring,  so  that  by  damming 
the  water  and  raising  a  pond  it  would  freeze  over  and  remain  so  during  the  period  of  incubation. 
Our  views  proved  to  be  correct,  as  the  500,000  of  eggs  which  we  placed  in  the  hatching  boxes 
November  15  of  that  year  were  preserved  in  fair  condition,  and  with  one-quarter  less  labor  in 
caring  for  them  than  formerly.  They  did  not  commence  to  hatch  until  April  1,  and  it  was  estimated 
that  we  succeeded  in  hatching  at  least  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  we  had  taken  four  and  one-half 
months  previously  at  the  fishery  of  George  Clark.  Of  these  young  fry,  some  100,000  of  them 
were  put  in  Detroit  River,  at  or  near  his  fishery  place,  and  no  doubt  at  this  time  they  are  thriving 
finely  in  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie,  which  abounds  with  abundant  natural  food  for  them,  and  in  a 
year  or  two  more  they  will  doubtless  return  to  the  same  place  where  they  were  deposited.  The 
balance  of  them  we  placed  in  three  small  lakes  in  Oakland  County,  some  of  which  have  been 
seen  within  the  last  few  months,  doing  finely. 

"'This  experiment  proved  so  great  a  success  that  again,  the  next  November,  1872,  through 


1  Milner  in  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Fiah  and  Fisheries,  Part  II,  p.  545. 


ritm'Ar.ATioN  OK  THH  \VHITK-FISH.  525 

the  encouragement  of  the  Messrs.  Clark  and  the  United  States  Fish  Commissioner,  I  doubled  the 
opacity  of  this  hatching  house  and  procured  1,000,000  of  the  ova  from  the  same  grounds,  and 
proceeded  as  before  with  some  improvements  I  made  in  the  modus  operandi  of  hatching,  about 
February  20.  Mr.  Miluer,  deputy  United  States  commissioner,  arrived  at  this  place  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiding  me  in  packing  and  shipping  a  lot  of  the  ova,  which  were  then  in  an  advanced  stage 
of  incubation.  We  estimated  from  actual  count  that  sixty-six  per  cent,  were  in  such  an  advanced 
state  that  they  were  secure  from  any  further  mortality.  We  then  shipped  to  San  Francisco  210,000 
in  the  most  perfect  condition.  About  March  10  I  received  an  order  from  the  Commissioner  at 
Washington  to  send  the  same  number  again  to  the  same  place,  which  I  should  have  done,  but  from 
the  fact  that  the  eggs  had  become  so  far  advanced  that  I  felt  quite  confident  they  could  not  be 
transported  so  great  a  distance  successfully,  and  only  sent  116,000,  which  1  am  most  happy  to 
have  heard  arrived  in  excellent  condition.  Soon  after  this  the  weather  became  much  warmer  and 
the  ice  all  thawed  from  the  pond,  and  by  the  20th  of  the  month  the  eggs  then  remaining  in  the 
troughs  commenced  hatching.  The  water  had  then  risen  to  a  temperature  of  45°,  which  sudden 
change  caused  the  eggs  to  turn  white,  and  soon  all  were  worthless.  Quite  n  large  number  had 
already  hatched  out,  and  I  removed  part  of  them  to  the  same  lake  where  Mr.  George  Clark  and 
myself  had  put  in  a  large  number  the  year  before,  and  placed  about  25,000  in  a  small  lake  at 
Clarkston  Village. 

" '  This  sudden  change  in  the  condition  of  these  eggs  I  cannot  account  for,  only  from  the  fact 
of  the  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  water  at  this  late  stage  of  their  development.  I  am  fully 
satisfied  that  if  the  ice  had  remained  in  the  pond  as  late  as  the  previous  year  I  should  not  have 
lost  two  per  cent,  from  the  time  I  made  the  last  San  Francisco  shipment.  This  experience  satis- 
fied me  that  spring  water,  although  it  may  not  be  used  until  it  advances  a  long  way  down  from  its 
source,  is  not  the  place  to  hatch  White-fish.  Although  this  pond  was  clear  from  ice  March  15,  the 
ice  remained  in  our  lakes  in  this  region  until  May  1. 

"  'This  species  of  eggs,  and  especially  those  not  good  and  not  perfectly  impregnated,  placed  in 
spring  water  at  a  temperature  of  46°  (which  is  about  the  same  as  all  good  springs)  in  winter,  will 
start  out  a  growth  of  vegetable  fungi  more  than  four  times  faster  than  if  placed  in  water  tit  33°, 
which  is  the  temperature  of  ice-water,  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  employ  help  enough  to  pick 
out  the  dead  eggs  (when  in  spring  water)  when  you  have  over  a  million,  as  I  had  the  last  two 
seasons.  Even  in  ice-water  last  winter,  which  preserved  the  eggs  much  longer  than  in  spring 
water,  it  required  from  eight  to  ten  persons  to  keep  them  in  fair  condition,  and  then  sometimes 
they  were  necessarily  left  too  long  in  an  unfavorable  condition. 

"'These  facts  are  conclusive  proof  to  my  mind  that  the  ova  of  White-fish  should  be  kept 
entirely  away  from  the  influence  of  spring  water,  or  any  water  which  will  be  liable  to  change 
during  incubation,  and  all  houses  where  White  fish  are  to  be  hatched  should  be  constructed  upon 
some  lake  or  pond  that  freezes  over  early  and  does  not  thaw  out  until  April  1 .  It  is  stated  as  a 
reason  why  spring  water  is  better  for  batching  fish  eggs  than  lake  water,  that  it  is  generally  more 
free  from  sediment,  some  kinds  of  which  are  highly  detrimental  to  the  successful  hatching  of  the 
fish  ova.  -Whereas  our  inland  lakes  freeze  over  early  in  the  fall,  and  are  not  free  from  ice  until 
late  in  the  spring,  this  ice  is  perfect  protection  against  any  agitation  of  the  water,  and  gives  an 
opportunity  for  any  sediment  that  may  be  in  it  to  settle  to  the  bottom,  where  it  must  remain  until 
spring,  and  until  the  eggs  are  hatched  and  distributed.  Consequently  the  water  in  all  of  our 
inland  lakes  is,  during  winter,  as  clear  as  crystal. 

"'You  also  wish  me  to  give  my  views  in  reference  to  using  Detroit  River  water.    To  this  I  will 


520  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

frankly  say  that  I  should  much  prefer  it  to  any  spring  water  in  this  or  any  other  State  for  hatching 
White-fish.  But  there  are  some  objections  which  arise  in  my  mind  even  to  this  water.  I  am 
aware  that  this  species  offish  are  natives  of  our  great  lakes  awl  rivers,  and  consequently  it  would 
be  supposed  that  this  water  must  agree  with  them,  and  that  success  would  be  certain  if  this  water 
was  used.  But  has  it  not  occurred  to  all  persons  who  have  given  this  subject  much  thought  that 
much  the  largest  proportion  of  these  fish  run  to  the  shoals  of  those  lakes  during  spawning  season 
to  deposit  their  oval  These  shoals  are  the  first  to  freeze  over  in  the  fall  and  the  last  to  thaw  in 
the  spring.  This  keeps  at  nearly  the  same  temperature  during  incubation.  Although  it  may  be 
said  that  during  their  migration  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Saint  Clair  some  deposit  their  spawn  in 
the  rivers,  it  is  not  very  probable  that  much  of  it  is  hatched.  I  am  aware  that  many  hatch  in  and 
about  the  ponds  where  the  fishermen  preserve  their  fish  for  winter  use.  This  tends  to  prove  that 
the  shoals  are  the  place  where  they  hatch  most  largely,  as  the  ice  remains  in  these  ponds  much 
longer  in  the  spring  than  in  the  strong  current  in  Detroit  River.  If  water  is  used  from  this 
river  it  must  change  in  temperature  many  times  during  the  winter,  as  it  is  well  known  that  the 
ice  leaves  the  river  quite  often  during  the  four  and  a  half  months  of  the  period  of  incubation.  No 
one  can  gainsay  the  fact  that  in  the  hatching  of  fish  ova,  if  the  water  is  of  a  perfectly  even  tem- 
perature, it  will  be  attended  with  more  favorable  results  than  when  frequently  changing,  from  any 
cause,  even  if  such  change  is  not  more  than  two  or  three  degrees.  Is  it  not  also  a  fact  that  the  ice 
frequently  leaves  the  lower  part  of  Lake  Saint  Glair  early  in  March  ?  If  so,  would  not  the  westerly 
winds  roll  the  water  in  the  upper  part  of  the  river?  This  sediment  would  be  deposited  on  the 
eggs,  and,  in  consequence  of  its  fine,  clammy  nature,  would  be  injurious  to  them.  I  noticed  this 
was  the  case  in  a  little  experimental  arrangement  of  A.  M.  Campau,  some  two  years  since,  where 
this  water  was  used.  I  examined  these  eggs  several  times  during  this  process,  and  found  a  fine 
clammy  substance  accumulating  on  them.  They  were  gradually  dying,  and  I  do  not  think  any 
were  hatched.  These  eggs  were  taken  from  our  hatching  boxes,  and  were  in  perfect  condition,  as 
they  were  so  far  advanced  in  development  that  the  embryo  fish  could  be  plainly  seen  with  the 
naked  eye.  For  these  reasons  I  am  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  more  suitable  water  for 
hatching  this  species  of  fish  eggs  than  the  Detroit  River. 

"In  conclusion,  the  advantages  afforded  American  fish-culture  from  the  cultivation  of  the 
White-fish,  as  they  have  just  been  enumerated:  These  are,  (1)  more  careful  and  perfect  methods, 
resulting  from  the  experience  in  the  culture  of  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  species  whose  propa- 
gation has  been  attempted  by  culturists;  (2)  the  perfection  of  three  forms  of  apparatus  for 
hatching  fish  eggs,  embodying  the  important  improvements  of  facility  in  handling  the  eggs  and 
removing  sediment  and  coufervae,  and  greatly  economizing  space;  (3)  the  contrivance  of  a 
superior  case  for  the  carriage  of  eggs;  and,  besides,  a  possibly  successful,  entirely  new  method  in 
the  hatching  of  eggs  and  the  discussion  of  and  practical  tests  of  conditions  of  water  suitable  to 
the  eggs  of  a  species  that  we  are  not  (at  any  rate  thus  far)  able  to  supply  with  food." 

"These  experiments,"  wrote  Mr.  Milner,  referring  to  those  made  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark, 
"were  all  attended  with  considerable  success,  though  the  large  percentage  of  loss,  compared 
with  that  in  trout  and  salmon  hatching,  was  anything  but  encouraging.  The  screens  in  the 
troughs,  in  most  instances,  were  the  same  as  those  used  for  the  Trout,  and  the  embryo  White- 
fishes,  being  smaller,  escaped  and  ran  over  into  the  waste  troughs  and  down  into  the  ponds 
below.  This  was  in  some  measure  a  fortunate  circumstance,  at  Mr.  Wilmot's  establishment,  for 
the  young  fish,  finding  their  natural  food  in  the  ponds,  grew  and  thrived,  and  afforded  the  only 
positive  data  there  are  of  their  rate  of  growth.  In  the  succeeding  year  (1870)  Mr.  Green  and  Mr. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  WHITE  FISH.  527 

Clark  made  additional  ex]K>rinients,  and  from  the  experience  of  the  preceding  year,  having  learned 
the  necessity  i)l'  immediate  attention  to  the  White-fish  eggs  after  they  were  placed  in  the  troughs, 
lK»gan  the  work  of  removing  the  iiniinpregnated  eggs  within  two  or  three  days'  time,  and,  giving 
them  close  attention,  during  the  season  hatched  out  a  much  larger  percentage  of  eggs.  Mr. 
(im-n,  in  1809,  distributed  a  quantity  of  the  White-flsh  spawn  to  numerous  applicant*  who 
responded  to  an  advertisement  ottering  it  for  distribution.  Some  packages  of  spawn  from  this 
supply  were  sent  by  steamer  to  Mr.  Frank  Buckland,  inspector  of  salmon  fisheries  for  Great 
I'. i  ii. i in.  In  referring  to  the  condition  of  the  eggs  on  their  arrival  in  London,  he  says,  'A  good 
proportion  of  the  White-fish  eggs  were  alive  and  well.' 

"Some  temi>orary  troughs  were  put  up  in  Detroit,  Michigan,  and  supplied  with  the  ova, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  A.  M.  Coinpeau,  Mr.  J.  P.  Clark,  Mr.  George  Clark,  and  Mr.  James 
Craig. 

"Experiments  were  again  made  by  Mr.  Green,  Mr.  Clark,  and  Mr.  Wilmot,  in  1870.  More 
than  a  million  of  ova  were  supplied  by  the  liberality  of  Mr.  J.  P.  Clark  and  George  Clark,  without 
expense,  from  their  ponds  in  Detroit  River.  Mr.  Green  also  made  experiments  in  the  breeding  of 
Salmon  Trout  and  Lake  Herring,  with  some  success. 

"In  1871  these  gentlemen  just  referred  to,  from  Detroit  and  vicinity,  failing  to  arouse  the 
interest  of  the  State  authorities  in  the  matter  of  fish  propagation  to  the  extent  they  desired,  fur- 
nished Mr.  N.  W.  Clark,  of  Clarkston,  with  the  necessary  funds  for  the  erection  of  a  building, 
sixty-four  feet  in  length  by  twenty  in  width,  in  which  were  put  up  twenty-six  troughs,  sixteen  feet 
long  and  one  foot  wide.  The  entire  building  was  devoted  to  the  hatching  of  White-flsh,  and  the 
number  of  eggs  laid  down  estimated  at  about  one  million.  The  experience  of  the  previous  years 
aided  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark  to  a  most  complete  success,  and  by  the  1st  of  April  the  fish  began  hatching, 
and  before  the  13th  of  the  month  the  troughs  were  swarming  with  yonng  White-fishes.  Between 
the  20th  and  the  30th  of  April  these  were  all  distributed  by  Mr.  Clark  in  a  number  of  inland  lakes 
in  Oakland  Connty,  Michigan,  and  into  the  Detroit  River.  Mr.  Wilmot  again  procured  about  one- 
half  million  of  White-fish  eggs,  which  were  handled  with  improved  success. 

"Mr.  Green  gave  less  space  to  white-fish  eggs  this  season,  and  laid  down  large  quantities  of 
salmon-trout  ova,  with  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  Trout  in  the  inland  waters  of  the  State. 

"Ill  1872  an  employe"  of  Mr.  Green  devised  a  new  apparatus  for  hatching  fish,  that  economized 
space  to  a  great  extent  and  afforded  him  room  for  a  large  supply  of  both  salmon-trout  and  white- 
fish  ova.  Visiting  his  establishment  in  January  last,  we  found  them  hatched  out  in  large  quan- 
tities, and  orders  arriving  daily  for  the  fry,  to  stock  the  waters  of  inland  lakes  in  all  parts  of  the 
State.  Mr.  Wilmot  obtained  a  supply  of  white-fish  spawn  at  Sandwich,  on  the  Canadian  side  of 
the  Detroit  River." 

The  employe"  of  Mr.  Green  above  referred  to  was  a  Mr.  M.  C.  Holton,  whose  invention  is  thus 
more  fully  described : 

"Instead  of  placing  a  single  layer  of  eggs  in  a  long,  narrow  trough,  he  has  prepared  a  can  or 
box,  of  perhaps  a  foot  square  and  several  feet  in  height.  This  is  filled  with  shallow  trays  of  about 
half  an  inch  in  depth,  with  wire-gauze  bottoms,  on  which  the  eggs  are  placed,  so  that  with  twelve 
trays,  having  a  surface  of  one  square  foot  each,  he  accommodates  twelve  times  as  many  eggs  as 
by  the  ordinary  method.  The  box  is  so  arranged  that  a  current  of  water  is  carried  by  a  covered 
pipe  down  the  side  of  the  can  to  the  bottom  and  allowed  to  enter  at  that  point.  The  current  in 
its  overflow  passes  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  and  the  water  circulates  freely  over  the  eggs.  This 
arrangement  has  the  additional  advantage  that  once  a  day,  or  oftener  if  necessary,  the  trays  can 
be  taken  out  singly,  and  any  diseased  or  defective  eggs  removed,  thus  improving  the  entire  mass." 


528  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

In  1873,  a  device  to  accomplish  like  results  was  made  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark,  of  Clarkstoii, 
Micnigan,  and  patented  in  1874.1 

This  arrangement  employed  the  troughs,  but  divided  them  into  compartments  by  means  of 
water-tight  partitions  or  bulkheads;  into  each  compartment  a  box  containing  a  series  of  trays 
filled  with  eggs  is  placed  and  covered  with  a  pan  of  perforated  tiu,  upon  which  the  water  falls 
and  descends  through  the  perforations  upon  the  screens  and  eggs  beneath,  passing  through  all 
and  escaping  at  the  bottom,  afterward  flowing  over  the  partition  upon  the  cover  of  the  next  box, 
and  so  throughout  the  series  of  compartments  until  it  escapes  through  the  waste- way  at  the  end 
of  the  trough.  By  this  arrangement  a  very  small  quantity  of  water  is  required  for  a  very  large 
number  of  eggs,  and  all  the  advantages  of  handling  and  removal  of  sediment  and  considerable 
economy  of  space  are  afforded. 

Another  combination  of  the  trough  and  tray  methods  is  in  use  in  California,  devised  by  Mr. 
John  Williamson,  of  the  California  Acclimatizing  Society.  This  is  very  similar  to  the  one  just 
described,  except  that  the  flow  of  water  through  the  screens  and  eggs  is  from  below  instead  of 
from  the  top.  This  model  was  not  the  result  of  work  in  white-fish  hatching,  as  in  the  case  with 
the  two  first  named. 

An  experiment  was  made  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark  in  the  hatching  of  white-fish  eggs,  which  were 
laid  in  single  layers  of  woolen  cloth  stretched  on  very  thin  frames  of  wood,  packed  in  a  box 
imbedded  in  sphagnum  moss  within  a  refrigerator,  and  the  whole  kept  at  a  temperature  a  little 
above  the  freezing  point  by  ice.  The  eggs  are  left  entirely  undisturbed  after  they  are  first 
arranged,  and  the  only  care  on  the  part  of  the  attendant  is  to  keep  the  temperature  above 
the  freezing  point.  The  presence  of  dead  eggs  does  not  seem  to  contaminate  the  living 
ones  in  this  condition,  and  very  little  confervoid  growth  appears.  A  quantity  of  eggs  carried 
forward  in  this  manner  through  the  winter  appeared  to  be  in  excellent  condition,  development 
progressing  slowly,  and  a  few,  taken  from  the  cloths  and  placed  in  spring  water,  hatched  out 
within  a  short  time  as  well-developed  embryos.  If  this  method,  after  full  and  thorough  trial, 
should  prove  successful,  it  would  make  the  work  of  hatching  a  matter  of  neither  effort,  care,  nor 
expense.  It  has  been  a  matter  of  too  short  experience  and  of  experiment  on  too  small  a  scale  to 
warrant  its  positive  success. 

An  improved  case  for  the  carriage  of  eggs  long  distances  by  railroad  is  another  device 
l»erfected  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark  in  1872.  It  is  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  case  containing 
circular  cups,  the  cups  being  square,  and  in  this  form  economizing  space  very  much.  The  cups  of 
tinned  iron,  about  four  inches  square  and  two  inches  high,  rest  in  trays,  with  low  partitions  forming 
low  compartments  that  retain  the  bottom  of  each  cup  and  hold  it  solidly  in  place.  The  trays  are 
set  within  a  square  tin  box,  in  which  they  fit  with  moderate  tightness,  and  are  placed,  when 
containing  the  cups,  eight  or  ten  in  the  box,  one  above  the  other;  this  box  is  set  within  another 
box  of  tin  large  enough  to  leave  an  open  space  on  all  sides,  to  be  filled  with  sawdust;  a  tube  is 
inserted  through  the  bottom  of  the  inner  box,  piercing  the  bottom  of  the  outer  one,  so  as  to  permit 
communication  with  the  air  on  the  outside.  The  whole  is  then  placed  for  protection  within  a  strong 
wooden  box,  in  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  frame  resting  upon  stiff  springs  which  relieve  the  eggs 
from  heavy  jarring;  rubber  or  cloth  bumpers  on  the  sides  of  the  box  prevent  lateral  swaying  and 
jolting.  A  cover  is  fitted  to  the  inner  box,  which  may  then  be  covered  with  sawdust  to  the  level 
of  the  higher  outer  one,  when  the  cover  of  this  is  to  be  shut  down.  The  outside  wooden  box  is 

1  Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  part  vi,  p.  546. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  WHITE-FISH.  529 

fitted  with  handles  and  with  a  ti^lit  lid  on  hinges,  which  may  be  locked.  Small  auger-holes  are 
bori'd  through  the  outer  or  packing  box,  and  air  may  be  admitted  to  the  whole  interior  of  the 
egg  case  through  the  tube  referred  to  in  the  bottom,  the  cups  being  pierced  with  small  holes,  so 
that  when  in  place  they  are  directly  over  circular  openings  in  the  trays,  and  a  communication  of 
air  is  established  throughout.  The  eggs  may  be  packed  in  moss,  in  the  ordinary  manner,  in  the 
cups  which  experience  seems  to  prove  to  be  the  best  manner  for  lojig  journeys. 

The  method  of  Mr.  Atkins  in  shipping  salmon  eggs  packed  in  moss,  but  with  pieces  of  mos- 
quito-netting laid  above  and  below  the  eggs,  is  a  great  convenience  in  unpacking  them,  and  could 
just  as  well  be  applied  in  the  cups.  This,  though  less  simple  than  the  ordinary  egg-carrier,  is  suf- 
ficiently simple  for  practical  purposes,  and  possesses  most  important  advantages  for  carrying  eggs 
long  distances  and  over  rough  roads,  the  small  area  of  surface  within  the  boxes  preventing  any 
tendency  of  the  eggs  to  slide  together  at  one  side.  The  square  boxes  resting  in  trays  are  put  to- 
gether in  much  more  compact  form  than  the  cylindrical  boxes  embedded  in  moss,  and  the  springs 
beneath  the  boxes  of  eggs  are  of  course  an  important  addition.  Mr.  Clark  believes  the  hatching 
apparatus  in  the  refrigerator  to  be  as  well  adapted  for  the  carriage  of  eggs  as  for  hatching  them. 

The  use  of  surface  or  brook  water  in  any  permanent  establishment  seems  to  have  been  first 
employed  by  Mr.  Samuel  Wilniot,  of  Newcastle,  Canada,  the  greater  number  of  hatching  estab- 
lishments using  spring  water. 

In  the  hatching  of  White  fish,  Mr.  Clark  has  contended  for  the  use  of  brook  water  in  preference, 
because  of  its  lower  and  evener  temperature  throughout  the  winter,  and  the  consequent  retarda- 
tion of  the  hatching  of  the  fish  which  he  has  contended  is  an  essential  provision  in  nature  to  their 
welfare,  and  that  hatching  them  two  months  or  more  previous  to  the  natural  time  under  artifi- 
cial conditions  is  a  mistaken  method  that  will  not  result  in  the  maturing  of  any  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  cold  waters  in  which  they  are  released.  Although  this  view  has  not  been  established 
by  practical  observation,  yet  it  raises  a  question  of  considerable  importance,  and  one  which  merits 
a  full  discussion,  in  view  of  its  bearing  on  the  practical  work  of  fish  culture. 

i        Mr.  Miner's  account  of  the  further  progress  made  in  this  branch  of  fish  culture  is  resumed  in 
another  place,  as  follows : 

"  November  11, 1872, 1  met  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark  at  Ecorse,  and  in  company  with  Mr.  George  Clark 
we  visited  Grassy  Island  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  white-fish  spawn.  The  box  which  Mr.  N. 
W.  Clark  has  devised  for  carrying  ova  is  constructed  so  as  to  carry  a  greater  quantity  of  eggs, 
with  easier  carriage,  than  any  in  present  use.  It  is  a  large  square  can,  of  zinc,  about  thirteen 
inches  square  and  twenty-two  inches  deep.  This,  for  protection,  is  set  inside  of  a  strong  wooden 
box,  with  a  light  frame  in  the  bottom,  supported  on  stitf  springs.  Strong  handles  are  fastened  to 
the  box,  for  convenience  in  handling,  and  to  prevent  any  necessity  for  throwing  it  out  of  level 
while  carrying  it.  The  zinc  can  contains  ten  trays,  each  of  which  carries  fifty-four  small  boxes,  two 
inches  square  and  two  inches  deep,  set  in  compartments,  each  compartment  having  an  inch  hole 
cut  in  the  center.  The  partitions  between  the  compartments  are  just  high  enough  (about  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch)  to  inclose  the  bottom  of  a  box  and  bold  it  firmly  in  its  place.  No  covers  are 
provided  for  the  boxes,  but  a  large  cover  can  be  fitted  to  the  zinc  can,  and  a  lid,  with  a  good  lock, 
is  fitted  to  the  outside  box.  The  bottoms  of  all  the  little  boxes  are  perforated,  the  position  of  the 
holes  being  directly  over  the  circular  hole  in  the  compartment  of  the  tray.  The  zinc  can  has  also 
holes  in  the  bottom,  and  the  wooden  box  has  three-quarter  inch  holes  bored  on  each  side,  near 
the  bottom,  so  that  there  is  drainage  for  the  surplus  water  of  all  the  boxes,  and  a  free  circulation 
of  air  throughout,  which  is  deemed  important  by  some  of  the  fish-culturists. 

"  At  the  island  the  most  perfect  arrangements  were  provided  bj  Mr.  George  Clark  for  obtain- 
34  F 


530  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ing  the  spawn.  Two  tanks  of  about  five  feet  diameter  were  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  shore  and 
partly  tilled  with  water.  As  soon  as  the  bag  of  the  seine  was  on  the  beach  the  men  picked  up 
the  White  fish  and  put  them  immediately  into  the  tanks.  The  pans  for  impregnation  were  close 
at  hand,  and  as  one  man  lifted  the  fish  above  the  water  in  a  dip-net,  another  took  it  from  the  net, 
and  with  his  right  hand  over  the  head  of  the  fish  and  his  left  around  the  tail  he  held  it  over  the 
pan,  standing  at  the  left  of  the  operator.  The  left  hand  of  the  operator  was  put  against  the  back 
of  the  fish  and  the  right  hand  used  in  manipulating  the  abdomen.  It  was  found  that  to  induce 
the  eggs  to  flow  freely  from  a  fully  ripe  female,  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  apply  a  gentle  press- 
ure just  behind  the  pectoral  fins,  just  where  the  nudging  and  bunting  of  the  head  of  the  male 
fish  is  applied  while  racing  her  through  the  water.  Not  until  the  greater  part  of  the  free  eggs  had 
fallen  into  the  pan  was  it  necessary  to  slide  the  hand  along  the  abdomen.  The  free  eggs  came 
away  in  a  steady,  liquid  stream,  but  from  a  fish  partially  ripe  their  extrusion  was  slow,  and  in 
masses  comparatively  dry  that  did  not  freely  disengage  themselves  from  the  fish  and  fall  into 
the  pan. 

"  The  female  exhibited  the  most  indications  of  pain  when  the  pressure  was  applied  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  ovipore.  The  milt  from  the  male  will  flow  in  from  one  to  three  jets  by  pressure  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  anus. 

"  The  method  employed  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark  was  that  which  was  original  with  Mr.  Seth 
Green,  using  the  smallest  quantity  of  water  possible.  The  eggs,  after  falling  into  the  pan,  and 
the  milt,  having  been  stirred  up  with  the  water,  were  allowed  to  stand  about  half  an  hour,  when 
the  milt,  and  water  were  poured  off  and  the  eggs  carefully  rinsed  through  several  changes  of 
water.  A  small  quantity  of  water  was  left  with  the  eggs  when  they  were  perfectly  clean.  By 
repeated  actual 'counts,  and  by  arranging  on  a  plate  in  a  true  square,  it  was  found  that  a  large 
tablespoon,  moderately  heaped  up,  contained  about  a  thousand  eggs.  Eight  ripe  white-fish  eggs 
will  lie  entirely  within  the  space  of  an  inch,  and  the  ninth  will  lie  partially  across  the  line. 

"A  pat  of  moss  was  then  put  into  the  cups,  and  a  piece  of  canton  flannel,  cut  into  the  form  of 
the  Swiss  cross,  after  thorough  saturation  with  water,  was  pressed  lightly  down  into  the  cup,  and 
a  tablespoonful  of  eggs  poured  upon  it.  The  canton  flannel  was  used  to  line  the  sides  of  the 
boxes,  because  it  was  found  that  the  contact  of  the  zinc  was  fatal  to  the  eggs,  probably  from  the 
poisonous  elements  of  the  oxide.  The  patch  of  canton  flannel  proved  to  be  a  great  convenience  in 
taking  out  the  eggs,  as  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  take  the  edges  lightly  in  the  fingers  and 
remove  it  from  the  box,  and  dipping  the  cloth  with  the  eggs  into  a  pan  of  water,  they  were 
rinsed  off  with  a  few  quick  motions,  without  any  tedious  picking  and  rinsing  the  eggs  free  from 
particles  of  moss.  In  arranging  the  eggs  for  transportation  for  a  short  distance,  the  use  of  the 
cloth  patches  is  undoubtedly  a  good  method.  After  filling  the  boxes  they  were  placed  in  the 
trays,  and  the  trays  adjusted  within  the  zinc  can,  when  water  was  poured  on  until  the  whole  con- 
tents were  thoroughly  saturated,  when  the  lid  was  closed  and  locked  and  the  case  was  ready  for 
transportation  to  the  hatching  house.  A  small  fee  to  the  baggage-master  excites  considerable 
interest  in  the  safe-handling  of  the  box. 

"Two  trips  were  made  from  Ecorse  to  the  hatching  house  at  Clarkston,  and  about  1,330,000 
eggs  were  put  into  the  troughs,  Mr.  Clark  having  increased  the  number  of  troughs  to  fifty  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  the  extra  supply  of  eggs.  One  half  of  the  eggs  were  the  property  of  the 
commission,  the  other  half  to  be  controlled  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Clark,  of  Detroit,  Mr.  George  Clark,  of 
Ecorse,  and  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark,  of  Clarkston.  The  eggs  received  attention  from  the  second  day 
after  they  were  placed  in  the  troughs  until  about  the  middle  of  January,  the  eyes  of  the  embryo 
then  showing  distinctly,  and  the  subsequent  loss  being  very  small. 


C ULTLTRE  OF  Till!  \V  1 1 1 T K -FISH.  53 1 

"Upon  receipt  of  the  instructions  to  ship  a  quantity  of  eggs  to  the  State  commissioners  of 
California,  a  case  similar  t<>  Mr.  ('lark's  was  made,  substituting  a  good  quality  of  tin  for  the  zinc, 
and  adding  a  second  square  can,  lar^c  enough  to  contain  the  can  with  the  trays  and  cups,  and 
leave  the  space  of  an  inch  on  all  sides. 

"Arriving  at  Clarkston  on  the  18th  of  January,  the  weather  was  considered  too  severe  to  hazard 
the  shipment  of  the  eggs  at  the  time,  and  it  was  delayed  until  the  20th.  The  thick  covering  of 
frozen  snow  ami  ice  pn -vented  the  possibility  of  obtaining  moss,  and  a  good  quality  of  sponge  wan 
substituted.  This  was  prepared  first  by  whipping  out  the  calcareous  dust  that  it  contained,  and, 
after  being  cut  in  thin  slices,  was  thoroughly  washed  through  several  changes  of  warm  water. 
Pieces  were  then  titled  to  the  bottom  of  the  cups,  and  while  standing  in  a  pan  of  water  a  half 
tablespoonful  of  eggs  was  poured  in,  a  thin  slice  of  sponge,  fitting  the  inside  of  the  cup,  laid 
lightly  over  the  eggs,  and  the  remainder  of  the  spoonful  poured  in,  when  a  third  piece  of  spongo 
was  put  over  ihem  to  cover  them.  The  tray,  with  the  cups,  was  then  put  into  the  inner  can, 
which  was  placed  within  the  second  can,  with  one  inch  of  sawdust  filling  the  vacant  space  on  the 
sides,  bottom,  and  top.  A  piece  of  bnrlaps  was  tied  over  the  top,  and  the  whole  placed  upon  the 
springs,  within  the  packing  box,  and  the  lid  fastened  down.  The  packing-box  had  two  half-inch 
holes  bored  near  the  bottom  to  admit  the  air.  The  filling  of  sawdust  was  considered  as  a  neces- 
sary safeguard  against  the  cold  weather  of  the  time. 

"The  case  was  put  in  charge  of  the  baggage-master,  and  I  accompanied  it  as  far  as  Omaha, 
Nebraska,  attending  to  its  transfer  from  one  train  to  another,  and  regulating  its  position  in  the 
car.  At  Omaha  it  was  given  in  charge  of  the  express  company,  and  the  messenger  instructed  as 
to  the  effect  of  heat  and  cold  upon  the  eggs,  and  a  letter  containing  full  instructions  sent  with  the 
box  to  be  delivered  to  the  messenger  at  Ogden,  where  the  box  was  transferred  to  his  care,  there 
being  no  further  change  of  messenger  between  that  and  San  Francisco,  California.  On  two  sides 
of  the  box,  in  distinct  letters,  was  printed  the  caution,  'Fish-eggs;  must  not  be  jolted  or  allowed 
to  freeze.' 

"The  weather  continued  cold  throughout  the  time  the  eggs  were  on  the  way,  and  they 
arrived  at  their  destination  in  very  bad  condition.  Mr.  Stone  attributed  the  damage  to  the  use  of 
sponge,  and  the  sawdust  packing  preventing  ventilation.  Mr.  Rudolph  Hessel,  an  experienced 
fish -cult  nrist  of  Offenburg,  Germany,  while  visiting  Washington,  informed  me  that  he  had  used 
sponge  for  packing  eggs  for  long  distances  with  entire  success.  The  lack  of  ventilation  is  a  more 
probable  cause,  though  the  description  given  by  Mr.  Bucklaud  of  the  method  of  packing  the  eggs 
received  from  Seth  Green's  establishment  in  January,  1870,  was  similar  in  the  fact  that  the  cups 
containing  the  moss  and  eggs  were  buried  in  the  sawdust.  A  small  quantity,  received  from  Mr. 
N.  W.  Clark  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution  this  winter,  was  packed  in  the  same  manner,  using 
sponge  and  burying  the  cups  in  a  pail  of  sawdust,  and  they  were  found  to  be  all  alive  after  a  fifty 
hours'  journey. 

"The  necessity  of  a  certain  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  eggs  has  been  very  thoroughly  proven  by 
the  researches  of  W.  H.  Ransom,  M.  D.,  of  Nottingham,  England,  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  'Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology.'  The  experiments  were  made  while  investigating  the* 
nature  of  the  rhythmic  contractions  of  the  yelk,  known  to  occur  in  the  living  eggs  of  fishes.. 
Among  several  experiments,  in  which  by  ingenious  methods  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  wa» 
kept  from  contact  with  the  eggs,  those  of  the  stickleback  being  employed,  he  relates  as  follows : 

"'I  therefore  made  a  series  of  suflocative  experiments  on  impregnated  and  unimpregnated 
eggs,  using  aerated  distilled  water  in  cells,  all  of  the  capacity  of  .05  cubic  inch,  sealing  the  covers 
with  hot  wax,  and  varying  the  number  of  eggs  in  each  cell.  Five  observations  were  made  with 


532  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

unimpregnated  eggs,  having,  respectively,  thirty  five,  thirty,  eighteen,  nine,  and  seven  eggs  in  a 
cell;  and  although,  in  consequence  of  the  accidental  loosening  of  the  wax,  and  the  entrance  of  a 
little  bubble  of  air,  the  duration  of  the  contractions  was  not  in  all  cases  inversely  as  the  number 
of  ova  in  the  cells,  yet  the  general  result  was  rhythmic  contraction,  and  the  pseudo  cleavage  con- 
tinued longer  in  the  cells  containing  the  smaller  number  of  ova,  the  eggs  which  lay  nearest  to  the 
air-bubble  always  being  the  last  to  cease  to  move ;  the  accidental  failure  of  the  luting  affording 
thus  additional  evidence  of  the  importance  of  oxygen.  In  all  the  cells  the  contraction  ceased  in 
from  twenty -three  to  thirty  hours,  or  one-fourth  of  the  time  they  continued  in  aerated  water  and 
unlimited  space.  Five  similar  observations  were  made  on  impregnated  eggs,  with  forty-eight, 
thirty-eight,  seventeen,  ten,  and  seven  eggs  in  each  cell,  with  similar  but  more  marked  results; 
the  yelk  contractions  ceasing  earlier  than  in  the  unimpregnated  ova.  The  cleavage  was  more 
rapidly  checked  than  the  pseudo  cleavage,  and  still  more  so  than  the  yelk  contractions.  Seven 
experiments  were  then  made  to  ascertain  the  relative  dependence  upon  the  presence  of  oxygen  of 
the  movements  which  result  in  cell  multiplication  and  differentiation,  and  of  the  muscular  contrac- 
tions of  the  embryo  compared  with  the  yelk  contractions.  Two  healthy  developing  ova  were 
sealed  in  similar  cells  at  seventy-six,  one  hundred  and  one,  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven,  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  hours  each,  after  impregnation,  and  two  free 
embryos  at  twenty-four  and  forty -eight  hours  after  batching.  Although  the  proportion  of  active 
organic  matter  to  the  medium  was  so  very  much  less  than  in  the  previous  experiments  with  recently 
impregnated  eggs,  yet  the  process  of  development  ceased  in  all  in  about  seven  hours,  and  the  yelk 
contractions  did  not  continue  more  than  eighteen  hours.  The  movements  of  the  heart  continued 
about  the  same  time,  those  of  the  trunk  ceasing  before  the  heart.  The  embryos  in  the  lafoT  stages 
of  development  more  quickly  ceased  to  move  than  those  in  the  earlier.  The  inference  is,  I  think, 
not  to  be  resisted,  that  oxygen  in  the  surrounding  medium  is  an  essential  condition  of  the  exercise 
of  the  property  of  rhythmic  contractility  possessed  by  the  food  yelk,  as  well  as  of  the  fissile  con- 
tractility of  the  formative  yelk.' 

"Though  Dr.  Hansom  admits  that  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  in  these  movements 
appears  to  be  very  minute,  yet  it  indicates  that  a  large  quantity  of  eggs,  confined,  in  a  small, 
air-tight  space,  would  consume  the  oxygen  to  an  injurious  extent,  during  a  long  journey, 
and  sufficient  ventilation  is  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  necessities  in  packing  eggs  for 
transportation.  The  sawdust  that  filled  the  space  around  the  inner  can,  in  the  California 
shipment,  was  crowded  down  with  a  piece  of  board,  and  may  have,  in  consequence,  rendered  the 
package  more  completely  air-tight  than  in  the  shipments  referred  to  similarly  packed.  A  later 
.shipment  arrived  in  most  excellent  condition.  The  cups  in  the  cases  were  made  four  by  four 
inches  square,  by  two  deep,  with  no  packing  between  the  cans,  and  the  eggs  packed  in  moss. 
The  most  ample  ventilation  was  provided  for  in  the  egg-cases.  The  oxygen  given  off  by  live  moss 
is  probably  the  principal  reason  for  its  special  adaptation  in  packing  eggs  for  shipment. 

"  Dr.  Ransom's  experiments  on  the  effect  of  heat  have  also  a  practical  value  in  the  treatment 
offish  ova,  both  in  transportation  and  in  the  troughs.  He  says:  'Some  eggs  on  the  stage  of  active 
contraction  were  cooled  until  the  thermometer  placed  on  the  cell  stood  at  32°  F.  They  all  became 
still,  and  their  yelks  globular.  They  were  not  frozen ;  and  I  do  not  doubt  that  their  temperature 
was  higher  than  that  indicated  by  the  thermometer.'  The  contractions  were  afterwards  restored 
by  a  weak  galvanic  current.  In  another  observation,  '  I  froze  the  water  in  which  the  eggs  were 
placed,  so  that  some  of  them  were  completely,  and  others  incompletely,  frozen.  The  frozen  eggs 
were  all  more  or  less  opaque,  and  had  their  inner  sacs  ruptured  and  emptied  of  yelk  in  various 
^.  and  their  formative  yelks  tabulated  jnid  darkly  granular.  Those  which  were  least  frozen 


CULTI  KI:  OK  TIM:  \\IIITK  nsn. 

were  slightly  opalescent  only,  and  when  allowed  to  thaw  they  contracted  as  before,  ultimately 
goin^  on  ii>  fleave  in  an  irregular  manner,  the  ruptures  in  their  sacs  having  healed.  Slighter 
reduction.-'  of  temperatures  to  40°  F.  ami  Is  '  K.  retarded  without  destroying  the  contractions.  In 
such  eases  the  commencement  of  cleavage  was  delayed.  By  raising  the  temperature  moderately 
the  movements  were  accelerated  ;  but  at  about  80°  P.  (it  is  difficult  to  speak  with  certainty  of  the 
temperature  actually  obtained  by  the  object)  the  contractions  were  arrested,  the  yelk-ball 
becoming  globular,  and  the  oil-globules  being  scattered.  Such  eggs,  however,  soon  recovered 
themselves  when  left  at  58°  P.,  and  cleft  in  even  less  time  than  eggs  did  which  had  not  been 
warmed.  In  other  eggs,  heated  in  a  chamber  at  102  P.,  the  cleavage  was  retarded  to  three  times 
the  usual  period,  and  when  it  took  place  was  wanting  in  symmetry.  The  yelk  began  to  become 
opalescent  at  about  103°  F. ;  but  a  true  coagulation  of  the  albumen  did  not  take  place,  the  yelk 
being  thud  and  opaque.  Thus  a  temperature  too  low  or  too  much  elevated  retards  or  arrests 
the  contractions,  but  they  are  not  destroyed  before  commencing  physical  and  chemical  changes 
set  in.' 

"Whether  the  point  at  which  the  contractions  of  the  yelk  ceased  was  the  point  at  which 
vitality  left  the  egg,  might  or  might  not  have  been  the  fact,  but  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  egg 
was,  at  the  temperatures  stated,  in  an  abnormal  state,  and  the  necessity  of  sustaining  a  tempera- 
ture around  the  eggs  of  fishes  between  these  extremes  is  apparent,  if  they  are  to  be  kept  in  their 
most  favorable  condition. 

"Mr.  Green  and  Mr.  Wil mot  both  procured  eggs  this  season  from  the  Detroit  River.  Mr. 
Green  made  use  of  a  newly  devised  .apparatus  for  hatching,  that  proved  to  be  a  most  excellent 
contrivance,  both  for  the  economy  of  space  and  the  facility  for  caring  for  the  eggs.  By  this 
method  he  will  be  enabled  to  hatch  five  or  six  times  the  quantity  of  eggs  in  the  same  building. 
The  young  fishes  were  distributed  in  accordance  with  the  excellent  plan  adopted  by  the  New  York 
commissioners  for  supplying  demands  from  all  parts  of  the  State,  without  expense,  on  application. 

"The  success  attained  by  these  persevering  experiments  is  now  complete,  and  the  White-fish 
may  be  restored  by  artificial  propagation,  to  the  same  extent  as  the  Salmon,  or  the  Brook -Trout,  or 
the  shad.  As  has  been  shown,  the  White-fish  has  advantages  in  this  particular  that  the  other 
species  have  not.  The  obstruction  of  streams  is  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  their  multiplication, 
because  they  have  no  necessity  of  ascending  them,  and,  unlike  the  Trout  and  the  Salmon,  they 
cannot  be  suspected  of  eating  each  other. 

"Attempts  at  feeding  the  young  fishes  have  all  been  failures,  and  the  only  natural  food  that 
has  been  found  in  their  intestines  is  the  species  of  Diatomacew  reported  by  Mr.  Briggs.  But  as 
they  are  more  vigorous  and  strong  in  the  earlier  stages  of  growth,  there  is  not  the  same  necessity 
of  caring  for  them  until  they  are  partly  grown,  and  they  should  be  put  into  the  waters  they  are 
to  inhabit  soon  after  the  ovisac  is  absorbed,  and  allowed  to  find  their  natural  food  for  themselves, 
just  as  the  young  shad  are  treated  when  hatched  artificially. 

"Artificial  propagation  affords  advantages  that  compensate  for  all  the  overfishing  and  losses 
that  the  fish  fauna)  suffer  from  man  and  natural  causes.  The  great  numbers  of  eggs  found  in  the 
ovaries  of  fishes  in  reality  afford  little  evidence  of  their  capacity  for  populating  the  waters.  It  is 
a  fact,  illustrated  in  nearly  if  not  all  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom,  that  the  most  fecund  species 
do  not,  by  any  means,  increase  the  fastest  in  numbers,  but  from  the  greater  evils  they  are  subject 
to,  and  the  greater  number  of  enemies  they  encounter,  there  is  such  a  fatality  during  the  earlier 
stages  of  growth  that  the  losses  balance  the  numbers  produced,  and  less  fecund  species,  by  being 
better  protected,  equal  them  in  numbers.  The  most  perfect  illustrations  of  this  tact  may  be  found 
among  our  lake  fishes.  The  muskellunge,  Esox  nobilior,  has  a  very  large  number  of  eggs.  A  cast 


534  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  the  ovaries  of  a  large  female  specimen,  made  by  Dr.  E.  Sterling,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  is  in  the 
possession  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  The  ovaries  measure  over  two  feet  in  length,  and  the 
eggs  are  about  the  same  diameter  as  those  of  the  White-fish;  they  contain  at  least  five  times 
as  many  eggs  as  a  pound  White-fish,  and  yet,  as  regards  numbers,  the  muskellunge  is  a  compara- 
tively rare  fish.  There  are,  undoubtedly,  exigencies  attending  the  egg  stage  of  this  fish  that  will 
account  for  this  fact. 

"In  the  case  of  the  White-fishes,  though  annually  depositing  millions  of  eggs,  the  delicate 
nature  of  the  embryo,  and  the  numerous  spawn-eaters,  effect  a  certain  balance  of  numbers  with 
relation  to  the  general  faunae  of  the  lakes,  so  that,  up  to  the  time  of  the  early  settlement  of  the 
Lake  region,  the  fish  were  found  in  great  abundance.  The  nets  now  came  in  as  an  additional  agent 
in  preventing  the  increase,  the  pound-net,  particularly,  killing  a  large  percentage  of  the  fishes  that 
liad  not  matured  sufficiently  to  assist  the  increase  by  depositing  spawn,  and  in  consequence,  the 
numbers  of  fishes  were  rapidly  reduced. 

"The  care  of  the  eggs  in  the  hatching  troughs  has  proved,  beyond  question,  the  frail  nature 
of  the  eggs  of  the  White-fish.  They  are  smaller,  and  have  a  much  thinner  in  vesting  membrane,  or 
shell,  and  have  not  the  same  enduring  vtf ality  that  the  ova  of  the  Trout  and  Salmon  have.  So  that 
in  the  open  water  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  by  far  the  greater  number  are  lost  because  of  the 
disturbance  of  the  bottom  by  the  autumn  storms  and  the  deposit  of  sediment  from  the  muddy 
water,  the  failure  of  many  of  the  eggs  to  come  in  contact  with  the  milt  of  the  male  fish,  the 
myriads  devoured  by  the  army  of  spawn-eaters,  and  the  additional  evils  of  pollution  of  the  waters 
from  the  drainage  of  cities,  manufactories,  and  saw-mills,  and  the  dragging  of  seines  over  the 
spa  wniug  beds. 

"A  quantity  of  White-fish  eggs  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  Detroit  River,  a  very  extensive 
spawning  ground,  while  dredging  in  company  with  Mr.  George  Clark,  at  the  close  of  the  spawning 
season,  were  found  to  be  dead  and  white,  or  so  coated  and  stained  with  the  black  ooze  that  they 
could  not  have  survived.  In  the  pond  on  Grassy  Island,  where  as  many  as  ten  thousand  female 
White-fish  deposit  their  spawn  in  a  season,  we  succeeded  in  taking  between  fifty  and  sixty  embryo 
fishes,  by  drawing  a  seine  lined  with  millinet,  and  a  diligent  search  through  several  hours  at  the 
surface  in  the  month  of  April. 

"  In  obviating  all  of  these  evils,  artificial  propagation  asserts  its  advantage,  and  though  the 
number  of  eggs  that  may  be  handled  is  exceedingly  small  compared  with  the  millions  sown  by  the 
fishes,  yet  the  number  of  fishes  produced  may  really  exceed  the  present  production  in  a  state  of 
nature.  This  assertion  has  ample  proof  in  the  restoration  of  fishes  in  regions  where  they  have 
been  nearly  exterminated,  and  even  where  no  change  was  made  in  the  restrictions  upon  the  fishing 
that  might  have  assisted  the  increase. 

"  The  experience  of  the  past  few  years  has  proved  entirely  the  possibility  of  increasing  the 
numbers  of  the  White-fish  by  artificial  propagation.  The  running  water  in  the  troughs  supplies 
the  conditions  required  by  the  eggs;  the  fertilization  of  the  ova  in  the  pan  brings  every  egg  in 
contact  with  the  milt;  they  lie  undisturbed  and  free  from  injurious  sediment  or  filthy  water;  the 
spawn-eaters  have  no  access  to  them  whatever,  and  the  dead  eggs- are  immediately  removed  from 
contact  with  the  living  ones;  the  young  fish  are  under  control  in  the  troughs  until  the  ovisac  is 
absorbed,  when  they  are  ready  to  be  placed  in  their  natural  home,  the  cold  waters  of  the  Northern 
Lakes. 

"  The  experiments  of  Mr.  Seth  Green  and  Mr.  N.  W.  Clark  have  reduced  the  loss  of  the  eggs 
to  an  inconsiderable  number,  and  with  a  small  outlay  of  money  this  fish  may  be  restored  with  a 
success  equal  to  that  of  the  shad  in  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 


CULTURE  OF  T11E  WHITE-FISH.  535 

"The  losses  iii  tin-  ti\  stage  merit  consideration,  though  tin-re  is  every  evidence  to  believe 
that .they  an-  very  small.  One  great  advantage  in  favor  of  tin-  \onng  White-fish  is  its  strength 
and  vigor  almost  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  egg,  aiul  its  disposition  to  seek  the  surface,  as 
observed  in  the  troughs  and  where  they  were  seen  in  their  natural  eondition  in  Detroit  River." 

DisKAsi.s. — Nothing  definite  has  been  ascertained  regarding  the  diseases  to  which  White- 
lish  are  liable.  A  roughness,  however,  on  the  scales  may  be  observed  from  about  November  15 
to  November  -II.  This  roughness  has  the  appearance  of  small  tubercles,  and  is  most  apparent  on 
the  sides  toward  the  vent.  The  male  fish  is  said  to  exhibit  this  possible  symptom  of  disease  the 
more  plainly. 

Mr.  Milner's  observations  on  the  White-fish,  with  regard  to  its  being  infested  with  parasites, 
led  him  to  write  : 

''  The  White-fish,  as  far  as  my  observations  have  extended,  is  infested  witli  two  external  and 
two  intestinal  parasites.  The  external  ones  are  a  crustacean,  a  l.< nui«.  and  an  annelid,  the  Jclttky- 
i>h<l<lln  fiiim-tata.  The  lernean  was  found  only  in  the  Detroit  River,  adhering  to  the  fish  on  the 
dorsal  region,  and  with  its  bell-shaped  sucker  buried  in  the  epidermal  sheath  of  the  scales.  Oil 
the  White -lish  swimming  in  schools  near  the  surface  around  the  edge  of  the  pond  in  Detroit  River, 
it  could  be  detected  by  close  examination  fastened  to  the  fish.  There  were  seldom  more  than  four 
on  one  fish.  The  Lake  Herring,  confined  in  the  same  pond,  swam  in  close  contact  with  the  White- 
tisli,  but  in  no  instance,  although  careful  observations  were  made  repeatedly  of  the  Herring  while 
in  the  water  and  after  capture,  was  the  lernean  found  upon  them.  In  Lake  Superior  they  are 
found  to  be  numerous  on  the  siscowet. 

"The  Ichthyobdella,  a  leech  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  grayish- white  in  color,  with 
brown  tesselated  markings,  was  seen  in  great  numbers  in  the  mouth  of  April,  while  the  fishermen 
were  lifting  their  nets  from  about  fifty  fathoms  some  fifteen  miles  out  from  Keuosha,  Wisconsin. 
They  covered  the  nets  and  fishes  of  all  species,  and  fell  in  such  numbers  on  the  deck  that  it  became 
slippery,  and  an  old  coat  was  thrown  down  for  the  man  who  was  lifting  the  gang  to  stand  upon. 
They  were  very  tenacious  of  life,  living  for  a  long  time  on  the  deck,  and  for  several  days  in  the 
bilge-water  of  the  fish-boats.  They  were  in  such  numbers  that  it  was  difficult  to  decide  whether 
they  had  a  preference  for  any  species,  and  were  found  filled  with  blood  both  in  the  gills  and  while 
attached  to  the  body,  though  it  was  difficult  to  imagine  that  they  could  fill  themselves  with  blood 
from  the  epidermal  sheath  of  the  scales.  They  were  thought  to  be  most  numerous  on  the  White- 
fishes,  as  they  were  iu  greater  numbers  on  them  than  on  the  Trout,  the  Lawyer,  or  the  Cisco,  the 
only  other  fishes  taken. 

"A  prevailing  but  mistaken  opinion  in  the  vicinity  was  that  the  White-fish  fed  upon  the  leech. 
Dr.  Hoy's  investigations  disproved  the  notion,  and  all  examinations  of  stomach  contents  confirmed 
this  fact.  One  of  the  intestinal  parasites  resembled  the  leech  somewhat  in  form.  The  other  was 
an  Echinorhynchus.  They  were  never  found  within  the  stomach,  but  always  in  the  duodenal 
portion  of  the  intestine  near  the  mouths  of  the  caecal  tubes." 

METHODS  OF  CAPTURE. — The  methods  employed  whereby  the  largest  numbers  of  this  ti>h 
may  be  taken  varies  in  different  localities.  At  Whitefish  Point,  Lake  Superior,  the  greater 
part  of  the  catch  is  made  with  pound-nets.  About  the  Apostle  Islands  the  gill-net  is  used 
at  all  times.  The  best  grounds  are  along  the  shore  from  Ashland  to  Outonagou.  From  Grand 
to  Sauk's  Island  the  catch  of  White-fish  is  made  with  pound-nets  in  the  spring  and  gill-nets  iu 
the  fall.  At  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  there  are  no  pound-nets;  the  lish,  consequently,  are 
of  large  si/e.  The  White-fish  fishery  of  Saint  Joseph  is  carried  on  far  out  in  the  lake,  formcily 
nearer  shore.  About  Little  and  Grand  Traverse  Bays  all  the  pounds  were  blown  away  on 


536  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

October  26,  1880.  They  were  reset  and  were  again  destroyed  at  the  end  of  November.  From 
Bay  View  to  Evanston  pound-nets  are  used  exclusively. 

Across  the  northern  end  of  Lake  Huron,  from  the  Straits  of  Mackinac  to  the  Detour  Passage, 
the  White-fish  are  followed  by  the  fishermen  with  pound-nets  as  far  as  twelve  or  more  miles  from 
shore,  and  with  gill-nets  fifteen  to  twenty  miles.  At  Port  Ontario,  Lake  Ontario,  gill-nets  are 
extensively  used  in  the  capture  of  White  fish,  and  at  Wolfe  Bay  it  is  remarked  by  Mr.  Peter  Kiel 
that  they  cannot  be  caught  with  hook  and  line  at  any  season  of  the  year.  Mr.  Lauinan  says 
that  they  are  occasionally  taken  along  Madawaska  River,  and  that  he  has  caught  them  with  rod 
and  line  below  the  falls  of  that  river,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Saint  John,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
summer.  The  same  writer  states  that  in  Eagle  Lakes  the  White-fish  is  caught  abundantly  by  torch- 
light with  dip-nets.  Of  its  capture  in  the  Grand  Lake,  Mr.  Laninau  writes  : 

"Some  years  since  this  fish  was  abundant  in  the  Grand  Lake,  where  the  writer,  in  the  month 
of  May,  saw  great  numbers  taken  out  of  gill-nets  set  for  gaspereau,  and  thrown  away  by  the  fish- 
ermen as  worthless.  At  the  same  time,  the  writer  caught  a  number  of  them  with  rod  and  line,  in 
one  of  those  small  pieces  of  water  connected  with  the  Grand  Lake,  usually  called  'key-holes.'  It 
is  occasionally  taken  in  the  Saint  John,  throughout  its  whole  extent.  In  the  harbor  of  Saint  John, 
in  spring,  it  has  been  often  caught  iu  the  seines  and  weirs  with  the  gaspereau,  and  salted  with 
that  fish,  because  its  value  was  not  known." 

The  White-fish  caught  in  Green  Bay,  Lake  Michigan,  are  thus  prepared  for  shipment,  if  as 
fresh  fish :  the  gills  and  viscera  are  removed  and  the  fish  carefully  washed. 

Referring  to  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  down  as  far  as  Manitowoc,  Wisconsin,  Kumlien 
thus  writes  in  1880  in  regard  to  the  White-fish  market:  "The  demand  for  No.  1  White-fish  is  steadily 
increasing,  and  as  high  as  seven  and  eight  cents  are  often  realized  when  the  supply  is  not  abun- 
dant. The  average  price  for  the  whole  season  Mr.  Niquette  estimates  will  be  a  trifle  over  four 
cents  per  pound,  three  and  a  half  being  paid  to  the  fishermen.  The  demand  for  fresh  fish  is  such, 
and  the  facilities  for  shipping  so  good,  that  very  few  White-fish  are  salted  now.  In  1870  there 
were  about  3,000  packages  sent  from  Two  Eivers,  while  in  1867  there  were  above  6,300,  and  for 
1879  there  were  not  over  1,000 ;  but  a  much  larger  amount  of  fresh  fish  has  been  shipped.  The 
vicinity  of  Two  Rivers  has  long  been  a  noted  White-fish  ground,  and  still  keeps  up  its  reputation ; 
but  only  a  few  miles  to  the  south,  off  Manitowoc,  it  no  longer  pays  to  fish  for  White-fish." 

At  Waukegan,  Lake  Michigan,  White-fish  are  largely  smoked.  At  Oswego  and  vicinity,  Lake 
Ontario,  no  White-fish  have  been  salted  for  five  years.  Of  those  shipped  from  Port  Clinton  and 
vicinity,  at  least  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  come  from  Canada.  Five  years  ago  not  more  than 
one-half  were  received  for  shipment  from  Canada.  At  the  present  time  more  are  being  sent  from 
this  place  than  ever.  This  business  has  steadily  increased  since  1855,  the  increase  being  the  most 
striking  since  1865.  "At  the  falls,  on  the  Madawaska  River,"  writes  Mr.  Lanman,  "  the  inhabitants 
take  about  forty  barrels  every  autumn,  which  are  cured  in  pickle  for  winter  use." 

ABUNDANCE. — The  following  observations  on  the  abundance  of  White-fish  in  the  Great 
Lakes  were  made  by  Mr.  Kumlien : 

At  Duluth,  at  the  extreme  west  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  iu  this  vicinity,  the  White-fish 
ranks  first  in  importance.  Mr.  McClau  thinks  that  their  numbers  have  not  decreased  since  1870, 
but  that  the  fishing  must  be  carried  on  in  deeper  water  than  was  then  necessary. 

Three  reasons  are  assigned  for  the  decrease  of  White-fish  in  Huron  Bay,  south  of  Keweeuaw, 
Lake  Superior,  and  vicinity,  during  the  past  fifteen  years:  sawdust,  navigation,  and  overfishing. 
The  fish  are  here  placed  in  a  "live-box"  until  required  for  shipping.  As  many  as  seventy-two 


ABUNDANCE  OF  WHITE-FISH.  537 

half  barrels  have  been  taken  in  one  pound-net  at  one  lift  (net  thirty-five  feet).    They  hero  rank 
first  in  importance,  are  abundant  and  very  large. 

Along  the  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  from  Ashland  to  Ontonagon,  White-fish  rank  first  in  impor- 
tance. In  the  vicinity  of  Marquette  the  decrease  of  this  fish,  according  to  Parker,  has  been  vei  \ 
great  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  and  especially  since  1877.  At  White-fish  Point  this  species 
ranks  first  in  importance. 

Down  Green  Bay  White-fish  are  becoming  more  abundant,  at  Guamico  the  proportion  as  com- 
pared with  the  abundance  of  Herring  being  about  one  half  barrel  of  White-fish  to  fifty  of  Herring. 
Ten  years  ago  White  lisli  were  the  most  important,  but  have  been  driven  from  their  spawning  beds 
in  i  lie  rivers  by  saw-dust  and  other  causes.  The  largest  hauls  here  are  made  by  gill  nets  through 
the  ice  in  winter.  The  appearance  of  this  fish  here  is  very  irregular,  often  absenting  itself  for 
several  years  I'rom  hitherto  favorite  localities.  In  June,  1877,  Mr.  Levelle",  of  Pensankee,  caught  in 
one  pound-net  seven  hundred  half  barrels,  besides  shipping  a  large  quantity  fresh.  They  were  all 
No.  1  fish.  As  high  a  number  as  fifty  barrels  were  taken  from  the  net  in  one  morning;  other  nets, 
which  were  set  on  either  side  of  his,  took  no  fish.  Mr.  Levelle"  chose  a  ledge  of  rock,  having  a 
light  coating  of  mud,  for  the  spot  on  which  to  set  his  net.  One  of  the  fish  which  he  caught  weighed 
eleven  pounds ;  since  this  large  catch  many  other  attempts  have  been  made  to  catch  fish  in  the 
same  place,  but  without  any  great  success. 

The  most  important  fish  on  the  west  coast  of  Green  Bay  is  the  White-fish.  In  1843  the  prin- 
cipal spawning  beds  for  this  fish  were  in  the  rivers.  In  1863  thirty  six  barrels  were  taken  at  one 
lift  of  a  pouud-net;  now,  five  hundred  pounds  are  regarded  as  a  very  good  catch.  In  1878  the 
largest  catch  on  record  was  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  In  1850  the  most  profitable  grounds 
of  this  region  were  in  the  Menomonee  River,  where  they  were  taken  in  racks  on  their  return  from 
spawning.  Six  hundred  barrels  were  often  taken  on  one  rack  during  the  autumn;  now,  not  one 
example  has  been  caught  in  the  river  for  twelve  years.  The  same  cause  is  assigned  for  their  dis- 
appearance as  from  other  grounds  already  spoken  of.  About  1859,  and  a  few  years  previous  to  the 
introduction  of  the  pound-net,  the  greater  part  of  the  White-fish  was  taken  in  seines  close  inshore, 
usually  having  a  warp  of  only  thirty  rods.  In  July  and  August  of  1879  there  were  large  runs  of 
small  White-fish — five  or  six  inches  in  length — on  Peshtigo  Bar;  one  fisherman  took  out  several 
boat-loads,  and,  on  account  of  their  small  size,  was  obliged  to  throw  them  away.  It  was  thought 
by  the  fishermen  that  these  fish  had  been  artificially  hatched  by  the  Wisconsin  State  fish  com- 
mission. A  more  sensible  plan  on  the  part  of  the  fishermen  would  have  been  to  replace  them  in 
the  water  to  grow,  finding  them  too  small  for  market. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  is  supposed  to  have  a  great  influence  upon  the  movements  of 
this  fish,  especially  at  the  time  of  their  arrival  upon  the  feeding  grounds  in  spring.  "In  winter," 
says  Mr.  Eveland,  ''they  seek  deep  water  and  live  upon  the  'winter  feed' — the  so-called  'White- 
fish  worm,'  which  they  seek  upon  a  muddy  bottom  ;  but  about  the  middle  of  June,  on  an  average, 
the  water  becoming  warm  enough,  they  strike  inshore  on  sandy  or  on  slightly  gravelly  shoals 
and  bars  and  entirely  change  the  character  of  their  food ;  at  this  time  feeding  on  the  'shell  feed' 
(small  mollusks)." 

Towards  Cedar  River  the  White-fish  are  more  plentiful  than  between  Peshtigo  Point  and  Me- 
nomonee.  They  alone  are  taken  almost  exclusively  in  deep-water  pound-net*. 

At  and  near  Green  Bay  City  the  White-fish  has  been  for  years  past  the  most  abundant  species 
of  fish.  It  is  now,  according  to  the  fisherman's  language,  "  played  out." 

This  fish  is  first  in  importance  in  the  waters  at  the  north  eml  n!  (Ireen  Bay.  The  principal  runs 
occur  during  the  spawning  season.  There  are  a  great  many  spawning  grounds  in  this  section,  es|>e- 


538  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

cially  about  the  islands.  After  spawning  they  retire  to  the  deep  water  in  the  lake.  In  1879  there 
was  an  increase  in  the  catch  of  White-fish  in  these  waters.  A  point  opposite  the  mouth  of  Esca- 
iiaba  River  is  regarded  as  having  very  superior  advantages  for  the  profitable  establishment  of  a 
hatchery.  In  1879,  near  the  mouth  of  Manistigue  River,  a  specimen  weighing  twenty-nine  pounds 
was  caught. 

Between  Manitowoc  and  Whitefish  Bay  the  White-fish  is  of  the  first  importance.  At  nearly 
all  the  fisheries  the  best  runs  occur  during  August  and  September.  A  very  few  are  taken  in  the 
spring  in  the  pound-nets  at  Cedar  Grove.  A  great  many  small  White-fish  are  taken  in  the  vicinity 
of  Milwaukee.  The  White-fish  ranks  first  in  importance  in  this  section.  In  1800  the  average  catch 
was  one  hundred  to  the  net;  it  is  now  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  that  number.  Overfishing  and 
the  capture  of  the  spawning  fish  are  assigned  as  reasons  for  this  decrease.  Their  size  has  also  oi 
late  diminished,  many  being  so  small  that,  were  the  meshes  of  the  nets  not  stiff  from  being  tarred, 
the  fish  could  easily  escape.  In  this  vicinity  there  are  no  spawning  grounds  of  note. 

At  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  two  varieties  or  grades  are  recognized,  viz,  the  "shore" 
and  the  "outside"  fish.  The  latter  are  firmer  than  the  "  shore"  grade  and  bear  shipment  with  less 
loss.  The  "outside"  fish  are  taken  in  gill-nets,  and  the  others  in  pound-nets.  The  "outside"  fish, 
moreover,  lias  a  smaller  head  and  reddish  fins.  There  are  no  spawning  grounds  on  this  coast, 
and  no  White-fish,  consequently,  are  taken  in  autumn. 

Between  Glen  Haven  and  Saugatuck  the  White-fish  ranks  first  in  importance.  Capt.  J.  J. 
Brown  says  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  fish  taken  here  are  White-fish.  He  recognizes  no 
different  varieties,  and  knows  nothing  of  the  "blood-fish." 

There  has  been  a  decrease  during  the  last  ten  years  in  the  waters  between  the  Straits  of 
Mackinac  and  the  Detour  Passage ;  the  principal  cause  being,  probably,  that  the  fish  have  been 
disturbed  there  on  their  spawning  grounds.  Captain  Bennett  is  of  the  opinion  that  fishermen 
should  be  prohibited  by  law  from  taking  White-fish  after  the  first  of  November.  This  gentleman 
asserts  positively  that  some  of  the  once  most  famous  spawning  grounds  are  now  entirely  abandoned, 
and  he  assigns  the  above  as  the  cause  for  this  desertion.  Too  small  fish  are  taken  by  reason  of 
the  use  of  line-meshed  seines.  North  Point,  Thunder  Bay,  is  considered  the  best  spot  in  that 
locality  for  the  capture  of  the  White-fish — where  it  ranks  first  in  importance — and  one  of  the  best 
points  of  all  the  lake  region.  A  few  are  caught  in  gill-nets  in  early  spring,  but  the  bulk  is  taken 
from  the  latter  part  of  September  until  winter,  the  height  of  runs  being  from  the  10th  to  the  15th  of 
November,  at  which  time  they  are  spawning.  It  is  thought  that  the  number  of  nets  has  doubled 
dining  the  last  two  years,  and  that  the  fish  have  decreased  fully  two-thirds  since  1865.  Formerly 
a  "rig"  consisted  of  about  one  hundred  twelve-rod  nets:  now,  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  forty-five- 
rod  nets.  One  rig  has  salted  twelve  hundred  barrels  in  one  »eason.  Mill-refuse  thrown  into  the 
streams  is  supposed  to  be  a  prolific  cause  of  the  decrease  in  abundance  of  this  fish. 

The  White  fish  ranks  first  in  importance  in  Saginaw  Bay.  Mr.  Fitzgerald,  however,  says  that 
they  are  annually  decreasing  in  the  river  seines,  estimating  the  yearly  diminution  for  each  seine 
at  about  fifty  barrels.  In  1878  three  thousand  White-fish  were  taken  in  the  river,  and  in  187!),  he 
thinks,  not  one  dozen.  Seining  for  White-fish  in  the  river  was  formerly  a  very  profitable  business. 
It  is  still  profitable  outside  the  bay,  in  the  lake.  The  best  grounds  are  off  Point  Aux  Barques  and 
eastward.  Here  the  whole  fleet  of  Lake  Huron  tugs  congregate  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
They  seem  at  this  point  to  spawn  more  abundantly  on  the  Canadian  than  on  the  American  shore. 
Comparatively  few  are  taken  here  during  early  spring,  the  principal  season  being  from  May  to 
September.  It  is  thought  that  the  greatly  increased  navigation  in  the  river  has  driven  the  White- 
fish  out  into  the  lake;  and  even  there  they  are  not  as  abundant  as  they  were  formerly. 


ABUNDANCE  OF  WHITE-FISH.  539 

About  the  Charity  Islands,  Lake  Huron,  White-fish  rank  about  third  in  importance.  The  best 
time  lor  fishing  is  in  October;  some  are  taken  in  May  and  June.  Gill  nets  take  them  all  the 
summer.  About  Point  Sable  arc  the  most  profitable  fishing  grounds.  The  deeper  the  water  the 
more  abundant  the  White  tish  appear  to  be.  They  spawn  in  large  numbers  about  the  islands 
and  at  (iiavelly  Point.  It  is  thought  by  old  fishermen  of  this  region  that  since  1865  the  decrease 
of  this  tish  lias  been  fully  one-half. 

In  Maumee  I!ay,  Lake  Kiie,  the  \\liite-tish  are  thought  to  be  as  abundant  as  they  ever  were, 
though  the  facilities  for  capture  are  better  and  more  extensively  used  than  ever  before.  Within  the 
last  two  years  a  steaiU  increase  has  been  marked,  due,  it  is  thought,  to  artificial  propagation. 
About  Toledo  great  numbers  have  been  planted  during  the  last  few  years,  and  the  universal  verdict 
of  the  fishermen  is  that  t  he  White-fish  are  on  the  increase  in  that  region.  In  1875  forty  tons  were 
in  one  day  brought  into  the  Toledo  market.  The  spring  catch  is  considered  as  of  little  importance. 

Between  the  mouth  of  the  Detroit  lliver  and  Toledo,  Ohio,  the  White-fish  ranks  first  in  impor- 
tance.  ( >n  this  shore  they  are  all  said  to  be  good-sized,  mature  fish.  It  is  not  thought  that  they 
are  on  the  decrease  to  any  perceptible  extent.  From  Ottawa  City  westward  to  Port  Clinton  the 
spring  catch  of  White  tish  is  very  light.  The  fall  run  usually  commences  about  the  first  of  October. 
Around  the  Sister  Islands  and  on  innumerable  reefs  are  excellent  spawning  grounds,  where  they 
are  caught  in  small  numbers  by  wandering  gill-netters.  The  catch  about  Port  Clinton  for  the  last 
five  years  is  said  to  have  been  very  poor.  Gill-net  fishing  during  their  spawning  season  and  over- 
lishing  generally  are  assigned  as  the  reasons  for  this  falling  off.  In  1870,  Matthews  &  Bell,  of  Port 
Clinton,  had  on  their  warehouse  floor  forty-seven  tons  of  White-fish  at  one  time,  and  the  next  day 
thirty  tons  more.  At  Locust  Point  and  Toussaiut  the  White-fish  are  reported  as  scarce  in  spring. 
They  there  rank  about  fifth  in  importance  at  that  season.  The  runs  are  very  irregular,  some  years 
being  fairly  abundant  and  others  very  scarce. 

Since  1870,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Sandusky  Bays,  the  decrease  of  White  fish 
has  been  alarming.  Its  decrease,  however,  has  been  irregular,  for  in  1874  there  was  quite  a  large 
catch.  Since  then  the  decline  has  been  greater  every  year. 

It  is  thought  that  the  spawn  is  now  deposited  in  places  where  it  becomes  a  prey  to  larger  fish. 
Some  of  the  best  spawning  grounds  at  present  are  on  the  reefs  off  North  Bass  and  north  and  east 
of  Kelley's  Island  ;  the  principal  portion  of  the  reefs  are  in  Canadian  waters. 

In  lsi»;  Mr.  Anthony  was  hired  by  Dr.  Ackley,  of  Cleveland,  to  convey  a  party  of  students  to 
the  famous  Toussaint  marshes  for  a  hunting  and  fishing  expedition.  To  their  surprise,  they  hauled 
up  in  their  seine  some  White-fish.  Further  attempts  were  made  by  Mr.  Anthony,  aided  by  two 
Frenchmen,  and  in  the  morning,  after  a  whole  night's  work,  he  had  taken  nearly  fifteen  hundred 
line  White  tish.  They  had  never  been  caught  on  this  ground  before.  The  fish  were  taken  to  San- 
dusky,  but  the  people  \\onld  not  believe  that  they  had  been  taken  near  their  city.  In  the  next 
year  a  forty-rod  seine  was  lilted  out,  and  with  it  White-fish  amounting  to  twenty  five  hundred 
barrels  when  salted  were  caught;  this  was  repeated  the  next  year  with  a  similar  success.  In  l*l'.t 
the  first  pound  (twelve  feet  dec)))  was  set,  and  the  result  was  so  successful  that  the  seine  was  dis- 
carded. Alter  four  years'  successful  fishing  they  moved  to  the  south  ]K>int  of  Bass  Island  and  set 
in  thirty  feet  of  watx>r;  this  attempt  was  successful.  At  that  time  the  season  lasted  from  Septem- 
ber 15  to  winter;  now,  at  the  same  place,  it  only  lasts  for  a  few  days  in  spring. 

During  the  best  fishing  da\s  of  the  season — in  the  fall — in  the  vicinity  of  Huron,  Ohio,  a  ton 
of  White-fish  is  sometimes  taken  from  ten  nets;  this  is  above  the  average.  They  are  thought  to 
have  decreased  fifty  per  cent,  since  1S7.~>.  P.efore  isiis  they  appeared  to  be  on  the  increa.-e;  after 
that  year  their  decrease  has  been  continuous  to  the  present  time.  The  diminution  in  their 


540  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

abundance  is  attributed  to  over  fishing.  In  heavy  weather  these  fish  leave  for  deep  water.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Vermillion,  Ohio,  the  White-fish  have  no  spawning  grounds.  A  great  decrease  in 
their  abundance  has  taken  place  during  the  past  few  years.  In  1879  thirteen  nets  succeeded  in 
taking  but  three  tons  of  this  fish. 

InBrownhelin  Bay,  Lake  Erie,  and  at  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  Black  River,  White- 
fish  rank  fourth  in  importance.  They  were  more  abundant  in  1877  than  during  many  previous 
years.  Between  Black  River  and  Dover  Bay  is  a  small  spawning  ground,  on  a  rocky-bottomed 
reef.  During  spawning  time  no  White-fish  are  taken  at  Black  River  or  Brownhelm  Bay.  They 
are  most  abundant  in  this  part  of  Lake  Erie  during  southwest  winds,  when — on  their  way  from  the 
shore  to  deep  water — they  are  caught  in  the  pounds.  At  Brownhelm  Bay  a  great  number  are  taken 
in  the  spring  at  a  point  just  above  Beaver  Creek.  At  Black  River  but  few  can  be  taken,  because 
the  nets  can  be  set  but  a  short  distance  out  from  the  shore;  farther  to  the  westward,  however,  the 
nets  can  be  set  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  shore,  by  which  means  the  catch  is  greatly  increased. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  in  Dover  Bay  the  White-fish  are  not  very 
abundant,  ranking  about  fourtl|  in  importance.  The  runs  are  irregular,  the  largest  ones  occurring 
in  the  spring,  that  of  1879  being  the  most  abundant  ever  known  up  to  that  time.  The  fishermen 
there  say  that  on  approach  of  a  wind  storm  they  will  run  into  deep  water;  if  they  are  frightened 
when  feeding  or  spawning  they  will  not  return  to  their  grounds  for  a  long  while.  They  are  taken 
only  in  mild  weather.  In  the  waters  off  Conneaut  and  Ashtabula,  Lake  Erie,  it  is  supposed  that 
White-fish  are  not  one-third  as  abundant  as  in  1870,  but  since  1876  the  annual  decrease  has  not 
been  perceptible.  Near  Painesville,  Ohio,  no  spawning  or  feeding  grounds  for  the  White-fish  have 
been  found;  but  on  a  shoal — some  miles  to  the  east — the  gill-netters  take  a  great  many  during  the 
spawning  season. 

Toward  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie,  around  Dunkirk,  New  York,  the  first  run  of  White-fish 
takes  place  early  in  the  spring.  In  June,  July,  and  the  early  part  of  August  also,  large  hauls  of 
these  fish  are  made;  the  best  time  is,  however,  from  the  latter  part  of  September  until  November, 
when  a  larger  grade  of  fish,  and  one  which  is  preferred  for  freezing,  is  taken.  Lately  (in  1880)  six 
thousand  pounds  from  forty  nets  and  thirty-five  hundred  pounds  from  twenty-five  nets  are  reported- 
The  largest  haul  in  1879  was  nineteen  hundred  pounds  from  one  gang  of  nets. 

At  Port  Ontario,  on  Lake  Ontario,  White-fish  rank  first  in  importance.  Near  Oswego  this  fish  is 
far  from  being  common,  and  never  enters  the  river.  White-fish,  up  to  the  year  1807,  have  been  on 
the  increase  since  1855  in  the  vicinity  of  Port  Clinton,  especially  so  during  the  years  18G5,  1860, 
and  1867.  Since  that  time  they  have  decreased  in  numbers  to  a  small  extent.  This  decrease  is 
largely  merely  a  supposition,  arising  from  ignorance  regarding  the  movements  of  this  fish,  and  the 
application  of  the  latest  and  best  methods  in  fishing.  Probably  it  is  true  that  the  decrease  is  in 
the  number  that  is  caught,  not  in  the  number  that  might  be  taken.  In  1859,  forty-nine  thousand 
White-fish  are  said  to  have  been  taken  at  one  haul;  many  were  small  and  young;  fully  a  half  of 
this  catch  were  thrown  away  before  the  net  could  be  hauled  in.  At  Stonington  Beach  it  is  claimed 
that  seventy-five  thousand  fish  have  been  taken  ashore  by  one  haul  of  the  seine.  At  Chaumont, 
where  the  White-fish  ranks  second  commercially,  there  has  been  a  great  decrease  during  the 
past  twenty  years.  Now,  there  are  no  spawning  grounds  in  the  bay,  the  fishing  necessarily  being 
carried  on  outside  in  the  lake.  Formerly,  in  this  locality,  sixty  to  seventy  men,  taking  three  to 
.  five  tons  a  day,  were  engaged  in  this  fishery;  now,  sufficient  fish  cannot  be  caught  to  pay  the  men 
for  their  time  and  labor. 

An  alarming  decrease  is  reported  from  Sacket's  Harbor,  where  they  are  taken  inside  only 
during  their  spawning  season.  The  fish  caught  here  are  usually  large.  In  1876  an  immense 
school  of  small  ones  came  into  the  harbor. 


THE  LESSER  WHITE  FISHES.  541 

169.  THE  LESSER  WHITE-FISHES. 

By  DAVID  S.  JOHDAN. 
TUB  MUSQUAW  RIVEK  WHITE-FISH— COBEGONUS  LABRADOBICUS. 

The  name  "Whiting"  is  said  by  Prescott  to  be  applied  to  this  fish  in  New  Hampshire.  It 
occurs  throughout  the  lakes  of  Northern  New  England  and  Northern  New  York,  and  in  the  Great 
Lakes.  It  is,  however,  not  generally  abundant  except  in  the  Great  Lakes.  It  attains  a  smaller 
size  tban  the  White-fish,  those  seen  by  us  rarely  weighing  more  than  a  pound. 

THE  MOON-EYE  OB  Cisco— COBEGONUS  HOYI. 

The  Moon-eye  or  "Cisco"  of  Lake  Michigan  has  thus  far  been  noticed  only  in  Lakes  Michigan, 
Erie,  and  Ontario.  It  is  the  smallest  of  our  White-fish,  rarely  weighing  over  half  a  pound,  and 
it  is  seldom  taken  in  shallow  water.  It  has,  from  its  small  size  and  rare  occurrence,  little  economic 

value.    Nothing  distinctive  is  known  of  its  food  or  breeding  habits. 

i 

THE  LAKE  HERRING — COEEGONUS  ABTKOI. 

This  species  is  almost  universally  known  as  the  "Lake  Herring."  The  name  "Cisco"  is  also 
often  applied  to  it,  especially  about  the  smaller  lakes,  and  in  many  regions  also  the  name  "Michi- 
gan Herring."  The  Lake  Herring  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  fishes  of  the  Great  Lake  region, 
probably  second  only  to  the  White-fish  in  importance  as  a  food-fish.  It  goes  in  large  schools,  and 
is  taken  in  great  numbers  in  comparatively  shallow  waters.  It  occurs  also  in  the  lakes  of  British 
America,  and  probably  in  Northern  New  England  and  New  York.  Its  usual  length  is  little  more 
than  a  foot.  Its  mouth  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the  White-fish,  and  its  range  of  food  is  doubt- 
less greater.  It  spawns  in  November  and  December,  coming  into  shallow  water  for  the  purpose. 
It  exists  in  most  of  the  small  lakes  of  Northern  Indiana  and  Eastern  Wisconsin  (Tippecanoe, 
Geneva,  Oconomowoc,  etc.),  where  it  is  known  as  the  "Cisco."  In  these  lakes  it  usually  remains 
in  deep  water  until  the  spawning  season,  when  great  numbers  come  near  shore  to  spawn.  As  a 
food-fish  the  Lake  Herring  ranks  high,  although  considerably  inferior  to  the  White-fish. 

THE  BLUE-FIN — COBEGONUS  NIGBIPDJNIS. 

This  species  is  known  as  the  "Blue-fin" or  "Black-fin."  It  has  thus  far  been  taken  only  in 
the  deeper  waters  of  Lake  Michigan.  At  times  it  comes  in  considerable  numbers  to  the  Chicago 
market,  but  it  is  in  general  a  rare  species.  It  reaches  a  much  larger  size  than  the  Lake  Herring, 
which  species  it  very  closely  resembles.  Nothing  distinctive  is  known  of  its  food  or  breeding 
habits. 

THE  MONGBEL  WHITE-FISH — COBEGONUS  TULLIBEE. 

This  species  is  occasionally  taken  in  the  Upper  Great  Lakes,  where  it  is  generally  considered 
a  hybrid  between  a  White-fish  and  a  Lake  Herring,  hence  the  name  of  "Mongrel  White-fish."  It 
is  a  rare  fish  in  collections,  and  nothing  distinctive  is  known  of  its  habits.  Its  range  is  probably 
to  the  northward. 

THE  MENOMONEE  WHITE-FISH — COBEGONUS  QUADBILATEBALIS. 

The  only  name  which  I  have  heard  applied  to  this  fish  is  that  of  "Meuomonee  White-fish."  The 
name  of  "Round-fish"  is  given  to  it  by  Richardson,  and  that  of  "Shad  Waiter"  (Winnipiseogee 
Lake)  by  Prescott.  It  is  found  in  the  lakes  of  New  Hampshire,  Northern  New  York,  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  northward  to  the  Arctic  Seas.  In  the  Great  Lakes  it  is  much  less  abundant  than  the 


542  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

commou  White-fish.  Its  size  is  less  than  that  of  the  White-fish.  I  know  nothing  of  its  com- 
parative value  as  food.  The  stomach  of  one  specimen  examined  by  me  contained  small  Limncea- 
like  shells.  Nothing  definite  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  WHITE-FISH — COEEGONUS  WILLIAMSONI. 

This  species  is  usually  known  as  the  White-fish ;  in  Utah  as  the  "Mountain  Herring."  It 
reaches  a  length  of  a  little  more  than  a  foot,  and  a  weight  of  about  a.  pound.  It  is  found  through- 
out the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  in  cold,  clear  lakes.  It  is  abundant  in  Utah  Lake,  Lake  Tahoe, 
and  in  most  of  the  lakes  of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Idaho.  It  is  frequent  in  the  market  of 
Salt  Lake  City,  and  sometimes  comes  into  the  San  Francisco  market.  It  spawns  in  October  and 
November,  running  from  the  lakes  into  the  small  streams  for  this  purpose.  As  a  food-fish  it  ranks 
high,  being  similar  to  its  Eastern  relative,  C.  quadrilateralis. 

THE  CHIEF  MOUNTAIN  WHITE-FISH— PEOSOPION  COUESII. 

"A  specimen  of  a  White-fish  was  taken  in  Chief  Mountain  Lake,  writes  Milner,  at  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  by  Dr.  Elliott  Cones,  U.  S.  A.,  surgeon  and  naturalist  of  the 
Northern  Boundary  Commission.  This  specimen  is  very  different  in  its  type  of  form  from  any 
species  hitherto  described  from  this  continent.  In  Giinther's  arrangement  of  the  species  of  Core- 
gonus,  it  would  be  placed  in  group  (a),  with  the  upper  jaw  produced  into  a  cutaneous  appendage. 
In  this  particular  it  resembles  Coregonus  oxyrhynchus  Liu.  and  C.  Lloydii  Giinth.  Unlike  these 
species,  it  is  an  elongate  fish,  the  proportion  of  height  to  length  being  much  the  same  as  in  C. 
Williamsoni  Gir.  and  C.  quadrilateralis  Rich. ;  it  also  resembles  this  tvpe  of  form  in  the  narrow 
supplementary  bone  of  the  maxillary,  and  the  former  species  in  the  shape  of  the  maxillary. 

"The  only  previous  reference  to  a  fish  supposed  to  be  of  Ihis  genus,  from  the  Saskatchewan 
River,  is  in  some  remarks  appended  to  the  description  of  G.  labradoricm  in  the  "Histoire  Naturelle 
des  Poissons."  Valenciennes  refers,  in  the  most  undecided  manner  possible,  to  a  fish  which  he 
believes  to  be  a  salmonoid,  and  makes  his  diagnosis  from  a  drawing.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  direct 
evidence  in  what  he  says  to  prove  that  the  specimen  was  in  his  possession.  He  admits  that  he  is 
"notable,  to  determine  with  certainty  the  genus";  and,  after  stating  that  "my  first  impression 
was  to  make  it  a  Coregonus,  since  I  have  placed  the  design  by  the  side  of  the  other  species  of  the 
same  genus,"  ends  this  most  uncertain  and  undecided  effort  to  determine  its  relationship,  with  the 
question,  "Could  one  name  it  Coregonus  angusticepsT" 

"It  may  be  that  the  specimen  at  hand  is  a  fish  of  the  species  indicated  in  the  above  name,  the 
ascribed  locality  heightening  this  possibility ;  but  there  can  be  no  consideration  of  the  matter  that 
will  decide  it,  and  the  name  is  consequently  passed  over.  The  character  given  of  fifty-five  scales 
in  the  lateral  line  is  very  far  from  agreeing  with  Dr.  Coues's  specimen,  and,  in  fact,  with  any 
description  of  a  Coregonus  we  have  seen,  and  may  indicate  that  the  author  was  right  in  his  hesi- 
tancy to  decide  upon  the  genus. 

"The  most  marked  feature  is  the  extensive  prolongation  of  the  snout,  which  protrudes  far 
beyond  the  opening  of  the  mouth.  The  head  narrows  regularly  toward  the  anterior  of  the  frontals, 
where  two  strong  angles  are  found  narrowing  the  head  abruptly  at  the  point  where  the  short 
supraorbitals  join,  and  the  frontals  and  nasals  continue  forward  in  a  narrow,  blade-like  extension. 
The  supraorbitals  form  a  bold  prominence  at  the  anterior  of  the  orbit.  The  maxillary  is  short, 
dilated  at  its  posterior  portion,  and  has  a  narrow  supplementary  bone.  The  premaxillaries  are 
somewhat  retroverted,  and  have  very  little  width,  making  the  muzzle  thin  and  narrow,  as  it  is  in 
C.  quadrilaterals  and  C.  Williamsoni.  The  adipose  fln  is  large,  attached  to  the  body  almost  to  the 
posterior  extremity,  and  is  ensheathed  in  scales  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  dorsal  line. 


TUT,  CHIEF  MOI'NTAIN   WHITE  FISH. 

The  greatest  height  of  Ixwly  is  equal  to  tin-  length  of  the  head.  The  least  height  of  tail  is 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  snout.  The  lengths  of  the  caudal  j>eduncle,  of  the  snout,  aud  of  the 
mandible  are  equal  to  each  other.  The  width  of  the  interorbital  area  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the 

maxillary. 

170.  THE  SMELT  FAMILY— MICROSTOMID.E. 
THE  SMELT — OSMERUS  MORDAX. 

The  Smelt  is  found  along  our  Atlantic  coast  from  the  Raritan  River,  latitude  40°  307,  to  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  The  northern  limit  of  its  range  has  not  been  precisely  defined,  although 
it  is  known  to  be  extremely  abundant  along  the  northern  shores  of  New  Brunswick.  It  is  also 
found  in  many  of  the  fresh-water  lakes  of  Maine,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia,  where  they 
have  become  Innd-locked,  and  iu  some  instances,  as  in  Belgrade  Lake,  Maine,  seem  to  have  rather 
been  improved  by  the  change  from  salt  to  fresh  water. 

The  European  Smelt,  O.  eperlanus,  which,  though  very  similar  in  form  to  our  own,  differs  from 
it  in  the  size  of  its  scales,  is  found  in  Southern  Sweden,  as  far  north  as  Christiania  Fjord  district, 
latitude  02°,  and  south  as  far  as  the  entrance  to  the  river  Loire,  latitude  47°,  ascending  the  Seine  as 
high  as  Rouen.  It  is  the  "Stint"  and  the  "Spearling"  of  Germany,  the  "Smelt"  or  "Sparling" 
of  England,  and  the  "Spiering"  or  "Spearling"  of  Holland.  It  is  found  in  the  Baltic,  and, 
entering  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  becomes  a  member  of  the  fauna  of  Russia,  and  is  found  land-locked 
in  cool  lakes,  especially  those  of  Norway,  and  also  in  many  of  the  lakes  of  Northern  Germany, 
and  even  as  far  south  as  Bavaria. 

The  Smelt  enters  our  rivers  and  brackish  bays  during  the  winter  months  for  the  purjwse  of 
spawning,  and  at  this  period  is  caught  in  immense  quantities  in  nets  and  by  hook  and  line  John 
Smith  wrote  in  1622:  "Of  Smelts  there  is  such  abundance,  that  the  Salvages  doe  take  them  up  the 
rivers  with  baskets,  like  sives";  while  Josselyn,  fifty-five  years  afterward,  remarked:  "The  Frott- 
fixh  (O.  mordax)  is  little  bigger  than  a  Gudgeon,  and  are  taken  in  fresh  brooks;  when  the  waters  are 
frozen  they  make  a  hole  in  the  Ice,  about  half  a  yard  or  yard  wide,  to  which  the  fish  repair  in  great 
numbers,  where,  with  small  nets  bound  to  a  hoop  about  the  bigness  of  a  firkin-hoop,  with  a  staff 
fastened  to  it,  they  take  them  out  of  the  hole." 

It  is  to  bo  regretted  that  no  one  has  made  careful  observations  upon  the  beginning  and  close 
of  the  breeding  season  of  this  species  at  different  points  along  the  coast,  but  the  spawn  appears 
to  be  deixxsited,  generally,  late  in  the  winter  and  early  in  the  spring.  The  smelt  fishery  is  increas- 
ing yearly  in  importance,  owing  to  the  greater  facilities  for  the  transportation  of  fish  in  ice.  As 
long  ago  as  1853,  Storer  stated  that  in  Watertown,  Massachusetts,  alone,  about  750,000  dozen  were 
annually  taken  in  scoop-nets  from  the  1st  of  March  to  the  1st  of  June.  Perley,  writing  in  1852, 
stated  that  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  New  Brunswick  large  quantities  were  used  every  season  as  manure, 
while  at  the  fishing  stations  in  the  Bay  of  Chaleur  it  was  taken  in  the  seine  and  used  as  bait  for 
cod.  At  the  present  time,  however,  there  is  an  enormous  shipment  of  Smelt  from  this  region  to 
the  United  States,  forty  car-loads  sometimes  being  received  in  New  York  in  the  course  of  one 
winter.  As  early  as  1864,  according  to  a  note  from  Mr.  J.  Matthew  Jones,  quantities  of  Smelt  were 
packed  at  Halifax  for  shipment  to  the  United  States. 

The  Smelt  feeds,  for  the  most  part,  on  shrimps  and  other  small  crustaceans. 
Although  on  account  of  their  great  abundance  they  sell  in  the  markets  at  a  low  price,  they 
are  among  the  very  choicest  of  all  our  food-fishes.    The  "green"  Smelts,  as  they  are  called,  or 
those  which  have  never  been  frozen,  are  much  tin'  more  highly  esteemed,  especially  those  which 
come  from  the  Raritan  Bay  and  other  points  in  (lie  nrifrliUorhood  of  New  York. 


544  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC   ANIMALS. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  SMELT — OSMERUS  THALEICHTHYS. 

"This  species,"  writes  Jordan,  "is  known  as  Smelt,  especially  in  those  parts  of  the  coast  where 
the  Atherinopsiit  or  California  Smelt  is  unknown.  It  reaches  a  length  of  six  to  eight  inches.  It 
ranges  from  Monterey  to  British  Columbia.  It  does  not  occur  in  such  abundance  as  the  Surf 
Smelt  and  the  Eulachon,  and  it  has  not  been  noticed  in  fresh  water.  Nothing  is  known  to  us  of  its 
breeding  habits.  It  is  the  prey  of  the  various  predatory  fish,  the  larger  flounders,  salmon,  etc.  It 
is  not  brought  into  the  market  in  large  quantities,  and,  being  a  soft-bodied  fish,  is  not  in  good 
condition  when  kept  long.  It  has,  therefore,  little  economic  value. 

.  THE  ALASKA  SMELT — OSMERUS  DENTEX. 

This  species,  according  to  Bean,  occurs  around  the  shores  of  Kamtschatka,  and  has  been  ob- 
served by  him  at  Port  Clarence,  and  by  Messrs.  Turner  and  Nelson  at  Port  Clarence.  It  is  similar 
in  size  and  appearance  to  the  Atlantic  Smelt.  It  is  of  much  importance  to  the  Eskimos,  and  is 
dried  in  great  quantities  for  use  in  their  boat  voyages.  A  similar  species,  perhaps  identical,  is 
that  described  by  Pallas  under  the  name  Osmerus  spirinchus.  This,  it  is  thought  by  Dr.  Bean, 
may  prove  to  be  an  emaciated  form  of  0.  dentex. 

THE  SURF  SMELT — HYPOMESUS  OLIDUS. 

"This  species  is  known  as  the  'Smelt,'"  writes  Jordan,  "and  sometimes  as  the  'Surf  Smelt.' 
It  reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot.  It  ranges  from  the  Bay  of  Monterey  to  Alaska,  being  especially 
abundant  in  Puget  Sound  and  not  common  about  San  Francisco,  although  occasionally  brought  into 
the  markets.  They  feed  upon  worms  and  small  Crustacea,  and  are  eaten  by  all  the  large  flounders 
and  other  predatory  fish.  They  are  found  at  all  seasons,  but  in  the  mouth  of  August  they  go  in 
great  schools  near  the  shore.  They  spawn  in  the  surf  along  the  shore.  The  females  are  thought 
to  come  first,  and  then  the  males.  As  a  pan-fish  this  tine  oily  species  is  unsurpassed." 

THE  CAPELIN— MALLOTUS  TILLOSUS. 

DISTRIBUTION. — This  species  inhabits  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific.  It  does  not  occur 
much  south  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  and  never  approaches  near  the  shores  of  New  England,  but  is, 
notwithstanding,  of  great  importance  to  New  England  fishermen.  It  abounds  on  the  shores  of  New- 
foundland and  on  the  coasts  of  Labrador,  and  during  the  month  of  July  occurs  in  great  numbers 
near  the  Virgin  Rocks,  the  only  portion  of  the  Grand  Banks  above  water.  It  is  found,  also,  near 
Greenland,  and  about  Iceladn  and  Spitsbergen,  and  the  entire  length  of  the  Scandinavian  coast, 
from  Varanger  Fjord  south  to  Christiania  Fjord,  latitude  58°;  the  species  touches  Denmark,  but  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  observed  around  the  British  Isles.  It  is  the  "Lodde"  of  Norway,  where  it 
bears  so  important  a  relation  to  the  cod  fishery.  According  to  Richardson,  it  has  been  found  very 
far  up  in  Carnation  Gulf  and  Bathurst  Inlet,  latitude  70°  north,  longitude  125°  west.  It  occurs  on 
the  arctic  coast  of  North  America,  and  it  seems  probable  that  its  range  extends  also  into  the  icy 
sea  of  Siberia,  completing  the  circuit  of  the  Arctic  Seas. 

"The  first  voyager  who  takes  notice  of  them,"  writes  Pennant,  "is  Master  Anthony  Parkhurst, 
who  visited  that  island  (Newfoundland)  in  1578,  and  gives  a  very  facetious  account  to  his  ship 
mates  of  his  art  in  charming  these,  and  another  fish  ho  calls  a  squid,  into  his  power.  I  refer  to 
Mr.  Hackluyt,  vol.  iii,  p.  133,  for  the  account." 

Parkhurst  observes  that  this  fish,  which  is  like  a  Smelt,  and  is  called  by  the  Spaniards  "An- 
chovas,"  and  by  the  Portuguese  "Capelinas,"  "commeth  also  in  the  night,  but  chiefly  in  the  day 
being  forced  by  the  cod  that  would  devour  him,  and  therefore  for  feare  coinming  so  near  the  shore, 


iiAp.irs  oi-  Tin-:  <  API. i. IN.  545 

is  driven  drie  by  tin-  snr^e.  of  the  sea  on  the  pibble  ami  sands.  Of  tins,  being  as  good  as  a  smelt, 
you  can  take  up  with  a  shove-net  as  plentiful  as  you  do  \\heati-  in  a  shovell  suflicient  in  three  or 
four  hours  for  a  whole  citie." 

In  1880  Dr.  Bean  found  this  fish  abundant  and  in  immense  schools  on  the  cod  grounds  of  tbe 
North  Pariiic,  and  found  forty  individuals  in  the  stomach  of  one  cod  often  pounds  weight. 

The  abundance  of  this  fish  in  northern  waters,  and  the  voracity  with  which  schools  of  cod 
follow  them,  have  been  described  by  many  writers,  by  none  perhaps  better  than  by  Anspach,  who 
thus  descril>es  the  appearance  of  Conception  Bay  about  the  year  1818: 

"It  is  impossible  to  conceive,  much  more  to  describe,  the  splendid  appearance  of  Conception 
Bay  and  its  harbors  on  such  a  night,  at  the  time  of  what  is  there  called  the  Capelin  Skull.  Then 
ita  vast  surface  is  completely  covered  with  myriads  of  fishes  of  various  kinds  and  sizes,  all  actively 
engaged  either  in  pursuing  or  avoiding  each  other;  the  whales  alternately  rising  and  plunging, 
throwing  into  the  air  spouts  of  water;  the  codfish  bounding  above  the  waves  and  reflecting  the 
light  of  the  moon  from  their  silvery  surface;  the  Capelins  hurrying  away  in  immense  shoals  to  seek 
a  refuge  on  the  shore,  where  each  retiring  wave  leaves  countless  multitudes  skipping  upon  the 
sand,  an  easy  prey  to  the  women  and  children  who  stand  there  with  barrows  and  baskets  ready  to 
seize  upon  the  precious  and  plentiful  booty;  while  the  fishermen  in  their  skiffs,  with  nets  made  for 
that  purpose,  are  industriously  employed  in  securing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  valuable  bait  for 
their  fishery." ' 

"The  manner  in  which  the  Capelin  deposits  its  spawn  is  one  of  the  most  curious  circumstances 
attending  its  natural  history.  The  male  fishes  are  somewhat  larger  than  the  female,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  a  sort  of  ridge  projecting  on  each  side  of  their  backbones,  similar  to  the  eaves  of  a 
house,  in  which  the  female  Capelin  is  deficient.  The  latter,  on  approaching  the  beach  to  deposit 
its  spawn,  is  attended  by  two  male  fishes,  who  huddle  the  female  between  them,  until  the  whole 
body  is  concealed  under  the  projecting  ridges,  and  her  head  only  is  visible.  In  this  position  all 
three  run  together,  with  great  swiftness,  upon  the  sands,  when  the  males,  by  some  inherent 
imperceptible  power,  compress  the  body  of  the  female  between  their  own,  so  as  to  expel  the  spawn 
from  the  orifice  and  the  tail.  Having  thus  accomplished  its  delivery,  the  three  Capelins  separate, 
and,  paddling  with  their  whole  force  through  the  shallow  water  of  the  beach,  generally  succeed  in 
regaining  once  more  the  bosom  of  the  deep,  although  many  fail  to  do  so,  and  are  cast  upon  the 
shore,  especially  if  the  surf  be  at  all  heavy.  Like  the  common  Smelt,  the  Capelin  possesses  the 
encumber  smell;  but  it  differs  from  the  Smelt  in  never  entering  fresh- water  streams."1 

"Instances  are  common  of  vast  numbers  of  Capelin  being  found  dead,  or  in  a  dying  state, 
where  the  schools  come  inshore  to  spawn.  The  sandy  bottom  of  the  sloping  beach  is  not  unfre- 
quently  strewed  with  dead  fish,  and  dying  Capelin  may  be.  seen  wandering  about  and  spasmodically 
gasping  in  the  water  from  which  millions  of  the  species  had  abstracted  the  oxygen  necessary  for 
their  existence. 

"The  Capelin  spawu,-as  is  well  known,  on  sandy,  sloping  beaches,  but  they  also^awn  in  waters 
of  different  depths  where  the  bottom  is  composed  of  sand.  The  fishermen  take  Capelin  with  their 
casting-nets  in  from  fifteen  to  thirty  fathoms,  and  probably  also  in  water  of  much  greater  depth, 
the  needed  condition  being  a  smooth,  sandy  bottom  over  which  the  trio  engaged  in  spawning  may 
'run'  touching  the  bottom.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Baccalieo  Tickle,  Mr.  Jabez  Tilly  relates 
that  in  1864  the  fishermen  took  Capelin  for  a  mouth,  from  the  third  week  in  June  to  the  third  week 
in  July,  in  water  varying  from  fifteen  to  thirty  fathoms,  with  the  casting-net.  In  the  second  week 

'Page  306. 

•  l.\ S.MAS  :  Report  United  States  Commiiaion  Fish  and  Fisheries,  part  II,  1874,  p.  225. 

35  P 


546  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  July  capelin  spawn  was  brought  up  from  the  bottom  in  twenty-seven  fathoms  of  water.  The 
spawn  is  said  by  fishermen  to  require  about  fifteen  to  eighteen  days  to  arrive  at  maturity.  The 
young  fish  leave  the  egg  after  that  period.  They  are  found  near  the  coast  until  about  the  end  of 
December,  according  to  the  season,  and  the  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  murrs  and  puffins,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Jabez  Tilly,  are  often  full  of  young  Capelin  at  that  season. 

"At  the  Fishot  Islands,  in  1876,  the  Capelin  were  taken  in  deep  water  about  the  20th  of  June, 
before  they  'came  in.'  The  appearance  of  schools  of  Capelin  coming  in  to  spawn  in  May,  June, 
or  July,  according  to  the  latitude  of  the  place,  has  always  excited  astonishment  at  their  numbers, 
and  often,  in  the  present  day,  in  Conception  Bay  and  some  other  noted  spawning  grounds,  remark- 
able scenes  may  be  witnessed;  an  idea  may  thus  be  formed  of  the  extraordinary  number  of  fry. 
serving  as  food,  which  swarm  even  now  in  the  Newfoundland  seas.  Nor  is  it  less  easy  to  conceive 
how  greatly  these  innumerable  hosts  have  contributed  to  the  drawing  inshore  of  the  deep-sea  fish ; 
first  the  adult  fish  forming  the  attraction,  next  the  spawn,  then  the  young  fry,  and  thus  continuing 
to  the  approach  of  winter.  So  great  has  been  the  importance  attached  to  the  preservation  of  the 
Capelin  that  legal  enactments  have  passed  the  legislature  of  Newfoundland  prohibiting  the  use  of 
this  fish  as  manure,  and  the  public  documents  abound  with  remonstrances  against  this  palpable 
abuse  of  one  of  the  most  important  means  for  preserving  the  Newfoundland  fisheries."1 

MIGRATIONS. — In  the  opinion  of  Professor  Hind  the  Capelin  winter  with  the  cod  in  the 
deeper  portions  of  the  bays  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  though  in  different  zones  of  water. 
Cod  taken  through  the  ice  in  January,  1852,  in  Saint  Mary's  Bay,  had  undigested  Capelin  in  their 
stomachs.  Professor  Hind  remarks  that  an  impression  prevails  among  the  fishermen  that  the 
Capelin  are  moving  north,  and  that  the  cod  are  following  them,  but  this  opinion  is  not  shared  by 
the  fishermen  who  have  occupied  the  coast  of  Labrador  for  a  century.  They  have  known  the 
Capelin  as  far  north  as  Nain  for  many  years.  On  the  Admiralty  chart  of  Fort  Manvers,  latitude 
57°,  longitude  62°  7',  thirty  miles  north  of  Nain,  and  published  in  1871,  Capelin  Bay  is  the  name 
given  to  an  anchorage,  from  which  it  is  manifest  that  Capelin  were  seen  there  half  a  century 
before  the  fishermen  passed  Aullik  Bay,  or  even  Cape  Harrison,  nearly  two  hundred  miles  to 
the  south.  The  Capelin,  however,  is  not  known  to  the  officers  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  or 
to  the  missionaries  beyond  Cape  Mumford.2 

IMPORTANCE. — The  Capelin  are  consumed  in  great  quantities  by  halibut,  and  also  by  whales. 
In  Finmark  the  cod  fishery  is  divided  into  two  seasons,  the  fishery  which  takes  place  early  in  the 
spawning  season,  and  the  Lodde  or  Capeliu  fishery,  which  occurs  later,  and  which,  when  the 
Capelin  is  abundant,  is  of  great  importance.3 

^ 

The  Labrador  cod  fishery,  at  one  time  of  considerable  importance  to  Provincetown,  Marble- 
head,  Newburyport,  and  other  fishing  towns  of  Massachusetts,  like  the  Lodde  fishery  of  Finmark, 
depended  entirely  upon  the  presence  of  Capelin. 

The  Caj>elin  is  extensively  used  for  bait  in  the  Grand  Bank  fishery,  especially  by  the  French, 
by  whom  it  isfl^ated  that  sixty  thousand  hogsheads  are  annually  taken  about  Newfoundland  for 
this  purpose.  In  Greenland  the  Capelin  forms  so  important  an  article  of  food  that  it  has  been 
termed  the  "daily  bread"  of  the  natives.  In  Newfoundland  they  are  dried  in  large  quantities 
and  exported  to  London,  where  they  are  sold  principally  in  the  oyster  shops.4 

•HlND:  Fishery  Clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington,  1877,  p.  134. 
•HlND:  Ibid.,  part  ii,  p.  70. 

3  Report  United  States  Commission  Fish  and  Fisheries,  part  v,  1879,  p.  709. 
4LANMAN:  Ibid. 


fi  UK  i:ri,ACHON.  547 

Tin:  Mi  I.ACHON— THALEICHTHYS  PACIFICUS  (Uichanlson)  Oinml. 

This  species,  common  in  I  In-  Ninth  Pacific,  resembles  the  <  '.i|.elin.  ami  is  usually  known  by  the- 
Indian  name  "  Knlaclion,"  or  ••Otilaclian,"  more  coin nn inly  pronounced  "  hoolakins"  by  the  English 
al  Victoria.  Those  salted  and  sent  south  arc  commonly  called  "Caudle-fish"  by  the  trade.  In  the 
Columbia  Uiver  and  elsewhere  southward  it  is  known  as  u  Smelt,"  being  confounded  with  the  other 
species.  It  readies  a  length  of  less  than  .1  I'oot.  It  rouges  from  Oregon  northward  to  Kamtc.hatka. 
It  occurs  in  some  abundance  in  the  Columbia  Uiver,  where  little  notice  is  taken  of  it.  In  Frazer 
Uiver  and  streams  to  the  northward  it  runs  in  enormous  numbers  in  spring.  The  Kulachon  run 
up  the  rivers  and  deposit  their  spawn  on  gravel  beds  at  no  great  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the 
stream,  probably  not  above  thirty  miles.  Their  run  is  from  the  last  of  March  to  the  middle  of  May, 
probably  varying  in  dill'erent  streams.  During  the  run  they  are  beset  by  all  sorts  of  enemies — 
halibut,  sharks,  sea  'birds.  Indians,  porpoises,  and  all  manner  of  predatory  fish,  some  of  which 
chase  them  in  the  ocean  only ;  others  pursue  them  up  the  rivers.  Even  the  sturgeons  and  the  rays 
have  their  stomachs  full  of  them. 

The  Eulaehon  is  greatly  valued  on  account  of  the  oil  which  permeates  its  flesh.  As  a  pan- 
fish  it  has  no  superior.  A  factory  has  been  established  on  the  Noss  Kiver  for  the  manufacture 
of  eulachon  oil,  which  is  intended  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  cod-liver  oil.  It  has  the  drawback 
of  becoming  solid  and  lard-like  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

^'Nature,"  the  chief  London  journal  of  science,  stated,  May  12,  1881:  "A  new  medicinal 
oil  has  just  been  introduced  into  this  country  by  Messrs,  liiirgnyne  &  Burbridge,  the  well-known 
chemists  of  Coleman  street.  It  is  known  as  Oolachian  oil,  and  is  said  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  cod-liver  oil.  It  is  obtained  from  a  fish  called  by  the  North  American  Indians  'Oolachau,' 
or  ' Candle-fish,'  from  the  fact  that  when  dried  the  fish  itself  can  be  used  as  a  candle,  on  account 
of  the  large  quantity  of  oleaginous  matter  it  contains.  .  .  .  In  America  the  oil  has  already  a 
great  reputation  as  a  valuable  and  efficient  substitute  for  cod-liver  oil,  and  there  is  every  prob- 
ability, as  it  becomes  known  in  th  s  country,  of  its  taking  a  prominent  place  as  an  important, 
medicine."  Diligent  inquiry  fails  to  briug  to  light  evidences  of  any  extensive  use  of  this  oil  .is 

yet  in  the  United  States. 

V     •-  =•      ?••—.;-  ctr  -  •»•:•:  T—I  ,f.:/>  ""•:.>  f1  i!:;— r  "*—•-!  .'• 

171.  FAMILIES  RELATED  TO  THE  SALMON  ID  JE. 
THE  SCOPELUS  FAMILY — SCOPELID.E. 

The  species  of  this  family  are  small  and  pelagic,  and  are  found  throughout  all  the  temperate 
and  tropical  seas.  They  are  so  numerous  that  the  surface  net,  when  used  in  a  night  of  moderate 
weather,  in  mid  ocean,  scarcely  ever  fails  to  inclose  some  specimens.  They  come  to  the  surface  at 
nii: hi  only;  during  the  day,  in  very  rough  weather,  they  descend  to  depths  where  they  are  safe 
from  sunlight  and  from  the  agitation  of  the  water.1 

In  the  Western  Atlantic  there  are  five  or  six  species,  which  are  catalogued  in  the  check-list 
In  California  there  is  only  one,  Myctophum  crenulare,  a  single  specimen  of  which  was  taken  from 
the  stomach  of  an  albicore  at  Santa  Barbara. 

THE  HANDSAW  FISH  FAMILY — ALEPIDOSAURID^. 

The  fishes  of  this  family  inhabit  very  deep  water,  and  are  never  seen  at  the  surface.  The 
Handsaw  Fish  of  the  Pacific,  Alepidosaurvs  borealig,  is  occasionally  found  along  the  coast  from 

'GU.NTHKR:  Study  of  Fishes,  p.  585. 


548  NATURAL   HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC   ANIMALS. 

Monterey  to  Kamtchatka.  The  Atlantic  species,  A.  ferox,  very  closely  allied  to,  if  not  identical 
with,  its  ally  in  the  Pacific,  is  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  offshore  banks,  being  frequently 
brought  up  on  the  lines  of  the  halibut  trawl  fishermen  from  a  depth  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
three  hundred  fathoms.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  ferocious  looking  of  the  deep  sea  fishes, 
growing  to  a  length  of  six  feet,  its  month  provided  with  double  rows  of  sharp,  lancet-shaped  teeth, 
a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  are  very  slender  and  lithe  in  form,  and  are  the 
personification  of  voracity.  Giinther  states  that  from  the  stomach  of  one  example  have  been 
taken  several  cuttle-fishes,  crustaceans,  and  sea-sqnirts,  a  young  Brania,  twelve  young  boar-fishes, 
a  horse-mackerel,  and  one  young  of  its  own  species.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits.  Its 
only  importance  to  the  fisheries  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  cumbers  the  hooks  of  the  fishermen. 

THE  ALEPOCEPHALUS  FAMILY — ALEPOCEPHALID.S;. 

This  family  is  represented  in  the  deep  water  of  the  Western  Atlantic  by  two  species, 
Alepocephalus  Bairdii  and  A.  Agassisii,  of  each  of  which  single  specimens  have  been  obtained  on 
the  off-shore  banks,  a  magnificent  fish,  attaining  the  length  of  at  least  three  feet,  shaped  like  a 
salmon,  covered  with  thin  silvery  scales.  Only  one  other  species  of  the  genus  is  known — a  rare 
fish  from  the  Mediterranean. 

THE  PARALEPIS  FAMILY — PARALEPID^E. 

These  are  small,  pelagic  fishes,  occurring  in  the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic,  and  Pacific.  Iiuour 
waters  there  are  three  species:  In  the  Atlantic,  Paralepis  borealis,  a  Greenland  form,  of  which  we 
have  seen  one  specimen  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence;  in  the  Pacific  there  are  two,  each 
known  from  a  single  specimen,  Sudis  ringens,  from  the  Santa  Barbara  Channel,  and  Paralepiv 
cornscans,  from  the  Straits  of  Fuca. 

THE  SNAKE-FISH  FAMILY — SYNODONTID^E. 

The  family  is  represented  on  our  Atlantic  coast  by  three  species,  on  the  Pacific  by  one,  Synodun 
lucioceps,  which  is  closely  related  to  the  Atlantic  species,  8.  fcetens.  The  Pacific  species  occurs 
from  San  Francisco  southward,  and  is  occasionally  eaten.  The  Atlantic  forms  occur  in  the  West 
Indies  and  range  north  to  Cape  Cod,  but  are  of  no  economic  importance. 


R.— THE    HERRING    TRIBE. 

172.  THE  HERRING— CLUPEA  HARENGUS. 

ABUNDANCE  AND  IMPORTANCE. — The  Herring  is  beyond  question  the  most  important  of 
food-fishes.  Distributed,  as  it  is,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  North  Atlantic,  it  affords  occupa- 
tion, during  ;i  portion  of  the  year  at  least,  for  immense  fleets  of  fishing  boats,  and,  according  to  the 
estimate  of  Professor  Huxley,  the  number  taken  every  year  out  of  the  North  Sea  and  Atlantic  is 
at  least  3,000,000,000,  with  a  weight  of  at  least  1,000,000,000  pounds.  This  estimate  is  perhaps 
more  likely  to  be  too  low  than  too  high.  According  to  the  statement  of  Carl  Dambeck,  given  in 
the  United  States  Fish  Commission  Report,  volume  3,  page  21,  the  average  yield  of  Herring  in 
Norway  from  1850  to  1870  amounted  to  1,452,000,000  pounds.  Widegren1  estimates  that  the  total 
yield  of  Herring  on  the  Swedish  coast  of  the  Baltic  amounts  to  300,000,000  pounds.  Holdsworth 
placed  the  yield  of  Scotland  in  1873  at  188,000,000  pounds,  their  capture  requiring  15,095  boats 
with  crews  of  45,494  men.  In  the  same  perio'l  in  the  English  fisheries  he  states  that  15,331  boats 
were  used.  He  gives  no  estimate  of  the  yield,  but  it  is  probably  not  very  different  from  that  of 
Scotland.  France,  Ireland,  and  Belgium  have  also  herring  fisheries  of  considerable  extent,  and 
Germany  in  a  less  degree.  In  1874,  according  to  compilation  and  estimates  of  Professor  Hind, 
200,000,000  pounds  of  Herring  were  taken  in  the  waters  of  British  North  America,  and  in  1880 
nearly  43,000,000  pounds  were  obtained  on  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States.1.  Summing  up  the 
aggregate  of  these  statements  and  estimates,  and  allowing  to  Ireland,  Belgium,  Germany,  and 
France  a  product  equal  «o  that  cited  of  Scotland,  we  have  an  aggregate  of  250,000,000  pounds. 
This  total  is  not  presented  as  an  item  of  statistical  information,  but  simply  to  emphasize  by  way  of 
illustration  the  statement  made  at  the  beginning  of  this  paragraph. 

Commenting  upon  the  supposed  injurious  effect  of  the  fisheries  upon  the  abundance  of  this 
fish,  Professor  Huxley  in  his  well-known  lecture  upon  the  Herring,  delivered  at  the  International 
Fishery  Exhibition  at  Norwich  in  1881,  remarked  as  follows: 

"It  is  said  that  2,500,000,000,  or  thereabout,  of  Herrings  are  every  year  taken  out  of  the  North 
Sea  and  the  Atlantic.  Suppose  we  assume  the  number  to  be  3,000,000,000,  so  as  to  be  quite  safe. 
It  is  a  large  number,  undoubtedly,  but  what  does  it  come  tot  Not  more  than  that  of  the  Herrings 

1  United  States  Fish  Commission  Report,  part  iii,  p.  33. 

'The  Herring  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  fishes  in  the  Western  Atlantic  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  and  early  exploration  of  America,  as  the  following  extracts  from  the  voyages  of  early  navigators  will  show: 

Josselyn  wrote  in  1675:  "The  Herrin,  which  are  numerous,  they  take  of  them  all  summer  long.  In  Anno  liom. 
1670,  they  weie  driven  back  into  Slack-Point  Harbour  by  other  great  fish  that  prey  upon  them  so  near  the  shoro 
that  they  threw  themselves  (it  being  high  water)  upon  dry  land  in  such  infinite  numbers  that  we  ini>;lit  have  gone 
np  half-way  the  leg  amongst  them  for  near  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  We  used  to  qualifie  a  pickled  Ilerrin  by  (railing  of 
him  in  milk." 

John  Smith,  in  1631,  remarked:  "Herring,  if  any  desire  them,  I  hone  taken  many  out  of  the  bellies  of  Cods, 
some  in  nets;  but  the  Saluages  compare  their  store  in  the  sea,  to  the  haires  of  their  heads:  &  surely  there  are  an 
incredible  abundance  upon  this  Coast."  And  again:  "Of  Herrings,  there  is  great  store,  fat,  and  fair;  &  (to  my 
minde)  as  good  as  any  as  I  have  seene,  &  these  may  be  preserved,  and  made  a  good  commodity  at  the  Canarie*.' 

549 


550  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

which  may  be  contained  in  one  shoal,  if  it  covers  half  a  dozen  square  miles,  and  shoals  of  much 
larger  size  are  on  record.  It  is  safe  to  say  that,  scattered  through  the  North  Sea  and  the  Atlantic, 
at  one  and  the  same  time,  there  must  be  scores  of  shoals,  any  one  of  which  would  go  a  long  way 
toward  supplying  the  whole  of  man's  consumption  of  Herrings." 

NAME. — So  well  known  was  the  Herring  from  the  earliest  days  to  the  inhabitants  of  Northern 
Europe  and  to  their  descendants  who  migrated  to  the  western  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  that  one 
name  serves  to  designate  the  fish  in  the  languages  of  a  majority  of  the  peoples  to  whom  it  is 
known.  Its  name  in  English,  German,  and  Dutch,  though  differently  spelled,  is  pronounced  in 
exactly  the  same  way.  To  the  Scandinavian  tribes  it  is  known  by  the  name  "  Sill."  France  in 
the  name  Clvp6e  employs  a  form  of  the  Latin  name  for  fishes  of  this  group  by  which  the  same 
fish  is  known  to  these  nations  when  described  in  the  language  of  their  men  of  science.  There  are 
certain  local  names  for  the  Herring  which  are  used  not  to  replace  the  general  one,  but  to  designate 
certain  conditions  and  ages.  To  this  class  belongs  the  name  "Sperling,"  employed  by  our  own 
fishermen  of  Cape  Ann  to  denote  the  young  Herrings.  Corresponding  to  this  name  the  word 
"Striimming"  is  used  in  Sweden.  British  fishermen,  according  to  Huxley,  distinguish  four  states 
of  the  Herring:  (1)  "Fry,"  or  "Sill,"  for  the  young  fish  when  not  larger  than  sprats;  (2)  "Matics," 
a  name  which  is  a  corruption  of  the  Dutch  word  for  a  maiden ;  Herrings  in  this  class  are  larger 
than  fry,  but  with  undeveloped  roe  or  milt;  (3)  "Full,"  fish  with  larger  developed  roe  or  milt; 
and  (4)  "Spent"  or  "Shotten,"  fish  which  have  recently  spawned.  "Maties,"  when  gorged  with 
their  favorite  food,  small  crustaceans,  are  called  by  the  Scotch  fishermen  "Gut-pock"  Herrings. 
In  Sweden,  according  to  Widegren,  the  following  names  are  known  in  the  trade:  "Norwegian 
Heiring,"  "Graben  Herring,"  "Fat  Herring,"  "Gottenburg"  or  "Bohusliiu"  Herring,  "Kullu 
Herring,"  "Bleking  Herring,"  "Small  Herring,"  "Anchovies,"  "Skarp  Herring,"  "Spiced  Herring," 
etc.1 

These  names  are  cited  to  indicate  how  many  variations  are  customarily  made  upon  the  well- 
known  name  of  Herring.  In  the  United  States  there  are  few  trade  names  for  this  fish,  though  a 
large  portion  of  our  Herring  pass  from  producer  to  consumer  under  a  name  which  is  intentionally 
deceptive,  that  of  "French  Sardine,"  and  a  few  are  canned  in  spices  and  sold  under  the  still  more 
imaginative  name  ot  "brook"  and  "sea"  trout.  "Bloater,"  "  Digby  Chicken,"  and  "Hard 
Herring"  are  other  trade  names  used  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  significance  of  which  will  be 
explained  in  the  paragraph  relating  to  "economic  uses." 

Small  Herring  are  frequently  called  "Brit"  by  the  fishermen,  of  Eastern  New  England. 
"Anchovy"  is  another  name  for  these  small  fish — still  in  use  among  our  fishermen — and  had  its 
origin  in  one  of  the  devices  of  trade. 

By  far  the  most  confusing  congeries  of  names,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  literature  pro- 
duced in  such  lavish  quantities  during  the  past  twenty  years  by  the  Scandinavian  naturalists  who 
have  been  attempting  to  reconcile  with  fact  the  theories  prevalent  among  fishermen  and  others 
in  Northern  Europe  concerning  the  movements  of  the  different  schools  of  Herring  and  the  race 
characteristics  and  habits  which  were  supposed  to  characterize  them. 

In  the  "Preliminary  Report  for  1873-'74  on  the  Herring  and  the  Herring  Fisheries  of  the 
West  Coast  of  Sweden,"  by  A.  V.  Ljungman,2  are  given  numerous  names  of  this  sort,  such  as 
"Boundary  Herring,"  "Grass  Herring,"  "Great  Herring,"  "Norwegian  Winter  Herring,"  "Nor- 
wegian Fall  Herring,"  "Old  Herring,"  "Real  Sea  Herring,"  "Cattegat  Herring,"  "Sea  Herring," 


'United  States  Fish  Commission  Report,  part  vi,  p.  124. 

•Translation  in  United  States  Fish  Commission  Report,  part  iii,  1876.  pp.  123-167. 


NAMES  OF  THE  HEIMMNd.  .-,.-,1 

"Fjord  Herring,"  "Sn.tdi  Dutrli  liming,"  "Lard  Herring,"  "  Hnlf  Herring,"  and  "Teiui.-r 
Herring."  In  this  report  Mr.  Ljtingman  attempted  to  distinguish  and  described  at  least  four  varie- 
ties, and  in  so  doing  was  much  more  conservative  than  his  predecessor,  Professor  Nilsson,  (f)  who 
in  the  year  183li  described,  under  binomial  names,  as  distinct  species  eight  of  the  forms  known  in 
his  country  under  separate  popular  names.  In  a  later  report  on  the  salt-water  fisheries  of  Bonus- 
Ian.  published  in  isTS,1  Mr.  Ljungmau,  who  had,  in  the  six  years  intervening  between  this  date 
and  the  writing  of  his  first  essay,  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  the  subject,  appears  to  have 
abandoned  his  early  idea,  since  he  makes  no  attempt  to  distinguish  the  races,  and  simply 
announces  himself  as  maintaining  that  "more  than  one  race  of  Herrings  may  be  found  in  one  and 
the  same  place." 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  Herring  is  found  in  the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of 
the  North  Atlantic.  On  the  west  its  range  extends  south  to  Sandy  Hook,  at  the  entrance  of  New 
York  Harbor,  where  they  are  found  occasionally  in  midwinter,  and  on  the  north  as  far  as  Northern 
Labrador,  diminishing  in  numbers  perhaps  toward  the  northern  extreme.  On  the  east  its  southern 
limit  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  while  northward  it  is  found  in  the  White  Sea  and  on 
the  southern  shores  of  Spitzbergen.  It  of  course  does  not  enter  the  Mediterranean,  though  it  is 
abundant  in  the  North  Sea  and  in  the  Baltic.  Huxley  hazards  the  conjecture  that  it  perhaps 
inhabits  some  parts  of  the  North  Sea,  and  states  that  there  is  a  very  similar,  if  not  identical, 
species  in  the  North  Pacific.  His  surmise  as  to  the  identity  of  the  Pacific  Herring  with  that  of 
the  Atlantic  is  not  confirmed  by  the  recent  careful  explorations  of  Dr.  Bean  in  that  region. 
The  fish  which  he  had  in  mind  is  probably  C.  mirabilix. 

On  onr  own  coast  Herring  are  not  known  to  enter  water  which  is  in  the  least  degree  brackish, 
except  occasionally  in  the  spawning  season  in  Saint  Andrew's  Bay,  where  the  admixture  of  fresh 
water  is  but  slight.  According  to  Professor  Huxley,  Herrings  spawn  freely  not  only  in  the  nar- 
rows of  the  Baltic,  such  as  the  Great  Belt,  in  which  the  water  is  not  half  as  salt  as  it  is  in  the 
North  Sea  and  in  the  Atlantic,  but  even  in  such  long  inlets  as  the  Schlei  in  Schleswig,  the  water 
of  which  is  quite  drinkable  and  is  inhabited  by  fresh-water  fish. 

"  Ljunginan2  cites  instances  in  which  Herrings  are  said  to  have  ascended  rivers  in  Sweden  and 
Germany  to  a  distance  of  several  miles.  The  same  author,  however,  seems  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  Herring  is  far  from  having  a  predilection  for  fresh  water,  and  that  the  few  instances  in  which 
they  have  been  observed  spawning  in  brackish  waters  have  been  purely  incidental  and  induced 
by  the  fact  that  suitable  spawning  places  could  not  be  found  in  waters  of  an  ordinary  degree  of 
saltness. 

The  temperature  preferred  by  the  Herring  has  been  more  carefully  determined  in  Europe  than 
here.  The  observations  of  the  Scotch  and  Dutch  meteorological  societies  have  demonstrated  that 
the  temperature  of  the  water  most  favoi able  to  the  summer  herring  fisheries  of  their  respective 
countries  is  about  5o°.4  F.,  though  during  the  Scotch  winter  fisheries  the  temperature  ranges 
from  40°.l  F.  to  41°.9  F.,  and  during  the  Norwegian  spring  herring  fisheries  it  ranges  from  37°.4 
F.  to  39°.2  F.  Commenting  upon  these  figures,  Ljungman  remarks: 

"  There  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Herrings  prefer  a  certain  even  temperature  of  the 
water,  and  that  they  consequently  avoid  too  warm  or  too  cold  water.  This  degree  of  temperature, 
however,  differs  greatly  according  to  the  different  locations,  fisheries,  and  races  of  Herrings.  The 
fishing  for  spawning  Herrings  is,  for  example,  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  going  on  at  a  season  of 


'Translation  in  United  Stuten  fish  Commission  Report,  part  vi,  pp.  143-230. 
•Keport  United  States  Kiijh  Commismon,  part  vi,  p.  177. 


552  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  year  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  very  high  (from  the  middle  of  July  till  the  middle 
of  September),  or  very  low  (January  to  March).  The  observations  of  the  Scotch  and  Dutch  mete- 
orological societies  made  during  the  Scotch  and  Dutch  summer  herring  fisheries  have  shown  that 
the  temperature  of  the  water  most  favorable  to  these  fisheries  is  about  13°  0.  (55°.4  P.).  During  the 
Scotch  winter  fisheries,  however,  the  temperature  of  the  water  ranges  from  4°.5  C.  to  5°.5  C.  (40°.l 
P.  to  41°.9  P.),  and  during  the  Norwegian  spring  herring  fisheries  it  only  ranged  from  3°  0.  to 
4°  C.  (37°.4  F.  to  39°.2  P.).  But  our  observations  are  still  so  incomplete,  and  relate  so  exclusively 
to  the  spawning  Herrings,  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  anything  with  absolute  certainty  excepting 
the  fact  that  the  Herrings,  when  the  temperature  of  the  surface  waters  is  either  too  high  or  too  low, 
go  to  deeper  waters." 

The  theory  advanced  by  Ljunginan  in  this  last  sentence  is  perhaps  a  little  premature.  Is 
it  not  supposable  that  local  races  of  Herring  exist  and  perform  the  various  functions  of  life  in 
totally  different  scales  of  temperature?  This  is  undoubtedly  the  case  with  sedentary  fresh- water 
species,  such  as  the  black  bass,  which,  in  its  extreme  northern  range  in  North  America,  lives  in 
waters  which  in  midsummer  are  colder  than  those  which  southern  fish  ever  experience  even  in 
winter.  This  view  is  not  presented  as  a  new  one,  but  simply  for  the  sake  of  introducing  the 
illustration. 

MIGRATIONS  AND  MOVEMENTS. — In  Ljungman's  report  on  the  fisheries  of  Bohuslan,  already 
quoted  from,1  is  given  the  following  recapitulation  of  the  different  scientific  theories  that  have  been 
in  the  past  and  are  now  heard  concerning  the  migrations  of  the  Herrings : 

"  In  briefly  recapitulating  the  different  scientific  theories  regarding  the  migrations  of  the 
Herrings,  it  will  be  found  that  they  may  all  be  arranged  under  the  following  heads: 

"a.  The  theory  of  a  central  race  of  Herrings,  according  to  which  all  Herrings  which  are  in  the 
world  belong  to  one  great  central  race,  from  which  all  kinds  of  Herrings,  both  great  and  small, 
come.  This  theory  is  varied  as  follows: 

"  1.  This  central  race  of  Herrings  is  supposed  to  live  in  the  northern  Polar  Sea,  from  which 
large  schools  emigrate  every  year  to  those  coasts  where  herring  fisheries  are  carried  on  (Anderson, 
Pennant,  and  others). 

"2.  This  central  race  of  Herrings  is  constantly  moving  through  the  Northern  Atlantic  Ocean 
in  a  circle,  whose  extent  is  regulated  by  the  declination  of  the  sun  (Gilpin). 

"3.  Besides  this  great  central  race  oi  Herrings  living  in  the  Northern  Atlantic  Ocean,  causing 
the  great  herring  fisheries,  smaller  local  races  having  separated  in  course  of  time,  causing  the 
smaller  coast  fisheries  (Luudbeck). 

"According  to  the  first  two  of  these  three  theories  there  would  be  no  regular  migrations,  whilst 
such  would  take  place  according  to  the  third. 

"&.  The  theory  of  separate  races  of  Herrings,  according  to  which  the  different  fisheries  are 
caused  by  separate  races  of  Herrings,  each  having  its  own  locality.  This  theory  is  varied  as  follows  : 

"1.  The  theory  of  a  coast  race  of  Herrings,  considering  the  Herring  exclusively  as  a  bottom 
fish.  This  may  again  be  subdivided: 

"a.  Some  suppose  that  there  is  only  one  local  race  of  Herrings  in  every  place,  which,  if  not 
driven  away  by  human  agencies,  always  stays  near  the  coast,  There  is  consequently  no  difference 
between  coast  Herrings  and  sea  Herrings,  and  there  are  no  regular  migrations  (Nilsson). 

"  b.  Others  think  that  more  than  one  race  of  Herrings  may  occur  in  one  and  the  same  place. 
There  is  consequently  a  difference  between  coast  Herrings  and  sea  Herrings,  and  there  are  regular 

'Report,  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  vi,  p.  218. 


MOVEMENTS  OK  Till.   IlKKHINC,.  553 

migrations;  but  the  proper  homes  even  of  the  sea  Herrings  are  the  deep  valleys  on  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  near  the  coast  (Axel  Boeck). 

"2.  The  theory  of  a  sen  race  of  Herrings,  considering  the  Herring  as  a  surface  fish.  This 
theory  is  also  subdivided: 

"</.  Some  deny  the  occurrence  of  more  than  one  race  of  Herrings  in  one  and  the  same  place, 
the  difference  between  coast  Herrings  and  sea  Herrings  (littoral  and  pelagian  Herrings)  and  regular 
migrations  (G.  O.  Sars). 

•'ft.  Others  maintain  that  there  is  a  relative  difference  between  coast  Herrings  and  sea  Her- 
rings, that  more  than  one  race  of  Herrings  may  be  found  in  one  and  the  same  place,  and  that  the 
great  schools  of  Herrings  migrate  regularly  (A.  V.  Ljungman)."1 

This  table  is  quoted  as  an  illustration  of  the  uncertainty  which  even  to  the  present  time  exists 
concerning  the  migrations  of  this  fish — an  uncertainty  which  in  all  probability  will  never  be 
removed.  It  is  safe,  however,  to  say  that  the  theories  enumerated  in  catalogue  a  had  been  long 
since  abandoned  by  all  scientific  thinkers.  The  views  of  Bars  and  Ljuuginan  that  the  Herring  is 
practically  a  surface  fish,  not  usually  descending  to  great  depth,  perhaps  never  more  than  one 
hundred  fathoms  below  the  surface,  am  supported  by  many  arguments  of  analogy;  at  any  rate, 
they  agree  with  what  many  investigators  believe  to  be  true  concerning  certain  lish  with  some 
similar  habits,  such  as  the  mackerel  and  menhaden.  On  the  other  hand,  Herrings  are  known  to 
occur  off  the  Newfoundland  coast,  according  to  Mr.  Earll,  at  a  depth  of  fully  one  hundred  fathoms, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  may  not  descend  to  still  greater  depths. 

"If  you  read,"  writes  Professor  Huxley,  "any  old  and  some  new  books  on  the  natural  history 
of  the  Herring,  you  will  find  a  wonderful  story  about  the  movements  of  these  shoals:  how  they 
start  from  their  home  in  the  Polar  Seas,  and  march  south  as  a  great  armada  which  splits  into 
minor  divisions — one  destined  to  spawn  on  the  Scandinavian  and  one  on  our  own  shores;  and 
how,  having  achieved  this  spawning  raid,  the  spent  fish  make  their  way  as  fast  as  they  can  liack 
to  their  arctic  refuge,  there  to  repair  their  exhausted  frames  in  domestic  security.  This  story 
was  started  in  the  last  century,  and  was  unfortunately  adopted  and  disseminated  by  our  country- 
man Pennant.  But  there  is  not  the  least  proof  that  anything  of  the  kind  takes  place,  and  the. 
probabilities  are  wholly  against  it.  It  is,  for  example,  quite  irreconcilable  with  the  fact  that 
Herring  are  found  in  cods'  stomachs  all  the  year  around.  And  the  circumstance  to  which  I  have 
already  adverted,  that  practiced  eyes  distinguish  local  breeds  of  Herrings,  though  it  does  not 
actually  negative  the  migration  hypothesis,  is  very  much  against  it.  The  supposition  that  the 
Herring  spawn  in  the  north  in  the  early  spring,  and  in  the  south  in  the  autumn,  fitted  very  well 
into  the  notion  that  the  vanguard  of  the  migrating  body  of  Herrings  occupied  the  first  spawning 
ground  it  reached,  and  obliged  the  rest  of  the  horde  to  pass  on.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
northern  Herrings,  like  the  southern,  have  two  spawning  times;  or  perhaps  it  would  be  more 
correct  to  say  that  the  spawning  time  extends  from  autumn  to  spring,  and  has  two  maxima — one 
in  August-September  and  one  in  February-March." 

Discussing  the  causes  of  the  movements  of  the  Herring  schools,  Professor  Baird  in  1877  wrote 
as  follows: 

"Although  the  movements  of  the  Herring  appear  to  be  very  capricious,  they  are  doubtless 
governed  as  much  by  well-defined  laws  as  any  other  portion  of  creation,  although  we  are  yet  far 
from  understanding  fully  the  conditions  which  control  their  actions.    They  sometimes  frequent  a 
portion  of  the  European  coast  for  many  successive  years,  and  then  abandon  it  gradually  or  snd 
denly,  presenting  themselves  usually  at  the  same  season  in  some  far  remote  locality.     Sometimes 


'Report  Unit*tl  States  Fish  Commission,  part  iv,  p.  178. 


554  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQTJAT1C  ANIMALS. 

a  wind  blowing  on  shore  will  favor  their  inward  migration;  at  other  times  it  appears  to  have  a 
directly  opposite  effect.  Even  when  they  reach  the  portion  of  the  eoast  lor  which  they  are  hound, 
the  facilities  of  tbi-ir  capture  depend  upon  meteorological  conditions;  and  the  Scottish  Meteoro- 
logical Society  has  been  engaged  for  several  years  in  ascertaining  what  these  are,  and  how  they 
may  be  best  applied  by  the  fishermen.1 

1  "The  inquiry  was  resti  icted  at  first  to  the  cast  coast  of  Scotland,  and  to  pond- fishing  districts  therein,  viz,  Wick, 
BneUie,  Peterheail,  aud  Eyemouth,  the  last  including  the  fishing  ports  of  Dunbar  and  Eyemouth,  Berwick  and  North 
Smiderlaiul.  Copies  of  the  weekly  returns  sent  to  the  fishery  board  from  these  districts  during  July  to  September, 
the  season  for  the,  herring  fishing  for  that  part  of  Great  Britain,  for  six  years,  beginning  with  18G7  aud  ending  with 
1H7-2,  giving  the  catch  per  week,  the  number  of  boats  out  in  each  district,  were  extracted  from  the  reports,  and  an 
average  of  these  six  years  calculated  at  several  of  the  stations.  These  were  finally  compared  day  by  day  with  two 
series  of  sea  temperatures;  one  taken  off  Harris,  and  the  other  near  Edinburgh. 

"The  temperature  of  the  sea  was  found  to  rise  very  rapidly  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  to  keep  oscillating 
slightly  about  a  uniform  temperature  of  56°  until  the  l:5th  of  August,  when  it  rapidly  rose  to  the  annual  maximum, 
uauiely,  5?°.^,  and  ranged  relatively  high  until  the  first  of  September.  This  period  of  highest  annual  temperature, 
namely,  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  first  of  September,  was  found  to  be  coincident  with  the  fishing  s  asou  in  the 
northern  districts  of  Scotland;  aud  the  ueriod  when  the  temperature  rises  to  the  absolute  maximum  is  farther  coin- 
cident with  the  date  of  the  largest  catchesduring  the  fishing  season.  The  committee,  however,  consider  it  preina'ure 
to  lay  great  stress  on  the  striking  coexistence  of  these  facts,  since  it  is  impossible,  without  further  statistics,  to  say 
whether  these  rela  ious  are  of  a  permanent  character.  The  fishing  season  did  not  begin  until  the  sea  temperature 
had  risen  to  about  55$°  in  July,  nor  did  it  continue  after  it  had  fallen  below  55^°  iu  September. 

"An  important  omission  iu  these  tables  is,  that  they  do  not  show  whether  they  indicate  the  surface  or  bottom 
temperature  of  the  sea,  the  difference  in  this  respect  being  very  appreciable.  Another  omission  is,  as  to  the  relation 
between  the  spawning  season  of  the  Herring  and  their  shoreward  movement.  Along  the  coast  of  the  United  States, 
the  great  spawning  ground  of  the  sea  Herring  is  off  the  southern  end  of  Grand  Manan,  where  the  surface  aud  bottom 
temperatures  sometimes  differ  at  the  spawning  season  by  as  many  as  five  or  six  degrees. 

''An  important  relation  was  also  observed  by  the  committee  between. the  exceptional  atmospheric  temperatures 
and  I  ho  migrations  of  the  Herring,  the  fishing  season  beginning  much  later  in  the  year,  when  the  summer  temper- 
atures are  low,  than  when  they  are  high.  As  regards  the  relation  between  barometric  observations  and  the  fisheries, 
it  appears  that  during  the  periods  when  good  or  heavy  catches  were  taken,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  the  barometer 
was  high  and  steady,  the  winds  light  or  moderate,  and  electrical  phenomena  wanting;  when  the  captures  were  light, 
the  observations  often  indicated  a  low  barometer,  strong  winds,  unsettled  weather,  and  thunder  and  lightning. 

"  In  conclusion,  the  committee  recommend  that,  in  further  elucidation  of  the  subject,  steps  should  be  taken  to 
obtain  information  which  may  lead  to  the  solution  of  the  following  queries: 

"  1.  What  determines  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the  fishing  T 

'•2.  What  determines  the  fluctuations  in  the  catches  of  Herring  in  different  districts,  or  in  the  same  district  on 
dillcrent  duysf 

"3.  What  causes  the  absence  of  Herring  during  some  seasons  from  certain  districts  of  the  coast t 

"4.  What  determines  the  ending  of  the  fishing  season  t 

"The  inlormation  required  demands — 

"1.  An  extension  of  the  area  examined,  so  as  to  include  the  Moray  Firth,  the  Shetland,  Orkney,  and  Hebrides 
1  -I.itiiU.  and  the  west  coast  of  Scotland. 

"2.  Daily  returns  of  the  number  of  boats  fishing  aud  the  catch. 

"3.  The  erection  of  self-registering  sea  thermometers  at  different  points  on  the  coast,  similar  to  those  now  in 
operation  at  Peterhead  Harbor. 

"4.  Thcrmometric  observations  taken  by  the  fishermen  themselves  over  the  grounds  fished  ;  as  it  is  only  by  the 
observations  of  numerous  thermometers  in  continuous  immersion  that  wo  can  hope  to  obtain  accurate  information 
regarding  those  currents  of  cold  and  warm  water  round  our  coasts  which  are  often  found  to  interpenetrate  each 
other,  and  which  are  supposed,  with  apparently  good  reason,  to  influence  greatly  the  migration  of  the  Herring.  It 
in  said  that  the  Dutch  fishermen  derive  valuable  practical  advantages  from  a  system  of  this  kind,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  favorable  results  might  confidently  be  looked  for  if  a  similar  system  were  generally  adopted  by  our 
fishermen. 

"It  is  an  interesting  fact  in  the  natural  history  of  the  Herring  that,  while  the  season  for  their  capture  is  quite 
definite  aud  generally  uniform  at  any  one  point,  it  varies  on  different  parts  of  the  coast;  thus,  on  the  east  of  Great 
Britain,  fro.u  Shetland  in  the  north  to  Flamborough  Head  in  the  south,  it  occurs  in  July,  August,  and  September, 
and  a  little  earlier  in  the  north  than  in  the  south.  At  Yarmouth  the  Herring  season  is  in  October  and  November;  off 
the  Kentish  coast,  in  November  and  December;  along  the  south  coast  of  England,  from  October  to  December ;  off 
Cornwall,  in  August  and  September  ;  in  the  Nonh  Channel,  in  June  and  July ;  and  in  the  Hebrides,  May  and  June. 

"It  is  suggested  by  the  Scottish  committee  in  their  report  that  when  the  periods  of  migration  on  all  parts  of  the 
British  sea-coast  will  have  been  calculated  as  closely  as  in  Scotland,  these  will  be  found  to  bear  a  ciitical  relation  to 
the  annual  epochs  of  the  temperature  of  the  sea.  This  gives  a  renewed  importance  to  the  inquiries  undertaken  by 


MIGRATIONS  OF  Till:  IlKIMllNG.  555 

"In  reference  to  the  capture  of  Herrings  fur  out  at  sea,  Holdsworth  refers  to  the  fact 
that  the  I.nwstol't  herring  fishery  commences  early  in  the  spring,  fifty  to  sixty  miles  from  the 
const,  when  the  fish  are  poor  and  the  roe  very  little  prominent.  The  fishermen,  however,  accom- 
pany the  schools  in  their  slow  progress  to  the  coast;  and  when  they  get  within  a  few  miles  the 
tish  will  he  fattened  up  and  the  roe  is  in  a  much  more  advanced  condition." 

In  his  latest  report,  already  several  times  quoted,  Ljungmau  discusses  the  annual  migrations 
of  the  herriii}:  schools  and  their  causes: 

••It  has  been  mentioned  before  that  the  young  Herrings  begin  to  wander  about  at  an 
early  age,  chiefly  to  seek  food  or  shelter  from  their  enemies,  or  possibly  more  agreeable  places  of 
sojourn.  It  has  frequently  been  observed  that  the  young  Herrings,  as  they  grow  up,  leave  the 
shallow  waters  near  the  coast  and  go  into  deeper  waters  farther  out  towards  the  ocean,  whence, 
alter  a  while,  they  return  to  the  coast  in  company  with  the  older  Herrings.  The  knowledge  of  the 
details  of  these  migrations  is,  like  our  knowledge  of  their  physical  and  biological  causes,  so  limited 
that  very  little  can  be  said  regarding  them. 

'•  Regarding  the  coining  of  the  Herrings  from  the  sea  to  the  coast,  we  only  know  that  during 
the  ^pawning  season  they  generally  approach  the  spawning  places  in  dense  schools,  coming  from 
tin-  north,  and  that  when  visiting  the  coast  for  other  purposes  the  schools  are  smaller  and  more 
.•.(•altered,  extending  over  a  larger  stretch  of  coast,  and  come  both  from  the  north  and  the  south. 
Those  Herrings  which  come  to  seek  food  generally  remain  for  some  time  in  the  outer  waters  l>efore 
they  come  near  the  coast,  and  their  visits  are  neither  as  regular  nor  as  long  as  when  they  come  to 
spawn.  But  even  the  great  mass  of  Herrings  does,  during  the  spawning  season,  not  remain  near 
the  coast  longer  than  one  or  two  months,  exceptions  from  this  rule  being  rare  indeed.  Herrings 
which  have  thus  remained  near  the  coast  over  their  regular  time  become  almost  entirely  worthless. 
During  the  last  great  Bohuslan  herring  fisheries  this  seems  to  have  occurred  more  frequently. 

"In  approaching  the  coast  the  Uerrings  generally  begin  at  a  certain  point,  spreading  from  it 
either  to  the  left  or  right,  or  in  both  directions,  influenced  in  this  by  the  weather,  the  currents  of 
the  sea,  and  the  nature  of  the  bottom.  The  Herrings  do  not  like  to  visit  the  place  where  they 
have  spawned  a  second  time.  It  has  also  beeu  noticed  that  the  large  Herrings  do  not  go  as  high 
up  the  fiords  as  the  small  ones,  and  that,  when  the  spawning  season  conies  in  winter  or  spring  the 
large  Herrings  spawn  befpre  the  small  ones,  whilst  when  the  spawning  season  comes  in  summer 
or  autumn  the  small  or  younger  Herrings  spawn  before  the  larger  and  older  ones.  After  spawning, 
the  Herrings  have  often  beeu  observed  to  go  nearer  the  coast  than  before  spawning;  fishing  with 
drag-nets  may  therefore  be  carried  on  long  after  fishing  with  stationary  nets  has  ceased,  as  the 
'empty'  fish  (those  that  have  spawned)  do  not  easily  enter  a  stationary  net. 


the  United  States  .Signal  Service  anil  tlio  Fish  Commission,  on  the  American  coast,  in  the  way  of  determining  of  the 
sea  temperature,  etc.,  as  connected  with  a  very  important  branch  of  our  domesiic  industries. 

"In  this  connection  we  may  state  that  the  spawning  season  of  the  Herring,  and  the  time  of  its  catch,  vary 
remarkably  in  different  portions  of  our  own  coast.  Thus,  in  parts  of  the  Bay  of  Fuudy  audio  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Law- 
rence it  takes  place  in  May  and  June,  as  in  the  Hebrides  ;  at  the  Southern  Head  of  Grand  Manan.  the  great  spawning 
ground,  it  occurs  in  September,  commencing  possibly  in  August,  and  extending  into  October;  taking  place  later  and 
lain  in  the  season  as  wo  proceed  south.  At  the  most  southern  point  at  which  the  Herring  is  positively  known  to 
spawn,  namely,  oil'  Nomati's  Land  and  possibly  Block  Inland,  this  does  not  occur  until  December  and  January. 

••  From  this  we  may  draw  tiie  inference  that  a  certain  minimum  of  temperature,  rather  than  a  maximum,  is 
n-  cded  lor  the  operation  in  question  ;  and  ihis  occurring  in  the  autumn,  that  the  proper  temperature  is  reacned  later 
and  later  as  we  proceed  southward. 

"It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  temperature  observations  now  being  made  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  and 
l>y  tin-  Signal  Service  may  enable  us  to  solve  these  problems  and  to  .•.. -operate  with  our  Scottish  scientific  brethren  in 
getting  at  the  true  relation  between  physical  conditions  and  the  movements  of  such  important  fowl-fishes  as  the 
Herri  IP.-,  mackerel,  cod,  etc. — Ilrport  of  the  Scottitk  Meteorological  Society. 


556  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"The  going  out  of  the  Herrings  is  generally  a  much  quicker  process  than  their  coming  in,  and 
as  it  is  more  difficult  to  catch  Herrings  whilst  they  are  leaving  the  coast  we  know  very  little  about 
it.  After  the  Herrings  have  left  the  coast  they  do  not  stay  outside  any  length  of  time,  but  imme- 
diately go  out  to  sea  to  seek  food  and  enjoy  the  greater  protection  which  the  deeper  water  affords. 
When  the  Herrings  have  been  to  the  coast  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  they  generally  leave  the 
coast  in  a  northerly  direction. 

"With  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  annual  migrations  of  the  Herrings  I  have  already  mentioned 
the  different  opinions,  and  I  will  only  add  here  that  the  larger  a  school  of  Herrings  is  the  greater 
will  be  the  extent  of  territory  where  they  must  seek  their  food,  and  the'  farther  from  the  coast  must 
they  extend  their  migrations.  It  is  not  known  from  direct  observations  how  far  the  largest  schools 
of  Herrings  extend  their  migrations,  but  certainly  much  farther  than  Macculloch,  Nilsson,  Boeck, 
and  their  followers  assert. 

"  The  annual  migrations  of  the  Herrings  may  be  influenced  by  physical  causes  both  as  regards 
their  time  and  their  direction.  It  is  well  known  that  favorable,  mild  weather  accelerates,  whilst 
bad  weather  retards,  the  approach  of  the  Herrings  to  the  coast,  and  that  wind  and  current  may 
bring  a  much  greater  number  of  Herrings  to  one  part  of  the  coast  than  to  another  near  it.  The 
general  rule,  however,  is  that  the  Herrings,  when  coming  in  to  spawn,  visit  the  place  where  they 
were  born.  When  the  Herrings  come  in  to  seek  food  they  will  generally  go  to  those  waters  where 
they  have  been  accustomed  to  find  food  in  the  greatest  abundance;  those  physical  causes,  therefore, 
which  have  an  influence  on  the  occurrence  of  food  will  also  influence  the  direction  of  the  Herring's 
migrations,  as  I  have  had  occasion  to  remark  before. 

"The  annual  migrations  of  the  Herrings  are  chiefly  caused  by  the  desire  to  propagate  the 
species  and  to  seek  food.  For  spawning,  the  Herrings  need  a  suitable  bottom  for  depositing  their 
eggs,  a  bottom  which  also  must  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  food  for  the  young  Herrings  and 
afford  shelter  for  them.  All  these  requirements  are  only  met  near  a  coast.  Even  if  Herrings,  as 
has  sometimes  been  said,  not  without  a  show  of  reason,  spawn  on  the  Dogger  Bank,  or  other  still 
more  distant  banks  in  the  North  Sea,  this  does  not  disprove  our  assertion,  for  it  is  doubtless  only 
the  greater  ease  with  which  the  young  fish  can  reach  the  coast  from  these  banks  which  has  made 
it  possible  for  the  Herrings  to  spawn  there. 

"The  grown  Herrings  must  again  go  to  the  ocean  to  seek  their  food,  which  they  chiefly  find 
in  the  currents  and  those  waters  which  come  from  the  Polar  Sea.  In  some  places,  however,  they 
find  the  required  food  during  some  part  of  the  year  near  the  coast ;  and  thus  there  may  be  fishing 
towards  the  end  of  summer  and  the  beginning  of  autumn,  as  on  the  western  coast  of  Norway,  or 
during  autumn  and  winter,  as  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan.  The  influence  which  the  desire  for  food 
exercises  on  the  annual  migrations  of  the  Herrings  has  sometimes  been  overrated,  so  that  it  has 
occasionally  been  considered  as  the  chief  cause,  evt  n  in  cases  when  the  desire  to  propagate  was 
undoubtedly  the  principal  cause. 

"As  the  spawning  Herrings,  on  account  of  their  being  packed  more  closely  together  and  on 
account  of  the  steady  course  which  they  pursue,  are  more  exposed  to  the  persecutions  of  their 
enemies,  and  as  this  danger  of  course  increases  the  nearer  they  get  to  the  coast,  they  generally  go 
into  deep  water  immediately  after  having  spawned,  in  order  to  find  the  necessary  shelter,  and 
leave  the  coast  much  quicker  than  they  came.  The  larger  Herrings  seem  likt-wi  e  to  thrive  better 
in  the  open  sea  than  near  the  coast,  and  consequently  do  not  stay  there  longer  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.  Nencrantz,  however,  goes  too  far  when  he  supposes  that  the  Herrings  leave  the  coast 
only  to  escape  unpleasant  physical  conditions;  for  instance,  cold  or  violently  agitated  water.  It 
has  already  been  mentioned  that  want  of  space  or  the  persecutions  of  enemies  have  in  former 


i-i:i;i(H)s  OK  AIM  \D\\CK.  .-,;,7 

times  by  sonic  been  considered  as  the  chief  causes  ,,f  the  annual  migrations  and  regular  coast 
visits  of  tlie  Hen-inns.  Such  opinions  are,  however,  no  longer  entertained,  and  therefore  cannot 
claim  our  attention." 

I'KiiioiMciTY  UK  mi;  ABUNDANCE  OF  HEKKINGS  ON  THE  EUEOPKAN  COAST. — So  far  as  is 
known,  the  abundance  of  Herrings  in  the  Western  Atlantic  has  been  constant  during  the  past  two 
reunifies;  at  the  same  time  so  little  is  our  fishing  population  dependent  on  the  herring  fisheries 
when  compared  with  that  of  Northern  Europe  that  variations  in  abundance,  not  being  regarded  as 
national  disasters  would,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  Newfoundland,  scarcely  have  been  placed 
definitely  upon  record.  Concerning  the  periodicity  of  the  herring  supply  in  Northern  Europe 
Professor  llaird  writes: 

"Among  the  various  problems  of  interest  in  Northern  Europe  there  are  few  of  more  econom- 
ical importance  than  that  connected  with  the  movements  of  the  Herring,  a  fish  which  in  some 
years  furnishes  a  supply  of  almost  millions  of  barrels,  and  in  others  a  few  thousand  are  all  that 
can  lie  secured.  While  the  cod  always  maintains  its  numbers  and  comes  with  unerring  regularity 
in  winter  to  spawn  in  the  Loffbden  Islands,  and  is  found  in  moderate  numbers  on  the  coast 
throughout  the  rest  of  the  year,  the  Herring  appears  and  disappears  without  any,  at  present, 
intelligible  cause.  This  variation  in  abundance  is  by  some  ascribed  to  a  total  disappearance  from 
the  coast,  while  others  believe  that  it  remains  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  Scandinavian  shore, 
far  out  in  the  deep  water  between  the  banks  of  the  North  Sea  and  the  coast  of  Norway,  but  that, 
owing  to  some  peculiarity  of  temperature,  currents,  or  possibly  tainting  of  the  water  by  the  abun- 
dance of  the  so-called  gurry,  or  offal,  from  the  herring  and  cod  fisheries,  it  is  kept  away.  Down  to 
a  late  period  of  the  preceding  century  the  Herring  appeared  in  immense  numbers  with  tolerable 
regularity,  then  left  the  coast,  and  did  not  return  till  1808 — a  lapse  of  twenty  years.  For  sixty- 
two  years  after  that  it  presented  itself  with  unfailing  certainty,  so  much  so  that  all  fears  of  a 
possible  diminution  were  banished ;  but  since  1871  it  has  almost  disappeared  from  the  usual 
fishing  stations,  a  few  thousand  barrels  being  the  maximum  catch  where  a  million  or  more  was 
the  rule.  This  is  what  is  known  as  the  spring  herring.  The  so-called  'great'  Herring  fishery  has 
since  1870  attained  a  considerable  importance  at  a  distance  of  from  five  hundred  to  seven  hundred 
miles  from  the  spring  herring  locality.  This  diminution  of  the  spring  herring  fishery  of  Scan- 
dinavia was  for  a  few  years  of  considerable  advantage  to  the  American  fishery  interest." 

The  following  memoranda,  communicated  in  1878  by  Mr.  Joshua  Lindahl,  will  serve  to  show 
the  periodicity  in  the  movements  of  the  Herring  in  Europe: 

"Before  the  sixteenth  century  no  records  were  kept  of  the  fisheries.  As,  however,  both  king 
and  church  had  some  income  from  taxation  aud  tithe  on  the  Herring,  it  has  been  possible  to  ascer- 
tain that  such  fisheries  have  existed  periodically  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century. 
Before  that  time  the  archipelago  was  hardly  inhabited,  and  the  fishing  seems  not  to  have  been  of 
any  importance  but  to  the  scanty  population  on  the  fiords,  who  had  too  primitive  implements  for 
capturing  large  quantities  of  fish,  and  no  means  of  preparing  the  article  for  a  distant  market.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  herring  periods  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge: 

"1.  About  the  year  1020. 

"2.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

"3.  From  about  1200  to  about  1341,  thus  lasting  more  than  eighty  years. 

"4.  About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

".j.  From  1556  to  1590,  thus  lasting  for  thirty-five  years;  interval  to  next  period,  sixty- 
nine  years. 


558  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"6.  From  1660  to  1680,  thus  lasting  for  twenty-one  years;  interval  to  next  period,  sixty- 
six  years. 

"7.  From  1747  to  1808,  thus  lasting  for  sixty-two  years;  interval  to  next  period,  sixty- 
eight  years. 

"8.  From  November,  1877,  to  February,  1878. 

"The  most  important  period  was  the  above  No.  7,  especially  during  the  last  twenty  years  of 
the  last  century.  It  lias  been  calculated  that  in  some-  years  during  that  time  the  annual  quantity 
of  Herring  fished  in  Bohuslan  amounted  to  at  least  1,500,000  barrels. 

"During  the  six  weeks  January  1  to  February  J5,  this  present  year,  about  160,000  barrels  of 
fresh  and  salt  Herring  were  shipped  from  the  archipelago  of  Bohuslan  to  neighboring  markets. 
The  fishermen  and  merchants  are  preparing  largely  for  making  big  hauls  when  the  Herring  will 
return  in  the  fall,  as  is  expected." 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century  one  of  the  periods  of  scarcity  was  foretold  by  Prof. 
Hans  Strom,  of  Norway,  who  observed  that  the  Herrings  during  the  period  they  visited  the  coast 
of  Sondmor  (1736-1756)  came  later  and  later  every  year,  and  predicted,  in  accordance  with  an  old 
tradition  and  the  experience  had  at  Stat,  that  the  Herring  fisheries  of  Sondmor  would  come  to  an 
end.  This  really  took  place  in  Bohuslau,  where  it  had  been  observed  already  towards  the  middle 
of  the  last  great  fishery  period  that  the  Herrings  came  to  the  coast  later  and  later  every  year, 
which  led  people  to  fear  that,  as  in  times  of  old,  the  Herrings  might  again  gradually  leave  the 
Swedish  coast.  Somewhat  later  (1782)  Strom  compared  the  Bohuslan  fisheries  with  those  of 
Norway,  and,  basing  his  opinion  on  their  evident  similarity,  predicted  that  the  end  of  the  Bohus- 
lan fisheries  was  near  at  hand. 

About  ten  years  later  Lybecker  expresses  himself  more  distinctly,  as  follows:  "If  with  pro- 
phetic eye  we  could  see  the  future  and  predict  the  fate  of  the  fisheries,  we  might  say  with  a  great 
degree  of  probability  that  a  change  will  take  place  soon.  We  know  from  history  that  when 
Herrings  or  other  fish  of  passage  arrive  near  the  coast  later  and  later,  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
farther  and  farther  away  from  the  coast,  this  means  a  change  in  the  migrations  of  the  Herrings, 
aud  may  even  point  to  their  leaving  the  coast  entirely.  This  has  been  the  course  of  the  Norwegian 
herring  fisheries,  and  even  of  the  Swedish  herring  fisheries  during  their  older  periods,  and  in  fact 
with  all  those  fisheries  where  fish  of  passage  are  the  principal  object,  with  the  only  exception  of 
the  Scotch  and  English  fisheries.  ...  If  we  take  into  consideration  the  roving  nature  of  the 
Herrings  and  the  examples  from  olden  times,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  Herrings  will  come 
later  every  year,  and  finally  leave  our  coast  altogether." 

It  had  frequently  been  maintained  that  too  much  fishing  and  fishing  with  destructive  appa- 
ratus were  the  proper  causes  of  the  growing  tardiness  of  the  arrival  of  the  Herrings  and  might  even 
lead  to  the  complete  cessation  of  the  fisheries;  and  people  therefore  made  futile  attempts  to  obviate 
this  danger  by  legislation.  As  the  ominous  predictions  regarding  the  herring  fisheries  were,  how- 
ever, not  immediately  fulfilled,  they  were  almost  forgotten;  but  when  the  herring  fisheries  came  to 
an  end  in  the  year  1808,  people  imagined  that  the  Herrings  arriving  later  and  later  every  year  fully 
proved  the  assertion  that  they  had  been  driven  away  by  the  imprudent  actions  of  the  fishermen. 
It  was  said  that  refuse  thrown  into  the  water,  and  noise,  had  prevented  the  Herrings  from  coming 
near  to  the  coast,  and  they  had  spawned  in  the  open  sea,  and  had  then,  in  consequence  of  the 
languor  aud  weakness  following  the  spawning,  been  driven  towards  the  coast  by  storms. 

During  the  more  recently  closed  Norwegian  spring  herring  fisheries,  it  was,  according  to 
Loberg,  noticed,  not  without  anxious  forebodings,  that  the  Herrings,  which  in  the  beginning  of 
the  fishing  period  did  not  come  near  the  coast  till  early  in  February,  gradually  came  earlier  and 


SPAWNING  OF  THE    HKKKING.  559 


earlier,  so  thai  finally  tin-  khoiM  (KMUMQOCd  before  Nijw  Years;  Mini  that  this  change  was  followed 
by  another,  the  Herrings  coining  later  anil  later,  till  the  fisheries  did  not  coninienee  before  Feb- 
ruary. This  peculiarity,  however,  was  thought  to  be  u  consequence  of  the  irregularity  with  which 
tin-  Herrings  visited  the  same  plaees  on  the  coast.  It  was  not  till  Axel  Bowk  began  to  investigate 
the  mutter  that  this  whole  question  was  treated  from  a  more  scientific  standpoint.  He  showed 
that  the  coming  of  the  herrings  to  the  coast  at  different  times  during  the  period  was  subject  to 
certain  rules,  and  that  this  regularity  in  the  movements  of  the  Herrings  was  observed  not  ouly 
during  the  Norwegian  spring  herring  fisheries  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  but 
also  during  those  herring  lisheries  which  were  going  on  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan  during  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  This  peculiar  phenomenon  lias  therefore 
become  far  more  important  than  it  was  thought  to  be  in  former  times;  and  it  may  well  be  said  to 
contain  the  key  to  the  question  of  the  periodicity  of  the  great  Scandinavian  herring  fisheries. 
Boeck  was  not  able  to  assign  any  cause  for  these  entirely  regular  changes  in  the  time  of  the 
Herrings'  visits  to  the  coast.  This  has  been  attempted,  however,  by  G.  O.  Sars  and  myself,  and 
an  account  of  these  attempts  will  be  given  below. 

In  a  paper  entitled  "The  Great  Bohuslan  Herring  Fishery,"1  A.  N.  Ljuugman  gives  a  very 
interesting  account  of  the  periods  of  abundance  of  Herring  in  Sweden  and  of  the  herring  fisheries 
of  that  region  from  1000  A.  D.  to  the  present  date. 

REPRODUCTION.  —  There  are  several  interesting  series  of  observations  upon  the  spawning 
habit-  of  the  Herring,  the  hatching  of  the  egg,  aud  the  development  of  the  young;  all  of  which 
may  be  found  in  the  later  volumes  of  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries. 

In  his  lecture  on  the  Herring,  Professor  Huxley  describes  in  a  very  concise  and  lucid  way 
their  spawning  habits.  He  remarks:  "We  have  hitherto  met  with  no  case  of  full  or  spawning 
Herrings  being  found,  in  any  locality,  during  what  may  be  termed  the  solstitial  months,  namely, 
June  and  December;  and  it  would  appear  that  such  Herrings  are  never  (or  very  rarely)  taken  in 
May,  or  the  early  part  of  July,  in  the  latter  part  of  November,  or  the  early  part  of  January.  But 
a  spring  spawning  certainly  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  January,  in  February,  in  March,  and  in 
April  ;  and  an  autumn  spawning  in  the  latter  part  of  July,  in  August,  September,  October,  and 
even  as  late  as  November.  Taking  all  parts  of  the  British  coast  together,  February  aud  March 
are  the  great  months  for  the  spring  spawning,  and  August  and  September  for  the  autumn 
spawning.  It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  the  same  fish  spawn  twice  in  the  year;  on  the  contrary,  the 
spring  and  the  autumn  shoals  are  probably  perfectly  distinct;  and  if  the  Herring,  according  to 
the  hypothesis  advanced  above,  come  to  maturity  in  a  year,  the  shoals  of  each  spawning  season 
would  be  the  fry  of  the  twelvemonth  before.  However,  no  direct  evidence  can  be  adduced  in 
favor  of  this  supposition,  and  it  would  be  extremely  diflicult  to  obtain  such  evidence. 

"1  believe  that  these  conclusions,  confirmatory  of  those  of  previous  careful  observers,  are  fully 
supported  by  all  the  evidence  which  has  been  collected;  and  the  fact  that  this  species  of  fish  has 
two  spawning  seasons,  one  in  the  hottest  and  one  in  the  coldest  month  of  the  year,  is  very  curious. 

"Another  singular  circumstance  with  the  spawning  of  the  Herring  is  the  great  variety  of  the 
conditions,  apart  from  temperature,  to  which  the  fish  adapts  itself  in  performing  this  function.  On 
our  own  coast,  Herrings  spawn  in  water  of  from  ten  to  twenty  fathoms,  and  even  at  greater  depths, 
and  in  a  sea  of  fall  oceanic  saltuess.  Nevertheless,  Herrings  spawn  just  as  freely  not  only  in  the 
narrows  of  the  Baltic,  such  as  the  Great  Belt,  in  which  the  water  is  not  half  as  salt  as  it  is  in  the 
North  Sea  and  in  the  Atlantic,  but  even  in  such  long  inlets  as  the  Schlei  in  Schleswig,  the  water 

•  -  '  _   •  _  ____  —  .    .  _  _  ______  _____ 

1  A  translation  of  which  ia  published  in  United  States  Fiah  Commission  Report,  part  vi  ;  pp.  221-239. 


560  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  which  is  quite  drinkable  and  is  inhabited  by  fresh-water  fish.  Here  the  Herrings  deposit  their 
eggs  in  two  or  three  feet  of  water;  and  they  are  found,  along  with  the  eggs  of  fresh-water  fish, 
sticking  in  abundance  to  such  fresh-water  plants  as  Potnmogeton. 

'•  Nature  seems  thus  to  offer  us  a  hint  as  to  the  way  in  which  a  fish  like  the  shad,  which  is  so 
closely  allied  to  the  Herring,  has  acquired  the  habit  of  ascending  rivers  to  deposit  its  eggs  in 
purely  fresh  water. 

"If  a  full  female  Herring  is  gently  squeezed  over  a  vessel  of  sea- water,  the  eggs  will  rapidly 
pour  out  and  sink  to  the  bottom,  to  which  they  immediately  adhere  with  so  much  tenacity  that,  in 
half  an  hour,  the  vessel  may  be  inverted  without  their  dropping  out.  When  spawning  takes  place 
naturally,  the  eggs  fall  to  the  bottom  aud  attach  themselves  iu  a  similar  fashion,  but  at  this  time 
the  assembled  lish  dart  wildly  about,  and  the  water  becomes  cloudy  with  the  shed  fluid  of  the  milt. 
The  eggs  become  thus  fecundated  as  they  fall,  and  the  development  of  the  young  within  the  ova 
sticking  to  the  bottom  commences  at  once. 

"The  first  definite  and  conclusive  evidence  as  to  the  manner  in  which  herring-spawn  is  attached 
and  becomes  developed  that  I  know  of  was  obtained  by  Professor  Allman  and  Dr.  Macbain  in  1862, 
in  the  Frith  of  Forth.  By  dredging  in  localities  in  which  spent  Herring  were  observed  on  the  1st 
of  March,  Professor  Allman  brought  up  spawn  iu  abundance  at  a  depth  of  fourteen  to  twenty-one 
fathoms.  It  was  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  stone,  shingle,  and  gravel,  and  on  old  shells  and 
coarse  shell-sand,  and  even  on  the  shells  of  small  living  crabs  and  other  Crustacea,  adhering  tena- 
ciously to  whatever  it  had  fallen  on.  No  spawn  was  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  Forth;  but  it 
continued  to  be  abundant  on  both  the  east  and  the  west  sides  of  the  Isle  of  May  up  to  the  13th  of 
March,  at  which  time  the  incubation  of  the  ovum  was  found  to  be  completed  in  a  great  portion  of 
the  spawn,  and  the  embryos  had  become  free.  On  the  25th  scarcely  a  trace  of  spawn  could  be 
detected,  and  nearly  the  \\  hole  of  the  adult  fish  had  left  the  Forth. 

"Professor  Allman  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  'the  deposit  of  spawn,  as  evidenced  by  the 
appearance  of  spent  Herrings,  did  not  take  place  till  about  sixty-five  days  after  the  appearance  of 
the  Herring  in  the  Frith,'  and  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  'the  incubation  probably  continues 
during  a  period  of  between  twenty-five  to  thirty  days,'  adding,  however,  that  the  estimate  must, 
for  the  present,  be  regarded  as  only  approximative.  It  was  on  this  and  other  evidence  that  we 
based  our  conclusion  that  the  eggs  of  the  Herring  'are  hatched  in  at  most  from  two  to  three  weeks 
after  deposition.' 

"  Within  the  last  few  years  a  clear  light  has  been  thrown  upon  this  question  by  the  labors  of 
the  West  Baltic  Fishery  Commission,  to  which  I  have  so  often  had  occasion  to  refer.  It  has  been 
found  that  artificial  fecundation  is  easily  practiced,  and  that  the  young  fish  may  be  kept  in 
aquaria  for  as  long  as  five  months.  Thus  a  great  body  of  accurate  information,  some  of  it  of  a 
very  unexpected  character,  has  been  obtained  respecting  the  development  of  the  eggs  and  the 
early  condition  of  the  young  Herring. 

"It  turns  out  that,  as  is  the  case  with  other  fishes,  the  period  of  incubation  is  closely  depend- 
ent upon  warmth.  When  the  water  has  a  temperature  of  53°  F.  the  eggs  of  the  Herring  hatch 
in  from  six  to  eight  days,  the  average  being  seven  days.  And  this  is  a  very  interesting  fact  when 
we  bear  in  mind  the  conclusion  to  which  the  inquiries  of  the  Dutch  meteorologists,  and,  more 
lately,  those  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  appear  to  tend,  namely,  that  the  shoals  prefer 
water  of  about  55°  F.  At  50°  F.  the  period  of  incubation  is  lengthened  to  eleven  days;  at  46° 
F.  to  fifteen  days;  at  38°  F.  it  lasts  forty  days.  As  the  Forth  is  usually  tolerably  cool  in  the 
moiith  of  March,  it  is  probable  that  Professor  Allman's  estimate  comes  very  near  the  truth  for  the 
particular  case  which  he  investigated. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  IIEIMMNO.  561 

"Tin-  young,  wlii-ii  they  emerge  from  tin-  cgj,%  arc  from  one  lift h  to  one-third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  so  extremely  unlike  tin-  adult  Herring  tliat  they  may  properly  be  termed  'larviw.' 
They  have  enormous  eyes  and  an  exceedingly  slender  body,  \\  iili  a  >elk  l>ag  protruding  from  its 
fore  part.  Tlie  skeleton  is  in  a  very  rudimentary  condition;  there  are  no  ventral  tins;  and,  in-ii.nl 
of  separate  dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal  tins,  there  i.s  one  continuous  fin,  extending  from  the  head 
al< MI ^  the  back,  round  the  tail,  and  then  forward  to  the  yelk-bag.  The  intestine  is  a  simple  tube, 
ciliated  internally ;  there  is  no  air-bladder,  and  no  branchiie  are  yet  developed.  The  heart  is  a 
mere  contractile  vessel,  and  the  blood  is  a  clear  fluid  without  corpuscles.  At  first  the  larvae  do 
not  feed,  but  merely  grow  at  the  expense  of  the  yelk,  which  gradually  diminishes. 

"Within  three  or  four  days  after  hatching,  the  length  has  increased  by  about  half  the  original 
dimensions,  the  yelk  has  disappeared,  the  cartilaginous  skeleton  appears,  and  the  heart  becomes 
divided  into  its  chambers;  but  the  young  fish  attains  nearly  double  its  first  length  before  blood- 
corpuscles  are  visible. 

"By  the  time  the  larva  is  two-thirds  of  an  inch  long  (a  length  which  it  attains  one  month 
after  hatching),  the  primitive  median  fin  is  separated  into  dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal  divisions,  but 
the  ventral  tins  have  not  appeared.  About  this  period  the  young  animal  begins  to  feed  on  small 
crustacea;  and  it  grows  so  rapidly  that  at  two  months  it  is  one  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  and  at 
three  months  has  attained  a  length  of  about  two  inches. 

"Nearly  up  to  this  stage  the  elongated,  scaleless  little  fish  retains  its  larval  proportions;  but 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  mouth  the  body  rapidly  deepens,  the  scales  begin  to  appear,  and 
the  larva  passes  into  the  'imago'  state,  that  is,  assumes  the  forms  and  proportions  of  the  adult, 
though  it  is  not  more  than  two  inches  long.  After  this,  it  goes  on  growing  at  the  same  rate 
(eleven  millimeters,  or  nearly  half  an  inch)  per  month,  so  that  at  six  months  old  it  is  as  large  as 
a  moderate-si/ed  sprat . 

"The  well-known  '  Whitebait'  of  the  Thames  consists,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  almost  exclusively 
of  Utrrings  under  six  months  old,  and  as  the  average  size  of  Whitebait  increases  from  March 
and  April  onward  until  they  become  suspiciously  like  sprats  in  the  late  summer,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  they  are  the  progeny  of  Herrings  which  spawned  early  in  the  year  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  up  which  these  dainty  little  fish  have  wandered.  Whether  it  is  the 
general  habit  of  young  Herring,  even  of  those  which  are  spawned  in  deep  water,  to  migrate  into 
the  shallow  parts  of  the  sea,  or  even  into  completely  fresh  waters,  when  such  are  accessible,  is 
unknown. 

"In  the  'Report  on  Trawling'  (1863)  we  observe:  'It  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  any  sat- 
isfactory evidence  as  to  the  length  of  time  which  the  Herring  requires  to  pass  from  the  embryonic 
to  the  adult  or  full  condition.  Of  the  fishermen  who  gave  any  opinion  on  this  subject,  some  con- 
sidered that  a  Herring  takes  three,  and  others  that  it  requires  seven,  years  to  attain  the  full  or 
spawning  condition;  others  frankly  admitted  that  they  knew  nothing  about  the  matter;  and  it 
was  not  difficult,  by  a  little  cross-examination,  to  satisfy  ourselves  that  they  were  all  really  in  this 
condition,  however  strongly  they  might  hold  by  their  triennial  or  septennial  theories.  Mr.  Yarrell 
and  Mr.  Mitchill  suppose  with  more  reason  that  Herring  attain  to  full  size  and  maturity  in  about 
eighteen  months.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  there  is  any  good  evidence  against  the  sup- 
posit  ion  that  the  Herring  reaches  its  spawning  condition  in  one  year.  There  is  much  reason  to 
believe  that  the  eggs  are  hatched  in,  at  most,  from  two  to  three  weeks  after  deposition,  and  that 
in  six  to  seven  weeks  more  (that  is,  at  most,  ten  weeks  from  the  time  of  laying  the  eggs)  the  young 
have  attained  three  inches  in  length.  Now,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  a  young  smolt  may  leave 
a  river  and  return  to  it  again  in  a  couple  of  months  increased  in  bulk  eight  or  ten  fold,  and  as  a 
36  F 


562  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Herring  lives  on  very  much  the  same  food  as  a  smolt,  it  appears  possible  that  it  should  increase 
in  the  same  rapid  ratio.  Under  these  circumstances  nine  months  would  be  ample  time  for  it  to 
enlarge  from  three  to  ten  or  eleven  inches  in  length.  It  may  be  fairly  argued,  however,  that  it  is 
not  very  safe  to  reason  analogically  from  the  rate  of  growth  of  one  species  of  fish  to  that  of 
another;  and  it  may  be  well  to  leave  the  question  whether  the  Herring  attains  its  maturity  in 
twelve,  fifteeu,  or  sixteen  months  open,  in  the  tolerably  firm  assurance  that  the  period  last  named 
is  the  maximum.' 

"On  comparing  these  conclusions  with  the  results  of  the  careful  observations  of  the  Baltic 
commissioners,  it  appears  that  we  somewhat  overestimated  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  young 
Herring,  and  that  the  view  taken  by  Yarrell  and  Mitchill  is  more  nearly  correct.  For,  supposing 
that  the  rate  of  growth  after  six  months  continues  the  same  as  before,  a  Herring  twelve  months 
old  will  be  nearly  six  inches  long,  and  at  eighteen  months  eight  or  nine  inches.  But  full  Herrings 
may  be  met  with  little  more  than  seven  inches  long,  and  they  are  very  commonly  found  not  more 
than  nine  inches  in  length. 

"Herrings  which  have  attained  maturity,  and  are  distended  by  the  greatly  enlarged  milt  or 
roe,  are  ready  to  shed  the  contents  of  these  organs,  or,  as  it  is  said,  to  spawn.  In  1862  we  found 
a  great  diversity  of  opinion  prevailed  as  to  the  time  at  which  this  operation  takes  place,  and  we 
took  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  settle  the  question,  with  the  result  which  is  thus  stated  in  our 
report:  'We  have  obtained  a  very  large  body  of  valuable  evidence  on  this  subject,  derived  partly 
from  the  examination  of  fishermen  and  of  others  conversant  with  the  herring  fishery;  partly  from 
the  inspection  of  the  accurate  records  kept  by  the  fishery  officers  at  different  stations,  and  partly 
from  other  sources;  and  our  clear  conclusion  from  all  this  evidence  is,  that  the  Herring  spawns  at 
two  seasons  of  the  year,  in  the  spring  and  in  the  autumn.' 

"The  milt  and  roe  are  elongated  organs  attached  beneath  the  air-bladder,  which  lie  one  on 
each  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  open  behind  the  vent  by  an  aperture  common  to  the  two. 
The  spermatic  fluid  of  the  male  is  developed  in  the  milt  and  the  eggs  of  the  female  in  the  roe. 
These  eggs,  when  fully  formed,  measure  from  one-sixteenth  to  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter;  and  as,  in  the  ripe  female,  the  two  roes  or  ovaries  stretch  from  one  end  of  the  abdominal 
cavity  to  the  other,  occupying  all  the  space  left  by  the  other  organs,  and  distending  the  cavity, 
the  number  of  eggs  which  they  contain  must  be  very  great;  probably  ten  thousand  is  an  under- 
estimate of  the  number  of  ripe  eggs  shed  in  spawning  by  a  moderate  sized  female  Herring.  But  I 
think  it  is  safer  than  the  thirty  thousand  of  some  estimates,  which  appear  to  me  to  be  made  iu 
lorgetfulness  of  the  very  simple  anatomical  considerations  that  the  roe  consists  of  an  extensive 
vascular  framework  as  well  as  of  eggs;  and,  moreover,  that  a  vast  number  of  the  eggs  which  it 
contains  remain  immature  and  are  not  shed  at  the  time  of  spawning."1 

Professor  Baird,  in  1877,  wrote  as  follows  concerning  the  spawning  habits  of  the  Herring  on 
our  own  coast: 

"In  the  Bay  of  Saint  Lawrence  they  appear  to  spawn  in  the  spring,  especially  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Magdalen  Islands,  the  fishes  there  taken  being  ripe  with  eggs.  At  that  time  they  come  so 
close  to  the  land  as  to  permit  their  capture  in  immense  numbers  in  seines.  It  is  also  thought  that 
a  so  called  school  spawns  in  the  spring  iu  the  Bay  of  Fuudy,  1'rom  the  head  to  the  mouth.  Such 
a  spawning  ground  is  believed  to  exist  in  the  Bay  of  Saint  Andrew's,  and  in  certain  portions  of 

'The  oliscrvatiiiii.s  of  .Mr.  Kuril  at  Eastport  indicate  that  in  his  opinion  none  of  the  Herrings  used  in  the  sardine 
lu'.tories  are  old  enough  to  show  any  traces  of  developiug  spawn,  although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  not 
less  than  a  year  old.  The  fish  upon  which  his  observations  were  made  were  taken  in  September,  and  must  have  boeii 
hatched  as  early  as  the  September  of  the  preceding  year. 


FOOD  OF  Till:    IIHHHING.  563 

Passamaqiioddy  May.  One  principal  spawning  ground  of  the  Herring  in  tin-  May  nf  r'nndy,  IK 
near  the  southern  head  of  (iraml  Menan:  and  l>y  a  very  wise  provision  of  the  New  Brunswick 
Government,  a  close  lime  was  many  years  a^o  enacted,  extruding  from  (lie  l."»th  of  June  to  (lie  l.r>th 
of  Septeinl>er,  dining  which  the  capture  of  tlit'.so  fish  was  forbidden.  They  now  resort  to  that 
portion  of  the  coast  in  considerable  numbers,  and  the  i|iiantit.v  of  eggs  deposited  is  said  to  bo 
something  almost  inconceivable. 

••The  spawning  season,  too,  appears  to  be  later  and  later  as  we  proceed  westward  from  Maine. 
Thus,  allowing  it  to  be  at  its  height  there  in  (lie  beginning  of  August,1  it  occurs  in  September  oil" 
the  coast  of  Maine,  and  in  October  oil'  Eastern  Massachusetts;  in  November  at  Cape  Cod,  and  in 
December  at  Noinan's  Land  and  Mloc.k  Island;  possibly  still  later  farther  south. 

"The  eggs  are  minute,  less  in  si/.e  than  those  of  the  shad,  and  adhere  when  discharged  to 
rocks,  seaweed,  etc..  being  scattered  singly  or  in  bunches  over  a  vast  extent  of  sea  bottom.  I 
have  frequently  brought  them  up  at  various  depths  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore, 
oil'  (iraml  Menan."* 

ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  THE  HERRING. — In  the  spring  of  1878  the  first  successful 
experiments  in  the  artiticial  propagation  of  Herring  were  carried  on  in  Germany  by  Dr.  IL 
A.  Meyer,  of  the  Commission  for  Scientific  Investigation  of  the  German  8ea«  at  Kiel,  and  in 
the  fall  of  the  same  year  by  Mr.  K.  E.  Earll,  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  at  Glouces- 
ter. A  translation  of  Dr.  Meyer's  paper  may  bo  found  in  part  vi,  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission Report,  pp.  tii'iMiSS,  and  a  brief  summation  of  Mr.  Earll's  experiments  in  the  same 
volume,  pp.  727-7lM.l. 

FOOD. — Much  has  been  written  upon  the  food  of  the  Herring,  but  the  following  translation 
from  an  article  in  "Die  Natur,"  No.  47,  1869,  gives  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner  recent  views 
of  Euro]>ean  authorities  upon  the  subject: 

"Of  the  various  fishes  that  inhabit  the  waters,  few  have,  perhaps,  more  direct  bearing 
upon  the  prosperity  of  the  maritime  people  of  the  north  than  the  sea  Herring;  the  shores  of 
both  hemispheres  being  visited  regularly  by  countless  myriads  that  furnish  an  inexhaustible 
source  of  food.  It  is,  therefore,  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  attention  of  fishermen,  as 
well  as  statesmen  and  political  economists,  has  been  directed  to  the  different  questions  con- 
nected with  the  migrations  and  preservation  of  these  fish,  and  that  much  research  should  have 
been  expended  in  determining  various  points  connected  with  their  history.  Until  quite 

'A  large  school  of  Herrings  appears  annually  in  the  vicinity  of  Boisbobcrt  Islam],  in  Eastern  Maine,  off  Millbridgc, 
where  they  spawn  on  the  rocky  bottom.  — R.  E.  EARLL. 

J  A  visit  in  1872  to  the  Southern  Head  of  Grand  Mcnan,  during  the  spawning  season  of  the  Herring,  enabled' 
my  assistant.  Dr.  Palmer,  to  obtain  a  very  interesting  series  of  eggs  and  young  by  using  the  dredge,  the  eggs  being 
found  at  low  water,  from  near  the  shore,  out  to  a  distance  of  several  miles. 

Over  an  extended  area,  whenever  any  gravel,  stones,  or  sea-wee<l  were  brought  up  with  the  dredge  they  were 
found  to  be  thickly  dotted  over  with  these  eggs,  sometimes  single,  at  others  in  clusters. 

It  would  appear  that  in  the  operation  of  exclusion,  the  eggs  fall  away  into  the  water  in  masses  varying  in 
size,  although  in  no  instance  was  the  entire  spawning  of  any  one  fish  observed  in  a  single  mass.  The  largest  aggro- 
gal  ions  consisted  of  masses  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut.  Sometimes  these  heat  up  and  separate  entirely.  The  eggs 
wi-re  very  minute,  not  larger  than  No.  7  shot,  and  when  taken  up  nearly  all  the  eggs  contained  embryos,  of  which  the 

wen-  very  large  and  distinct.  The  eggs  appear  to  sink  to  the  bottom  if  not  laid  there  originally,  and  to  adhere 
ut  '>ii.e  to  adjacent  objects.  A  careful  straining  of  the  surface-water  and  down  to  a  considerable  depth  with  the- 
towing-net,  or  hand  gauge-net,  brought  up  no  floating  eggs. 

A  large  miiiilM-r  of  eggs  were  brought  over  to  East  port  in  salt  water  and  a  considerable  nuiiilterof  these  hatched! 
"lit  on  the  way.  during  an  interval  of  n  few  honrs,  nnd  many  cithern  became  developed  sunn  iil'ier  they  were  brought 
ashore.  All  the  embryos  had  left  their  envelopes  by  the  next  morning.  The  young  could  !»•  distinctly  seen  inside  of" 
the  egg,  and  when  this  was  ni)>tnre<l  they  were  extremely  active  in  their  movements  through  the  water,  spi  inging 
up  and  down  and  crosswise,  wriggling  precisely  like  the  larva'  of  a  dipterous  insect.  Their  length  at  this  time  wan. 
about  thirty  ouc-hundredths  of  an  inch,  some  few  being  larger  and  others  rather  smaller. 


564  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

recently,  however,  one  important  element  of  their  biography  has  been  unsolved,  namely,  the 
precise  nature  of  the  food  upon  which  they  subsist,  at  least  during  the  time  when  they  come 
into  the  vicinity  of  the,  shore,  although  their  varying  degree  of  excellence  throughout  the  year 
is  believed  to  depend  largely  upon  what  they  find  to  eat  in  the  different  months. 

"  Intimately  connected  with  this  same  subject  of  the  food  of  the  Herring  is  the  fact  that 
at  times  it  is  found  almost  impossible  to  preserve  the  fish  after  being  caught,  since,  notwith- 
standing the  prompt  use  of  salt,  decomposition  ensues  and  spoils  the  entire  catch.  Indeed, 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  it  is  said  that  Herrings  cannot  be  preserved  at  all  except  by 
taking  the  precaution  of  retaining  them  alive  in  the  net  for  a  period  of  from  three  to  ten  days. 

"  A  very  important  communication  on  the  food  of  the  Herring  has  lately  been  published 
by  a  Danish  author,  Mr.  Axel  Boeck,  from  which  we  learn  that  the  herring  food,  or  '  meat,'  con- 
sisting almost  entirely  of  minute  invertebrate  animals,  is  divided  by  the  northern  fishermen  into 
three  classes;  the  'red,'  the  'yellow,'  and  the  'black,'  the  names  being  derived  from  the  color  of 
this  food  when  living,  or  else  from  its  appearance  when  in  the  fish's  stomach.  The  red  meat 
(Roclaat)  is  the  most  common  and  best  known,  arid  occurs  along  the  entire  coast  of  Norway  and  in 
the  mouths  of  the  bays  (but  more  sparingly  in  the  bays  themselves),  and  in  the  open  sea,  dimin- 
ishing in  amount ,  apparently,  with  the  depth.  At  certain  periods  of  summer,  however,  it  appears 
in  such  immense  abundance  that  the  sea  is  colored  red  by  it.  When  floating  in  this  way  upon  the 
surface,  it  attracts  innumerable  schools  of  mackerel,  as  well  as  of  Herrings,  which  are  then  much 
less  shy  than  usual,  and  the  scene  is  one  of  impressive  activity,  owing  to  the  number  of  boats 
and  nets  employed  in  fishing.  On  a  careful  examination  this  substance  was  found  to  consist 
almost  entirely  of  small  crustaceans,  Copepod,  the  largest,  scarcely  the  thirtieth  of  an  inch  in 
leugth  and  barely  distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye. 

"It  can  hardly  be  believed  that  such  minute  and  almost  microscopic  animals  can  be  of 
so  much  importance  to  the  welfare  of  a  nation;  but  in  reality  the  mackerel  and  the  autumnal 
Herrings  owe  their  fatness  to  them,  the  microscope  revealing  through  their  thiu  shells  the  fat 
lying  in  distinct  strips  between  the  muscles  and  intestines. 

"These  same  crustaceans  occur  also  off  Spitzbergen  in  such  abundance  as  to  furnish  food 
to  innumerable  water  fowl;  and  even  the  whales  feed  upon  them  to  a  great  extent. 

"If,  now,  the  Herring  has  taken  in  a  large  quantity  of  this  'red  food,' and  is  then  cap- 
tured and  killed  without  its  having  been  fully  digested,  the  animal  matter  in  the  stomach 
-of  the  fish  begins  to  spoil  before  it  can  be  reached  by  the  salt,  and  the  stomach  thus  becomes 
putrid,  as  well  as  the  large  bloodvessel  which  lies  under  the  back,  the  coloring  matter  of 
the  blood  imparting  a  reddish  tinge  to  the  flesh  alongthe  backbone.  For  this  reason  it  is 
required  by  law  to  keep  Herrings  three  days  in  the  nets,  in  order  that  all  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  may  be  completely  digested,  while  the  fish  is  prevented  from  taking  in  a  fresh 
supply.  Sometimes,  however,  the  winds  drift  this  herring  food  into  the  nets,  and  furnish  to 
the  Herrings  an  opportunity,  which  they  eagerly  embrace,  rendering  them  again  liable  to  the 
difficulty  just  mentioned. 

"When  a  Herring,  on  being  squeezed,  discharges  a  yellow  pulp,  this  is  known  as  'yellow 
meat,'  or  Oulaat.  This  is  not  so  abundant  as  the  other,  but  appears,  like  the  'red  meat,'  to 
be  composed  in  part  of  transparent  Copepods,  together  with  the  larvre  of  tapeworms  and  other 
annelids  which  occur  on  the  Norwegian  coast  in  immense  numbers.  It  is  stated  that  the 
surface  of  the  sea  is  sometimes  seen  to  be  completely  covered  with  little  worms  of  about  the 
twenty -fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  swimming  actively  about  by  means  of  certain  hairs  which 
encircle  their  bodies  like  a  girdle.  These  animals  were  sufficiently  developed  to  permit  their 


:  OK  III:I;I;IXG.  565 

identification  as  the  young  of  Lcncodore  cilwtii.  Herring  and  mackerel  fee<l  largely  upon 
tin-si-  animals,  so  that  the  \\ellow  meat '  consists  in  greater  part  of  the  tine  hairs  which  cover 
the  exterior  of  the  larva-  in  question.  This  kind  of  food  is  considered  to  interfere  less  with 
the  proper  curing  of  the  Herring,  as  it  is  much  more  quickly  digested. 

"The  most  objectionable  kind  of  herring  food,  however,  is  that  which  is  known  as  the  'black 
meat,'  or  Scartaat,  sometimes  called  Krutaat,  and  occurring  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  in  the,  form  of 
little  granules  moving  freely  about,  but  which  sink  on  being  touched.  This  is  said  to  be  most 
abundant  in  rainy  seasons  when  there  is  a  short  interval  of  tine  and  clear  weather.  Herring  that 
have  fed  on  this  substance  are  considered  to  be  entirely  tin  tit  for  salting,  even  when  kept  in  the 
nets  for  a  much  longer  time  than  that  already  mentioned.  The  salted  lish  has  an  extremely  disa- 
greeable smell,  even  after  the  stomach  with  its  contents  haa  been  removed.  A  microscopic  exam- 
ination of  this  matter  showed  that  it  consists  entirely  of  the  larval  young  of  small  shells  found 
among  the  sea-weed  and  belonging  to  the  genus  Rinsoa.  These  swim  by  means  of  two  flippers, 
covered  with  hairs,  which  are  protruded  from  a  transparent  shell  having  from  three  to  seven  turns 
or  windings.  They  are  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  on  being  touched  draw  within 
the  shell  and  sink  to  the  bottom.  When  full  grown,  these  mollusks  lose  their  flippers  and  creep 
a  In  MI  t  the  sea-weed  by  means  of  a  large  foot.  Thus,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  this  'black 
meat'  is  more  dangerous  than  the  other  kinds.  While  the  shells  of  the  animals  forming  the  'red 
meat'  are  quite  thin  and  the  bodies  of  the  'yellow  meat'  are  very  soft,  those  of  the  'black  meat,' 
on  the  contrary,  being  inclosed  in  hard  shells,  are  not  so  readily  reached  by  the  digestive  fluid,  so 
that  while  the  exterior  parts,  namely,  the  swimming  flippers,  are  quickly  digested  the  rest  of  the 
body  within  the  shell  becomes  decomposed.  On  this  account  the  flesh  of  the  Herring  after  feeding 
upon  these  mollusks  soon  becomes  tainted  by  their  decomposition  and  gives  out  a  disagreeable 
smell,  notwithstanding  the  application  of  salt. 

"It  may  be  asked  why  the  summer  and  autumnal  Herrings  feed  upon  this  food  and  not  the 
spring  Herring,  nor  those  taken  in  the  open  sea,  both  the  latter  being  capable  of  preservation 
without  any  detention  in  the  nets.  The  reason  of  this  seems  to  be  that,  the  spring  and  open-sea 
Herrings  are  captured  when  under  the  stimulus  of  the  spawning  season  and  in  the  search  for  a 
suitable  place  for  the  development  of  their  young.  At  this  time  the  question  of  food  is  reduced 
to  zero  or  near  it,  and  a  careful  examination  of  the  stomachs  of  Herrings  taken  under  such  circum- 
stances shows  comparatively  little  animal  matter.  Summer  and  autumn  Herrings,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  specially  engaged  in  seeking  for  food  and  bringing  up  their  flesh,  and  that  at  a  time 
when  the  larva?  of  the  lower  animals  are  found  swimming  freely  about  in  large  quantity  upon  the 
surface  of  the  sea."1 

CAPTURE  AND  USES. — The  methods  of  capture  of  the  Herring  are  fully  described  in  the 
chapter  by  Mr.  Earll  upon  the  herring  fisheries  of  the  United  States  (to  be  printed  in  a  subse- 
quent portion  of  this  report). 

"It  is  not  a  little  remarkable,"  writes  Professor  Baird,  "that  while  with  most  flsh  the  spawning 


'Professor  Miibins  found  that  almost  the  sole  food  of  the  Herring  taken  in  Kiel  Bay,  in  the  wint«r  and  spring  of 
1B72,  when  they  were  captured  in  immense  quantities,  consisted  of  a  minnte  crnstaceoiiH  animal,  nearly  allied  to  the 
common  fresh-water  cyclops,  and  but  little  larger.  The  apparatus,  which  enables  the  Herring  to  feed  on  these 
minute  creatures,  is  described  by  Professor  Mobius  as  a  sort  of  basket  or  "lobster- pot,"  formed  by  the  arches  of  the 
gills,  each  of  which  is  furnished  with  a  close-set  fringe  of  teeth,  while  each  of  the  latter  bears  two  rows  of  minute 
spines.  The  interlacing  of  these  teeth  and  spines  produces  a  narrow  lattice-work,  through  which  the  water  can 
readily  pass,  while  the  little  swimtnin^animuls  contained  in  it  are  left  behind  in  the  mouth  of  the  fish  and  gradually 
pass  down  into  its  stomach.  Some  notion  of  the  number  of  little  crustaceans  consumed  by  the  Herring  may  be  funned 
from  the  tact  that  I'mt'osor  Mobiiis  reckons  10,000  as  the  average  number  to  lie  found  in  a  Herring's  stomach,  and  in 
one  instance  no  fewer  than  I>1, 000  wen-  I'munl.  'I'll.'  sprat,  the  mackerel,  and  some  other  fishes,  are  provided  with  :ni 
.  pparatns  more  or  less  resembling  that  of  the  Herring. — Annal»  of  Natural  Hulory. 


566  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

season  is  considered  an  undesirable  period  for  their  capture,  with  the  Clupeidce,  such  as  the  shad, 
the  alewife,  and  the  sea  Herring,  they  are  then  thought  to  bo  in  the  greatest  perfection;  indeed, 
females,  full  of  partially  developed  eggs,  are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  both  in  regard  to  the  fish 
and  the  roe.  Nearly  all  the  European  fisheries,  especially  those  on  the  coast  of  Scotland,  are 
carried  on  when  the  fish  is  in  full  roe,  when  the  taking  of  fish  is  considered  very  prejudicial  to  the 
perpetuation  of  the  species.  The  number  taken,  however,  does  not  appear  to  affect  the  abundance 
•of  the  Herring,  and,  indeed,  with  the  enormous  yield  of  eggs,  a  very  small  percentage  of  adults 
•will  keep  up  the  supply. 

"  There  appears  to  be  as  much  uncertainty  in  Europe  as  there  is  in  this  country  in  regard  to 
the  exact  period  of  the  growth  of  the  Herring,  Ljungman1  remarking  that  the  spring  Herring 
spawned  in  March  attain  a  length  of  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  iuches  by  the  end  of  the 
j  ear,  and  that  in  the  following  May,  or  at  the  age  of  one  year,  their  average  length  is  four  inches. 
He  states  that  the  two-year-old  fish  range  from  five  and  a  half  to  six  inches  in  length,  and  that 
those  of  three  years  are  six  or  seven  inches  long,  having  the  sexual  apparatus  complete  but  not 
highly  developed.  The  eight-inch  fish  are  four  years  old,  while  those  larger  are  of  still  greater  age." 

In  Europe  the  ways  in  which  Herrings  are  prepared  for  use  as  food  are  very  numerous  and 
varied,  there  being  many  ways  of  salting  them,  many  ways  of  smoking  them,  and  many  ways  of 
preserving  them  in  spices.  The  day  is  probably  not  distant  when  Europe  will  follow  the  example 
of  the  United  States  and  employ  them  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  sardines.  The  European 
fishery  reports  are  full  of  codes  of  instruction  for  preparing  the  different  grades  of  Herrings  for  expor- 
tation and  local  consumption ;  but,  as  a  rule,  these  preparations  are  not  congenial  to  the,  American 
palate,  anil  need  not  here  be  particularly  described.  Our  supply  of  other  excellent  food  fishes  is  so 
great  that  but  little  attention  is  paid  by  American  fishermen  to  the  capture  of  Herrings  for  food. 
Many  cargoes  of  frozen  Herrings  are  brought  from  Newfoundland  and  the  Bay  of  Fnndy  to  Boston, 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia  to  serve  for  the  food  of  the  poorer  classes  during  the  Lenten  season. 
A  limited  quantity  of  pickled  Herrings  is  also  imported  from  the  British  Provinces.  Smoked  Her- 
rings are  produced  to  the  amount  of  370,015  boxes  in  Eastern  Maine,  and  large  quantities  are 
imported  from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  which  aie  sent  chiefly  to  the  West  and  South, 
though  small  quantities  are  consumed  in  the  rural  districts  of  New  England.  Before  the  rebellion 
Eastern  Maine  engaged  largely  in  herring-smoking  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  demand  of 
the  slave-owning  States,  and  many  cargoes  of  fish  slightly  pickled  for  smoking  were  brought  from 
the  Magdalen  Islands.  This  business  was  broken  up  by  the  war,  and  most  of  the  smoke-houses 
remain  abandoned  to  this  day.  Considerable  quantities  of  smoked  Herrings  are  now  put  up  in 
small  packages  with  skin  and  bones  removed,  under  the  trade  name  of  "  boneless  Herring."  By 
far  the  greatest  consumption  of  Herrings  for  food  is  in  the  shape  of  so-called  saulines,  packed 
for  the  most  part  in  cotton-seed  oil,  and  in  cans  made  in  imitation  of  those  imported  from  France. 
This  industry  began  in  1875  and  increased  yearly  until  1880,  when  the  production  amounted  to 
2,377,152  one-pound  cans,  worth  $772,176. 

Fresh  Herrings  and  salted  Herrings  are  used  extensively  for  bait  in  the  halibut  and  cod  fish- 
eries, aud  a  special  night  fishery  with  torches  for  young  Herrings,  or  Sperling,  is  carried  on  in  the 
fall  months  about  Cape  Ann,  Massachusetts,  for  the  supply  of  the  shore  fishermen. 

THE  ALLEGED  DESTRUOTiVENEss  OF  THE  HERRING  FISHERY. — As  has  already  been 
remarked,  the  Herring  fishery  is  not  at  present  of  sufficient  importance  upon  our  coast  to  have 
provoked  the  protection  of  the  law,  although  the  only  place  in  the  world  where  the  spawning 
Herrings  are  protected  by  the  law  is  at  the  southern  end  of  Grand  Mauan,  within  twenty-five  miles 

1  United  States  Fish  Commission  Report,  \>.  144. 


]>KSTi;n TIMN  <»r  IIKKKINC.S.  5H7 

from  tin-  western  boundary  of  tin-  I'nited  States.  Tin-  question  of  the  protection  of  tin-  Herring 
is  not  likclvs.mii  to  come  ni>  in  our  legislatures.  II  lias,  however,  for  many  years  been  deeply 
agitated  in  Knropc,  and  in(!reat  I'.rit.iin  especially  lias  occupied  tin- attention  of  learned  com- 
mi.NsioiK  tor  periods  cxtcn  .ing  over  many  inontlis.  In  1S(>'_'  and  1805  special  commissions  were 
engaged  in  tin-  investigation  of  the  influence  of  the  trawl-net  fishery,  particularly  with  reference,  to 
its  connect!  n  with  the  herring  lishcn  .  And  it  is  a  matter  of  considerable  interest  to  he  able  to 
quote  in  a  few  paragraphs  t  he  conclnsi  ins  reached  by  Professor  Huxley,  who  was  a  member  of  each 
of  these  commissions,  not  liecanse.  as  already  suggested,  the  question  of  protecting  the  herring 
fishery  is  likely  to  be  agitated  in  the  United  States,  but  because  the  same  class  of  facts  and  the 
same  train  of  reasoning  will  apply  with  almost  equal  force  to  the  problem  of  the  protection  of  the 
mackerel,  menhaden,  and  other  similar  fisheries.  He  spoke  as  follows  in  1881  in  the  lecture  already 
referred  to: 

"I  do  not  believe  that  all  the  herring  fleets  taken  together  destroy  five  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number  of  Herrings  in  the  sea  in  any  year,  and  I  see  no  reason  to  swerve  from  the  conviction  my 
colleagues  and  I  expressed  in  our  report,  that  their  destructive  operations  are  totally  insignificant 
when  compared  with  those  which,  as  a  simple  calculation  shows,  must  regularly  and  normally 
go  on. 

"  Suppose  that  every  mature  female  Herring  lays  10,000  eggs,  that  the  fish  are  not  interfered 
with  by  man,  and  that  their  numbers  remain  approximately  the  same  year  after  year,  it  follows 
that  0,1)98  of  the  progeny  of  every  female  must  be  destroyed  before  they  reach  maturity.  For,  if 
more  than  two  out  of  the  10,000  escape  destruction,  the  number  of  Herrings  will  be  proportion- 
ately increased.  Or,  in  other  words,  if  the  average  strength  of  the  shoals  which  visit  a  given 
locality  is  to  remain  the  same  year  by  year,  many  thousand  times  the  number  contained  in  those 
shoals  must  be  annually  destroyed.  And  how  this  enormous  amount  of  destruction  is  effected 
•will  be  obvious  to  any  one  who  considers  the  operations  of  the  fin-whales,  the  porpoises,  the 
gannets,  the  gulls,  the  codfish,  and  the  dog-fish,  which  accompany  the  shoals  and  perennially  feast 
upon  them  ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  flat-fish,  which  prey  upon  the  newly -deposited  spawn;  or  of  the 
mackerel  and  the  innumerable  smaller  enemies  which  devour  the  fry  in  all  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment. It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  five  or  six — nay,  even  ten  or  twelve— Herrings  in  the 
stomach  of  a  codfish,  and  in  18C3  we  calculated  that  the  whole  take  of  the  great  Scotch  herring 
fisheries  is  less  than  the  number  of  Herrings  which  would  in  all  probability  have  been  consumed 
by  the  codfish  captured  in  the  same  waters  if  they  had  been  left  in  the  sea.  Man,  in  fact,  is  but 
one  of  a  vast  co-operative  society  of  herring  catchers,  and  the  larger  the  share  he  takes  the  less 
there  is  for  the  rest  of  the  company.  If  man  took  none,  the  other  shareholders  would  have  a 
larger  dividend,  and  would  thrive  and  multiply  in  proportion,  but  it  would  come  to  pretty  much 
the  same  thing  to  the  Herrings. 

"As  long  as  the  records  of  history  give  us  information,  Herrings  appear  to  have  abounded  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  British  Islands,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  that, 
taking  an  average  of  years,  they  were  ever  either  more  or  less  numerous  than  they  are  at  present. 
I'.ut.  in  remarkable  contrast  with  this  constancy,  the  shoals  of  Herrings  have  elsewhere  exhibited 
a  strange  capriciousness — visiting  a  given  locality  for  many  years  in  great  numbers,  and  then  .sud- 
denly disappearing.  Several  well  marked  examples  of  this  fickleness  are  recorded  on  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland;  but  the  most  remarkable  is  that  furnished  by  the  fisheries  of  Bohuslan,  a 
province  which  lies  on  the  southwestern  shore  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  Here  a  variety 
known  as  the  'old'  or  'great'  Herring,  after  being  so  extremely  abundant,  for  about  sixty  years, 


568  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

as  to  give  rise  to  a  great  industry,  disappeared  in  the  year  1808,  as  suddenly  as  they  made  their 
appearance,  and  have  not  since  been  seen  in  any  number. 

"The  desertion  of  their  ordinary  grounds  by  the  Herring  has  been  attributed  to  all  imaginable 
causes,  from  fishing  on  a  Sunday  to  the  offense  caused  to  the  fish  by  the  decomposing  carcasses  of 
their  brethren,  dropped  upon  the  bottom  out  of  the  nets.  The  truth  is,  that  absolutely  nothing  is 
known  on  the  subject,  and  that  little  is  likely  to  be  known  until  careful  and  long-continued 
meteorological  and  zoologico-1  observations  have  furnished  definite  information  respecting  the 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  temperature  of  the  sea,  and  the  distribution  of  the  pelagic 
Crustacea  which  constitute  the  chief  food  of  the  herring  shoals.  The  institution  of  systematic 
observations  of  this  kind  is  an  object  of  international  importance,  toward  the  attainment  of  which 
the  British,  Scandinavian,  Dutch,  and  French  Governments  might  wisely  make  a  combined  effort. 

"A  great  fuss  has  been  made  about  trawlers  working  over  the  spawning  grounds  of  the 
Herring.  'It  stands  to  reason,'  we  were  told,  'that  they  must  destroy  an  immense  quantity  of  the 
spawn.'  Indeed,  this  looked  so  reasonable  that  we  inquired  very  particularly  into  a  case  of  the 
alleged  malpractice  which  was  complained  of  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  near  Pittenweem. 
Off  this  place  there  is  a  famous  spawning  ground  known  as  the  Traith  Hole,  and  we  were  told 
that  the  trawlers  worked  vigorously  over  the  spot  immediately  after  the  Herring  had  deposited 
their  spawn.  Of  course  our  first  proceeding  was  to  ask  the  trawlers  why  they  took  the  trouble  of 
doing  what  looked  like  wanton  mischief.  And  their  answer  was  reasonable  enough.  It  was  to 
catch  the  prodigious  abundance  of  flat-fish  which  were  to  be  found  on  the  Traith  at  that  time. 
Well,  then,  why  did  the  flat-fish  congregate  there?  Simply  to  feed  on  herring  eggs,  which  seem 
to  be  a  sort  of  flat-fishes'  caviare.  The  stomachs  of  the  flat-fish  brought  up  by  the  trawl  were,  in 
fact,  crammed  with  masses  of  herring  eggs.  Thus  every  flat  fish  caught  by  the  trawl  was  an 
energetic  destroyer  of  Herring  arrested  in  his  career.  And  the  trawling,  instead  of  injuring  the 
Herring,  captured  and  removed  hosts  of  their  worst  enemies.  That  is  how  '  it  stood  to  reason ' 
when  one  got  to  the  bottom  of  the  matter. 

"I  do  not  think  that  any  one  who  looks  carefully  into  the  subject  will  arrive  at  any  other 
conclusion  than  that  reached  by  my  colleagues  and  myself,  namely,  that  the  best  thing  for  govern- 
ments to  do  in  relation  to  the  herring  fisheries  is,  to  let  them  alone,  except  in  so  far  as  the  police 
of  the  sea  is  concerned.  With  this  proviso,  let  people  fish  how  they  like,  as  they  like,  and  when 
they  like.  At  present,  I  must  repeat  the  conviction  we  expressed  so  many  years  ago,  that  there 
is  not  a  particle  of  evidence,  that  anything  man  does  has  an  appreciable  influence  on  the  stock  of 
Herrings.  It  will  be  time  to  meddle  when  any  satisfactory  evidence  that  mischief  is  being  done 
is  produced." 

173.  THE  HERRINGS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 
THE  CALIFORNIA  HERRING — CLUPEA  MIRABILIS. 

"This  species,"  writes  Professor  Jordan,  "is  universally  known  as  the  Herring.  It  indeed 
scarcely  differs  in  size,  appearance,  or  qualities  from  the  Herring  of  the  Atlantic.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  about  a  foot.  It  is  found  for  the  entire  length  of  the  coast,  being  exceedingly  abundant 
northward.  All  the  bay  sand  outlets  of  Pnget  Sound  are  filled  with  them  in  the  summer.  South 
of  Point  Concepcion  they  are  seldom  seen  except  in  winter.  At  San  Diego  they  spawn  in  the  bay 
in  January.  Farther  north  their  spawning  season  comes  later.  They  are  so  abundant  in  Sau 
Francisco  Bay  in  the  spring  that  eighty  pounds  can  often  be  bought  for  twenty  cents.  They  are 
fattest  and  bring  the  best  price  in  early  winter.  The  Herrings  are  smoked  and  dried,  or  salted,  or 


THE  NAMES  OF  Till'   MKNIIADEN.  569 

sent  fresh  to  tbo  markets.     Sometimes  herring  oil  is  azpTCHcd  from  them.     The  priucipnl  herring- 
euring  establishment  is  at  Port  Madison,  on  Puget  Sound.'' 

THE  CALIFORNIA  SAIIDINK — CLUPEA  SAOAX. 

"This  species,"  writes  Professor  Jordan,  "is  everywhere  known  as  the  Sardine,  or  by  tlte 
Italians  as  'Sardina.'  It  is,  in  faet,  almost  exactly  identical  with  the  Sardine  of  Europe.  It 
readies  a  length  of  a  little  less  than  a  foot.  It  ranges  from  Cape  Mendocino  to  Chili,  and  is 
extremely  abundant  southward,  especially  in  the  winter,  when  it  fills  all  the.  bays.  In  the 
slimmer  it  is  generally  scarce  southward,  although  still  taken  northward.  The  young  are, 
however,  seen  in  San  Diego  in  the  summer.  It  is  probably  to  some  extent  migratory  along  the 
enast,  but  as  little  attention  is  paid  to  it,  no  definite  data  can  be  given.  It  is  brought  into  the 
markets  when  taken,  and  is  sold  with  the  Herring.  The  question  of  the  possibility  of  canning  it 
in  oil,  like  the  Sardine,  hns  been  considerably  discussed.  It  would  probably  prove  unprofitable, 
from  the  high  price  of  labor  and  the  uncertain  supply  of  fish." 

174.  THE  MENHADEN— BREVOORTIA  TYRANNUS.1 

NAMES. — The  Menhaden  has  at  least  thirty  popular  names,  most  of  them  limited  in  their  use 
within  narrow  geographical  boundaries.  To  this  circumstance  may  be  attributed  the  prevailing 
ignorance  regarding  its  habits  and  migrations,  among  our  fishermen,  which  has  perhaps  pre- 
vented the  more  extensive  utilization  of  this  fish,  particularly  in  the  South. 

North  of  Cape  Cod  the  name  "Pogy"  is  almost  universally  in  use,  while  in  Southern  New 
England  the  fish  is  known  only  as  the  "  Menhaden."  These  two  names  are  derived  from  two 
Indian  words  of  the  same  meaning;  the  first  being  the  Abnaki  name  "  Pookagan,"  or  "Pog- 
haden,"  which  means  "  fertilizer,"  while  the  latter  is  the  mollification  of  a  word  which  in  the 
Nanagausett  dialect  meant  "  that  which  enriches  the  earth."  About  Cape  Ann,  '•  Pogy  "  is  par- 
tially replaced  by  " Hard-head,"  or  "  Uard  head  Shad,"  and  in  Eastern  Connecticut  by  "Bony 
Fish."  In  Western  Connecticut  the  species  is  usually  known  as  the  "  White-fish,"  while  in  New 
York  the  usage  of  two  centuries  is  in  favor  of  "  Mossbunker."  This  name  is  a  relic  of  the  Dutch 
colony  of  New  Amsterdam,  having  evidently  been  transferred  from  the  "  Scad,"  or  "  Ilorso 
Mackerel,"  Trachurus  lacerta,  a  fish  which  visits  the  shores  of  Northern  Europe  in  immense  schools, 
swimming  at  the  surface  in  much  the  same  manner  as  our  Menhaden,  and  known  to  the  Hol- 
landers as-  the  "  Alarshbauker."  New  Jersey  uses  the  New  York  name  with  its  local  variations, 
.-in  h  as  "Bunker"  and  "Marshbanker."  In  Delaware  Bay,  the  Potomac,  and  the  Chesapeake,  we 
meet  with  the  "Alewife,"  "  Bay  Alewife,"  "  Pilcher"  (Pilchard),  and  "  Green-tail."  Virginia  gives 
us  "  Bug-fish,"  "  Bug-head,"  and  "  Bug-shad,"  referring  to  the  parasitic  crustacean  found  in  the 
mouths  of  all  Southern  Menhaden.  In  North  Carolina  occurs  the  name  "Fat-back,"  which 
prevails  as  far  south  as  Florida,  and  refers  to  the  oiliness  of  the  flesh.  In  this  vicinity,  too, 
the.  names  "Yellow-tail"  and  "Yellow-tailed  Shad"  are  occasionally  heard,  while  in  Southern 
Florida  the  fish  is  called  "  Shiner"  and  "  Herring."  In  South  America,  among  the  Portuguese, 
the  name  "Savega"  is  in  use.  On  the  Saint  John's  River,  and  wherever  northern  fishermen  are 
found,  •<  Menhaden"  is  preferred,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  name  will  in  time  be  generally 
adopted.  A  number  of  trade  names  are  employed  by  the  manufacturers  in  New  Jersey  who  can 
this  fish  for  food;  these  are  "American  Sardine,"  "American  Club-fish,"  " Shadine,"  and  "Ocean 
Trout." 

lu  1815  the  species  was  described  by  Mitchill.  of  New  York,  under  the  name  Clupea  menhaden, 

'  For  a  fuller  account  of  this  tish,  sec  an  elaborate  memoir  iu  ]>art  v  of  (be  Kojiort  of  the  Coiumiwiouer  of  Fisheries. 


570  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

which  has  since  been  commonly  accepted.  A  prior  description  by  Latrobe,  in  1802,  long  lost 
sight  of,  renders  it  necessary,  as  I  have,  elsewhere  demonstrated,  to  adopt  the  specific  name 
tyraitHKH.  The  genus  Brevoortia,  of  which  this  species  is  the  type,  was  established  by  Gill  in  1801. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  geographical  range  of  Brevoortia  tyrannus  varies  from  year  to  year.  In 
1877  it  was,  so  far  as  it  is  definable  in  words,  as  follows:  The  wanderings  of  the  species  are  bounded 
by  the  parallels  of  north  latitude  25°  and  45°;  oil  the  continental  side  by  the  line  of  brackish 
water;  on  the  east  by  the  inner  boundary  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  In  the  summer  it  occurs  in  the 
coastal  waters  of  all  the  Atlantic  States  from  Maine  to  Florida,  in  winter  only  south  of  Cape 
Hatteras.  The  limits  of  its  winter  migration  oceanwards  cannot  be  defined,  though  it  is  demon- 
strated (hat  the  species  does  not  occur  about  the  Bermudas  or  Cuba,  nor  presumably  in  the  Ca- 
libbean  Sea.  In  Brazilian  waters  occurs  a  geographical  race  of  the  same  species,  Brevoorlia 
tyranuus,  subspecies  aurea  (the  Clupanodon  aureus  of  Agassiz  and  Spix) ;  on  the  coast  of  Paraguay 
and  Patagonia  by  Brevoortia  pectinata  ;  in  the  Gnlf  of  Mexico  by  Brevoortia  patron  nx. 

MOVEMENTS. — With  the  advance  of  spring  Menhaden  appear  near  our  coasts  in  company  with, 
and  usually  slightly  in  advance  of,  the  other  non-resident  species,  such  as  as  the  Shad,  Alewife, 
Bluefish,  and  Squeteague.  The  following  general  conclusions  regarding  their  movements  are 
deduced  from  the  statements  of  about  two  hundred  observers  at  different  points  on  the  coasts  from 
Florida  to  Nova  Scotia. 

A  t  the  approach  of  settled  warm  weather  they  make  their  appearance  in  the  inshore  waters. 
It  is  manifestly  impracticable  to  indicate  the  periods  of  their  movements  except  in  an  approximate 
way.  The  comparison  of  two  localities  distant  apart  one  or  two  hundred  miles  will  indicate  very 
little.  When  wider  ranges  are  compared  there  becomes  perceptible  a  certain  proportion  in  the 
relations  of  the  general  averages.  There  is  always  a  balance  in  favor  of  earlier  arrivals  in  the  more 
southern  localities;  thus  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  first  schools  appear  in  Chesapeake  Bay  in 
March  and  April ;  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  in  April  and  early  May ;'  on  the  south  coast  of  New 
England  in  late  April  and  May;  off  Cape  Ann  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine 
in  the  latter  part  of  May  and  the  first  of  June.  Returning,  they  leave  Maine  late  in  September 
or  in  October;  Massachusetts  in  October,  November,  and  December,  the  latest  departures  being 
those  of  fish  which  have  been  detained  in  the  narrow  bays  and  creeks;  Long  Island  Sound  and 
vicinity  in  November  and  December;  Chesapeake  Bay  in  December,  and  Cape  Hatteras  in 
January.  Farther  to  the  south  they  appear  to  remain  more  or  less  constantly  throughout  the  year. 

It  is  a  strange  fact  that  their  northern  range  has  become  considerably  restricted  within  the 
past  twenty-five  years.  Perley,  writing  in  1852,  stated  that  they  were  sometimes  caught  in  con- 
siderable numbers  about  Saint  John's,  New  Brunswick,  and  there  is  abundance  of  other  testimony 
to  the  fact  that  they  formerly  frequented  the  Bay  of  Fundy  in  its  lower  parts;  at  present  the  east- 
ward wanderings  of  the  schools  do  not  extend  beyond  Isle  an  Ilaut  and  Great  Duck  Island,  about 
forty  miles  west  of  the  boundaries  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick.  They  have  not  been  known  to 
pass  these  limits  for  ten  or  fifteen  years.  They  have  this  year  hardly  passed  north  of  Cape  Cod, 
and  forty  or  more  steamers,  which  have  usually  reaped  an  extensive  harvest  on  the  coast  of 
Maine,  have  been  obliged  to  return  to  the  fishing  grounds  of  Southern  New  England,  where  Men- 
haden are  found  as  abundantly  as  ever. 

I  have  elsewhere  shown  the  arrival  of  the  Menhaden  schools  to  be  closely  synchronous  with 
the  period  at  which  the  weekly  average  of  the  surface  temperatures  of  the  harbors  rises  to  51°  F., 
that  they  do  not  enter  waters  in  which,  as  about  Eastport,  Maine,  the  midsummer  surface  tem- 


'Tlio  linit  catch  of  Menhaden  by  the  fleet  in  1881  was  off  Long  Branch,  May  6,  when  Gallup  &  Holmes'  steamer 
took  i-iulit  hundred  liiiNhelg. 


MOYI:MI:NTS  OK  MKNIIADKN.  571 

pcratures,  as  indicated  by  inoiitlily  averages,  fall  h«-l«i\v  r>l°  F.,  and  that  their  departure  in  the 
autumn  is  closely  connected  \\itli  tin-  fall  of  the  t hermonieter  to  .r>l°  F.  and  below.  In  1877  a  cold 
summer  seemed  to  threaten  the  success  of  the  Maine  Menhaden  fisheries.  In  September  and 
Oetolier.  lm\\e\er.  the  tcmpci atures  were  higher  than  in  the  eon esponding  months  of  the  previous 
\ear.  and  the  .-carcity  of  the  early  part  of  the  season  was  amply  amended  for. 

The  season  of  1S7S  in  Maine  was  fairly  successful,  the  three  summer  months  being  warmer 
than  in  1877,  but  cooler  than  in  1S7<1.  The  absence  of  the  Menhaden  schools  north  of  Gape  Cod 
in  ISTii  is  also  easily  explained  b.v  the  study  of  temperatures  of  the  water  of  the  Gulf  of  Maine,  as 
indicated  b.v  the  observations  made  ill  Portland  Harbor.  The  averages  for  the  three  summer 
months  are  as  follows,  the  numerator  of  the  fraction  being  the  average  surface  temperature,  the 
denominator  that  of  the  bottom:  1876,  62O.5-57<>.9;  1877,  5»o.6-56o.7;  1878,  01°.5-58o.l ;  1870, 
5i;o.  1-540.0. 

The  average  for  the  three  summer  months  of  1879  is  less  than  that  of  June,  1876. 

This  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  a  study  of  ocean  temperatures.  In  August,  1878,  there 
\vas  a  very  rapid  fall  in  the  temperature  of  the  surface  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine,  so  that  the  average 
temperature  of  that  month  was  less  than  that  of  July,  instead  of  being  higher,  as  is  usual.  This 
may  have  had  the  eft'ect  of  driving  the  tish  into  the  warmer  water  of  the  bays  and  estuaries.  The 
monthly  averages  for  1870,  1877,  1878,  and  1879  are  as  follows: 

1876 — June,  560.9-54°;    July,  66°.7-S9o.4;  August,  63o.fl-G<>°.4. 
1877— June,  54o.9-53°.3;  July,  58°.l-56o.3;  August,  62°.4-6l)o.6.- 
1878— June,  56°.8-550.2;  July,  66°.9-59°.3;  August,  60O.7-59Q.9. 
1879— June,  520.9-510.7;  July,  550.9-54Q.1;  August,  590.6-58°. 

The  arrival  of  the  Menhaden  is  announced  by  their  appearance  at  the  top  of  the  water.  They 
swim  in  immense  schools,  their  heads  close  to  the  surface,  packed  side  by  side,  and  often  tier 
above  tier,  almost  as  closely  as  sardines  in  a  box.  A  gentle  ripple  indicates  their  position,  and 
this  maybe  seen  at  a  distance  of  nearly  a  mile  by  the  lookout  at  the  masthead  of  a  fishing  vessel, 
and  is  of  great  assistance  to  the  seiners  in  setting  their  nets.  At  the  slightest  alarm  the  school 
sinks  toward  the  bottom,  often  escaping  its  pursuers.  Sailing  over  a  body  of  Menhaden  swimming 
at  a  short  distance  below  the  surface,  one  may  see  their  glittering  backs  beneath,  and  the  boat 
»eems  to  be  gliding  over  a  floor  inlaid  with  blocks  of  silver.  At  night  they  are  phosphorescent. 
Their  motions  seem  capricious  and  without  a  definite  purpose;  at  times  they  swim  around  and 
around  in  circles;  at  other  limes  they  sink  and  rise.  While  they  remain  thus  at  the  surface,  after 
the  appearance  of  a  vanguard  they  rapidly  increase  in  abundance  until  the  sea  appears  to  be,  alive 
with  them.  They  delight  to  play  in  inlets  and  bays,  such  as  the  Chesapeake.  Peconic,  and  Narra- 
gansett  Bays,  and  the  narrow  fiords  of  Maine.  They  seem  particularly  fond  of  shallow  waters 
protected  from  the  wind,  in  which,  if  not  molested,  they  will  remain  throughout  the  season, 
drifting,  in  and  out  with  the  tide.  Brackish  water  attracts  them,  and  they  abound  at  the  mouth 
of  streams,  especially  on  the  Southern  coast.  They  ascend  the  Saint  John's  River  more  than 
thirty  miles;  the  Saint  Mary's,  the  Neuse,  the  York,  the  liappaliannock,  the  Potomac  nearly  to 
M  ashington,  and  the  Pawtuxeut  to  Marl  borough.  They  come,  in  with  or  before  the  Shad,  and  are 
very  troublesome  to  the  fishermen  by  clogging  their  nets.  I  am  not  aware  that  this  difficulty 
occurs  in  Northern  rivers,  though  they  are  found  in  the  summer  in  the  Hudson  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Ilousatonic,  Mystic,  Thames,  and  Providence  Rivers,  in  the  creeks  of  Cape  Cod,  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Merrimack.  A  curious  instance  oi  capriciousncss  in  the  movements  occurred  on  the 
<x>ast  of  Maine,  where  much  alarm  was  felt,  because  their  habits  were  thought  to  have  been 


572  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

changed  through  the  influence  of  seining.  The  shore  fishermen  could  obtain  none  for  bait,  and 
vessels  followed  them  far  out  to  sea,  capturing  them  in  immense  quantities  forty  miles  from  land. 
The  fisheries  had  produced  no  such  effect  south  of  Cape  Cod,  and  it  was  quite  inexplicable  that 
their  habits  should  have  been  so  modified  in  the  north.  In  1878,  however,  after  ten  years  or  more, 
they  resumed  their  former  habits  of  hugging  the  shores,  and  the  Menhaden  fishery  of  Maine  was 
carried  on,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  rivers. 

Why  the  schools  swim  at  the  surface  so  conspicuous  a  prey  to  men,  birds,  and  other  fishes  is 
not  known.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  for  the  purpose  of  feeding;  perhaps  the  fisherman  is  right 
when  he  declares  that  they  are  playing. 

An  old  mackerel  fisherman  thus  describes  the  difference  in  the  habits  of  the  mackerel  and 
Menhaden:  "Fogies  school  differently  from  mackerel;  the  Pogy  slaps  with  his  tail,  and  in 
moderate  weather  you  can  hear  the  sound  of  a  school  of  them,  as  first  one  and  then  another 
strikes  the  water.  The  mackerel  go  along  'gilling,'  that  is,  putting  the  sides  of  their  heads  out 
of  the  water  as  they  swim.  The  Fogies  make  a  flapping  sound;  the  mackerel  a  rushing  sound. 
Sometimes  in  calm  and  foggy  weather  you  cau  hear  a  school  of  mackerel  miles  away."  They  do 
not  attract  small  birds  as  do  the  schools  of  predaceous  fish.  The  fish-hawk  often  hovers  above 
them,  and  some  of  the  larger  gulls  occasionally  follow  them  in  quest  of  a  meal.  About  Cape  Cod 
one  of  the  gulls,  perhaps  Lams  argentatus,  is  called  "Fogy  Gull." 

On  warm,  still,  sunny  days  the  fish  may  always  be  seen 'at  the  surface,  but  cold  or  rainy 
weather  and  prevailing  northerly  or  easterly  winds  quickly  cause  them  to  disappear.  When  it  is 
rough  they  are  not  so  often  seen,  though  schools  of  them  frequently  appear  when  the  sea  is  too 
high  for  fishermen  to  set  their  nets.  The  best  days  for  menhaden-fishing  are  when  the  wind  is 
northwesterly  in  the  morning,  dying  out  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  springing  up  again  in  the 
afternoon  from  the  southwest,  with  a  clear  sky.  At  the  change  of  the  wind  on  such  a  day  they 
come  to  the  surface  in  large  numbers. 

A  comparison  of  the  effect  of  the  weather  upon  the  Menhaden  and  the  Herring  yields  some 
curious  results.  The  latter  is  a  cold-water  species.  With  the  advance  of  summer  it  seeks  the 
north,  returning  to  our  waters  with  the  approach  of  cold.  The  Menhaden  prefers  the  temperature 
of  00°  F.  or  more;  the  Herring,  55°  F.  and  less.  When  the  Menhaden  desert  the  Gulf  of  Maine 
they  are  replaced  by  the  Herring.  Cold  weather  drives  the  former  to  the  warmer  strata,  while  it 
brings  the  latter  to  the  surface.  The  conditions  most  favorable  on  our  coast  for  the  appearance  of 
Herring  on  the  surface,  and  which  correspond  precisely  with  those  which  have  been  made  out  for 
the  coast  of  Europe,  are  least  so  for  the  Menhaden. 

Their  winter  habitat,  like  that  of  the  other  cold-water  absentees,  has  never  been  determined. 
The  most  plausible  hypothesis  supposes  that  instead  of  migrating  towards  the  tropics  or  hiber- 
nating near  the  shore,  as  has  been  claimed  by  many,  they  swim  out  to  sea  until  they  find  a 
stratum  of  water  corresponding  to  that  frequented  by  them  during  their  summer  sojourn  on  the 
coast. 

This  is  rendered  probable  by  the  following  considerations:  1.  That  the  number  of  Menhaden  in 
southern  waters  is  not  diminished  in  seasons  of  their  abundance  on  the  northern  coast,  nor  increased 
in  those  of  their  absence  from  the  latter  region.  2.  That  there  are  local  varieties  of  the  species,  dis- 
tinguished by  physical  characters  almost  of  specific  value,  by  differences  in  habits,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  southern  schools  by  the  universal  presence  in  the  mouth  of  a  crustacean  parasite,  which  is 
never  found  in  the  specimens  caught  north  of  Cape  May.  3.  That  the  same  schools  usually  reap- 
pear in  the  same  waters  in  successive  years.  4.  That  their  very  'prompt  arrival  in  the  spring 
suggests  their  presence  in  waters  near  ut  hand.  5.  That  their  leanness  when  they  first  appear 


REPRODUCTION  OF  TI1K  MKNITADEN.  573 

renders  it  evident  that  they  have  had  no  food  since  leaving  the  coast  in  autumn.  The  latter  con- 
sideration, since  they  are  bottom  feeders,  is  the  strongest  confirmation  of  the  belief  that  their  win- 
ter home  is  in  the  midoceanic  substrata. 

AIIUNDANCE. — As  is  indicated  by  the  testimony  of  many  observers,  whose  statements  are  else- 
where reviewed  at  length,  the  Menhaden  is  by  far  the  most  abundant  species  of  fish  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  I'nited  Slates.  Several  hundred  thousand  are  frequently  taken  in  a  single  draft  of  a 
purse-seine.  A  linn  in  Milford,  Connecticut,  captured,  in  1870,  8,800,000;  in  1871,  8,000,000;  in 
187:2,  10,000,000;  in  1873,  12,000,000.  In  1877,  three  sloops  from  New  London  seined  13,000,000. 
In  1S77,  an  unprofitable  year,  the  Pemaquid  Oil  Company  took  20,000,000,  and  the  town  of  Booth 
Bay  alone  r»0,UOO,000.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  of  any  decrease  in  their  numbers,  though 
there  can  be  in  the  nature  of  the  case  absolutely  no  data  for  comparison  of  their  abundance  in 
successive  years.  Since  spawning  Menhaden  are  never  taken  in  the  nets,  no  one  can  reasonably 
predict  a  decrease  in  the  future. 

FOOD. — The  nature  of  their  food  has  been  closely  investigated.  Hundreds  of  specimens 
have  been  dissected,  and  every  stomach  examined  by  me  has  been  found  full  of  dark  greenish  or 
brownish  mud  or  silt,  such  as  occurs  near  the  months  of  rivers  and  on  the  bottoms  of  still  bays 
and  estuaries.  When  this  mud  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  time  in  clear  water,  this  becomes  slightly 
tinged  with  green,  indicating  the  presence  of  chlorophyl,  perhaps  derived  from  the  algse,  so 
common  on  muddy  bottoms.  In  addition  to  particles  of  fine  mud  the  microscope  reveals  a  few 
common  forms  of  diatoms. 

There  are  no  teeth  in  the  mouth  of  the  Menhaden,  their  place  being  supplied  by  about  fifteen 
hundred  thread-like  bristles,  from  one-third  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  which  are  attached 
to  the  gill-arches,  and  may  be  so  adjusted  as  to  form  a  very  effective  strainer.  The  stomach  is 
globular,  pear-shaped,  with  thick,  muscular  walls,  resembling  the  gizzard  of  a  fowl,  while  the 
length  of  the  coiled  intestine  is  five  or  six  times  that  of  the  body  of  the  fish.  The  plain  inference 
from  these  facts,  taken  in  connection  with  what  is  known  of  the  habits  of  the  Menhaden,  seems  to 
bo  that  their  food  consists  in  large  part  of  the  sediment,  containing  much  organic  matter,  which 
gathers  upon  the  bottoms  of  still,  protected  bays,  and  also  of  the  vegetation  that  grows  in  such 
localities.  They  also,  as  was  demonstrated  by  Mr.  Rathbun  in  1880,  feed  very  extensively  upon 
the  minute  crustaceans,  Copepoda,  etc.,  which  are  found  in  great  quantities  swimming  near  the  sur- 
face in  the  summer  months  all  along  our  coast. 

Their  rapid  increase  in  size  and  fatness,  which  commences  as  soon  as  they  approach  our 
shores,  indicates  that  they  find  an  abundant  supply  of  some  kind  of  food.  The  oil  manufacturers 
report  that  in  the  spring  a  barrel  of  fish  often  yields  less  than  three  quarts  of  oil,  while  late  in  the 
fall  it  is  not  uncommon  to  obtain  five  or  six  gallons. 

REPRODUCTION.— There  is  a  mystery  about  their  breeding.  Thousands  of  specimens  have  been 
dissected  since  1871  without  the  discovery  of  mature  ova.  In  early  summer  the  genitalia  are  quite 
undeveloped,  but  as  the  season  advances  they  slowly  increase  in  size  and  vascularity.  Among  the 
October  tish  a  few  ovaries  were  noticed  in  which  the  eggs  could  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  A 
school  of  large  fish  driven  ashore  in  November,  in  Delaware  Bay,  by  the  bluefish,  contained  spawn 
nearly  ripe,  and  others  taken  at  Christmas  time,  in  Provincetown  Harbor,  evidently  stragglers  acci- 
dentally  delayed,  contained  eggs  quite  mature.  Young  Menhaden  from  one  to  three  inches  in 
length  and  upward  are  common  in  summer  south  of  New  York,  and  those  of  live  to  eight  inches 
in  late  .summer  and  autumn  in  the  southern  part  of  New  Kngland.  These  are  in  schools,  and  make 
their  appearance  suddenly  from  the  open  ocean  like  the  adult  fish.  Menhaden  have  never  been 
observed  spawning  on  the  Southern  coast,  and  the  egg-bearing  individuals  when  observed  are 


574  NATUEAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

always  heading  out  to  sea.  Those  considerations  appear  to  warrant  the  theory  that  their  breeding- 
grounds  are  on  the  off-shore  shoals  which  skirt  the  coast  from  George's  Banks  to  the  Florida  Keys. 
There  are  indications,  too,  that  a  small  school  of  Menhaden  possibly  spawn  at  the  east  end  of 
Long  Island  in  the  very  early  spring. 

The  fecundity  of  the  Menhaden  is  very  great,  much  surpassing  that  of  the  Shad  and  Herring. 
The  ovaries  of  a  fish  taken  in  Narragansett  Bay,  November  1, 1879,  contained  at  least  150,000  eggs. 

ENEMIES. — Among  its  enemies  may  be  counted  every  predaceous  animal  which  swims  in 
the  same  waters.  Whales  and  dolphins  follow  the  schools  and  consume  them  by  the  hogshead. 
Sharks  of  all  kinds  prey  upon  them  largely;  one  hundred  have  been  taken  from  the  stomach  of 
one  shark.  All  the  large  carnivorous  fishes  feed  upon  them.  The  tunny  is  the  most  destructive. 
"I  have  often,"  writes  a  gentleman  in  Maine,  "watched  their  antics  from  the  masthead  of  my 
vessel — rushing  and  thrashing  like  demons  among  a  school  offish;  darting  with  almost  lightning 
swiftness,  scattering  them  in  every  direction,  and  throwing  hundreds  of  them  in  the  air  with  their 
tails."  The  pollock,  the  whiting,  the  striped  bass,  the  cod,  the  squeteague,  and  the  gar-fish  are 
savage  foes.  The  sword-fish  and  the  bayonet-fish  destroy  many,  rushing  through  the  schools  and 
striking  right  and  left  with  their  powerful  swords.  The  bluettsh  and  bouito  are,  however,  the 
most  destructive  enemies,  not  even  excepting  man;  these  corsairs  of  the  sea,  not  content  with 
what  they  eat,  which  is  of  itself  an  enormous  quantity,  rush  ravenously  through  the  closely  crowded 
schools,  cutting  and  tearing  the  living  fish  as  they  go,  and  leaving  in  their  wake  the  mangled 
fragments.  Traces  of  their  carnage  remain  for  weeks  in  the  great  ''slicks"  of  oil  so  commonly 
seen  on  smooth  water  hi  summer.  Professor  Baird,  in  his  well-known  and  often-quoted  estimates 
of  food  annually  consumed  by  the  bluefish,  states  that  probably  ten  thousand  million  fish,  or  twenty- 
five  million  pounds,  daily,  or  twelve  hundred  million  million  fish  and  three  hundred  thousand 
million  pounds  are  much  below  the  real  figures.  This  estimate  is  for  the  period  of  four  months 
in  the  middle  of  the  summer  and  fall,  and  for  the  coast  of  New  England  only. 

Such  estimates  are  professedly  only  approximations,  but  are  legitimate  in  their  way,  since 
they  enable  us  to  appreciate  more  clearly  the  luxuriance  of  marine  life.  Applying  similar  methods 
of  calculation  to  the  Menhaden,  I  estimate  the  total  number  destroyed  annually  on  our  coast  by 
predaceous  animals  at  a  million  million  of  millions;  in  comparison  with  which  the  quantities 
destroyed  by  man,  yearly,  sink  into  insignificance. 

It  is  not  hard  to  surmise  the  Menhaden's  place  iu  nature;  swarming  our  waters  in  countless 
myriads,  swimming  in  closely  packed,  unwieldy  masses,  helpless  as  flocks  of  sheep,  near  to  the 
surface  and  at  the  mercy  of  every  enemy,  destitute  of  means  of  defense  and  offense,  their  mission 
is  unmistakably  to  be  eaten. 

In  the  economy  of  nature  certain  orders  of  terrestrial  animals,  feeding  entirely  upon  vegetable 
substances,  seein  intended  for  one  purpose — to  elaborate  simple  materials  into  the  nitrogenous 
tissues  necessary  for  the  food  of  other  animals,  which  are  wholly  or  in  part  carnivorous  in  their 
diet;  so  the  Menhaden  feeding  upon  otherwise  unutilized  organic  matter  is  pre-eminently  a  meat- 
producing  agent.  Man  takes  from  the  water  every  jear  eight  or  nine  hundred  millions  of  these 
fish,  weighing  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  thousand  tons,  but  his  indebtedness  does  not 
end  here ;  when  he  brings  upon  his  table  bluefish,  bonitoes,  weak-fish,  sword-fish,  or  bass,  he  has 
before  him  usually  Menhaden  flesh  in  another  form. 

USES. — The  commercial  importance  of  the  Menhaden  has  only  lately  been  rightly  appreciated* 
Twenty-five  years  ago  and  before,  it  was  thought  to  be  of  very  small  value.  A  few  millions  were 
taken  every  year  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  and  the  inlets  of  New  Jersey.  A  small 
portion  of  these  were  used  for  bait ;  a  few  barrels  occasionally  salted  in  Massachusetts  to  be 
exported  to  the  West  Indies.  Large  quantities  were  plowed  into  the  soil  of  the  farms  along  the 


TIIK   MKMIADKN  OF  THK  GULF  OF  MEXICO.  575 

shores,  stimulating  tin-  crops  lor  a  time,  Imt  in  tbe  end  tilling  the  soil  with  oil,  parching  it  and 
milking  it  unlit  lor  tillage.  Since  that  time  manil'olil  uses  have  been  found.  As  a  bait  fish  this 
excels  all  others;  fur  many  yeais  much  the  greater  share  of  our  mackerel  was  cau«ht  by  its  aid, 
\\hile  the  cod  and  halibut  Heet  use  it  rather  than  any  other  fish  when  it  can  be  procured.  The 
total  consumption  of  Menhaden  for  bait  in  1877,  did  not  fall  below  80,000  barrels,  or  20,000,000 
lish,  valued  at  $300,000.  Teu  years  before,  when  the  entire  mackerel  fleet  was  fishing  with  hooks, 
the  consumption  was  much  greater.  The  Dominion  mackerel  fleet  buy  Menhaden  bait  in  quantity, 
and  its  value  has  been  thought  an  important  element  in  framing  treaties  between  our  government 
and  that  of  Great  Uritain. 

As  a  food  resource  it  is  found  to  have  great  possibilities.  Many  hundreds  of  barrels  are  sold 
in  the  West  Indies,  while  thousands  of  barrels  are  salted  down  for  domestic  use  by  families  living 
near  the  shore.  In  many  sectious  they  are  sold  fresh  in  the  market.  Within  six  years  there  has 
sprung  up  an  important  industry,  which  consists  in  packing  these  fish  in  oil,  after  the  manner  of 
sardines,  for  home  and  foreign  consumption.  In  1874  the  production  of  canned  fish  did  not  fall 
below  :.00,000  boxes. 

The  discovery  made  by  Mr.  S.  L.  Goodale,  that  from  these  fish  may  be  extracted,  for  the  cost 
of  carefully  boiling  them,  a  substance  possessing  all  the  properties  of  Liebig's  "Extract  of  beef," 
opens  up  a  vast  field  for  future  development.  As  a  food  for  the  domestic  animals  in  the  form  of 
••  lish  meal,"  there  seems  also  to  be  a  broad  opening.  As  a  source  of  oil,  the  menhaden  is  of  more 
importance  than  any  other  marine  animal.  Its  annual  yield  usually  exceeds  that  of  the  whale 
(from  the  American  fisheries)  by  about  200,000  gallons,  and  in  1874  did  not  fall  far  short  of  the 
aggregate  of  all  the  whale,  seal,  and  cod  oil  made  in  America.  In  1878  the  menhaden  oil  and 
guano  industry  employed  capital  to  the  amount  of  $2,350,000,  3,337  men,  64  steamers,  279  sailing 
vessels,  and  consumed  777,000,000  fish;  there  were  56  factories,  which  produced  1,392,044  gallons 
of  oil,  valued  at  $450,000,  and  55,154  tons  of  crude  guano,  valued  at  $600,000;  this  was  a  poor 
year.  In  1874  the  number  of  gallons  produced  was  3,373,000 ;  in  1875,  2,681,000 ;  in  1876,  2,992,000; 
in  1877,  2,427,000.  In  1878  the  total  value  of  manufactured  products  was  $1,050,000;  in  1874  this 
was  $1,809,000;  in  1875,  $1,582,000;  in  1876,  $1,671,000;  in  1877,  $1,608,000.  Itshould  be  stated 
that  in  these  reports  only  four-fifths  of  the  whole  number  of  factories  were  included.  In  1880  the 
number  of  persons  employed  in  the  entire  industry  was  placed  at  3,635,  the  amount  of  ca|  Hal 
invested  $2,362,841,  the  value  of  products  $2,110,787,  including  2,066,396  gallons  of  oil,  worth 
$733,424,  and  68,904  tons  of  guano,  worth  $1,301,217.  The  refuse  of  the  oil  factories  supplies  a 
material  of  much  value  for  manures.  As  a  base  for  nitrogen  it  enters  largely  into  the  composition 
of  most  of  the  manufactured  fertilizers.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  derived  from  this  source  in  1875 
u  as  estimated  to  be  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  60,000,000  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano,  the  gold 
value  of  which  would  not  have  been  far  from  $1,920,000.  The  yield  of  the  menhaden  fishery  in 
pounds  is  probably  triple  that  of  any  other  carried  on  by  the  fishermen  of  the  United  States. 

In  estimating  the  importance  of  the  Menhaden  to  the  United  States,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  its  absence  from  our  waters  would  probably  reduce  all  our  other  sea-fisheries  to  at  leasfe 
•  me  fourth  their  present  extent. 

175.  THE  GULF  MENHADEN— BREVOORTIA  PATRONUS. 

In  addition  to  the  common  Menhaden,  a  second  North  American  species  has  recently  been 
discovered.1  Jhis  species  has  been  reported  only  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  the  following 
observations  were  made  by  Mr.  Silas  Stearns: 

1  See  Report  United  States  Commission  Fish  and  Fisheries,  part  v,  pp.  17  and  26,  and  Proceedings  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  vol.  i. 


576  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

POPULAR  NAMES. — "The  Gulf  Menhaden  has  several  vernacular  names.  At  Key  West  it  is 
called  'Sardine,'  in  common  with  other  fish  of  the  same  general  appearance.  At  Apalachicola, 
Pensacola,  and  Mobile  it  is  called  'Alewife';  at  New  Orleans  the  names  'Sardine'  and  'Alewil'e' 
are  both  in  use,  the  latter  perhaps  more  generally.  On  the  Texan  coast  it  is  known  as  'Herring,' 
'Alewife,'  '  Sardine,'  and  '  Shad,'  each  locality  having  its  peculiar  name. 

"I  have  observed  the  Gulf  Menhaden  from  Key  West  to  the  Texan  coast, and  am  told  that  its 
range  extends  along  the  Mexican  coast.  It  seems  to  be  most  abundant  along  the  coast  between 
Cedar  Keys  and  New  Orleans.  On  other  parts  it  is  only  an  ordinarily  common  fish  or  an  occasional 
visitor.  My  observations  have  been  made  at  Pensacola,  where  their  movements  are  as  follows: 
On  the  first  calm,  warm  days  of  April  many  small  schools  appear  in  the  bays  and  sounds.  From 
the  first  appearance  of  these  schools  they  can  be  seen -at  all  times  in  fine  weather  until  late  in  the 
summer,  when  they  disappear.  They  remain  in  these  bays  until  late  in  November  and  December, 
but  keep  to  deeper  waters,  and  are  seen,  after  the  close  of  summer,  only  when  taken  in  nets. 

MOVEMENTS. — "The  first  which  arrive  measure  only  five  to  six  inches.  In  June  they  average 
seven  inches,  and  schools  have  been  observed  composed  of  fish  of  different  sizes,  as  five,  six,  seven, 
and  eight  inches  long.  In  July  the  average  size  is  about  eight  inches,  and  in  August,  September,  and 
October  the  individuals  composing  the  schools  measure  seven,  eight,  nine,  and  ten  inches  in  length. 
Those  fish  caught  in  October  and  November  in  nets  are  eleven,  twelve,  and  thirteen  inches  long, 
and  are  probably  full-grown.  In  fine  weather  they  are  first  seen  approaching  the  coast  in  large 
schools,  but  if  windy  and  cold  they  are  not  seen  until  they  have  entered  the  bay  and  the  weather 
has  become  pleasant.  When  once  inside  the  large  schools  are  broken  up  into  many  small  schools, 
which  swim  at  the  surface,  rippling  the  water  as  they  go.  Their  movements  seem  not  to  be  affected 
by  the  tide.  Their  favorite  feeding  or  playing  grounds  are  in  quiet  bayous,  creeks,  and  nooks  in 
the  bay,  where  they  are  unmolested  by  larger  fishes  of  prey.  Brackish  water  is  also  much  sought 
by  them,  and  I  think  most,  if  not  all,  of  them  visit  it  some  time  during  the  season.  A  person  sta- 
tioned at  the  mouth  of  a  fresh-water  stream  or  river,  in  August  or  September,  will  see  little  schools 
of  these  fish  swimming  round  and  round  at  the  surface,  just  where  the  two  kinds  of  water  meet. 
As  they  become  accustomed  to  the  fresh  water  they  enter  the  stream  and  move  upwards  until  they 
reach  a  quiet  creek  or  bayou.  How  long  they  stay  in  the  river  I  cannot  determine,  for  I  have 
noticed  as  many  moving  down  as  up  stream.  Late  in  September  and  October  very  few  or  none 
are  seen  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  I  have  caught  many  in  the  river  and  at  its  mouth  at  that 
season,  proving  that  they  are  still  present.  About  the  first  of  November  I  have  known  of  a  few 
being  taken  in  gill-nets  in  or  about  the  rivers.  During  the  months  September  and  October  they 
are  rarely  seen  in  salt  water,  but  come  to  notice  again  in  November,  by  being  taken  in  small  quan- 
tities in  seines  along  the  outside  beaches  with  other  fish,  such  as  bluefish,  channel  bass,  and  sheeps- 
head.  After  a  few  catches  in  November  and  December  we  see  or  hear  nothing  more  of  them  until 
the  following  spring ;  but  from  this  we  cannot  safely  conclude  that  they  have  left  these  waters, 
for  the  proper  nets  (gill-nets)  in  which  to  catch  them  in  deep  water  are  but  little  used  in  this 
vicinity,  and  if  they  remained  they  would  not  be  observed. 

MESSMATES. — "  When  the  Gulf  Menhaden  arrive  in  spring,  each  one  has  a  parasite  in  its  month, 
a  crustacean  called  Cymothoa  praigustator.  This  animal  is  found  always  in  one  position,  clinging 
with  its  hooked  claws  to  the  roof  of  the  fish's  mouth,  with  its  head  looking  outward  and  very  near 
to  the  jaw  of  the  fish.  These  parasites  remain  with  the  Menhaden  as  long  as  the  latter  is  in  salt 
water;  in  brackish  water  they  are  less  frequently  observed,  disappearing  altogether  in  fresh  water. 
With  all  the  fall  fish  of  this  species  which  I  have  examined  there  were  no  parasites.  Tho  fish  do 


FOOD  OF  Till:  CI   I.I'   MKMIADKN.  577 

DOt  »eem  to  Suffer  physical! \  frmn  tin-  company  of  this  parasite,  luil  I  h;i\  <•  fancied  that  il  \\as  to 
•jfl  rid  of  them  that  tin-  lisli  visit  fresh  water.  I  have  noticed  no  other  punishes  upon  them. 

l.'r.iMiom  t  'i  i"N. — -Tin-  lirst  traces  of  spawn  arc  I'oiinil  in  May.  By  . I  ill  v  it  lias  become  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  be  noticed  by  any  pel-son  unacenstonicd  to  the  examination  <•!'  such  objeeta. 
In  the  latter  part  of  September  or  first  of  October,  at  which  time  they  are  last  seen  in  abund- 
ance, the  ovarii-s  are  sufficiently  grown  to  distend  the  fish's  abdomen,  yet  not  fully  ripe.  When 
they  are  next  caught,  in  November  and  December,  on  the  sea-beach,  they  are  without  ovaries 
anil  show  signs  of  having  spawned. 

FOOD. — "The  ('•nil'  Menhaden  are  bottom-feeding  fish,  as  their  stomachs  always  contain  soft 
In-own  mud,  from  which  I  suppose  it  extracts  microscopic  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  Some 
believe  that  it  gains  its  nourishment  in  the  shape  of  animalcuhu  from  the  water,  as  it  swims  along 
\\ith  its  mouth  open,  straining  water  through  its  gills.  It  is  not  a  food-fish.  A  few  trials  have 

been    made    to   use    tlielll    as   bait   for   deep  sea    fish,   SUCU    88  red    M,.ippei>.    groupers,    etc.       Such 

experiments  have  proved  successful." 
37  K 


8.  THE  SHAD  AND  THE  ALEWIVES. 

By  MARSHALL  MODONALD. 
176.  THE  RIVEE  HERRINGS,  OR  ALEWIVES— CLUPEA  JESTIVALIS  AND  C.  VERNALIS. 

HISTORY  AND  NOMENCLATURE. — Early  writers  on  American  fishes,  especially  M iidiill  and 
1  >c  Kay,  seein  to  Lave  experienced  great  difficulty  in  differentiating  into  species  the  various  forms 
of  river  Herring  or  Alewives  in  our  waters.  These  early  writers  were,  however,  apparently  more 
ilisi •riminatiiig  than  some  of  their  successors,  for  they  recognized  differences  which  have  been 
ignored  by  subsequent  writers.  They  were  as  much  at  fault,  however,  in  making  too  many  species 
as  weio  Storer  and  Gill  in  uniting  all  the  forms  under  one  specific  name.  Mitchill  recognized 
seven  species,  to  wit,  the  "New  York"  Herring,  Clupea  halec;  the  "Tiny"  Herring,  C.  pusilla; 
the  "Little"  Herring,  C.parvula;  the  "Sprat"  Herring  of  New  York,  C.  indigena;  the  "Spring" 
Herring  or  "Alewife,"  0.  vernalis;  the  "Summer"  Herring  of  New  York,  C.  cestivalis;  and  the 
"Blue"  Herring,  C.  cterulea;  all  of  which  are  apparently  founded  upon  hasty  studies  of  individuals 
of  different  ages  and  varying  proportions,  and  in  reality  belong  to  the  two  species  named  in  the 
heading  of  this  article.  The  work  of  Mitchill  is  valuable,  since  by  him  were  well  defined  the 
two  species  which  we  recognize  at  the  present  time  under  the  names  now  accepted  by  us,  the 
"Spring"  and  "Summer"  Herrings,  respectively  C.  vernalis  and  G.  cestivalig.  These  are  described 
in  such  terms  that  they  cannot  be  mistaken.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  attempt  an  identification  of 
the  other  species,  most  of  which  are  evidently  based  upon  very  small  individuals. 

De  Kay  took  up  and  discussed  under  the  same  or  different  names  most  of  the  forms  enumerated 
by  Mitchill,  and,  taking  advantage  of  his  more  accurate  methods  of  description,  we  are  able  to 
form  a  very  satisfactory  idea  of  what  was  intended  under  each  name.  The  Alosa  tyrannus  of 
De  Kay  corresponds  to  the  C.  vernalis  of  Mitchill,  while  the  C.  vemalis  of  De  Kay,  in  the  synonym 
of  which  he  cites  Mitchill's  G.  halec,  is  without  much  doubt  the  summer  Herring  of  Mitchill, 
although  De  Kay  loses  sight  of  Mitcbill's  name  C.  cestiralis.  The  C.  fasciata  of  De  Kay,  to  which 
he,  without  hesitation,  refers  Mitchill's  C.  puttilla,  is  probably  the  young  of  the  summer  Herring. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  trace  throughout  the  entire  literature  on  the  subject  the  various 
errors  in  the  identification  of  the  river  Herrings.  Storer,  in  his  "History  of  the  Fishes  of  Massa- 
chusetts," distinguishes  the  two  species.under  the  names  Alosa  cyanonoton  and  A.  tyrannus,  and 
supplies  figures  of  each.  These  are  not,  however,  sufficiently  characteristic  to  be  serviceable  in 
identification.  The  name  tyranntis,  which  was  used  by  both  De  Kay  and  Storer  for  the  spring 
Herring,  belongs  by  rights  to  the  Menhaden,  as  has  been  elsewhere  demonstrated. 

Douglass  in  his  "North  America,"  Boston  and  London,  1740,  remarks,  in  speaking  of  New 
England : 

"Alewives  by  some  of  the  country  people  are  called  Herrings.  They  are  of  the  Herring  tribe, 
but  somewhat  larger  than  the  true  Herring.  They  are  very  mean,  dry,  and  insipid  fish.  Some  of 
tin-in  are  cured  in  the  manner  of  white  Herrings,  and  sent  to  the  sugar  islands  for  the  slaves,  but 
lierause  ot  i heir  bad  quality  they  are  not  in  request ;  in  some  places  they  are  used  to  manure  land. 
They  are  very  plenty,  and  come  up  the  rivers  and  brooks  into  ponds  in  the  spring.  Having 

570 


580  NATUEAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

spawned,  they  return  to  the  sea.  They  never  take  the  hook.  Many  fish  go  up  the  rivers  into 
ponds  earlier  or  later  in  the  spring  to  spawn,  viz,  salmon,  Shad,  Alewives,  tomcod,  smelts,  etc., 
and  many  good  laws  have  been  made  in  New  England  to  prevent  the  obstruction  of  their  passage 
by  weirs,  etc.,  as  they  are  of  great  benefit  to  the  inhabitants  near  these  rivers  and  ponds." 

From  18G1  until  1880  nearly  all  American  zoologists  were  contented  to  consider  the  various 
kinds  of  river  Herrings  as  members  of  a  single  species,  which  was  designated  Pomolobus  pseudo- 
harengus,  the  specific  name  pseudo-harengvs  having  originated  in  Wilson's  article  in  volume  ix  of 
the  American  edition  of  Bees'  Encyclopaedia.  There  is  no  positive  evidence  to  prove  that  this 
volume  was  published  prior  to  Mitchill's  work  on  the  ''Fish  of  New  York,"  which  appeared  in 
1815,  and  in  which  the  names  now  accepted  by  us  were  first  proposed.  The  American  edition  is 
said  by  Allibone  to  have  been  in  course  of  publication  from  1809  to  1820.  There  is,  however,  no 
date  upon  the  title-page  of  volume  is,  and  consequently  the  priority  of  the  name  pseudo-harengus 
over  the  others  is  doubtful.  At  any  rate,  the  description  given  by  Wilson  is  so  vague  that  it 
cannot  well  be  assigned  to  one  species  in  preference  to  the  others.1  If  it  is  to  be  assigned  to 
either,  it  most  assuredly  belongs  to  the  species  which  Mitchill  calls  C.  vernalis,  and  which  is  cha- 
racterized by  its  long  head,  large  eye,  and  high  fin.  Wilson,  however,  did  not  distinguish  the  two 
species,  and  his  intention  was  evidently  to  include  them  both  under  one  name.  The  only  specific 
characteristic  given  is  the  date  of  its  advent,  which,  according  to  him,  precedes  that  of  the  Shad 
by  about  three  weeks.  Since  there  is  no  statement  of  the  locality  where  this  occurs,  this  also  is 
quite  indefinite.  Taking  into  consideration  also  the  fact  that  Wilson's  article  was  published 
anonymously  in  a  book  without  date,  I  think  we  can  safely  set  aside  the  name  pseudo-harengm  and 
consider  that  the  two  names  used  by  Mitchill  in  the  discussion  of  his  spring  and  summer  Herrings 
are  definitely  assigned  to  these  two  species. 

The  attention  of  the  zoologists  of  the  Fish  Commission  was  first  called  to  the  probable  exist- 
ence of  two  species  by  the  persistent  opinions  of  the  fishermen  of  the  Potomac,  who  recognized 
two  forms — differing  in  habit  and  in  general  appearance — which  they  called  the  "Branch"  Herring 
and  the  "Glut"  Herring  respectively.  The  late  Mr.  Milner,  in  the  course  of  his  river  work,  as 
early  as  1876,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  two  forms  were  specifically  distinct,  but  the  problem 
was  not  definitely  worked  out  until  1879.  The  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  the  two  species 
and  a  definition  of  their  characters  were  first  published  in  the  report  of  the  Virginia  Fish  Com- 
mission for  1879. 

These  species  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  following  characters:  C. 
(cstiralis  is  more  elongate  in  form,  has  a  lower  body,  less  elevated  fins,  and  smaller  eyes  than  G. 
vernalis.  The  proportions  of  the  bones  of  the  head  in  C.  cestivalis  differ  from  those  in  G.  vernalis, 
as  also  does  the  coloration  of  the  lining  of  the  abdomen,  which  in  C.  cestivalis  is  black,  and  in  C. 
vernali-s  gray. 

The  popular  names  applied  to  these  fishes  differ  in  almost  every  river  along  the  coast.  G. 
vernalis  is  known  along  the  Potomac  Eiver  as  the  "Branch"  Herring;  on  the  Albemarle  Eiver  as 
the  "Big-eyed"  Herring  and  the  "Wall-eyed"  Herring;  in  Canada  it  is  known  as  the  "Gaspe- 
reau"  or  "  Gasperdt."  It  is  pre-eminently  the  "Alewife"  of  New  England;  the  "Ellwife"  or 
"Ellwhop"  of  the  Connecticut  Kiver.  The  other  species,  C.  cestivalis,  undoubtedly  occurs  occa- 
sionally in  its  company,  but  is  probably  not  common  in  the  Connecticut  and  Housatonic  Eivers, 
and  in  many  parts  of  Massachusetts  is  distinguished  by  another  name, 

1 "  I'teudo-harengut  (American  Herring).  Body  above  ash-color,  inclining  to  dull  greenish-blue;  sides  and  belly 
silvery;  no  spots  on  the  sides;  head  small,  tapering;  under  jaw  little  longer;  ascends  our  rivers  from  the  sea  with  the 
Shad  lo  deposit  their  eggs  in  shallow  water;  they  are  about  three  weeks  in  advance  of  the  Shad;  well  tasted  either 
fri'sb  or  salted,  but  not  so  fat  as  Eiiroui  an  Herring." 


AI, I:\VIYKS  IN  NFW  I;M;I.AM>.  581 

From  the  "Collections  of  tin-  Massachusetts  lli.stori.-al  Society,  ISli!."1  ait)  taken  the  following 
physiological  and  historical  notes  on  the  occurrence  of  the  Alewile  at  Wan-ham.  Massachusetts: 

"Of  the  Alt-wife  there  are  evidently  two  kinds,  not  only  in  si/e  lint  habit,  which  annually 
visit  the  brooks  passing  to  the  sea  at  Wareliam.  The  larger,  which  set  in  some  days  earlier, 
invariably  seek  the  Weweantitt  sources.  These,  it  is  said,  are  preferred  for  present  use,  perhaps 
because  they  are  earliest.  The  second,  less  in  size,  and  usually  called  'Black  backs,'  equally 
true  to  instinct,  as  invariably  seek  the  Agawam.  These  are  genera  ly  barreled  for  exportation. 
In  the  sea,  at  the  outlet  of  these  streams,  not  far  asunder,  these  fish  must  for  weeks  swim  in  com- 
mon, yet  each  selects  its  own  and  peculiar  stream.  Hence  an  opinion  prevails  on  the  spot  that 
these  fish  seek  the  particular  lake  where  they  were  spawned. 

"Another  popular  anecdote  is  as  follows:  Alewives  had  ceased  to  visit  a  pond  in  Weymouth, 
which-  they  had  formerly  frequented.  The  municipal  authorities  took  the  usual  measures,  by 
opening  the  sluiceways  in  the  spring  at  mill-dams,  and  also  procured  live  Alewives  from  other 
lM)iids,  placing  them  in  this,  where  they  spawned,  and  sought  the  sea.  No  Alewives,  however, 
appeared  here  until  the  third  year;*  hence  three  years  have  been  assumed  by  some  as  the  period  of 

growth  of  this  fish. 

"These  popular  opinions,  at  either  place,  may  or  may  not  agree  with  the  laws  of  the  natural 
history  of  migratory  fish. 

"The  young  Alewives  we  have  noticed  to  descend  about  the  20th  of  June  and  before,  con- 
tinuing so  to  do  some  time,  when  they  are  about  two  inches  long,  their  full  growth  being  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  We  have  imbibed  an  opinion  that  this  fish  attains  its  size  in  a  year,  but 
if  asked  for  proof  we  cannot  produce  it. 

"These  fish,  it  is  said,  do  not  visit  our  brooks  in  such  numbers  as  in  former  days.  The  com- 
plaint is  of  old  date.  Thus,  in  1753,  Douglass  remarks  on  migratory  fishes:  'The  people  living 
upon  the  banks  of  Merrimack  observe,  that  several  species  of  fish,  such  as  salmon,  Shad,  and  Ale- 
wives, are  not  so  plenty  in  their  seasons  as  formerly;  perhaps  from  disturbance,  or  some  other 
disgust,  as  it  happens  with  Herrings  in  the  several  friths  of  Scotland.'  Again,  speaking  of  Her- 
rings, he  says:  'They  seem  to  be  variable  or  whimsical  as  to  their  ground.'  It  is  a  fact,  too,  that 
where  they  most  abound,  on  the  coast  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  their  occasional  disappearance  is  a 
subject  of  remark.3 

"The  Herring  is  essentially  different  from  the  Alewife  in  size  (much  smaller)  and  in  habit.  It 
continues,  we  believe,  in  the  open  sea,  and  does  not  seek  pond-heads.  Attempts  are  sometimes 
made,  by  artificial  cuts,  to  induce  them  to  visit  ponds  which  had  not  before  a  natural  outlet.  These 
little  cuts,  flowing  in  the  morning,  become  intermittent  at  noon,  as  the  spring  and  summer  advance. 
Evaporation,  therefore,  which  is  very  great  from  the  surface  of  the  pond,  should,  probably,  be 
considered  in  the  experiment,  making  the  canal  as  low  as  the  midsummer  level  of  the  pond,  other- 
wise it  may  be  that  the  fish  perish  in  the  passage.  This  may,  in  other  respects,  have  its  incon- 
veniences, at  seasons  when  the  ponds  are  full. 

"The  town  of  Plymouth,  for  a  series  of  years,  annually  voted  from  one  theusand  to  five  hun- 
dred and  two  hundred  barrels  of  Alewives  to  be  taken  at  all  their  brooks,  in  former  years. 

"In  the  year  1730,  the  inhabitants  were  ordered  not  to  take  more  than  four  barrels  each;  a 

1  Vol.  iv,  second  series,  pp.  294-296. 

•This  anecdote  was  related  in  a  circle  of  the  members  of  the  general  court  at  Boston,  when  a  member  from 
Maine  remarked  that  a  similar  event  had  occurred  in  his  vicinity. 

'Previous  to  1752  the  Herrings  had  entirely  disappeared  seventy-two  years  on  the  coast  of  Sweden ;  and  yet,  in 
1783,  139,000  barrels  were  cured  by  salt  nt  the  month  of  the  Gothela,  near  Gotteubnrg.— STUDIES  OF  NATUKK. 


582  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

large  individual  supply  indeed,  compared  with  the  present  period  (1815),  when  it  is  difficult  for  an 
householder  to  obtain  two  hundred  Alewives,  seldom  so  many. 

"In  1762,  at  a  vendue  the  surplus  appears  to  have  been  sold  in  twenty-five  barrel  lots,  which 
sold  at  3*.  Id.  and  4«.  the  barrel.  In  1763,  Plymouth  and  Wareham  took  one  hundred  and  fifty 
barrels  at  the  Agawam  brook;1  two  hundred  barrels  was  the  usual  vote,  down  to  a  modern  date, 
perhaps  1776.  Menhaden  were  also  taken  in  quantity  at  Wareham,  and  barreled  for  exportation, 
in  former  years." 

The  G.  cestivalis  is  the  "Glut"  Herring  of  the  Albemarle  and  the  Chesapeake,  and  the  "English" 
Herring  of  the  Ogeechee  Eiver.  In  the  Saint  John's  River,  Florida,  it  is  known  simply  as  the 
"Herring."  On  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  it  is  called  the  "Blue-back,"  a  name  which  is  common 
to  the  late  runs  of  the  same  species  of  the  Rappahannock.  Around  the  Gulf  of  Maine  this  species 
is  also  known  by  the  names  "Kyack"  or  "Kyauk,"  "Saw-belly,"  and  " Cat- thrasher."  Although 
the  coast  fishermen  of  Massachusetts  and  Maine  claim  to  distinguish  the  two  species,  the  "Blue- 
backs"  and  the  "Alewives,"  their  judgment  is  by  no  means  infallible,  for  I  have  frequently  had 
them  sort  out  into  two  piles  the  fishes  which  they  distinguish  under  these  names,  and  found  that 
their  discrimination  was  not  at  all  reliable.  The  features  to  which  they  mainly  trusted  in  the  deter- 
mination of  C.  cestivalis  are  the  bluer  color  of  the  back  and  the  greater  serration  upon  the  ventral- 
ridge.  The  other  species,  when  the  scales  on  its  back  are  rubbed  off,  is  as  blue  as  this,  and  the 
serration  of  the  belly  is  dependent  entirely  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  back  has  become  stiffened 
in  the  death  struggle  and  the  consequent  degree  of  arching  of  the  ventral  ridge.  The  young  of 
one  or  both  species  are  sold  in  the  Boston  markets  under  the  name  "  Sprats,"  and  in  New  York 
they  make  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  so-called  "  Whitebait."  In  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts 
Commissioner  of  Fisheries  for  1869,  Col.  Theodore  Lyman  called  attention  to  the  probable  occur- 
rence of  two  species  in  Massachusetts,  but  his  diagnostic  characters  seem  hardly  well  chosen.  The 
form  which  he  calls  the  "Gray-back"  is  undoubtedly  G.  vernalis,  and  the  "Black-bellies,"  which  lie 
is  inclined  to  believe  distinct,  would  appear  to  be  another  run  of  the  same  species.  The  river  Her- 
ring, which  he  speaks  of  as  a  large  variety,  not  much  esteemed,  and  supposed  to  spawn  in  tidal 
water,  may  possibly  be  the  same  as  C.  cestivalis.  The  Black-bellies,  if  their  habits  are  properly 
described,  have  much  in  common  with  G.  cestivalis.  There  is,  however,  much  to  be  learned  con- 
cerning all  the  fishes  of  this  group,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  careful  study  will  reveal  facts 
of  which  we  are  at  present  entirely  ignorant. 

ABUNDANCE. — The  Alewife  is  by  far  the  most  abundant  of  our  river  fishes,  and  throughout 
the  whole  Southern  region  where  they  are  caught,  together  with  the  Shad,  the  number  of  individuals 
is  not  far  from  ten  to  twenty  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  Shad.  For  instance,  in  the  Albemarle  re- 
gion, in  1879,  750,000  Shad  were  taken  and  upwards  of  20,000,000  Alewives.  Again,  in  1880,  about 
600,000  Shad  were  taken  from  the  Potomac,  and  11,000,000  All-wives.  By  far  the  greatest  num 
ber  of  the  Alewives  thus  taken  were  "Glut  Herring,"  G.  astivalis;  but,  since  the  two  species  are 
sold  together,  without  discrimination,  no  accurate  statement  of  proportional  numbers  can  be  made. 
In  the  Northern  rivers  they  are  not  taken  in  any  great  numbers,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  meshes 
of  the  nets  used  in  the  capture  of  the  Shad  are  too  large  to  retain  the  fish.  In  the  Connecticut 
and  other  rivers  a  large  mesh  is  required  by  law,  but  throughout  this  entire  region  the  abundance 
of  valuable  sea-fishes  is  so  great  that  there  could  be  but  little  gain  in  capturing  the  Alewives. 
There  is  on  Cape  Cod  an  extensive  alewife  fishery,  described  in  another  chapter.  This  has  for 
more  than  a  century  been  regulated  by  law,  and  the  fish  are  allowed  during  stated  periods  to 
swim  without  interruption  to  their  spawning  beds.  The  streams  in  which  they  are  taken  are  so 

'Plymouth  retains  a  fishing  privilege  in  this  brook  within  Wurehnm.  The  Alewives,  arowo  told,  were  more 
numerous  in  1815  than  for  some  years. 


FORMER  ABUNDANCE  OF  ALEWIVE8.  583 

small,  and  the  fish  in  their  ascent  so  crowded  together,  that  they  appear  to  be  extremely  abun- 
dant, alt  hough  the  aggregate  catch  for  the  entire  Cape  is  not  perhaps  much  greater  than  the 
yield  of  many  single  seines  in  the  South.  Uere,  however,  there  lias  been  no  great  decrease  in 
abundance,  while  in  the  South  the  herring  fishery  is  much  less  productive  than  in  former  years. 
Even  now,  however,  the  great  seines  of  the  Potomac  and  Albemarle  regions  could  not  be  operated 
without  the  herring  fishery,  and  hauls  are  yearly  made  which  seem  incredible  to  those  who  have 
not  seen  them.  In  1879,  at  Wood's  fishery,  on  the  Albemarle,  three  hundred  thousand  Alewives 
were  lauded  at  a  single  haul  of  the  seine.  Hauls  of  half  a  million,  and  even  more,  were  not 
unfrequent  prior  to  the  late  war.  Considerable  quantities  of  these  fish  are  taken  yearly  in  the 
weirs  on  the  south  coast  of  New  England,  and  form  an  important  element  in  the  bait  supply  of 
the  Massachusetts  fishing  fleet.  In  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commissioner  of  Fisheries 
for  1872  are  given  the  statistics  of  the  catch  of  the  Waquoit  weir  for  seven  years,  from  1865  to  1871, 
inclusive,  the  yearly  average  being  105,000.  The  annual  product  of  two  streams  emptying  into 
the  head  of  Buzzard's  Bay  is  given  in  the  same  place,1  one  for  fifteen,  the  other  for  seven  years; 
the  average  annual  yield  of  the  first  was  539,000,  that  of  the  second  366,000.  In  1864  the  yield 
wa>  si 1 1. (MM).  Numerous  details  of  a  similar  character  ma\  he  t'ouml  l.y  those  who  are  interested 
in  the  statistical  part  of  this  report. 

South  of  Cape  Fear  River  the  Alewife  occurs  in  all  the  Atlantic  streams  in  considerable 
quantities,  but  as  yet  their  capture  is  apparently  not  of  such  importance  to  the  fishermen  as  to 
cause  the  formation  of  a  special  alewife  fishery  between  that  point  and  the  great  fisheries  of 
the  Albemarle. 

In  the  works  of  early  writers  occur  allusions  to  the  Alewives  of  our  Eastern  coast,  which 
appear,  in  almost  every  instance,  to  refer  to  all  the  fishes  known  under  that  name.  In  Josselyn's 
"Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  New  England,"  1675,  he  remarks: 

"The  Alewife  is  like  a  Herrin,  but  has  a  bigger  bellie;  therefore,  called  an  Alewife;  they  come 
in  the  end  of  April  into  fresh  Rivers  and  Ponds;  there  hath  been  taken  in  two  hours'  time  by  two 
men  without  any  Weyre  at  all,  saving  a  few  stones  to  stop  the  passage  of  the  River,  above  ten 
thousand." 

Captain  John  Smith,  in  his  "  Advertisements  for  the  Inexperienced  Planters  of  New  England," 
London,  1631,*  remarked : 

"The  seven  and  thirty  passengers  miscarrying  twice  upon  the  coast  of  England,  came  so  ill- 
provided,  they  onley  relyed  upon  the  poore  company  they  found,  that  had  lived  two  yeares  by  their 
naked  industry,  and  what  the  country  naturally  afforded;  it  is  true,  at  first  there  hath  been  taken 
a  thousand  Bayses  at  a  draught,  and  more  than  twelve  hogsheads  of  Herrings  in  a  night;  of  other 
fish  when  and  what  they  would,  when  they  had  meanes;  but  wanting  most  necessaries  for  fishing 
and  fowling,  it  is  a  wonder  how  they  could  subsist,  fortifle  themselves,  resist  their  enemies,  and 
plant  their  plants." 

Thomas  Morton,  in  his  "New  England  Canaan,"  London,  1632,  remarks: 

"Of  Herrings,  there  is  a  great  store,  fat,  and  faire;  &  (to  my  minde)  as  good  as  any  I  have 
scene,  &  these  may  be  preserved,  and  made  a  good  commodity  at  the  Canaries." 

Mr.  Higgiuson,  in  his  "  New  England's  Plantation,"  1630,  refers  to  the  great  abundance  of 
Herring  in  the  waters  of  New  England. 

In  the  "Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  the  Colony  of  Plymouth,"  from  1692  to  1725, 
speaking  of  Town  Brook,  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  it  is  stated  that  before  the  brook  was  so  much 
impeded  by  dams  vast  quantities  of  Alewives  passed  up  through  it  annually  to  Billington  Sea. 

'Page  30.  'Page  19. 


584  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

William  Wood,  in  his  "  New  England's  Prospects."  London,  1634,  remarks: 

"  The  Herrings  be  much  like  them  that  be  caught  on  the  English  coast.  Alewives  be  a  kind 
of  fish  which  is  much  like  a  Herring,  which  in  the  latter  end  of  Aprill  come  up  to  the  fresh  Rivers 
to  spawne,  in  such  multitudes  as  is  almost  incredible,  pressing  up  in  such  shallow  waters  as  will 
scarce  permit  them  to  swimme,  having  likewise  such  longing  desire  after  the  fresh  water  ponds, 
that  no  beating  with  poles,  or  forcive  agitations  by  other  devices,  will  cause  them  to  returne  to 
the  sea,  till  they  have  cast  their  spawne." 

The  same  writer  makes  mention  of  the  fact  that  in  the  spring,  when  the  Alewives  pass  up  the 
rivers,  abundance  of  bass  may  be  caught  in  the  rivers. 

Wood,  writing  in  1633,  states  that  a  little  below  the  fall  in  Charles  River  the  inhabitants  of 
Watertown  had  built  a  wear  to  catch  fish,  wherein  they  took  great  store  of  Shads  and  Alewives. 
"  In  twp  tides  they  have  gotten  200,000  of  these  fishes." 

Schoepf,  in  his  "  Fishes  of  New  York,"  1788,  refers  to  the  American  Herring  under  the  name 
C.  harengtts,  stating  that  it  is  similar  to  that  of  Europe,  but  that  the  body  has  scales  which  are 
more  easily  detached.  The  back  is  glistening  blue,  the  belly  white,  widely  cariuate,  and  provided 
with  saw-like  scutes.  The  fish  which  he  has  in  mind  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  river  Herrings, 
since  he  states  that  it  appears  in  May  and  June  ou  the  coast  of  New  York,  later  than  the  Shad 
and  not  in  such  great  numbers. 

Pennant,  in  Ids  "Arctic  Zoology,"  states  that  "  Herrings  leave  the  salt  water  in  March  and 
run  up  the  rivers  and  shallow  streams  of  Carolina  in  such  numbers  that  the  inhabitants  fling  them 
ashore  by  shovels  full.  Passengers  trample  them  under  foot  fording  the  rivers.  They  are  not  so 
large  as  the  '  English,'  but  exceed  them  in  flavor  when  pickled." 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  geographical  distribution  of  the  two  species  has  not 
been  thoroughly  worked  out,  but  as  now  understood  may  be  stated  as  follows:  The  "Blue-back," 
or  "Glut"  Herring,  C.  asstivalis,  Mitchill,  occurs  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  Florida,  and  in  all  the 
coast  waters  of  the  Eastern  United  States  to  the  Gulf  of  Maine.  On  the  coast  of  Maine  this 
species  rarely  enters  rivers,  but  is  found  abundantly  at  sea.  It  is  probably  the  "Spring"  Herring 
referred  to  by  Col.  Theodore  Lyman  as  occurring  below  the  dams  in  the  rivers  of  Massachusetts. 
Its  area  of  greatest  abundance  is  in  the  Albemarle  and  Chesapeake  regions.  The  name  of  "  Glut" 
Herring  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  it  makes  its  appearance  in  great  schools,  and  all  at  once 
becomes  so  abundant  as  to  glut  the  markets.  The  formei  appears  later  than  the  "  Spring"  Herring, 
or  "Gaspereau,"  and  some  time  after  the  Shad.  Its  advent  is  much  less  gradual  than  that  of  the 
"Spring"  Herring.  Its  peculiar  movements  are  due  to  certain  conditions  of  temperature,  which 
will  be  discnssed  below. 

At  present,  as  the  latest  investigations  show,  the  river  range  of  this  species  in  the  Southern 
States  does  not  extend  far  beyond  tide  water.  In  early  days,  before  obstructions  were  placed  in  the 
James  River,  they  are  said  to  have  ascended  as  far  as  Lexington ;  now  they  do  not  reach  the  vicinity 
of  Richmond,  although  there  are  no  obstructions  below  that  city.  The  "Spring"  Herring,  or 
Gaspereau,  C.  vernalis,  Mitchill,  is  more  northerly  in  its  range.  Until  discovered  by  Colonel 
McDonald  in  the  Neuse  River  of  North  Carolina,  in  the  spring  of  1880,  it  had  not  been  definitely 
recorded  south  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  Although  in  that  year  this  species  was  particularly 
abundant  in  the  Albemarle  and  Chesapeake  regions,  constituting  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
entire  catch,  it  is  ordinarily  much  less  numerous,  and  the  area  of  its  greatest  abundance  is  in  the 
region  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  to  Cape  May.  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  Alewives 
of  the  Connecticut  River  are  chiefly  of  this  species,  as  also  is  the  Herring  of  the  Hudson  and  of 
the  streams  emptying  into  Cape  Cod.  In  the  Chesapeake  region  this  species  is  from  three  to  four 


WINTER  HABITS  OF  THE  ALE  WIFE.  585 

weeks  earlier  than  i  In-  other,  reaching  the  maximum  of  its  abundance  and  beginning  to  decline  in 
numbers  before  the  other  comes.  The  u|i|>n>aeh  of  the  hitter  is  more  gradual,  and  unlike  the 
other  species,  it  makes  its  way  into  the  small  Streams  and  branches;  hence  the  name  "Branch" 
Herring.  In  the  rivers  of  Massachusetts  the  ''Branch"  Herring  ascends  much  farther  toward 
the  headwaters  than  the  other  species,  and  in  some  streams  is  found  to  tbe  exclusion  of  the 
other — facts  which  will  be  discussed  below  when  considering  tbe  influences  of  temperature. 
Perley  states  tbat  the  Gaspereau  appears  in  the  harbor  of  Saint  John's  in  April,  but  the  main  body 
does  not  enter  the  river  before  May  10;  that  the  fish  is  abundant  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  but  that 
tin  species  is  less  plentiful  and  smaller  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  He  also  states  that  in  the 
Bay  of  ( 'lialeiir  it  has  never  been  noticed,  and  that,  as  in  the  case  of  Shad,  the  Bay  of  Merrimachi 
would  appear  to  be  its  extreme  northern  limit.  It  ascends  the  river  of  the  same  name  to  its  source, 
spawning  in  the  Merrimachi  Lake.  In  the  Saint  John's  River,  New  Brunswick,  it  ascends  to  Dar- 
ling's Lake  (Kennebecasis),  Douglas  Lake  (Nerepis),  the  Washademoac  Lake,  the  Ocnabog  Lake, 
the  Grand  Lake,  and  the  Oromocto  River,  and  in  company  with  the  Shad  deposits  its  spawn.  Its 
abundance  in  the  harbor  of  Saint  John,  New  Brunswick,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
catch  varies  from  twelve  to  sixteen  thousand  barrels  each  season,  sometimes  reaching  twenty 
thousand.  This  statement  was  made  in  1852. 

A  very  remarkable  phenomenon,  recently  observed,  has  been  the  appearance  of  this  species  in 
immense  numbers  in  Lake  Ontario  and  lakes  of  New  York.  Dr.  T.  H.  Bean  has  collected  a  large 
number  of  facts  upon  this  point,  which  are  recorded  in  an  essay  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

MIGRATIONS  AND  MOVEMENTS. — Like  the  Shad,  the  Alewives  are  anadromous  in  habit.  The 
dates  of  their  first  appearance  in  any  given  river  may  be  very  closely  determined  by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  tables  which  show  the  movements  of  the  Shad.  The  Gaspereau  or  "Spring"  Herring 
usually  precedes  the  Shad  by  a  period  of  several  weeks,  while  the  run  of  the  "Blue-back"  or 
"Glut"  Herring  occurs  in  the  middle  of  the  shad  season. 

In  1879  the  first  Shad  made  their  appearance  in  the  markets  of  Washington  March  25,  preceded 
four  weeks  by  the  Menhaden,  a  little  more  than  three  weeks  by  the  Branch  Herring,  and  about 
four  weeks  in  advance  of  the  "Glut"  Herring.  Colonel  Lyinan,  in  his  report  for  1872,  already 
referred  to,  gives  the  dates  of  the  appearance  of  the  Alewives,  Menhaden,  and  bluefish  at  Waquoit 
weir  for  thirteen  years,  from  1859  to  1871  inclusive.  The  Alewives  always  came  first,  from 
March  24  to  April  7;  the  scup  from  a  month  to  forty  days  later;  the  Menhaden  about  the  same 
time  with  the  scup,  though  usually  two  or  three  days  later;  and  the  bluefish  from  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  after  the  Menhaden. ' 

Concerning  the  time  of  their  departure  from  the  river  as  little  is  known  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Shad.  Their  winter  habitat  has  yet  to  be  found.  I  am  convinced,  after  several  years  of 
study,  that  in  mild  winters  they  remain  about  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  ascending  them  in  the 
spring.  Late  in  December,  1870,  he  captured  numerous  specimens  of  both  species  in  gill-nets, 
at  Yorktown,  in  company  with  Menhaden,  and  it  is  my  opinion  that  they  might  be  taken  in  a 
similar  manner  in  Pamlico  Sound.  Thus,  also,  it  is  possible  that  many  Shad  winter  in  Long 
Island  Sound  and  New  York  Bay,  but  we  know  that  in  the  fall  they  are  found  in  abundance  forty 
or  fifty  miles  at  sea  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine.  The  Branch  Herrings  ascend  the  river  probably  as  far 
as  the  Shad,  and  are  beb'eved  to  penetrate  small  streams  to  a  much  greater  distance,  entering 
many  waters  in  which  the  Shad  never  occur.  The  "Blue-back"  or  "Glut"  Herring,  however, 
does  not  go  far  above  tide  water,  and  the  area  of  reproduction  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  large 
streams  or  to  their  tidal  tributaries. 

1  Beport  of  Massachusetts  Commissioner  of  Inland  Fisheries,  January,  1874,  p.  64. 


586  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

FOOD. — As  in  the  case  of  the  Shad,  very  little  is  kuown  concerning  the  food  of  the  river 
Alewives  in  their  salt-water  habitats.  It  is,  however,  supposed  that  they,  like  other  similar 
species,  exist  largely  upon  swimming  crustaceans.'  When  iu  the  rivers  they  do  not  feed  to  any 
considerable  extent,  although  they  have  been  known  in  many  instances  to  take  the  fly. 

REPRODUCTION. — The  eggs  of  the  Alewife  are  adhesive,  like  those  of  the  sea  Herring,  though 
to  a  much  less  degree.  The  number  of  eggs  varies  from  sixty  thousand  to  one  hundred  thousand, 
in  accordance  with  the  size  of  the  individual.  They  are  deposited  upon  the  bottom  in  shoal  water, 
or  on  whatever  object  they  may  come  in  contact  with.  The  time  for  spawning,  after  the  fish  have 
entered  the  river,  depends,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Shad,  entirely  on  the  temperature  of  the  water. 
The  spawning  of  the  "Glut"  Herring  takes  place  under  ordinary  conditions  at  a  temperature  of 
70°  to  75°  F.;  that  of  the  "Branch"  Herring,  when  the  water  is  as  low  as  55°  to  60°  F.  The 
period  of  development  varies  directly  with  the  temperature. 

The  season  of  incubation  with  the  "Glut"  Herring  is  about  the  same  as  with  the  Shad— that 
is,  about  three  or  four  days.  With  the  "Branch"  Herring  the  spawning  takes  place  when  the  water 
is  colder,  for  which  reason  the  period  of  incubation  is  doubtless  longer.  The  young  Alewife  before 
winter  attains  a  length  of  two  to  three  inches,  and  the  period  of  growth  continues,  probably,  as  iu 
the  Shad,  for  three  or  four  years. 

"There  seems  to  be,"  remarks  Professor  Baird,1  "a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  age  at  which 
Alewives  first  return  from  the  sea,  some  fixing  it  at  two  and  others  at  three  or  more  years.  Captain 
Treat,  of  Eastport,  however,  many  years  ago  transported  several  hundred  pairs  of  breeding  fish 
to  a  small  sheet  of  water,  known  as  Keeue's  Pond,  situated  some  five  or  six  miles  from  Robinston, 
Maine,  and  having  its  outlet  into  the  Calais  River  just  below  Red  Beach.  The  level  of  the  lake  is 
several  hundred  feet  above  that  of  the  river,  and  the  outlet  is  very  precipitous,  consisting  of 
several  falls  entirely  impassable  to  fish  from  below.  No  Alewives  had  ever  been  known  iu  this 
pond  at  the  time  of  their  introduction  by  Captain  Treat.  The  young  fish  were  seen  i  .  the  pond  in 
the  course  of  the  summer  iu  myriads,  all  of  them  disappearing,  however,  after  a  heavy  rain  in  the 
autumn,  which  swelled  the  waters  to  produce  a  sufficient  discharge.  Due  examination  was  made 
for  successive  years,  but  not  until  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  were  they  seen,  when  the  outlet  was 
observed  to  be  almost  choked  up  by  a  solid  mass  of  Alewives,  struggling  to  make  their  way  back 
again  to  the  place  of  their  birth." 

During  past  years  the  Alewife  has  frequently  been  artificially  introduced  into  new  waters  or 
over  dams  by  the  transportation  of  fish  of  considerable  size.  This  is  constantly  done  on  Cape  Cod 
in  the  restocking  of  the  herring  streams  which  have  been  exhausted,  and  was  successfully  accom- 
plished l»y  General  N.  L.  Lincoln,  in  Maine,  as  long  ago  as  1750.  Colonel  Lyman,  in  his  report 
for  1870,2  describes  the  experiment  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Haddoway  in  restocking  Eel  Liver,  Town  Brook, 
Plymouth,  in  1865.  The  crop  sown  by  him  in  that  year  came  up  in  1869  in  the  shape  of  a  good 
run  of  fish,  chiefly  males  full  grown. 

Herring  eggs  have  frequently  been  artificially  impregnated  by  men  engaged  in  shad  culture. 
The  young  fish  artificially  hatched  have  in  some  instances  been  transported.  In  1882  two  million 
were  sent  to  Texas  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  and  deposited  iu  the  Colorado  River. 
Artificial  hatching  would  seem  less  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  Alewife  than  in  that  of  the  Shad, 
since  with  the  former,  owing  to  its  peculiar  spawning  habits,  the  eggs  stand  a  better  chance  of 
hatching  out,  and  very  slight  protection  of  the  fish  during  spawning  season  will  be  sufficient  to 
keep  up  the  supply.  The  present  law  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  by  which  pound-nets  are  kept 

'Report,  Uuited  States  Fish  Commission,  part  ii,  1874,  p.  Ixi.  'Pago  7. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  ALEWIFE.  587 

out  of  the  water  after  June  1,  will  doubtless  have  a  very  important  efl'ect  in  keeping  up  the  supply 
of  Alrwivcs  in  the  Potomac. 

SIZK. —  According  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  estimating  the  weight  of  River  Herring  in  the 
I'otoinae  three  make  a  pound,  and  the  maximum  weight  per  individual  does  not  exceed  half  a 
poukL 

I'SES. — The  Herrings,  or  Alewives,  taken  in  the  great  fisheries  of  the  South,  are  almost 
without  exception  salted  for  local  eonsiunption,  though  early  in  the  season  they  are  shipped  fresh 
from  the  Albemarle  u--ion  to  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Baltimore,  and  are  sold  in  the 
markets  at  a  low  price.  There  is  of  course  a  considerable  consumption  in  the  fresh  state  iu  the 
region  of  the  fisheries,  immense  quantities  being  taken  by  peddlers  and  carried  by  wagons  inland 
from  the  rivers  of  the  South,  as  well  as  from  the  Hudson,  Connecticut,  and  smaller  rivers  of 
Massachusetts.  (Ireat  numbers  are  smoked  in  North  Carolina  for  local  consumption;  in  fact, 
almost  all  which  are  used  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fisheries  are  taken  out  of  the  brine  (after  having 
been  saturated  with  the  salt,  or  "struck"  or  "corned")  and  hung  up  for  a  few  days  in  the  smoke- 
houses belonging  to  the  purchasers  who  intend  them  for  their  own  use. 

When  intended  for  shipment  into  the  interior  they  are  treated  in  several  ways:  (i)  They  may 
be  taken  out  of  the  first  pickle  and  packed  in  dry  salt;  iu  that  case  they  are  called  "salt  Herring." 
(it)  The  roe  Alewives  may  lie  selected,  the  beads  and  entrails  removed  and  salted  down  in  dry  salt 
and  sent  to  market  as  roe  Alewives,  of  which  there  are  several  grades.  (Hi)  They  may  be  packed 
as  split  Alewives.  In  this  operation  the  heads  and  entrails  are  removed  by  a  single  cut  and  twist 
of  the  knife,  with  surprising  rapidity  and  packed  in  dry  salt,  or  smoked.  The  heading  and 
evisceration  are  done  by  a  single  stroke,  and  an  expert  operator  will  prepare  forty  to  fifty  per 
minute.  This  work  is  done  by  negro  women.  In  Washington  a  superior  brand  of  smoked 
Alewives  is  prepared  and  sold  as  "Potomac  Hoe  Herring."  These  are  highly  esteemed  by  judges 
of  smoked  fish,  and  command  a  price  of  three  or  four  cents  each  iu  the  city  markets.  They  are 
equal  to  the  finest  Labrador  Herring.  Small  quantities  are  prepared  after  the  German  fashion  — 
Hiickling. 

In  conclusion,  we  quote  from  Professor  Baird's  second  report  as  Commissioner  of  Fisheries 
the  following  remarks  upon  the  uses  and  importance  of  this  fish: 

"I  am  inclined  to  think,  for  various  reasons,  that  too  little  has  been  done  in  our  waters 
towards  the  restoration  to  their  primitive  abundance  of  the  Alewife  (Pomolobus  mediocris),  the 
Herring  of  our  Southern  and  Middle  States,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  sea  Herring  (Clupca 
elongata). 

"The  Alewife  in  many  respects  is  superior,  in  commercial  and  economical  value,  to  the  Her- 
ring, being  a  much  larger  and  sweeter  fish,  and  more  like  the  true  Shad  in  this  respect.  Of  all 
American  fish  none  are  so  easily  propagated  as  the  Alewife,  and  waters  from  which  it  has  been 
driven  by  the  erection  of  impassable  dams  can  be  fully  restocked  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
simply  by  transporting  a  sufficient  number  of  the  mature  fish  taken  at  the  mouth  of  the  stream  to 
a  point  above  the  dams,  or  placing  them  iu  ponds  or  lakes.  Here  they  will  spawn  and  return  to 
the  sea  after  a  short  interval,  making  their  way  over  dams  which  carry  any  flow.  The  young 
Alewives,  after  a  season,  descend,  and  return,  if  not  prevented,  at  the  end  of  their  period  of  imma- 
turity, to  the  place  where  they  were  spawned. 

"  In  addition  to  the  value  of  the  Alewife  as  an  article  of  food,  it  is  of  much  service  in  ponds 
and  rivers  as  nutriment  for  trout,  salmon,  and  other  valuable  fishes.  The  young  derive  their  sus- 
tenance from  minute  crustaceans  and  other  objects  too  diminutive  for  the  larger  fish,  and  in  their 
great  abundance  are  greedily  devoured  by  t lie  other  species  around  them.  In  waters  inhabited 


588  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

by  both  pickerel  and  trout  these  fish  find  in  the  young  Alewives  sufficient  food  to  prevent  their 
preying  upon  each  other.  They  are  also,  for  the  same  reason,  serviceable  in  ponds  containing 
black  bass. 

"As  a  cheap  and  very  abundant  food  for  other  fishes,  the  young  Alewives  can  be  placed  in 
waters  that  have  no  connection  with  the  sea  by  merely  transferring  from  any  convenient  locality 
a  sufficient  number  of  the  living  mature  parents,  taken  at  the  approach  of  the  spawning  season; 
they  will  remain  for  several  months,  and,  indeed,  can  often  be  easily  penned  up  by  a  suitable  dam 
and  kept  throughout  the  year. 

"  It  is  in  another  still  more  important  connection  that  we  should  consider  the  Alewife.  It  is 
well  known  that  withiu  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  the  fisheries  of  cod,  haddock,  and  hake  along 
our  coast  have  measurably  diminished,  and  in  some  places  ceased  entirely.  Enough  may  be  taken 
for  local  consumption,  but  localities  which  formerly  furnished  the  material  for  an  extensive  com- 
merce in  dried  fish  have  been  entirely  abandoned.  Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this 
condition  of  things,  and  among  others  the  alleged  diminution  of  the  sea  Herring.  After  a  careful 
consideration  of  the  subject,  however,  I  am  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  due  to  the  dimi- 
nution, and  in  many  instances  to  the  extermination,  of  the  Alewives.  As  already  remarked,  before 
the  construction  of  dams  in  the  tidal  rivers  the  Alewife  was  found  in  incredible  numbers  along  our 
coast,  probably  remaining  not  far  from  shore,  excepting  when  moving  up  into  the  fresh  water,  and 
at  any  rate  spending  a  considerable  interval  off  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  either  at  the  time  of  their 
journey  upward  or  on  their  return.  The  young,  too,  after  returning  from  the  ocean,  usually 
swarmed  in  the  same  localities,  and  thus  furnished  for  the  larger  species  a  bait  such  as  is  not 
supplied  at  present  by  any  other  fish,  the  sea  Herring  not  excepted.  We  know  that  the  Alewife 
is  particularly  attractive  as  a  bait  to  other  fisl:es,  especially  for  cod  and  mackerel.  Alewives 
enter  the  streams  on  the  south  coast  of  New  England  before  the  arrival  of  the  bluefish ;  but  the 
latter  devote  themselves  with  great  assiduity  to  the  capture  of  the  young  as  they  come  out  from 
their  breeding  ponds.  The  outlet  of  an  alewife  pond  is  always  a  capital  place  for  the  bluefish, 
and,  as  they  come  very  near  the  shore  in  such  localities,  they  can  be  caught  there  with  the  line  by 
what  is  called  'heaving  and  hauling,'  or  throwing  a  squid  from  the  shore  and  hauling  it  in  with 
the  utmost  rapidity. 

"The  coincidence,  at  least,  in  the  erection  of  the  dams,  and  the  enormous  diminution  in  the 
number  of  the  Alewives,  and  the  decadence  of  the  inshore  cod  fishery,  is  certainly  very  remarka- 
ble. It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  mackerel  fisheries  have  suffered  in  the  same  way,  as  these  fish 
find  in  the  young  Menhaden  and  Alewives  an  attractive  bait. 

"The  same  remarks  as  to  the  agency  of  the  Alewife  in  attracting  the  deep-sea  fishes  to  the 
shores,  and  especially  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  apply  in  a  proportional  degree  to  the  Shad  and 
salmon." 

177.  ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  THE  BRANCH  ALEWIFE  IN  CERTAIN  LAKES  OF  NEW  YORK. 

By  TARLETON  H.  BEAN. 

The  Branch  Alewife,  C.  vernalia,  Mitchill,  has  of  late  years  attracted  considerable  attention 
in  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Lakes,  New  York,  and  in  Lake  Ontario.  The  United  States  National 
Museum  has  received  a  great  many  individuals  from  each  of  these  lakes,  and  upon  examination 
they  were  all  found  to  be  the  species  above  named.  This  would  be  expected  from  the  well-known 
habits  of  the  Branch  Alewife,  which  ascends  far  up  the  streams  and  pushes  its  way  into  the  inte- 
rior, while,  on  the  other  hand,  its  relative,  the  Glut  Alewife,  appears  never  to  penetrate  far  beyond 


ALEWIV11S  IX  THE  SAINT  LAWRENCE.  589 

the  limits  of  tidal  waters.  The  United  States  Commissioner  has  received  many  letters  concerning 
this  Alt-wilt-  from  persons  living  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Lakes 
Cayiiga  and  Seneca.  Some  thought  that  these  fish  were  Shad;  others,  however,  recognized  the 
fact  of  their  disagreement  from  that  fish,  and  spoke  of  them  as  a  species  of  Herring.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  Alewife,  so  far  as  we  know,  did  not  appear  in  Lake  Ontario  until  after  the  intro- 
duction of  Shad  into  that  lake  by  the  Fish  Commissioner  of  New  York.  We  have  been  unable  to 
obtain  any  evidence  of  its  occurrence  in  that  lake  before  the  Shad  was  introduced.  Again,  Lakes 
Seneca  and  Cayuga  are  separated  from  Lake  Ontario  by  obstructions  which  could  not  well  be  over- 
come by  spawning  fish.  The  only  theory  on  which  the  fact  of  the  presence  of  this  fish  in  these 
\e\\  York  lakes  can  In-  explained  would  appear  to  lie  either  that  yomifj  Herring  have  been  intro- 
tlnccd  by  the  employe's  of  the  New  York  Pish  Commission  when  instructed  to  place  shad  eggs  in 
the  lakes,  or  that  young  Herring  have  been  taken  out  of  the  cans  in  the  act  of  changing  the 
water  upon  the  shad  spawn  prior  to  their  transportation  to  these  waters.  It  is  a  significant 
fact  that  these  broods  of  young  Herring  have  been  found  only  in  the  lakes  in  which  Shad  have 
liceii  introduced. 

We  are  in  possession  of  information  which  seems  to  establish  conclusively  that  the  Alewife 
does  not  occur  in  the  lower  waters  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  Kiver,  nor  was  there  any  evidence  of  ite 
presence  at  Montreal  until  within  the  last  nine  years. 

The  name  which  is  most  universally  applied  to  this  species  wherever  it  is  known  along  the 
Saint  Lawrence  Kiver  is  "Gaspereau."  In  the  vicinity  of  Cayuga  Lake  it  sometimes  receives  the 
name  "Cayuga  Lake  Shad." 

"The  Alewife  is  known  to  exist  in  Lakes  Seneca  and  Cayuga,  and  in  Lake  Ontario,  specimens 
from  all  these  waters  being  amongst  the  collections  of  the  National  Museum.  It  is  said  to  occur 
also  in  the  headwaters  of  the  river  Saint  Lawrence,  and  the  probability  of  its  presence  there  is 
strengthened  by  the  following  extract  from  a  communication  to  "Forest  and  Stream,"  August  13, 
1878,  by  a  gentleman  who  writes  under  the  pseudonym  "Piscator": 

"...  a  lively  little  visitor  which  came  to  us  in  shoals  a  few  weeks  ago,  and  disapi>eared 
again.  The  visitor  in  question  was  a  little,  silvery  fish,  very  similar  to  a  Herring,  but  having  its 
belly  (as  1  found  to  my  cost  in  taking  it  off  my  flies)  serrated  or  edged  with  sharp  spines.  I  pre- 
sume it  is  the  same  fish  which  has  appeared  in  such  abundance  in  the  Upper  Saint  Lawrence  and 
Lake  Ontario." 

Mr.  Fred.  Mather,  in  a  letter  dated  July  22,  1878,  says:  "I  have  heard  of  their  being  taken 
with  a  fly  at  Quebec  (where  they  are  called  Gaspereaux),  and  also  above  there  on  the  Saint 
Lawrence." 

They  appear  to  be  little  known,  however,  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  for  Mr.  J.  F.  Whiteaves, 
of  Montreal,  in  a  letter  dated  July  26,  1878,  writes:  "So  far  as  I  know,  the  Gaspereau,  or  Alewife, 
is  not  found  at  all  in  the  waters  of  the  Province  of  Quebec.  I  have  never  seen  a  living  or  recently 
caught  specimen." 

SCARCITY  OF  ALEWIVES  IN  THE  SAINT  LAWRENCE. — Professor  J.  W.  Dawson,  writing  from 
Little  Metis,  Province  of  Quebec,  July  30,  1878,  states  as  follows:  "The  species  is  quite  abundant 
in  the  Northumberland  Strait  and  the  Bay  de  Chaleur  and  rivers  entering  these,  but  so  far  as  I  can 
learn  rare  in  the  river  Saint  Lawrence.  ...  At  this  place  (Metis,  which  you  will  find  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  a  little  below  Father  Point),  I  am  told  that  Gaspereaux  are  mere 
stragglers,  api>e:mng  only  very  rarely  and  in  small  numbers;  but  that  they  are  more  plentiful  at 
Matane,  thirty  miles  farther  east.  I  do  not  know  of  their  occurrence  on  the  north  shore  opposite 
this  place,  but  have  no  positive  information.  I  have  never  heard  of  the  occurrence  of  the  Gaspe- 
reau at  Montreal,  though  the  Shad  ascends  the  river  to  that  place,  and  far  up  the  Ottawa." 


590  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  above  extracts  concerning  the  appearance  of  the  Alewife  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  tend  to 
prove  that,  at  least  until  a  very  recent  period,  it  has  been  almost  unknown  in  the  lower  waters  of 
that  river. 

Specimens  of  the  Alewife,  obtained  by  Prof.  S.  F.  Baird,  from  Croton  River,  Sing  Sing,  New 
York,  are  in  the  collections  of  the  United  States  National  Museum. 

Prof.  Hamilton  L.  Smith,  Geneva,  New  York,  furnishes  the  following  information,  obtained 
from  an  old  angler,  concerning  the  appearance  of  Ale  wives  in  the  vicinity  of  Seneca  Lake:  "Their 
first  appearance  in  the  neighborhood  of  Seneca  Lake  was  in  the  dam  below  the  rapids  at  Waterloo, 
near  Geneva,  in  June,  1868.  In  the  spring  of  1869  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  lake  here  was 
covered  with  them."  The  species  was  known  in  Cayuga  Lake  as  early  as  1868. 
According  to  Mr.  E.  Tyler,  of  Henderson,  New  York,  it  was  first  noticed  in  Lake  Ontario  in  June, 
1873,  when  large  quantities  were  taken  in  pounds  and  trap-nets. 

Mr.  W.  Ainsworth,  of  Cape  Vincent,  New  York,  wrote  on  August  13,  1878:  "This  fish  (the 
Alewife)  first  appeared  in  Lake  Ontario  and  the  river  Saint  Lawrence  at  Cape  Vincent,  in  1873,  in 
large  quantities." 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ALEWIFE  IN  LAKE  ONTARIO  AND  THE   NEW  YORK  LAKES. — As  already 

stated,  there  seems  to  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  Branch  Alewife  was  introduced  into  Lake 
Ontario  with  Shad,  prior  to  whose  introduction  no  evidence  of  its  occurrence  in  that  lake  appears. 
It  is  an  undecided  point  whether  Alewives  go  down  the  Saint  Lawrence  to  the  ocean  in  the  fall 
and  return  in  the  spring,  as  they  do  upon  the  Atlantic  slope,  or  whether  they  spend  the  winter  in 
the  deeper  waters  of  the  lake.  We  have  not  the  specimens  at  hand  to  enable  us  to  establish  the 
facts  concerning  the  migrations  of  this  species  through  the  Saint  Lawrence.  It  is  uotewonhy, 
however,  that  when  they  appear  in  the  waters  which  they  frequent,  they  come  in  immense  schools, 
and  at  the  time  of,  or  a  short  time  prior  to,  their  spawning  season.  The  first  schools  that  appear 
seem  to  consist  of  large,  adult  fish.  It  may  be  that  the  schools  descend  the  Saint  Lawrence  in  the 
fall  and  ascend  in  spring.  However  this  may  be,  we  are  justified  in  believing  that  Alewives  were 
artificially  introduced  into  Lake  Ontario;  and  this  is  a  more  reasonable  view  of  the  case  than  to 
admit  a  total  change  in  their  habits,  such  as  would  be  involved  by  their  sudden  departure  from 
their  accustomed  waters  into  new  and  untried  regions. 

As  to  their  presence  in  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Lakes,  New  York,  we  have  grounds  for  believing 
that  they  have,  of  their  own  accord,  penetrated  thus  far  into  the  interior  of  New  York  State.  Mr. 
Fred.  Mather  writes  that  he  has  seen  Alewives  go  up  the  canal  locks  at  West  Troy,  and  Prof.  H. 
L.  Smith,  of  Geneva,  who  first  noticed  them  in  the  neighborhood  of  Seneca  Lake  in  June,  1868, 
states  that  the  canal  was  opened  about  that  time,  and  thinks  that  they  might  have  come  into  the 
New  York  lakes  from  the  Chesapeake  or  Delaware  Bays  through  Elmira  and  Painted  Post. 

We  learn  from  Prof.  Hamilton  L.  Smith  that  Alewives  obtained  near  Geneva,  New  York,  in 
June,  1868,  were  eight  to  nine  inches  long.  He  also  sent  to  the  National  Museum  specimens  from 
Seneca  Lake,  four  of  which  were,  respectively,  three  and  two-fifths,  four  and  four-fifths,  four  and 
nine  irn! hx  and  six  and  one-fifth  inches  in  length.  One  specimen,  forwarded  by  Prof.  D.  S. 
Jordan  from  Cayuga  Lake,  measured  five  and  three-tenths  inches.  Two  spent  females,  received 
from  Horton  Brothers  &  Ainsworth,  and  obtained  by  them  in  Lake  Ontario,  ranged  from  eight  to 
nine  and  a  half  indies  in  length.  Nearly  all  the  specimens  received  from  the  interior  lakes  of  New 
York  are  small — considerably  smaller  than  those  from  Lake  Ontario,  and  present  a  somewhat 
starved  appi-arancc.  This  characteristic  was  specially  noticeable  in  the  individuals  which  were 
found  dead  in  immense  numbers.  The  specimens  from  Lake  Ontario  are,  on  an  average,  equal  in 
length  to  those  which  enter  streams  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Mr.  Ainsworth  says  that  those  cap- 


MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  BRANCH  ALEWIFE.  591 

turod  at  Cape  Vincent  vary  in  length  from  one  and  a  quarter  to  eight  inches.  He  never  saw  one 
that  would  weigh  over  half  a  pound.  Mr.  E.  Tyler  writes  that  the  largest  individuals  are  about 
nine  inches  long. 

Reference  has  already  been  made,  in  another  place,  to  the  statement  of  Prof.  H.  L.  Smith  con- 
cerning the  abundance  of  this  fish  in  Seneca  Lake,  New  York,  near  Geneva. 

Mr.  A  ins  worth  says  that  they  wen-  present  at  Cape  Vincent  in  large  shoals  in  1873,  and  that 
they  increased  in  numbers  until,  in  1878,  immense  quantities  were  taken  throughout  the  waters  of 
the  lake  and  in  the  headwaters  of  the  Saint  Lawrence.  He  also  states  that  he  knew  one  fisherman 
t<>  lake  fifteen  barrels  of  Alewives  from  a  small  pound-net  at  one  time.  Mr.  Tyler  corroborates 
the  statement  of  thoir  abundance  in  June,  1873,  and  in  a  letter  dated  July  27,  1878, adds:  "Now 
our  waters  are  literally  filled  with  them.  In  hauling  seines  they  are  often  a  terrible  nuisance. 
Surli  i-oiint  less  millions  are  hauled  ashore  at  times,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  lift  the  seine  and 
let  them  run  out;  it  could  never  be  got  ashore  with  safety." 

Messrs.  Clark  &  Robbius,  in  a  letter  dated  December  19,  1879,  state  that  "they  [Alewives] 
interfere  with  pound  and  trap  net  fishing,  as  they  fill  the  nets  to  the  exclusion  of  other  fish." 

Mr.  George  Burn,  of  the  Exchange  Bank  of  Canada,  Montreal,  says,  in  a  letter  dated  August 
20,  1878,  that  the  Alewives  come  into  the  Saint  Lawrence  in  great  shoals  at  first, "  the  water  being 
fairly  alive  with  them." 

MOVEMENTS. — It  will  be  observed,  from  what  has  already  been  said,  that  the  Branch  Ale 
wife  is  found  in  the  waters  under  consideration,  just  as  in  the  coast  streams,  at  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  immense  schools.  Mr.  W.  Ainsworth,  in  a  letter  previously  quoted  from, 
writes:  "They  swim  in  large  schools  and  rise  to  the  surface,  and,  when  the  water  is  still,  they  cause 
a  ripple  upon  it  similar  to  that  produced  by  a  school  of  mackerel." 

Mr.  George  Burn,  it  will  be  remembered,  has  stated  that  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  they 
appear  in  great  shoals  at  first. 

It  would  seem  that  the  disappearance  of  the  Alewife  from  these  waters  is  as  sudden  as  its 
appearance.  Mr.  E.  Tyler,  under  date  of  September  1, 1878,  remarks:  "  If  possible  for  you  to  wait 
until  October,  I  will  be  able  to  give  you  every  grade  from  three  inches  in  length  to  full-grown  fish. 
The  pound-nets  at  that  time  will  be  hauling,  and  barrels  of  them  are  taken  at  each  haul.  We  can 
get  the  large  ones  at  any  time  with  cisco  gill-nets."  Mr.  Tyler  was,  however,  unable  to  secure 
specimens  for  us  at  the  time  when  he  supposed  they  would  be  abundant,  and  on  January  20, 
1879,  he  wrote:  "We  set  to  work  every  kind  of  device  to  get  the  Alewives.  Our  cisco  fishermen 
could  get  none  in  their  gill-nets  here,  and  I  went  to  Sacket's  Harbor,  a  distance  of  nine  miles, 
and  made  arrangements  with  the  fish-dealers  to  notify  all  the  pound-net  fishermen  to  save  some; 
but  only  one  was  caught  in  Chaumout  Bay  during  the  fall.  I  also  went  once,  and  sent  twice,  up 
the  shore  towards  Oswego,  seven  miles,  where  an  immense  seine  is  hauled,  and  where,  in  the 
summer,  these  Alewives  are  so  abundant  that  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  net  ashore  at  times;  I 
certainly  thought  I  could  not  fail  there;  but  only  one  was  taken  during  the  fall.  Our  cisco  nets 
are  often  in  one  hundred  feet  of  water,  and  no  Alewives  are  gilled  after  the  1st  of  September. 

Mr.  George  Burn  has  observed  the  sudden  disappearance  of  the  Alewife  at  Montreal,  but  he 
believes  that  they  sometimes  reappear  after  their  first  disappearance.  It  would  seem  from  the 
above  statements  that  different  schools  of  Alewives  are  present  at  various  -times  during  the 
summer,  and  that  all  of  them  leave  late  in  September  or  early  in  October.  It  seems  also  as  if 
they  go  into  the  deeper  water  of  the  lake,  and  are  sometimes  caught  in  gill-nets.  Mr.  E.  Tyler, 
writing  from  Henderson,  New  York,  Octobers,  1879,  makes  the  following  statement:  "The 


592  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Alewives  left  us,  as  usual,  about  August  10,  and  the  Shad  also ;  at  least  none  have  been  caught 
since." 

In  a  letter  dated  June  14, 1879,  he  says:  "Since  about  August  25  [1878]  no  Alewives  were 
seen  in  these  waters  until  the  first  of  May  last  [1879].  .  .  .  This  spring  [1879]  I  made  arrange- 
ments with  the  owner  of  the  seines  (six  miles  south  of  Henderson)  to  send  me  the  first  ones  taken, 
and  he  brought  me  five  on  May  14.  ...  I  drove  over  next  day,  but  not  one  could  be  found  in 
the  net;  but  in  a  short  time  there  was  an  abundance  here,  but  all  of  one  size.  The  first  that  came 
appeared  to  be  large.  ...  In  answer  to  your  question  as  to  the  route  by  which  they  come,  I 
can  only  reply  that  the  first  seen  of  them  was  the  last  of  April  [1879] ;  the  trout  taken  at  the 
mouth  of  Saint  Lawrence  were  filled  with  them.  From  the  best  information  obtainable,  they  come 
here  from  the  ocean  with  the  Shad,  and  return  with  them  in  the  fall  to  the  same  place." 

Mr.  W.  Ainsworth,  whom  we  have  frequently  quoted,  writes  that  the  spawning  season  for  the 
Alewife  in  Lake  Ontario  is  in  June. 

Mr.  N.  H.  Lytle,  of  Ogdensburg,  New  York,  wrote,  September  26,  1879,  concerning  the  Ale- 
wife  as  follows:  "In  June,  1878,  a  fisherman  came  into  the  'Journal'  office  with  several  of  these 
fish.  He  was  not  able  to  give  them  a  name.  I  had  frequently  seen  Shad  on  the  butchers'  stalls, 
and  was  of  the  opinion  that  they  also  were  Shad.  ...  I  opened  the  fish  and  found  them  full 
of  eggs  and  almost  ready  to  spawn.  A  few  days  later  they  came  up  the  Oswegatchie  River  in 
thousands  as  far  as  the  dam,  and  many  were  caught  by  the  boys.  They  were  then  from  seven  to 
ten  inches  in  length.  .  .  .  This  year  they  made  their  appearance  again  in  the  latter  part  of 
June,  and  came  up  the  Oswegatchie  River.  They  were  noticed  at  many  points  on  the  Saint  Law- 
rence and  in  Lake  Ontario.  Steamers  passing  up  and  down  the  river  reported  seeing  them  in 
schools  of  millions." 

The  following  note  was  sent  by  a  correspondent,  "H.  W.  P.,"  at  Waddington,  May  31,  1878, 
to  the  Ogdensburg  Journal,  and  forwarded  to  us  by  Mr.  Lytle:  "A  colony  of  ...  Shad 
appeared  here  yesterday  in  full  spawning  order.  John  Stark  caught  thirteen,  measuring  eight 
inches  and  under."  It  is  evident  from  the  size  of  these  fish  and  their  spawning  condition  that 
they  must  have  been  Alewives.  Two  large  females,  received  from  Horton  Brothers  &  Ainsworth, 
who  collected  them  in  Lake  Ontario  September  17,  1877,  were  spent. 

ENEMIES  AND  FATALITIES. — According  to  the  statements  of  persons  living  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Ontario,  Alewives  are  largely  consumed  by  lake  trout  (Salvelinw  namaycusti),  pike  (Esox 
lucitu),  pickerel  (Esox  reticulatun),  muskellunge  (Esox  nobilior),  black  bass  (Micropterus  salmoides 
and  M.  dohmiei).  There  is  no  doubt  that  other  predatory  fishes  destroy  large  numbers  of  the 
Alewives,  the  wall-eyed  pike  (Stizostedium)  and  burbot  (Lota  maculosa)  doubtless  proving  very 
destructive  to  this  species.  The  yellow  perch  (Perca  americana),  species  of  Lepomis,  Ambloplites, 
and  other  centrarchids  doubtless  kill  vast  numbers  of  the  young. 

According  to  the  testimony  of  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  fisheries  of  the  lakes,  incredible 
numbers  of  Alewives  are  destroyed  by  the  use  of  fishing  implements  intended  for  the  capture  of 
edible  fish.  Vast  quantities  of  dead  Alewives  have  been  observed  upon  the  shores  of  Seneca  and 
other  lakes  of  New  York.  Examples  of  such  fish  have  been  received  by  the  United  States 
National  Museum  from  Seneca  Lake,  whence  they  were  forwarded  by  Prof.  Hamilton  L.  Smith. 
An  examination  of  some  of  these  specimens  shows  that  the  air-bladder  is  abnormally  distended, 
filling  the  major  portion  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  What  may  have  been  the  cause  of  this  disten- 
sion is  of  course  unknown,  but  it  will  account  for  the  presence  of  the  dying  fish  at  the  surface. 

Appended  are  two  extracts  (the  one  from  the  "  Utica  Herald"  and  the  other  from  the  "  Rochester 
Union"),  which  may  throw  some  light  upon  this  subject: 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  ALKWIVE.  .V.i:', 

h 

"Tin-  cause  [of  tin-  sudden  death  of  vast  numbers  of  lish]  is  the  explosion  of  dynamite.  Fish- 
deposii  crabs  and  other  bait  to  attract  particular  species  of  fish,  and  when  they  [the  tishj 
arc  supposed  to  be  collected,  they  [the  fishermen]  drop  a  cartridge,  charged  with  dynamite,  to 
which  is  ait. idicd  a  fuse,  and  the  explosion  of  which  will  kill  every  fish  within  a  radius  of  sixty  to 
eighty  feet,  and  shock  those  at  a  greater  distance,  which,  though  they  do  not  immediately  rise  to 
the  sin-face,  in  their  gasping,  weakened  condition,  take  into  their  gills  the  sand  set  free  by  the 
explosion,  which  ultimately  produces  death.  By  this  means  thousands  of  tish,  not  large  enough 
for  profitable  sale  or  use,  are  destroyed;  and,  if  the  practice  be  continued,  it  will  neutralize  all 
efforts  of  our  Fish  Commission  to  stock  our  lakes  and  rivers.  The  quantity  of  black  bass  and 
other  choice  fish  of  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara  Hiver  daily  exposed  for  sale  in  the  fish  markets  has 
been  and  is  suspicious,  and  led  me  to  make  diligent  inquiry  as  to  their  mode  of  wholesale  capture 
and  destruction." 

The  second  extract  reads  thus : 

"Although  'Game  Constable'  Swartz  succeeded  in  cleaning  all  the  nets  out  of  Irondiquoit  Bay 
lie  has  continued  to  observe  that  fish  were  brought  from  that  locality  and  sold  in  larger  quantities 
than  could  be  taken  in  a  legitimate  manner.  At  an  early  hour  this  morning  he  set  out  for  the  Sea 
Breeze,  arriving  there  about  three  o'clock.  Nobody  was  seen  fishing;  but  all  along  the  shore  of 
the  sand-bar,  about  two  hundred  yards  east  of  the  Sea  Breeze  House,  were  found  quantities  of 
dead  fish  of  all  kinds,  in  some  places  piled  three  or  four  deep,  and  covering  a  considerable  space 
of  ground.  These  fish,  consisting  chiefly  of  bass,  perch,  bull  heads,  and  sun-fish,  were  all  small. 
On  cutting  open  and  examining  a  number  of  them,  their  air-bladders  were  found  to  have  burst,  as  is 
always  the  case  when  fish  are  killed  by  means,  of  uitro-glycerine  cartridges  exploded  in  the  water. 
The  conclusion  is,  therefore,  irresistible  that  the  fish  were  killed  in  this  way.  When  they  come 
to  the  surface  they  are  all  scooped  up  and  taken  ashore,  where  the  big  ones  are  sorted  out,  and 
the  little  ones  left  on  the  sand.  The  deadly  explosive  kills  every  living  thing,  old  and  young, 
within  reach  of  it." 

CAPTURE. — Specimens  have  been  dredged,  by  Prof.  B.  G.  Wilder,  in  Cayuga  Lake.  Vast 
numbers,  too,  are  taken  about  the  foot  of  Lake  Ontario  in  pounds,  traps,  and  seines.  Small 
numbers  are  caught  in  gill-nets,  even  in  the  cisco  nets,  which  are  set  in  very  deep  water.  Mr. 
E.  Tyler  writes  that  at  Henderson,  New  York,  Alewives  take  a  fly  quite  readily.  Mr.  Fred. 
Mather  writes  that  he  has  heard  of  their  having  been  taken  wifh  a  fly  at  and  above  Quebec 
on  the  Saint  Lawrence.  Mr.  George  Burn,  of  Montreal,  states  that  he  has  caught  Alewives  with 
artificial  flies  at  that  place. 

Inquiries  have  been  made  as  to  the  methods  of  utilizing  Alewives  as  the  basis  of  fertilizers, 
but  we  do  not  know  that  anything  has  yet  been  attempted  in  that  direction.  Mr.  \V.  Ains- 
worth  writes  under  date  of  August  13,  1878,  as  follows:  "They  furnish  excellent  food  for  salmon, 
trout,  pike,  pickerel,  and  black  bass.  They  have  increased  the  quantity,  as  well  as  improved 
the  quality  of  these  fish." 

Mi.  K.  Tyler  wrote  on  July  27,  1878:  "So  far  I  consider  them  a  blessing.  They  supply 
all  our  edible  fishes  with  an  abundance  of  food,  so  that  the  young  fry  of  bass,  trout,  pike, 
pickerel,  and  muskellunge  are  not  destroyed  as  formerly,  but  are  allowed  to  mature,  and  to-day 
all  the  above  fishes  are  more  plentiful  than  for  many  years  past." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Alewife  would  prove  useful  as  food  and  bait  for  other 
fishes.      The    annoyance  which  it  causes  by  filling  the  seines  and  pounds  will,  undoubtedly, 
be  offset  by  its  usefulness  in  the  fisheries  of  the  future. 
38  F 


594  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

178.  THE  INLAND  ALEWIFE  OR  SKIPJACK— CLUPEA  CHRYSOCHLORIS. 

This  fish,  which  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  has  recently  been  found  by 
Mr.  Silas  Stearns  in  the  salt  water  off  Pensacola — a  surprising  circumstance,  since  the  species  was 
thought  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  fresh  water  exclusively.  "It  is  known  to  most  inland  fishermen  as 
the  '  Skipjack,'"  writes  Professor  Jordan,  "in  allusion  to  its  habit  of  leaping  from  the  water.  It  is 
also  sometimes  called  'Shad'  and  'Herring.'  It  is  abundant  throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  in 
all  the  larger  streams.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  ocean  it  descends  to  the  Gulf,  but  in  the  upper 
courses  it  is  permanently  resident.  It  has  also  entered  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Erie  since  the 
construction  of  the  canals.  It  reaches  a  length  of  a  little  more  than  a  foot.  It  feeds  on  small 
crustaceans,  worms,  and  the  like,  rarely  taking  the  hook.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  regarded  as  wholly 
worthless,  its  flesh  being  poor  and  dry,  and  full  of  innumerable  small  bones." 

179.  THE  SHAD— CLUPEA  SAPIDISSIMA. 
By  MARSHALL  MCDONALD. 

NAMES. — The  following  notes  on  the  names  of  the  Shad  are  taken  from  an  unpublished  man- 
uscript by  Mr.  Goode  upon  the  fisheries  of  Florida.  The  Shad  appears  to  have  been  considered 
by  early  American  writers  on  fish  identical  with  the  Shad  of  England,  Chtpeafinta.  The  first  to 
give  to  it  a  distinctive  name  was  Alexander  Wilson  in  the  American  edition  of  Eees'  Encyclo- 
paedia.1 I  quote  his  description  in  full,  since  it  was  claimed  by  Eafinesque,  whose  remark  has 
been  since  frequently  quoted,  that  Clupea  sapidissima  was  "catalogued,  not  described,"  by  Wilson: 

*'  Clupea  sapidiiisima  (AMERICAN  SHAD). — No  spots  on  the  sides;  snout  entire  (not  bifid  as 
in  the  European);  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length;  weighs  from  six  to 
ten  and  twelve  pounds.  Scales  large,  deciduous,  and  of  a  silver  color,  most  delicious.  They  are 
for  six  months  about  the  capes  or  mouths  of  large  rivers,  then  run  into  the  sea.  During  March, 
April,  and  May,  they  ascend  these  rivers  to  the  freshes,  and  thence  toward  their  sources,  in 
order  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  shallow  water,  where,  hatching,  the  young  fry  descends  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  and  autumn  to  the  tide  waters,  and  thence  down  to  the  salts;  and 
the  adults  retarn  likewise  to  the  sea,  thin,  emaciated,  and  weak." 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  Shad  is  found  along  the  whole  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States,  and  its  capture  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  fisheries  in  all  the  streams 
draining  into  the  Atlantic  between  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  and  the  Saint  John's  Eiver,  Florida. 
Its  northern  limit  is  thus  denned  by  Charles  Lanman  in  the  "Eeport  of  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission,"  part  ii:2 

"The  Shad  is  but  rarely  seen  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  found  in  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence,  the  various  rivers  of  which  it  ascends  as  far  north  as  the  Miramichi,  which  seems 
to  be  its  limit  in  that  direction,  none  having  been  seen  in  the  Bay  of  Chaleur." 

Throughout  this  entire  range  the  Shad  is  found  in  sufficient  quantities  to  give  rise  to  fisheries 
of  great  commercial  value.  There  is  no  run  of  Shad  into  any  of  the  rivers  draining  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  although  the  capture  of  isolated  individuals  of  this  species  has  been  reported  from  the 

'Tbe  Cyclopedia  or  Universal  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Science  and  Literature.  By  Abraham  Rees  .  .  .  First 
American  edition  in  forty-one  volumes.  Philadelphia.  [The  American  edition  is  said  by  Allibone  to  have  been  in 
course  of  publication  from  1809  to  1820.  Dr.  Gill  tells  me  that  he  has  evidence  to  show  that  vol.  ix  was  pub- 
lished prior  to  1814. J 

'Page  461. 


SHAD  IN  TOE  ALABAMA  RIVER.  595 

Alabama  River  and  from  >c\cral  tributaries  of  the  Missixsippi  prior  to  any  steps  towards  the  arti- 
ficial propagation  of  Shad  in  these  waters  In  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  many  of  tin-  so  called  "White"  Shad  were  but  largo  specimens  of  the  "Golden" 
Shad  of  the  Mississippi  Basin.  Unquestionably,  however,  Professor  Baird  was  referring  to  the 
capture  of  a  genuine  ('lu/xii  napidiwtima  in  the  waters  tributary  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  when  he  wrote:1 
"I  have  already  refened  to  the  discovery  of  Shad  in  the  Alabama  River,  whether  the  result  of 
Dr.  Daniel's  experiments  already  detailed  or  not;  and  I  am  assured  by  reliable  testimony  that 
they  an-  found  at  the  present  time  in  other  streams  of  Alabama.  Of  this  I  am  well  satisfied, 
having  actually  received  a  specimen  from  Mr.  W.  Peun  Yonge,  of  Springville,  Alabama,  taken  at 
Elba,  Alabama,  and  preserved  in  alcohol,  and  distinguishable  in  not  the  slightest  particular  from 
the  Shad  of  the  eastern  coast.  I  have  also  the  assurance  of  Dr.  Lawrence  of  their  capture  at  the 
Hot  Springs  of  the  Ouachita;  of  Dr.  Middleton  Goldsmith,  at  the  Fulls  of  the  Ohio,  near  Louis- 
ville; and  of  Dr.  Turner,  in  the  Wabash  River  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  in  the  Neosho  River  of 
Kansas.'' 

If  the  occasional  presence  of  individuals  of  this  species  in  the  waters  tributary  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  be  admitted,  it  seems  unaccountable  that,  since  no  fisheries  have  there  been  established  for 
its  ca.pture,  that  the  natural  increase  should  not  have  been  such  as  to  cause  at  least  as  abundant 
a  run  into  the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Gulf  as  into  those  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

If,  moreover,  assuming  that  this  species  has  been  present  in  these  waters  in  sufficient  numbers 
for  effective  reproduction,  natural  causes  have  not  combined  to  establish  a  run  of  this  fish  in  the 
tributaries  of  the  Gulf,  it  can  scarcely  be  hoped  that  any  mea-ures  of  artificial  reproduction  would, 
if  re.-orted  to,  accomplish  the  desired  result.  Nor  does  existing  proof  appear  sufficiently  positive, 
as  yet,  to  establish  more  than  the  occasional  occurrence  of  isolated  specimens  in  these  waters 
under  conditions  simply  natural.  It  is  probable  that  where  true  Shad  have  been  found  in  the 
tributaries  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  explanation  may  thus  be  made:  Occasional  individuals  have 
strayed  beyond  their  natural  geographical  range,  around  the  Florida  peninsula,  and,  once  in  the 
Gulf,  they  have  entered  the  rivers  under  the  impulse  of  reproduction,  but  never  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  maintain  themselves. 

In  January,  1879,  by  direction  of  Prof.  G.  B.  Goode,  the  writer  was  requested  to  proceed 
to  the  Alabama  River  to  investigate  the  question  of  the  natural  occurrence  that  White  Shad  in. 
this  river.  The  report  then  made  gives  probably  all  the  facts  on  this  subject  that  have  yet  been 
obtained.  They  are  as  follows: 

"There  is  no  doubt  that '  White  Shad,'  to  the  number  of  two  or  three  thousand,  were  taken  in 
the  Alabama  River  and  its  principal  tributary,  the  Coosa,  in  the  seasons  of  1878  and  1879,  and  of 
inferior  size  and  in  smaller  numbers  in  the  season  of  1877.  Whether  these  runs  of  Shad  were 
the  result  entirely  of  the  government  'plants,'  beginning  in  1875,  or  were  due  in  part  to  previous 
plants  made  by  individual  enterprise,  are  the  questions  to  the  solution  of  which  I  have  directed 
my  investigation.  I  have  not  sought  to  determine  the  question  whether  the  'White  Shad,'  Cltipea 
snpiilifxii/Ki.  is  indigenous  to  the  Alabama  River.  This  has  been  stated  again  and  again.  Judge 
1'lielan,  in  a  letter  to  the  'Montgomery  Advertiser'  of  April  11, 1878,  claims  to  have  eaten  'White 
Shad'  at  Ceutreville,  Alabama,  not  later  than  1848.  They  were  taken  in  traps  at  the  Falls  of  the 
Cahaba,  and  were  pronounced  'White  Shad'  by  Mr.  Samuel  Jamison,  an  old  North  Carolina  fish- 
erinan.  Judge  Phelan  further  states  that  some  claimed  that  they  were  only  Hickory  Shad. 

"No  amount  of  such  evidence  can  ever  settle  this  question.     There  is  always  the  possibility 

'Report  United  States  Fiah  Commission,  part  ii,  p.  55. 


596  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  mistake  on  the  part  of  those  making  the  assertion,  and  since  the  presumed  or  actual  introduc- 
tion of  Shad  into  these  waters,  we  cannot  settle  the  question  by  actual  identification  of  specimens. 

"  If  the  true  Clupea  sapidissima  is  natural  to  the  waters  of  the  Alabama,  or  if  the  plants  in  the 
Coosa  in  1848,  and  the  plant  in  Conley  Creek,  near  Montgomery,  in  1856,  were  successful,  then 
there  must  exist  in  the  waters  of  the  Alabama  certain  conditions  which  are  unfavorable  to  natural 
increase,  and  all  the  efforts  of  the  United  States  Commission  to  establish  an  annual  run  of  Shad 
in  the  Alabama  River  by  artificial  plantings  will  prove  abortive. 

''On  the  other  hand,  if  the  planting  operations  of  the  United  States  Commission  are  success- 
ful in  establishing  a  run  of  Shad  in  this  river,  the  result  will  prove  that  the  Shad  are  not  indigenous 
to  these  waters  and  that  previous  plants  were  unsuccessful.  Two  or  three  years  will  settle  this 
question. 

"  There  seems  to  be  nothing  in  the  conditions  presented  by  the  Alabama  River  to  prevent  the 
establishment  of  a  run  of  Shad  in  that  river,  unless  the  low  temperature  of  the  river  during  the 
running  season  of  the  fish  prevents  maturity  of  the  ova." 

The  geographical  range  of  the  Shad,  as  already  stated,  was  confined  to  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States  until,  by  the  operations  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  its  limits  were 
vastly  extended.  Runs  of  Shad,  sufficiently  large  to  be  of  commercial  value,  have  been  estab- 
lished in  several  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  River,  notably  the  Ohio  River;  and  the 
several  plants  made  from  time  to  time  in  the  Sacramento  River,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  have  resulted 
in  the  colonization  of  this  species  in  all  the  rivers  of  the  Pacific  slope,  from  the  Sacramento  to 
Puget  Sound. 

MIGRATIONS. — It  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  any  general  coastwise  movement  of  the 
Shad.  That  there  is  an  occasional  migration  of  this  kind  is  evidenced  by  the  following  facts: 
The  Shad  of  the  rivers  of  the  South  Atlantic  coast,  as  a  rule,  have  black-tipped  caudal  and 
dorsal  fins,  which  distinctive  marks  of  coloration  are  absent  in  the  Shad  of  more  northern  rivers; 
and  yet  occasionally  these  southern  Shad  are  caught  as  far  north  as  the  tributaries  of  the 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Bays.  These  fish  have  undoubtedly  been  born  and  bred  in  southern 
waters,  and  their  appearance  so  far  north  would  indicate  that  occasionally  this  southern  variety 
strays  beyond  its  normal  range.1  At  one  time2  it  was  imagined  that  the  whole  body  of  American 
Shad,  having  wintered  in  the  south,  started  northward  with  the  new  year,  and  as  each  river  mouth 
was  reached  a  detachment  would  leave  the  entire  mass  for  the  purpose  of  ascending  the  river,  the 
.  last  remaining  portion  of  the  immense  school  entering  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 

At  a  later  date  it  was  thought  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  young  fish,  hatched  out  in 
any  particular  stream,  went  out  into  the  sea  and  remained  within  a  moderate  distance  of  the  coast 
until  the  period  again  occurred  for  their  upward  river  migration.  Their  appearance,  first  in  the 
extreme  southern  river  of  the  coast,  the  Saint  John's,  and  at  later  dates  successively  in  the  more 
northern  rivers,  was  thought  to  confirm  this  view.  It  will  be  seen,  in  the  discussion  of  the  relation 
of  the  movements  of  the  Shad  to  the  water  temperature,  that  this  order  of  appearance  when 
preserved  may  be  reasonably  accounted  for;  there  are,  however,  exceptions.  For  instance,  the 
Edisto  River  is  many  miles  north  of  the  Savannah,  and  yet  the  run  of  Shad  in  the  former  is 
usually  coincident  with  that  in  the  latter.  This  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  Shad  are  generally 
distributed  along  the  coast  at  all  times,  entering  the  rivers  as  soon  as  the  temperature  of  the 

'Report  United  States  I 'Mi  Commission,  part  ii,  p.  48. 

*It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  there  are  probably  several  well-defined  hydrographical  areas  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  beyond  each  of  which  Shad  indigenous  to  that  area  rarely  stray.  Each  race  has  its  own  peculiar  characteristics. 


CATSKS  INFI.I  I:NVIN<;  MM; RATIONS.  597 

\v;it«-r  is  suitable.  It  is  lint  iiiilural  that  the  waters  of  a  creek  or  short  stream,  not  having  its 
source  in  the  mountains,  should  in  the  spring  heroine  warm  long  before  those  of  a  large  river 
wliose  headwaters  are  far  ii]>  among  (lie  nionntains;  for  which  reason  we  may  expect  to  lind,  in 
the  ease  of  t \\ o  livers,  the  most  southerly  of  which  has  a  longer  water-course  than  the  other,  that 
the  Shad  will  first  enter  the  more  northerly,  yet  shorter,  and  consequently,  at  a  given  date,  wanner 
stream.  The  question,  therefore,  appears  to  be  rather  one  of  temperature  than  of  geographical 
location. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  life  of  the  Shad  being  spent  in  salt  water,  the  possibility  of  close 
observation  as  to  their  food,  habits,  or  precise  habitat  is  precluded.  The  young  fry,  hatched  out 
in  the  rivers  in  spring  and  early  8ummer,  remain  there  until  the  following  fall,  when,  the  temper- 
ature of  the  waters  having  fallen  below  (50°,  they  leave  for  the  ocean.  Nothing  more  is  seen  of 
them  until  they  return  to  the  rivers  as  mature  tish  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  In  these  upward 
migrations  the  schools  of  mature  fish  ascend  the  rivers  either  until  obstructed  by  impassable  falls 
or  dams,  or  until  the  volume  of  water  becomes  very  inconsiderable.  Before  artificial  impediments 
were  placed  in  the  rivers,  the  limit  of  this  movement  was  the  natural  and  insurmountable  falls 
to  be  found  at  the  head  of  almost  all  of  our  principal  streams.  For  example,  in  the  Savannah 
River  the  Shad  used  to  ascend  to  the  Falls  of  Tallula,  at  the  very  source  of  the  river  in  the 
northern  part  of  Georgia.  In  the  Potomac  they  ascend  as  high  as  the  Great  Falls.  In  the 
Siix|iiehanna  River,  in  which  there  exist  no  natural  obstructions,  their  migrations  extended  up 
into  the  State  of  New  York,  a  distance  of  several  hundred  miles  above  the  present  limit.  On 
the  Hudson  River  they  ascended  to  Glens  Falls.  On  the  Connecticut  at  one  time  they  went  as 
high  as  Bellows  Falls,  but  recent  obstructions  in  this  river  have  materially  reduced  the  extent  of 
their  range. 

The  present  limit  of  the  upward  movement  of  the  Shad  in  our  rivers,  the  natural  limit  before 
obstructions  were  interposed,  and  the  extension  of  the  natural  limit  which  may  be  obtained  by 
overcoming  these  natural  and  artificial  obstructions  now  existing,  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
chart.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  breeding  area  has  been  diminished  from  one-half  to  one- 
fourth  i's  original  extent,  involving  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  productive  capacity  of  these 
streams.1 

HEREDITARY  INSTINCT  OF  LOCALITY. — The  annual  migration  of  the  Shad  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  into  the  fresh  waters  of  our  rivers  has  been  explained  by  various  theories.  In  regard  to 
the  salmon,  which  has  been  long  known  and  observed  in  European  waters,  the  fact  seems  to  have 
been  established  that  the  same  individual  will  return  year  after  year  to  the  same  stream  for  the 
purpose  of  spawning,  and  that  young  fish  bred  in  a  certain  stream  usually  come  back  to  the  same 
upon  their  return  from  the  ocean  as  mature  fish.  This  habit  has  not  been  conclusively  established 
in  regard  to  any  other  family  of  anodromous  fishes,  but  it  is  generally  believed  that  all  salt- water 
species  which  spawn  in  fresh  water  return  for  this  purpose  to  those  streams  in  which  they  them- 
selves were  deposited.  An  examination  of  the  literature  of  fish  culture  will  make  it  evident  that 
this  opinion  has  been  held  very  generally,  and,  indeed,  has  furnished  to  a  great  extent  the  argument 
for  the  prosecution  of  the  work  of  artificial  reproduction.  It  is  a  common  belief,  too,  among  fish- 
culturists  that  the  mature  individuals  of  all  anadromous  species,  including  the  Shad,  are  led  back 
to  the  waters  in  which  they  were  spawned  by  a  conscious  wish  on  their  part  to  return  to  those  very 
localities  in  which  they  spent  their  young  life.  Important  exceptions  to  this  rule  are,  however, 

'See  Chart  of  the  River  Basins  of  the  Atlantic  Slope. 


598  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

well  established  by  recent  observations.  For  instance,  it  is  well  established  that  the  runs  of  Shad 
into  the  Susquehanna  and  Potomac  Rivers  are  characterized  by  alternations  of  abundance;  that 
is  to  say,  an  excessively  large  yield  for  any  given  season  in  the  one  involves  a  corresponding  dimi- 
nution in  the  yield  for  the  same  season  in  the  other,  thus  precluding  the  possibility  of  each 
individual  returning  annually  to  its  native  stream.  Again,  it  was  confidently  expected  that  all 
the  young  Atlantic  Shad  which  were  transferred  to  and  planted  in  the  Sacramento  River  would, 
on  their  return  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  mature  fish,  find  their  way  back  to  this  stream.  This 
was  not,  however,  the  case,  for,  to  the  utter  astonishment  of  many  fish-culturists,  a  considerable 
number  of  these  now  mature  fish  made  their  appearance  in  many  streams  of  the  Pacific  lying  far 
north  of  the  Sacramento  River — streams  to  which  Shad  had  never  been  indigenous  and  in  which 
none  had  ever  been  planted. 

These  facts  go  a  long  way  to  disprove  the  theory  of  instinct  of  locality,  and  indicate  that  the 
river  movements  of  the  Shad  are  regulated  by  involuntary  and  extraneous  influences.  The  migra- 
tion and  colonization  of  this  fish  northward  along  the  Pacific  coast  has  been  so  general  that  at  the 
present  day  new  generations  of  a  single  plant  are  found  in  every  stream  on  the  Pacific  from  the 
Sacramento  River  to  Pujjet  Sound. 

THE  "FEEL"  OF  THE  KIVERS. — Some  writers,  notably  Mr.  Charles  G-.  Atkins,  have  suggested 
the  idea  that  the  upward  river  migration  of  the  auadromous  fishes  is  directed  by  an  instinct  which 
impels  them  to  swim  against  the  current.  It  is  supposed  by  him  that  in  their  coastwise  movement 
the  Shad,  when  opposite  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  feel  the  outflowing  current  and,  responding  to 
the  invitation,  immediately  turn  to  and  stem  it  and  are  thus  led  into  and  up  the  stream.  The 
conclusive  reply  to  this  supposition  is  that  in  the  wide  estuaries  of  our  North  Atlantic  streams  there 
is  no  sensible  current,  excepting  that  produced  by  the  tidal  ebb  and  flow,  which  is  far  too  indeter- 
minate to  be  the  directing  cause  of  the  migrations  of  those  vast  schools  of  Shad,  Alewives,  and  other 
species  which  annually  enter  our  rivers.  Even  if  the  fish  were  attracted  up  stream  by  the  gratifi- 
cation of  that  presumed  impulse  or  desire  to  swim  against  the  current,  how  can  we  account  for 
their  migration  down  stream,  at  the  appropriate  season,  this  movement  being  as  regular  and  as 
universal  as  the  upward  migration  f 

CHANGE  OF  SALINITY. — It  has  been  suggested  that  Shad  may  be  sensible  of  the  decreasing 
salinity  of  the  water  as  they  enter  and  ascend  the  rivers,  and  that  they  may  be  led  into  continental 
waters  in  order  to  enjoy  a  more  congenial  habitat;  but  in  this  event  it  is  necessary  to  explain 
why  they  do  not  remain  in  the  rivers  altogether. 

WATER  TEMPERATURES. — Prior  to  the  last  decade,  very  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  water 
temperatures  in  connection  with  the  migrations  of  fish.  We  have  on  record  but  few  series  of 
observations  of  water  temperature  during  the  season  of  our  river  fisheries.  Since  the  inauguration 
of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  however,  and  the  establishment  of  hatching  stations  on  the 
rivers,  it  haa  become  possible  to  make  a  closer  study  of  this  subject.  It  will,  however,  require  a 
connected  series  of  such  observations,  made  during  several  seasons  and  at  many  stations,  in  order 
to  obtain  sufficient  data  for  a  satisfactory  discussion  of  "the  relation  of  the  movements  of  fish  to 
the  water  temperatures."  Up  to  the  present  time  the  drift  of  investigation  goes  to  prove  that  the 
movements  of  fish,  auadromous  and  otherwise,  are  controlled  largely,  if  not  entirely,  by  the  tem- 
perature of  the  medium  in  which  they  live. 

In  the  case  of  "bottom -feeders,"  their  movements  are  dependent,  no  doubt,  principally  upon  the 


SHAD   IN   THE  SAINT  JOHN'S  UIVER. 

migrations  of  their  prey;  but  here  again  it  is  probable  that  the  movements  of  the  latter  arc  influ- 
enced by  temperature. 

In  the  case  of  Menhaden  and  Shad,  which  species  feed  as  they  swim,  the  temperature  of  the 
water  is  probably  the  main  factor  in  determining  their  movements.  It  is  a  fact,  for  example,  that 
(In-  disappearance  of  Menhaden  from  the  coast  of  Maine1  was,  and  has  each  year  since  been,  co- 
incident with  a  uniformly  lower  temperature  of  the  water  along  that  coast  dm  ing  the  menhaden 
season. 

The  causal  relations  of  the  migrations  of  the  sea  Herring  to  water  temperatures  is  a  matter 
recognized  by  the  pisciculturists  and  fishermen  of  the  North  European  Atlantic  region;  but  their 
observations,  as  with  our  Shad,  have  not  been  sufficiently  extensive  to  enable  them  to  define  accu- 
rately the  relations  of  the  one  to  the  other. 

In  regard  to  the  Shad,  and  presumptively  to  other  fishes  also,  it  is  believed  to  be  true  that 
there  is  a  certain  temperature  of  the  water  in  which  these  fish  prefer  to  live;  in  other  words, 
that  they  aim  to  occupy  a  bydrothermal  area  of  certain  temperature;  and,  further,  that  their 
migrations  are  determined  by  the  shifting  of  this  area. 

To  state  this  theory  somewhat  differently,  it  is  believed  that  all  migratory  fish  have  a  normal 
range  of  temperature  in  which  they  seek  to  remain.  As  before  stated,  observations  on  this  point 
are  not  as  yet  extensive,  and  therefore  the  limiting  hydro-isothermals  within  which  a  given  species 
may  at  any  time  be  found  cannot  yet  bo  absolutely  defined. 

So  far  as  this  matter  has  been  examined  with  regard  to  the  Shad,  the  following  conclusion 
has  been  reached,  namely,  that  they  occupy  an  hydro-isothermal  belt,  or  area,  limited  by  the  tem- 
perature of  60°  F.  to  70°  F. ;  that  they  move  with  this  belt,  t.  e.,  as  the  season  advances,  into  and 
up  the  rivers.  This  movement,  at  least  in  the  case  of  the  Shad  and  Herring,  takes  place  at  the 
time  when  they  have  nearly  matured  their  spawn,  and  just  at  that  important  crisis,  by  means  of 
that  exact  balance  and  adjustment  which  nature  everywhere  provides,  the  fish  are  brought  by 
influences  of  which  they  are  entirely  unconscious  into  such  relations  and  under  such  conditions 
as  make  reproduction  possible.  But,  although  the  operation  of  spawning  is  mainly  that  for 
which  the  fitness  of  relations  and  conditions  has  been  ordained,  the  following  statements  will  show 
that  the  fish  in  moving  up  the  rivers  are  not  always  actuated  by  the  immediate  desire  to  deposit 
their  spawn. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SAINT  JOHN'S  RIVER,  FLORIDA. — In  the  Saint  John's  lliver,  Florida, 
the  Shad  appear  in  the  river  several  months  before  the  spawning  time,  and,  although  this  season  in 
the  Upper  Saint  John's  is  not  largely  in  advance  of  the  same  season  in  rivers  as  far  north  as  certain 
tributaries  of  the  Chesapeake,  yet  by  reason  of  their  early  presence  in  the  Saint  John's  the  shad 
fisheries,  as  has  before  been  noted,  are  there  prosecuted  during  the  entire  winter.  They  do  not 
•enter  the  river  at  this  time  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  By  reference  to  tables  giving  the  tempera- 
tures of  the  Saint  John's  Itiver  at  Jacksonville  for  twelve  months  beginning  March  1,  1877,  and 
ending  February  28,  1878,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  Saint  John's  Kiver  the  temperature  of  the 
water  gradually  descends,  reaching  G0°  F.  at  Jacksonville  about  the  last  of  November.  This  date 
is  coincident  with  the  first  appearance  of  Shad  in  the  Saint  John's. 

1  This  commenced  in  1879,  and  they  have  not  yet  reappeared  to  any  extent. 


600 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


Table  of  temperatwes,  Saint  John's  River,  Jacksonville,  Florida. 

RECORD  OF  DAILY  OBSERVATIONS  TAKEN  AT  3  P.  M. 

[Data  furnished  by  Prof.  G.  BFOWD  Goode.] 


Date. 

Location  of  thermometer. 

Date. 

Location  of  thermometer. 

Dale. 

Location  of  thermometer. 

Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

1877. 
Mar  1 

op. 
69 
61 
70 
76 
78 
54 
70 
76.3 
73 
51 
61 
74 
76 
72 
69 
72 
77 
01 
70 

8 

63 
69 
72 
67 
54 
V5 
81 
67 
60 
77 
71 
78 
75 
78 
78 
79 
M 
76 
75 
62 
62 
68 
71 
61 
67 
74 
77 
81 
79 
84 
80 
74 
76 
84 
84 
79 
85 
83 
78 
75 

OF. 
60 
61 
62 
62 
65 
62 
64 
M 
64 
64 
63 
65 
66 
65 
65 
66 
66 
65 
64 
62 
62 
62 
62 
62 
63 
59 
58 
59 
60 
60 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
64 
66 
68 
64 
66 
64 
63 
63 
64 
60 
61 
62 
64 
64 
65 
66 
68 
67 
68 
70 
72 
69 
70 
70 
70 
G9 

OF. 
60 
61 
61.5 
62 
64 
62 
63 
64 
64 
64 
63 
M 
66 
64 
64 
65 
65 
65 
63 
61 
62 
61 
62 
62 
63 
59 
57 
57 
59 
60 
60 
60 
61 
62 
63 
63 
66 
67 
64 
65 
65 
63 
63 
64 
60 
61 
61 
62 
63 
61 
66 
67 
66 
67 
69 
71 
69 
70 
70 
69 
69 

1877. 
May  1 

°F. 
71 
76 
81 
80 
86 
84 
83 
77 
76 
80 
75 
74 
80 
79 
78 
77 
75 
74 
80 
82 
84 
91 
95 
78 
82 
74 
72 
67 
73 
76 
79 
80 
81 
84 
89 
8i 
86 
95 
94 
89 
87 
77 
77 
81 
.  81 
85 
84 
86 
88 
95 
80 
84 
87 
90 
90 
95 
97 
98 
97 
88 
89 

OF. 
69 
68 
69 
70 
70 
72 
71 
70 
71 
73 
70 
70 
71 
71 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
75 
76 
77 
76 
76 
74 
71 
69 
69 
70 
70 
71 
72 
75 
77 
77 
76 
78 
78 
80 
80 
79 
77 
76 
79 
78 
78 
78 
79 
83 
83 
84 
83 
82 
81 
84 
83 
83 
85 
85 
84 

OF. 

69 
!J8 
68 
69 
70 
71 
70 
70 
70 
72 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
75 
76 
77 
76 
76 
74 
71 
70 
68 
69 
70 
70 
72 
74 
76 
77 
75 
78 
78 
80 
79 
79 
77 
76 
76 
77 
78 
78 
79 
82 
83 
84 
82 
81 
81 
84 
85 
85 
85 
85 
84 

1877. 
July  1  

OF. 
90 
92 
90 
95 
80 
96 
85 
83 
87 
83 
85 
85 
87 
89 
89 
88 
87 
80 
90 
81 
84 
80 
87 
89 
88 
91 
91 
92 
97 
98 
87 
86 
85 
90 
90 
90 
92 
95 
92 
91 
94 
90 
90 
92 
81 
87 
92 
88 
78 
81 
83 
84 
78 
81 
87 
80 
82 
86 
85 
87 
00 
90 

op. 
83 
84 
85 
85 
85 
84 
82 
81 
82 
83 
83 
80 
82 
82 
81 
80 
82 
82 
82 
79 
81 
81 
82 
82 
82 
82 

M 

84 
85 
84 
84 
83 
82 
83 
83 
85 
87 
86 
86 
83 
83 
84 
83 
84 
83 
82 
83 
83 
79 
79 
79 
80 
71) 
79 
80 
79 
78 
79 
79 
79 
80 
80 

°  R 
83 
83.5 
85 
85 
85 
83 
82 
81.5 
82 
83 
82.5 
80 
81 
82 
81 
80 
81 
82 
82 
79 
80 
81 
81 
81 
82 
82 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 
82 
82 
83 
83 
85 
87 
86 
86 
83 
83 
84 
82 
83 
83 
82 
82 
83 
79 
79 
7» 
80 
79 
79 
80 
79 
78 
78 
78 
78 
79 
80 

2 

y  2 

2  

3 

3  

3  

4 

4 

4  

5 

6   

5  

0 

g 

6  

7 

7  

7  
8  

| 

g 

9 

9  

9  

10 

10 

10  . 

11 

11  

11  

12 

12 

12  ... 

13 

13.. 

13  

14 

14 

14  . 

15 

15   .  .. 

15  

16  .  .. 

18  

16  
17... 

17 

17  

18 

18 

18 

19 

19   .  . 

19  

20 

20 

20 

21 

21    

21  

22 

22 

22 

23 

23 

23   . 

24 

24  .. 

24... 

25 

25  ..  .. 

25   . 

26 

26  .. 

26... 

27  

27  
28  

27  

28 

28... 

29 

29 

29 

30 

30  

SO  . 

31 

31 

31 

A  or.  1 

Aug.  1  ... 

P  2  I 

2  

2... 

3 

3  

3  ... 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5  

5  . 

«  

6  

6  .. 

7 

7  

7  ... 

g  

g  

8  .. 

j 

0  

9 

10  

10  

10  

11 

11  

11 

12  
13 

12 

12 

13 

13 

14  

14  

14... 

15 

15 

15 

16   ...  . 

18  

10  .. 

17 

17 

17 

18  

18  

18.. 

10 

19 

19 

20 

20  

20 

21 

21 

21 

22  .. 

22  

22   

23 

23 

23 

24  . 

24  ... 

24 

25   

25 

25 

26 

26  

27 

26 

27 

27 

28 

28 

28 

2»  
80  . 

29 

29 

30 

30 

31 



EXTREME  AND  MEAN  TEMPERATURES,  BY  MONTHS. 


Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

March: 

oK. 
81.0 

OF. 
66.0 

OF. 
66.0 

Juno  : 

OF. 

OS  0 

OF. 
85  0 

OK. 

85.0 

51.0 

58  0 

67  0 

77  0 

71  0 

70  0 

Mf»n   

09.  1 

•  i; 

62  2 

87  4 

79  4 

79  2 

Aplil: 

85.0 

72.0 

71.0 

July: 

98.0 

85.0 

85.0 

61.0 

60.0 

60.0 

81  0 

79  0 

70.0 

Mean  

78.0 

.     65.7 

65.1 

Mean  

87.0 

K'J.  f, 

82.4 

May: 

95  0 

77  0 

77.0 

Anfruat: 

95  0 

87  0 

87.0 

M  illinium  

71.0 

68.0 

68.0 

81  0 

79.0 

78.0 

Mean  

78.7 

74.3 

71.0 

87  0 

81.7 

81.4 

TKMI'KKATIKK  OF  Till:  SAINT  JOHN'S  RIVER. 

Table  of  ttmprnittirr.*.  Snint  John'*  River,  Jacksonville,  Florida — Continued 

RECORD  OF  DAILY  OBSERVATIONS  TAKEN  AT  3  P.  M. 

[Data  furuliilitd  by  Pruf.  O.  Brown  Goodo.) 


601 


I'll. 

Locution  of  thrrniiuiit  trr. 

I>..|. 

Location  of  thermometer. 

Ditto. 

Locution  of  thermometer. 

Air. 

•s-i  •  1 
7-  1  ,  I  •  i  i 

Bottom. 

Air. 

M,:!... 

Bottom. 

Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

1877. 
Sept.  1  

OF. 
M 

90 
• 
85 
88 

90 

-: 
80 
86 
• 
M 
93 
91 
84 
• 

• 
86 
88 
M 
88 
83 
80 
82 
81 
75 
78 
81 
80 
73 
76 
80 
80 
81 
72 
70 
71 
84 
76 
78 
79 
77 
76 
78 
77 
77 
80 
80 
83 
81 
77 
69 
72 
71 
84 
79 
77 
79 
80 
82 
79 

OF. 

i 

80 
80 
80 
80 
81 
82 
81 
81 
81 
81 
82 
-J 
80 
81 
• 

i 

82 
82 
82 
81 
81 
81 
79 
78 
77 

n 

76 
75 
74 
74 
74 
74 
78 
71 
70 
70 
71 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
71 
72 
72 
71 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
71 

OF. 

81 

i 

80 
80 
SO 
81 
81 
80 
80 
81 
81 
• 
• 
80 
81 
81 
•-• 
82 
82 
82 
81 
81 
81 
79 
77.5 
77 
77 
75 
75 
74 

8 

74 
72.5 
71 
71 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
71 
71 
72 
71 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 

69 
71 
70.5 

1877. 

OF. 
80 
88 
68 
78 
78 
«I7 
71 
75 
66 
58 
59 
63 
68 
73 
70 
76 
76 
78 
71 
70 
71 
64 
63 
64 
67 
67 
78 
64 
67 
46 
51 
51 
66 
65 
65 
80 
54 

OF. 

71 
71 
70 

• 
69 

68 
68 
67 
64 
62 
61 
60 
61 
61 
63 
• 
63 
63 
63 
63 
62 
62 
61 
60 
60 
60 
60 
59 
56 
84 
62 
62 
83 
52 
51 
51 

OF. 

71 
71 
70 
69 
69 
68 
68 
68 
67 
64 
61 
60 
59.5 
61 
61 
62 
63 
63 
63 
63 

62 
62 
61 
60 
60 
60 
60 
59 
56 
54 
52 
52 
52 
52 
61 
61 

1878. 

OF. 

M 
58 
60 
58 
48 
48 
48 
48 
62 
52 
60 
60 
70 
60 
61 
54 
59 
63 
70 
73 
67 
62 
62 
65 
66 
«7 
71 
65 
63 
65 
61 
62 
72 
56 
50 
62 
56 
71 
71 
67 
65 
55 
52 
61 
70 
68 
62 
60 
69 
61 
67 
68 
72 
66 
71 
63 
85 
55 
67 

OF. 

56 
55.6 
56 
56 
54 
• 
62 
52 
62 
62 
52 
52 
53 
53 
52 
52 
53 
84 
55 
M 
56 
56 
66 
51 
86 
67 
58 
88 
58 
69 
59 
58 
69 
88 
67 
56 
56 
58 
88 
88 
58 
57 
56 
6S.5 
57 
67 
88 
58 
88 
58 
59 
59 
60 
61 
63 
61 
60 
59 
60.5 

OF. 
M 
85 
86 
86 
M 
SI.  8 
82 
82 
51.5 
61.5 
61 
51 
53 
• 
52 
52 
52 
53 
54 
56 
56 
86 
M 
56 
56 
56 
58 
M 
88 
59 
58.5 
58 
59 
57.5 
87 
56 

E 

58 
57 
87 
87 
88 
55 
56 
57 
58 
88 
58 
88 
59 
59 
60 
61 
63 
61 
60 
59 
59.5 

V  2  

2  
3  

1  

8  

4  

6  

6  

1  

7  
8  

10  

10  

9  
10  

12  

11  
11  . 

11  

13  

18  

14  

14 

15  

15  

15  

17  

16  
17  

16  
17  

19  
M  
21  
22  
23  

18  
19  
20 
21  
22  
23  

18  
19  
20  
21  
22  
23  

28  
26  
27  
28  
29  

25  
26  
27  
28  
29 

24  
25  
26  
27  
28  

30  

80  

30  

a  
«  

Deo.  1  
2  
8... 

31  
Fob.  1  

4  
6  

4  
5  

3  
4  

7  
8  
»  
10  
11  
12  
13  

8.  

7  
8  
9  
10  
11  
12  
13 

5  
6  
7  
8  
9  
10  
11  

14  
15  
16  
17  
18  
19  
20  

14  
15  
16  
17  
18  
19  
20 

60 
62 
71 
71 
60 
71 
73 
64 
63 
62 
67 
B 
52 

58 
58 
60 
61 
61 
61 
01 
61 
61 
61 
61 
61 
57 

58 
08 
60 
61 
60.  5 
11 
61 
61 
61 
61 
61 

S.j 

13  
14  
15  
16  
17  
18  

21  
S3  

21  
22 

20  

23  
24  

23  
24  

22  
23  

25  
M  

25  
26 

24  

27  
28  

27  .. 
28  

26  
27  

30  
11  

29  
30  

28  

EXTREME  AND  MEAN  TEMPERATURES,  BY  MONTHS— Continued. 


Air. 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Air. 

Snriiw. 

Bottom. 

September: 
Maximum  
Minimum  

OF. 

94.0 
73.0 

OF. 
82.0 
74.0 

OF. 

82.0 
74.0 

I  >.!•!•  in  Ih-r  : 
Maximnm  
Minimum  

OF. 
73.0 
51.0 

OF. 

01.0 
61.0 

OF. 
01.0 
51.  0 

Mran  
October: 

M    IX'IIIIIITI     ..  

85.2 
84.0 

80.1 
74  0 

73.9 
74  0 

Mean  

Jiinn.iry: 

62.1 

57.4 

57.3 

Minimum  

70.0 

70.0 

69.0 

Minimum  

48.0 

52.0 

M.O 

Mran  

77.7 

70.8 

707 

MOMI.  

60.4 

54.8 

54.5 

NovemlM-r  : 
Maximum  

83  0 

71  0 

71  0 

Febnrirv: 

72.0 

Minimum  

!       I. 

56.0 

56  0 

50  0 

55.  5 

Mean  

68.4 

(3.6 

63  5 

iM.  ri 

83.  3 

48.  3 



602  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Now,  in  all  other  streams  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  fish  appear  to  wait  until  the  temperature 
of  the  river  has  risen  above  that  of  the  salt-water  area  into  which  the  river  empties,  before  they 
ascend  in  the  spring.  The  migration  of  the  Shad  iuto  the  Saint  John's  River  is  clearly  not  for  the 
immediate  purpose  of  spawning,  as  that  operation  is  not  performed  for  mouths,  but  in  order  that 
they  may  keep  within  the  limits  of  the  hydro-isothermal  area  appropriate  to  them.  We  must 
suppose  that  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  waters,  on  the  continental  plateau  outside  the  coast 
line,  is  higher  than  60°  F.,  and  although  uncongenial  to  the  fish,  yet  they  must  necessarily 
remain  in  that  temperature  until  the  waters  of  the  Saint  John's,  cooling  as  winter  advances,  have 
fallen  below  the  temperature  of  the  outside  waters.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  water  of  a  lower  tern 
perature  than  that  in  which  they  are  commingles  with  the  ocean  water,  it  serves  as  an  incentive — 
as  it  were  the  signal — for  their  migration  into  the  estuary  of  the  Saint  John's. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  POTOMAC  RIVER  IN  1881. — In  1881  the  writer,  then  in  charge  of  the 
shad-hatching  operations  on  the  Potomac  River,  collected  full  statistics  of  the  catch  of  Shad  and 
Alewives  from  four  of  the  seine  fisheries  occupying  that  section  of  the  river  lying  between  Indian 
Head  and  Mount  Vernon.  From  these  statistics  the  fluctuations  in  the  run  of  the  Shad  up  the 
river  have  been  closely  approximated,  and  at  the  close  of  this  paragraph  general  deductions  rela- 
tive to  the  same  will  be  made.  Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Light- House  Board  and  the  United 
States  Signal  Office,  observations  on  the  water  temperature  at  Winter  Quarter  Shoals  and  at 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  have  been  obtained.  The  former  point  is  a  light-house  .in  the  Atlantic,  lying 
about  fifteen  miles  from  the  Virginia  coast,  and  situated,  it  is  believed,  on  the  inner  edge  of  the 
cold  arctic  current  that  flows  down  the  coast  inside  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  observations 
taken  there  represent  the  temperature  of  the  water  on  the  continental  plateau  between  Cape 
Charles  and  Cape  Henry.  The  records  taken  at  Norfolk  serve  as  an  index  of  the  temperature 
of  the  waters  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  are  subject  to  inaccuracies,  Elizabeth  River  being  hardly 
more  than  a  tidal  estuary,  and  the  temperature  of  its  waters  being  influenced  very  materially  by 
local  meteorological  conditions. 

A  graphical  representation  of  the  temperatures  at  these  two  points,  as  also  of  the  corre- 
sponding temperatures  at  the  Potomac  hatching  station,  is  given  in  the  accompanying  diagram, 
which  serves  to  illustrate  the  influence  of  hydrothermals  in  determining  the  direction  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  Shad  and  Alewives  and  in  limiting  their  range.  In  the  diagram  are  also  presented 
the  fluctuations  of  the  run  of  these  fish  in  the  fishing  season,  as  deduced  from  the  records  of 
"catch,"  furnished  by  the  four  seine  fisheries  already  alluded  to.1 

By  reference  to  the  diagram  it  will  be  seen  that  during  the  first  seventeen  days  of  April  (1) 
the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  Potomac  was  occasionally  lower  than  at  Winter  Quarter  Shoals 
during  the  same  period  of  time;  (2)  that  the  water  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  was  warmer  than  that 
of  the  ocean  between  Cape  Charles  and  Cape  Henry,  and  also  warmer  than  the  water  in  the 
Potomac  River,  and  that  (3)  during  that  time  the  temperature  was  in  none  of  those  waters  above 
60°  F.  As  soon  as  with  the  advancing  season  the  water  in  the  river  became  warmer  than  in  the 
bay  the  Shad  commenced  to  ascend  the  Potomac,  and  when  the  temperature  of  the  river  rose  to 
60°  F.  the  upward  run  attained  its  maximum ;  the  main  body  of  Shad  and  Herring  ascended  the 
river  when  its  temperature  ranged  from  56°  F.  to  66°  F.;  and,  further,  that  when  the  temperature 
of  the  river  passed  above  GC°  F.  the  run  of  Shad  and  Herring  rapidly  diminished.  It  may  be 
seen  also  that  in  general  the  fluctuations  in  the  run  of  the  Herring  closely  followed  that  of  the 

'Although  the  data  obtained  from  those  four  shores  do  not  by  any  means  represent  the  total  catch  for  the  whole 
river,  yet,  covering  as  they  do  a  complete  section  of  the  river,  they  furnish  figures  from  which  the  fluctuations  in  the 
upward  migrations  of  the  Shad  and  Alewife  for  the  whole  river  can  be  approximated. 


MOVEMENTS  OF  YOUNG  SHAD.  603 

Shad.  The  run  of  Alewives  indicated  by  the  diagram  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  at  low 
temperature  was  undoubtedly  ('•  rrnmlix,  or  the  1 '.ranch  Herring,  which  makes  its  run  on  a  tem- 
perature several  decrees  lower  than  suitable  to  the  Shad  or  the  (Hut  Herring.  The  fact  that  the 
Shail  commence  i  mmim:  into  the  Potomac  when  the  temperature  of  the  river  is  56°  F.  or  less, 
does  not  antagonize  the  theory  here  stated,  that  the  hydro-isothermal  area  which  they  prefer  to 
occupy  is  that  having  the  temperature  of  about  00°  F.  If,  as  is  probably  the  case,  there  is  oeean- 
ward.s  a  limiting  wall  of  low  temperature  for  the  Shad  occupying  the  Chesapeake  area,1  then 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year  the  Shad  must  be  found  at  some  point  within  that  area,  be  the  tempera- 
ture exactly  what  they  prefer  or  not.  In  other  words,  the  Shad  in  their  migrations  travel  on 
temperature  paths,  the  direction  being  always  towards  60°  F. 

shad  ready  to  deposit  their  spawn  seem  to  prefer  waters  of  a  warmer  temperature  than  60°  F. 
Therefore,  when  the  mature  Shad,  intent  on  reproduction,  leave  the  hydrothermal  area  of  60° 
V.  and  ascend  the  rivers  into  waters  of  65°  F.  to  70°  F.  and  upwards,  they  are  unaccompanied  by 
the  half-grown  Shad,  the  latter  ceasing  to  ascend  as  soon  as  they  encounter  a  temperature  of  more 
than  00°  F.  In  1882,  however,  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  below  GO0  F.  for  the  greater 
portion  of  the  season,  the  spawning  had  to  take  place  in  water  colder  than  the  fish  would  have 
preferred,  and  therefore  mature  and  young  Shad  were  found  together  on  the  spawning  grounds. 

Observations  made  during  that  season  show  that  large  numbers  of  young  Shad  were  taken, 
which  would  not  have  been  the  case  had  the  temperature  of  the  river  waters  risen  above  00°  F. 
Inasmuch  as  the  fishing  operations  are  conducted  with  a  view  to  obtain  mature  fish,  and  in  most 
years  the  yonng  do  not  accompany  the  full-grown  fish  up  to  the  fishing  grounds,  it  would  certainly 
appear  as  though  this  was  a  special  provision  of  nature  to  secure  the  continuance  of  the  species, 
providing  against  the  capture  of  the  young  Shad  during  the  fishing  season. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  YOUNG  SHAD  IN  THE  POTOMAC. — The  young  Shad 
which  are  hatched  out  during  May  and  June  remain  in  their  native  streams  until  the  temperature 
of  the  water  falls  below  GO0  F.  They  then  move  down  the  rivers  as  the  temperature  falls,  passing 
into  the  salt  water  as  soon  as  the  cooler  weather  has  reduced  the  river  temperature  below  the 
•degree  congenial  to  them,  and,  as  a  rule,  return  no  more  to  the  fresh  waters  until  they  are  full- 
grown  fish.  This  statement  is  borne  out  by  observations  made  in  1881  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Stuart  and 
Mr.  Gwynn  Harris,  inspectors  of  marine  products.  These  gentlemen,  who  have  been  largely 
engaged  for  many  years  in  the  Potomac  fisheries,  whose  interest  is  always  manifested  in  connec- 
tion with  all  matters  relating  to  the  fisheries,  undertook,  at  the  instance  of  Professor  Baird,  United 
States  Fish  Commissioner,  to  observe  the  movements  of  the  young  Shad  in  the  Potomac  in  front 
of  the  city  of  Washington.  Their  observations  show  that  on  November  1C,  when  the  thermometer 
showed  the  temperature  of  the  water  to  be  68°  F.,  young  Shad  were  present  in  the  Potomac  at 
Washington  in  large  numbers.  From  this  date  the  temperature  of  the  water  gradually  fell,  co- 
incident with  which  the  numbers  of  young  Shad  decreased  until  on  November  23  the  fish  had 
entirely  disappeared,  the  thermometer  then  showing  58°  F.  The  disappearance  of  these  fish  can 
be  referred  only  to  the  fact  that  the  water  had  fallen  "below  60°  F.,  for  as  long  as  that  temperature 
•was  preserved  the  fish  remained  in  the  portion  of  the  river  under  observation.  The  lowering  of 
the  temperature  of  the  water  seems  to  present  the  only  variable  factor  in  the  conditions  which 
surrounded  them,  and  to  this  we  may  reasonably  refer  their  disappearance. 

THE  PERIOD  OF  RIVEU  LIFE. — The  deposit  of  the  eggs  of  the  mature  Shad  in  fresh  waters 
seems  to  be  a  necessary  condition  for  their  development.  The  idea  has  prevailed  to  some 

'The  Chesapeake  area  includes  the  Potomac  River,  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributary  streams,  and  the 
ocean  between  Cape  Henry  and  Cape  Charles. 


604  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

extent  that  the  Shad  under  certain  circumstances  spawn  in  salt  or  brackish  waters.  Experi- 
ments have,  however,  been  made  to  verify  this  supposition,  but  have  proved  unsuccessful. 
Whilst  impregnation  under  such  conditions  has  been  shown  to  be  possible,  and  development  has 
proceeded  to  a  certain  point,  yet  before  the  hatching  took  place  the  development  of  the  embryo 
broke  down.  The  annual  migrations  .of  the  Shad  into  our  streams  are  made  apparently  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  reproduction,  excepting  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  Florida,  where  their  first 
movement  into  the  river  seems  to  be  attributable  to  an  influence  other  than  that  above  mentioned. 
The  time  of  these  migrations  into  the  rivers  varies  with  the  geographical  position  of  the  river.  As 
a  general  rule,  it  is  usually  later  as  we  proceed  farther  to  the  north,  though  we  find  some  excep- 
tions. It  may  be  stated  generally  that  this  migration  takes  place  as  Boon  as  the  continental 
waters  have  become  warmer  than  the  salt- water  areas  into  which  they  discharge.  The  schools  of 
fish  having  entered  the  streams,  ascend  until  they  have  reached  suitable  spawning  grounds.  The 
deposit  and  fertilization  of  the  eggs  having  been  accomplished,  their  development  commences,  and 
in  a  few  days,  the  period  varying  with  the  temperature,  the  young  fish,  bursting  their  shells,  make 
their  appearance.  These  remain  in  the  rivers,  feeding  and  growing  all  summer,  and  leave'late  in 
the  fall,  at  which  time  they  are  two  or  three  inches  in  length.  The  life  history  of  the  Shad  from 
this  time  is  unknown  to  us.  The  young  fish,  having  disappeared,  do  not  again  come  under  our 
observation  until  they  return  as  mature  fish  to  deposit  their  spawn. 

The  motive  of  their  movement  into  the  rivers  being  for  purposes  of  reproduction,  we  would 
expect  that  with  the  accomplishment  of  this  desire  the  mature  fish  would  return  to  salt  water. 
This  is  the  general  impression  among  fishermen,  and  may  be  true  as  a  general  fact,  but  there  are 
instances  on  record  where  a  full-grown  Shad  in  good  condition  has  been  taken  in  our  rivers  long 
after  the  spawning  season  is  over,  and  even  late  in  autumn.  One  of  the  largest  Shad  I  have  ever 
seen  from  the  Potomac  was  taken  in  the  vicinity  of  the  White  House  in  the  mouth  of  November. 
In  the  season  of  1880,  I  believe,  several  full-grown  Shad  were  taken  below  Holyoke  Dam  on  the 
Connecticut  River  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  These  instances  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
under  certain  conditions  the  Shad  may  remain  in  our  rivers  during  the  whole  season. 

The  appearance  of  the  spent  fish,  or  those  which  have  deposited  their  eggs,  enables  the  fisher- 
men to  recognize  them  at  once,  and  various  names  have  been  given  to  them.  From  the  fact  that 
they  are  supposed  to  be  moving  down  the  stream  when  taken,  they  are  called  "Down-runners," 
and  from  their  lean,  slim  appearance,  they  are  also  called  "  Racers." 

The  Shad  make  their  first  appearance  in  the  Saint  John's  River  about  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber, the  height  of  their  spawning  season  in  that  river  being  about  the  1st  of  April.  In  the 
Savannah  River  they  appear  early  in  January,  and  in  the  Neuse  River  at  a  period  not  much  later 
than  in  the  Savannah.  In  the  Albemarle  the  important  Shad  seine-fisheries  begin  early  in  March, 
but  doubtless  the  fish  are  in  the  Sound  some  time  before  that  date;  not,  however,  in  numbers 
sufficient  to  justify  the  great  expenses  attendant  upon  the  pperation  of  these  large  seines.  In  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  they  make  their  appearance  in  February,  although  the  height  of  the  fishing 
season  in  its  waters  is  during  April  and  May,  and  at  a  date  somewhat  later  in  the  more  northern 
tributaries.  In  the  Delaware,  Connecticut,  Merrimac,  and  Saint  John  (Nova  Scotia)  Rivers,  Shad 
are  first  seen  at  periods  successively  later  as  we»  proceed  farther  north.  The  date  of  their  first 
appearance  in  any  of  these  waters,  however,  varies  from  season  to  season,  the  limit  of  such  varia- 
tion being  from  three  to  four  weeks. 

These  irregularities  in  the  time  of  the  run  into  our  rivers,  which  cause  so  much  perplexity 
and  discouragement  to  the  fishermen,  are,  however,  readily  explained  when  we  keep  in  view  what 


I.'KI'KODUCTION  OF  THE  SHAD. 

ha*  I"  «-n  already  said  in  regard  t<>  the  iiiHiu-nces  of  temperature  in  determining  the  movements  of 
«hcse  fishes. 

CAISKS  IM-I.I  i:Nci.N(i  Tin:  i:\ii;  ni  MHVI:MKNT  rr  KIVKKS.— The  rate  and  duration  of  the 
movement  of  Shad  in  our  rivers  are  intlnenced  by  various  causes.  If,  in  consequence  of  warm 
rains  at  the  river's  .-.onice,  the  temperatiire  of  the  water  heroines  suitable  to  the  Shad  at  an  earlier 
date  than  usual,  then  their  upward  movement  takes  place  very  rapidly,  and,  we  may  say,  tumult- 
iiously.  the  great  .-.cliools  of  fish  crowding  in  and  moving  up  all  at  once,  so  as  to  produce  what  is 
termed  a  "glut."  If,  however,  the  temperature  of  the  river  rises  by  insensible  degrees  witb  the 
advance  of  the  season,  then  the  upward  movement  begins  when  the  water  temperature  of  tbe  river 
II:IN  passed  above  that  of  the  sea,  and  takes  place  gradually,  the  rate  of  movement  in  such  cases 
iK'ing  slow  and  the  period  prolonged.  Again,  when  the  Shad  have  entered  the  rivers,  the  temper- 
ature conditions  being  such  as  to  dcti-nnine  a  rapid  upward  movement,  yet  should  the  fish  en- 
counter floods  and  consequent  muddy  waters,  their  upward  movement  is  arrested,  the  schools  back 
down  before  the  flood,  and  if  this  condition  be  prolonged,  may  be  driven  entirely  out  of  the  river. 
In  short,  fluctuations  in  the  river  temperature  have  corresponding  influences  upon  the  shad  move- 
ments; any  sudden  change,  whether  to  a  higher  or  lower  temperature,  apparently  arresting  their 
upward  course  for  a  time,  and  sometimes  even  determining  a  retrograde  movement. 

Many  of  the  anomalies  which  perplex  fishermen  in  the  course  of  their  work  may  be  explained 
by  the  varying  movements  of  the  fish,  as  controlled  by  the  water  temperature  in  the  rivers.  We 
find,  for  example,  that  while  at  a  particular  seine-shore,  during  one  season,  a  very  large  catch 
is  made,  yet  in  the  following  season,  although  the  general  run  of  fish  in  the  river  has  not  dimin- 
ished, the  fishery  in  the  same  locality  may  prove  a  failure.  If  we  suppose  a  seine  to  sweep  the 
flats  at  the  mouth  of  such  a  stream  as  the  Occoquan  Creek,1  and  if  we  further  suppose  that  the 
river  waters  in  the  channel  are  colder  than,  or  as  cold  as,  the  waters  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  the 
Shad  in  their  movement  up  the  river  would  avoid  the  main  current,  and  would  slowly  work  their 
way  up  along  the  shores  and  over  the  flats,  where  the  temperature  of  the  waters  will  be  found  to 
be,  under  such  circumstances,  several  degrees  warmer  than  in  the  channel.  Such  a  season  would 
be  profitable  to  a  seine  sweeping  the  flats.  Again,  if  the  waters  in  the  main  channel  of  the  river 
were  of  suitable  temperature,  then  the  upward  movement  of  the  Shad  would  take  place  in  the 
channel  and  not  along  the  flats.  Under  such  circumstances  a  "channel  seine,"  e.  </.,  that  of  the 
••  White.  House,"  would  make  a  very  large  catch,  whilst  a  seine  hauled  over  the  flats,  as  on  the 
Pamitnkey  shore,  would  probably  find  very  indifferent  fishing. 

REPRODUCTION. — The  age  at  which  the  Shad  reaches  maturity  and  becomes  capable  of  repro- 
ducing is  not  definitely  determined ;  it  is  generally  held  by  fish-culturists,  however,  that  the  female 
Shad  attains  this  condition  when  three  or  four  years  old.  The  period  of  maturity  for  the  male,  if 
the  relative  size  of  the  two  sexes  be  taken  as  an  indication,  is  much  earlier  than  for  the  female. 
Males,  or  "  Buck  Shad,"  weighing  less  than  one  and  a  half  pounds  (numbers  of  which  always  accom- 
pany the  schools  of  larger  fish),  are  fouud  to  be  milters,  and  at  the  shad-hatching  stations — 
especially  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  season — the  spawn-takers  are  frequently  compelled  to  have 
recourse  to  these  fish  in  order  to  get  the  milt  necessary  for  the  fertilization  of  the  eggs.  These  fish 
cannot  be  more  than  two  years  of  age.  It  appears  that  the  first  part  of  the  run  of  fish  up  the  rivers 
consists  almost  entirely  of  males,  which  precede  the  females  by  several  days.  The  records  of  the 
fishing  shores  agree  with  this  statement,  their  main  catch  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season  being 
composed  of  "bucks,"  with  a  very  sparing  intermixture  of  "roe  Shad,"  which  latter,  in  their  turn, 

'A  tributary  of  the  Potomac  River. 


606  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

increase  in  proportion  as  the  season  advances.  The  favorite  spawning  grounds  of  the  Shad,  or 
"  Shad  Wallows,"  as  they  are  termed  by  the  fishermen,  are  on  the  sandy  flats  which  border  the 
streams,  and  the  sand-bars  which  are  found  at  intervals  higher  up  the  river.  When  the  fish  have 
reached  suitable  spawning  grounds  and  are  ready  to  cast  their  eggs,  they  move  up  to  the  flats 
seemingly  in  pairs.  The  time  of  this  movement  is  usually  between  sundown  and  11  p.  in.  When 
in  the  act  of  coition  they  swim  close  together  and  near  the  surface,  their  back  fins  projecting  above 
the  water.  The  rapid,  vigorous,  spasmodic  movements  which  accompany  this  operation  produce 
a  splashing  in  the  water  which  can  be  plainly  heard  from  the  shore,  and  which  the  fishermen 
characterize  as  "  washing." 

The  eggs  are  spun  out  by  the  female  while  in  rapid  motion.  The  male,  swimming  close  to 
her,  ejects  his  milt  at  the  same  time,  and  the  contact  of  egg  and  milt,  and  the  consequent  impreg- 
nation of  the  egg,  is  coincident  with  or  immediately  subsequent  to  the  ejection  of  the  ova  from  the 
female.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  egg  being  slightly  greater  than  that  of  water,  it  sinks  to  the 
bottom,  and,  under  favorable  conditions,  develops  and  hatches  out.  Large  numbers  of  these  eggs 
are,  of  course,  destroyed  by  the  predaceous  fishes  that  have  learned  to  frequent  the  spawning 
grounds  of  the  Shad.  A  sudden  lowering  in  the  temperature  of  the  water  may,  and  frequently 
does,  produce  a  large  destruction  of  eggs.  Floods,  too,  bring  down  mud  which  may  smother  and 
destroy  vast  numbers.  But,  escaping  these  casualties,  they  hatch  out  in  a  period  of  from  three  to 
eight  days.  Unlike  the  Salmonida:,  although  with  a  sac  relatively  as  large,  the  new-born  Shad 
swim  vigorously  as  soon  as  they  break  the  shell,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Seth  Green,  make  their 
way  immediately  to  the  middle  of  the  stream,  where  they  are  too  small  to  be  an  object  of  prey  to 
the  larger  fishes,  and  where  the  smaller  ones  dare  not  come  after  them. 

The  number  of  eggs  in  the  ovary  of  a  Shad,  as  in  all  other  fish,  bears  a  certain  relation  to  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  fish.  As  the  result  of  experience  in  the  artificial  propagation  of  the  Shad  we 
conclude  that  a  ripe  roe  Shad  weighing  four  or  five  pounds  contains  from  20,000  to  40,000  eggs,  the 
average  number  being  about  25,000.  A  much  larger  number,  however,  has  been  obtained  from 
some  individuals.  In  the  season  of  1881  we  obtained  from  a  single  Shad,  weighing  about  six 
pounds,  over  60,000  impregnated  eggs;  again,  in  1880,  on  the  Potomac  River,  the  yield  of  eggs  from 
a  single  Shad  was  over  100,000.  These  were  full-sized,  thoroughly  impregnated,  and  were  hatched 
out  with  a  loss  of  hardly  one  per  cent. 

SIZE. — A  female  Shad  of  a  certain  age  is  always  larger  than  a  male  of  corresponding  age.  A 
general  average  for  both  sexes  along  the  whole  coast  would  be  about  four  pounds,  the  extremes — 
for  males — being  from  one  and  a  half  to  six  pounds,  and  for  females  from  three  and  a  half  to  eight 
pounds,  the  latter  representing  a  maximum  weight  for  Shad  at  the  present  time;  although,  in  the 
early  history  of  the  fisheries,  there  are  records  of  the  capture  of  fish  weighing  eleven,  twelve,  and 
as  much  as  fourteen  pounds.  These  extreme  figures,  of  course,  are  for  fish  which,  in  consequence 
of  the  imperfections  of  the  ordinary  kinds  of  fishery  apparatus,  the  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
fishermen,  or  the  accidents  of  fortune  have  escaped  for  a  long  period  the  fate  which  befel  their  less 
happy  companions  and  have  returned  to  the  rivers  year  after  year. 

FOOD. — The  shad  fry,  which  spend  the  first  six  months  iu  our  rivers,  must  ot  necessity  find  their 
food  therein.  From  examinations  made  of  the  stomachs  of  these  young  fish,  they  have  been 
found  to  feed  upon  certain  species  of  crustaccn  and  insect  larva?,  common  to  the  IVt-sh  waters 
of  our  rivers.  During  the  spring  of  1882  some  young  fry,  which  were  hatched  out  sit  Central 
station,  were  confined  by  Dr.  John  A.  Ryder  in  a  glass  aquarium,  through  which  the  circulation 
of  the  water  was  maintained,  and  fed  with  Copepoda,  obtained  in  large  quantities  I'roin  the 
United  States  carp  ponds.  In  about  seven  days  after  hatching  some  of  the  young  fry  were 


Till-:   HICKORY  SHAD.  607 

observed  to  eat,  and  ;i  few  davs  latt-r  they  were  all  vigorously  engaged  in  pursuit  of  food. 
While  tin-  ratio  of  mortality  was  large,  some  of  the  lish  survived  lor  six  weeks,  the  last  Kju'cimen 
having  attained  a  length  of  considerably  more  than  an  inch,  and  a  weight  many  times  greater 
than  that  at  birth. 

From  these  experiments  we  deem  it  altogether  probable  that  under  natural  conditions  the 
Copepoda.  which  are  abundant  in  the  I'otomac  in  places  frequented  by  the  young  Shad,  are  their 
natural  food  during  the  early  stages  of  their  existence.  Although  we  are  able  to  obtain  from  the 
river  late  in  the  season  young  Shad  which  are  two  and  a  hah'  to  three  and  a  half  inches  in 
length,  1  am  not  aware  that  such  examinations  have  been  made  upon  the  contents  of  their 
stomachs  as  to  show  the  character  of  their  food.  In  order  to  take  observations  upon  the  food 
of  the  Shad  at  the  stages  indicated  above,  I  procured  from  the  Potomac  a  number  of  young 
Shad,  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  which  were  placed  in  the  basin  under  the  dome  of  the  United 
Suites  National  Museum.  These  were  tempted  with  various  kinds  of  fowl;  oysters,  liver,  stur- 
geon, and  beef  finely  chopped  were  offered  successively  to  them,  but  they  declined  to  take  the  food. 
In  some  eases  they  would  seize  particles,  which  having  held  for  an  instant  they  would  eject 
from  their  mouths  with  evident  expression  of  disgust.  I  then  tried  them  with  the  white  of  hard- 
boiled  eggs.  This,  much  to  my  gratification,  they  devoured  readily.  As  soon  as  tho  part  ides 
reached  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  fish  rose  vigorously  and  seized  them  as  they  sank  through 
the  water,  but,  strange  to  say,  in  no  case  did  I  observe  them  take  the  food  after  it  had  touched 
the  bottom.  This  would  seem  to  show  that  their  food  under  natural  circumstances  is  taken 
swimming,  and  consists  probably  of  swimming  crustaceans,  or  allied  forms  of  life  found  in  salt 
water.  Later  in  the  season,  in  consequence  of  my  absence  from  the  city,  these  fish  were  neg- 
lected and  fed  irregularly.  By  way  of  experiment,  I  had  also  placed  in  this  basin  a  number  of 
young  California  salmon,  and,  to  my  surprise,  I  discovered  that  the  young  Shad  were  pursuing 
and  eating  them.  In  several  cases  I  noticed  the  Shad  with  the  salmon  in  their  mouths  half 
swallowed.  Finally  the  salmon  disappeared,  and  the  presumption  was  that  they  had  all  been 
eaten  by  the  young  Shad.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  Shad  in  their  early  lives  vary  their 
food  with  minnows  and  the  young  of  other  species  of  fish.  Indeed,  from  the  stomach  of  a  Shad, 
taken  in  oi-e  of  the  pounds  at  Saybrook,  1  found  an  undigested  minnow  two  or  three  inches  in 
length.  In  the  fresh-water  life  of  the  mature  Shad,  the  fish  do  not  seem  to  take. food  at  all. 
Repeated  observations  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  show  no  food  whatever.  Occasionally, 
however,  they  can  be  induced  to  rise  to  a  fly  dexterously  cast  on  the  water.  This  fact  is  pre- 
sumptive evidence  that  the  desire  for  food,  although  subordinated  to  the  impulse  of  reproduction 
(which  brings  them  into  the  river),  is  not  wholly  lost. 

180.  THE  HICKORY  SHAD,  OR  MATTOWACCA-CLUPEA  MEDIOCRIS. 
By  MARSHALL  MCDONALD. 

NAMKS. — This  fish,  C.  mediocris,  Mitchill,  was  first  brought  to  notice  in  1815  in  Mitchill's  paper 
on  the  fishes  of  New  York,  wherein  it  was  described  under  two  names,  being  called  the  "Staten 
Island"  Herring,  C.  mcdiocris,  and  the  "Long  Island"  Herring,  C.  mattoicacca.  The  latter  name 
was  adopted  by  Storer  for  the  species,  but  more  recent  authorities,  guided  by  a  rather  question- 
able interpretation  of  the  rules  of  priority,  have  substituted  the  name  C.  mfdiocris,  because  it  was 
printed  on  the  page  preceding  the  other.  Mitchill  stated  that  the  "Long  Island"  Herring  occu- 
pied a  middle  station  between  the  Shad  and  the  "Staten  Island"  Herring,  but  it  seems  strange 
that  so  accomplished  an  ichthyologist  should  not  have  at  once  perceived  the  identity  of  the  two. 
The  name  "mediocris"  was  founded  upon  small  specimens.  The  names  given  this  species  are  as 


608  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

varied  as  those  of  the  river  Herriiigs.  The  name  "Mattowacca"  is  of  Indian  origin,  and  is  per- 
haps to  be  preferred.  It  is  said  by  De  Kay  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Indian  name  for  Long 
Island,  Mattoiraka  or  Maltowax.  De  Kay  also  gives  the  names  of  "Fall"  Herring  and  "Shad" 
Herring,  and  states  that  in  the  Connecticut  River  they  are  called  "  WeesicAr,"  a  name  which  from 
personal  knowledge  we  can  state  as  having  been  long  in  disuse  in  that  locality.  The  name  "Hick- 
ory" Shad  is  applied  to  this  species  on  all  parts  of  the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida.  It  is  used 
in  the  Chesapeake  and  in  the  Albemarle  regions,  and  on  the  Ogeechee,  Savannah,  and  Altamalm 
Rivers,  where  it  is  familiarly  called  "  Hicks."  In  the  S;riut  John's  River  the  name  "  Hickory"  Shad 
is  also  used,  and  in  the  Alabama  River  it  is  applied  to  this  or  to  some  closely  related  species.  The 
derivation  of  the  name  "Hickory"  Shad  cannot  easily  be  traced.  It  may  be  that  the  word  "Hick- 
ory" is  used  in  a  derogatory  sense,  but  a  more  reasonable  explanation  is  that  it  refers  to  the 
striped  markings  on  the  fish,  which  resemble  those  upon  the  coarse  cotton  fabric  linown  in  the 
South  as  "Hickory,"  and  frequently  used  by  the  fishermen. 

In  the  Potomac  the  species  is  called  the  "Tailor  Shad,"  or  the  "Fresh-wcter  Tailor,"  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  blueflsh,  which  is  called  the  "  Salt-water  Tailor."  The  comparison  between  the 
bluefish  and  this  species  is  doubtless  due  to  a  fancied  resemblance  between  their  jaws,  those  of 
the  "Tailor  Shad"  being  very  long  and  strong.  The  "Ta'lor  Shad"  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  Shad  and  from  the  river  Herrings  by  the  extreme  projection  and  thickness  of  the  lower 
jaw.  This  species  is  in  some  rivers  called  a  "Forerunner,"  from  the  fact  that  it  makes  its  appear- 
ance shortly  before  the  Shad. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Perley '  that  the  so-called  "  Quoddy  "  Herring,  taken  in  Passamaquoddy 
Bay  and  vicinity,  belongs  to  this  species — a  rather  questionable  decision  and  one  which  needs 
confirmation. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — The  "  Hickory  Shad "  is  most  abundant  in  the  region 
between  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  Altamaha  River  and  intermediate  waters,  ascending  the  rivers 
as  high  as  the  Shad.  In  the  Saint  John's  River  it  is  somewhat  abundant,  making  its  appearance 
the  first  or  second  week  in  November,  and  shortly  before  the  Shad.  North  of  New  York  it  has 
not  been  observed  to  enter  the  rivers  in  any  great  numbers,  and  there  is  no  record  north  of  Cape 
Cod  of  its  having  been  seen  in  fresh  water.  In  the  fall  small  schools  of  them  occasionally  enter 
the  brackish  estuaries  and  tideways  of  Cape  Cod.  Hickory  Shad  are  taken  to  some  extent  by 
the  mackerel  gill-net  fishermen  of  Maine,  together  with  young  Shad  and  Blue-Back  Herring,  and  are 
doubtless  found  off1  the  mouth  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy ;  although,  as  has  already  been  stated,  their 
identity  with  the  "Quoddy"  Herring  is  by  no  means  proven.  There  is  no  record  of  their  presence 
in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 

ABUNDANCE. — In  the  Altamaha  River,  Georgia,  the  catch  of  "  Hickory  "  Shad  is  equal  to  that 
of  "  Common  "  or  '•  White  "  Shad,  and  in  the  markets  they  sell  for  more  than  one-half  as  much.  In 
the  Saint  John's  River  they  are  not  exceedingly  abundant,  and  two  "Hickory"  Shad  are  equal  in 
value  to  one  "  White  "  Shad.  In  the  Ogeechee  and  Savannah  Rivers  the  proportion  of  the  catch 
of  the  "  Hickory  "  to  that  of  "  White  "  Shad  is  about  one  to  four.  All  taken  here  are  used  for  local 
consumption,  and  are  sold  at  prices  equal  to  about  one-half  of  the  White  Shad.  In  the  Albemarle 
they  are  less  abundant  than  farther  south  and  are  of  less  value.  Here  they  are  sold  with  the  her- 
ring for  local  consumption,  two  of  them  counting  for  one  herring,  or  are  used  for  manure.  In  the 
Chesapeake  region  they  are  not  highly  esteemed,  although  great  quantities  are  sold  by  hawkers, 
especially  in  the  cities,  where  people  are  not  well  informed,  under  the  name  of  "Shad."  At  the 


1  FiHheries  of  New  Brunswick,  1852,  p.  209. 


THE  HICKORY  SHAD.  609 

beginning  of  the  season  hundreds  of  men  may  be  seen  going  about  the  city  of  Washington  with 
strings  of  these  fish,  which  they  cry  for  Shad,  and  which  with  great  insolence  they  press  upon  such 
would-be  purchasers  as  are  inclined  to  question  their  genuineness.  In  the  pound-nets  of  the  Ches- 
apeake in  the  beginning  of  the  season  they  are  caught  in  immense  numbers,  aud  are  shipped  to 
the  markets  with  the  true  Shad  until  their  price  falls  below  three  cents  apiece,  after  which  they  are 
sold  with  the  Herring,  one  counting  as  two  Herrings.  The  "Hickory"  Shad  are  occasionally  seen 
in  the  full  and  winter  in  the  New  York  market.  M  it  Hi  ill.  writing  in  1814,  remarks :  "  Some  call 
this  fish  the  'Shad'  Herring  and  some  the  'Fall'  Shad.  He  is  reckoned  to  be  almost  equal  to  the 
Shad  as  an  article  of  food."  Storer  states  that  in  Massachusetts  it  is  a  lean  fish,  and  not  used  for 
food. 

Concerning  the  "Qnoddy"  Herring,  Perley  writes  that  in  flavor  and  excellence  it  ranks  only 
second  to  the  best  Shad  of  the  Petitcodiak. 

SIZE. — Mitchill  states  that  the  length  of  this  fish  is  frequently  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches, 
its  depth  is  often  four  aud  a  half  to  six  inches,  and  that  it  sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  four  or 
five  pounds.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  size  of  the  fish  is  much  less  than  that  described 
by  M  itHiill.  The  largest  full-roed  specimen  observed  by  Colonel  McDonald  cannot  have  exceeded 
three  to  three  and  a  half  pounds  in  weight. 

REPRODUCTION. — No  observations  have  been  made  on  the  breeding  habits  of  this  fish,  but  it 
is  almost  certain  that  it  spawns  in  spring,  like  the  other  members  of  the  family,  but  whether  in 
salt  or  fresh  water  has  not  been  ascertained.  It  seems  more  than  probable,  however,  that  it 
spawns  in  fresh  water  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  Shad,  at  a  little  earlier  period. 


T.— FAMILIES  RELATED  TO  THE  CLUPEID^l. 

181.  THE  MUD-SHAD— DOROSOMA  CEPEDIANUM. 

The  family  Dorosomatidce  is  represented  on  our  Atlantic  coast  by  a  single  species,  the  "Mud- 
Shad,"  Dorosoma  cepedianum,  which  is  abundant  in  brackish  waters  along  the  coast  from  Delaware 
Bay  southward  to  Mexico.  In  the  Chesapeake  region  it  is  known  as  the  "Mud-Shad,"  "  Winter 
Shad,"  or  "Stink  Shad";  in  North  Carolina  as  the  "Hairy -back"  or  the  "Thread  Herring";  in  the 
Saint  John's  Eiver  as  the  "Gizzard  Shad,"  "  Stink  Shad,"  or  "White-eyed  Shad." 

The  names  "Gizzard  Shad"  or  "Hickory  Shad"  refer  to  the  peculiar  muscular  stomach,  which 
is  of  about  the  size  of  a  hickory-nut  and  is  shaped  like  the  gizzard  of  a  fowl.  The  fish  is  found  in 
brackish  waters,  or  in  the  sea,  for  the  whole  length  of  our  coast.  It  enters  all  streams  after 
becoming  land-locked  in  ponds,  and  throughout  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  it  is  permanently 
resident  in  large  numbers  in  the  larger  streams  and  reservoirs.  Since  the  construction  of  the 
canals  it  has  appeared  in  force  in  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Michigan. 

This  fish  is  extremely  abundant  in  many  localities,  particularly  in  the  Saint  John's  Eiver, 
Florida,  where  it  becomes  an  annoyance  to  the  fishermen  by  getting  into  their  nets,  several  hundred 
bushels  being  sometimes  taken  in  a  shad  net.  They  are  also  sometimes  annoying  to  fishermen 
using  gill-nets  for  catching  mullet.  In  the  Potomac  they  are  abundant  and  attain  a  maximum 
size  and  weight.  Their  flesh  is  coarse  and  not  delicate  in  flavor,  but  they  are  by  no  means 
unpalatable,  and  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Chesapeake  they  are  extensively  eaten  by  the  negroes. 
In  the  Saint  John's  Eiver  they  are  made  into  guano.  A  factory  for  this  purpose  was  in  existence 
in  1874  at  Black  Point,  above  Palatka.  They  breed  in  summer,  and  are  supposed  to  feed,  like  the 
Menhaden,  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  bottom  mud,  from  which,  after  swallowing,  they  separate 
the  organic  contents. 

In  the  Great  Lake  regions  the  Gizzard  Shad  is  sometimes  split  and  salted  as  "Lake  Shad,"  but 
it  probably  meets  with  little  sale,  owing  to  the  inferior  quality  of  the  flesh  and  the  presence  of  the 
vast  number  of  small  bones  that  make  up  the  skeleton.  It  is  usually  thrown  away  by  the  fisher- 
men, and  when  brought  to  market  it  is  only  bought  by  the  poor  or  the  ignorant.  It  is  not  infre- 
quently seen  in  the  markets  of  Washington  in  spring.  In  the  West  it  is  sometimes  seined  by 
farmers  in  winter  in  still  places  in  the  rivers  and  peddled  about  the  towns. 

182.  THE  TAEPUM— MEGALOPS  THRISSOIDES. 

In  our  waters  the  most  important  member  of  this  family  is  the  Tarpuin,  Megalops  thrissoides, 
an  immense  herring  like  fish,  which  occurs  in  the  Western  Atlantic  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
ranging  north  to  Cape  Cod  and  south  at  least  to  Northern  Brazil.  It  is  somewhat  abundant  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  stragglers  have  been  taken  as  far  to  the  eastward  as  the  Bermudas.  This 
species  attains  the  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  is  covered  with  enormous  circular  scales  of  one 
inch  to  two  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  the  exposed  portions  of  which  are  covered  with  a 
silvery  epidermis.  The  fish,  when  alive,  presents  a  very  brilliant  metallic  appearance,  and  the 
scales  are  much  prized  by  curiosity  hunters  and  for  fancy  work  in  the  Florida  curiosity  shops. 
They  are  a  staple  article  of  trade,  selling  for  from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  each,  the  price  paid  to 

.the  fishermen  being  about  fifty  cents  per  dozen. 
610 


THE  ANCHOVIES.  611 

The  sailors'  name  for  this  fish,  by  wliicli  same  mime  it  is  also  known  at  Key  West,  Bermuda, 
Brunswick,  Georgia,  and  elsewhere,  is  "Tarpnin"  or  "Tarpon."  In  Georgia  and  Florida  it  is  com- 
monly called  the  "Jew-fish."  a  name  also  applied  by  the  fishermen  of  South  Florida  to  a  species 
of  pcrcoid  which  has  already  been  discussed.  It  is  the  "Silver-fish"  of  IVnsacola,  the  "  Grande- 
ficaille"  (Large-scale  fish),  or  " Graudykye,"  as  it  is  pronounced  and  sometimes  spelled,  and  the 
"Savauilla"  of  Texas. 

The  species  can  hardly  be  said  to  bo  common  on  our  Atlantic  coasts,  though  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  specimens  are  doubtless  taken  every  year  between  Florida  and  Cape  Cod.  In  1874  and 
1875  none  were  caught  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  though  several  had  been  brought  iu  during  the 
previous  winter.  In  the  Indian  River  region  these  fish  are  sometimes  harpooned. 

Mr.  Stearns  contributes  the  following  notes  upon  the  fish,  as  observed  by  him: 

"  The  Silver-fish,  or  Grande  Ecaille,  is  common  everywhere  on  the  Gulf  coast.  It  is  an  im- 
iiii-nse  and  active  fish,  preying  eagerly  upon  schools  of  young  fry,  or  any  small  fish  that  it  is  able 
to  receive  into  its  mouth,  and  in  pursuit  of  which  it  ascends  fresh-water  rivers  quite  a  long  distance. 
During  September,  1879, 1  saw  large  numbers  of  Silver-fish  eight  or  ten  miles  up  the  Apalachicola 
Ki  ver,  and  am  told  4hat  that  was  not  an  unusual  occurrence.  They  go  up  the  Homosassa  River  in 
Florida,  and  several  of  the  Texas  rivers,  so  I  have  subsequently  learned.  The  Tarpuui  will  take 
a  baited  hook,  but  it  is  difficult  to  handle  and  seldom  landed.  The  Pensacola  seine  fishermen 
dread  it  while  dragging  their  seines,  for  they  have  known  of  persons  having  been  killed  or  severely 
injured  by  its  leaping  against  them  from  the  seine  in  which  it  was  inclosed.  Even  when  it  does 
not  jump  over  the  cork-line  of  a  seine,  it  is  quite  likely  to  break  through  the  netting  before  landed. 
I  have  secured  several  specimens,  the  smallest  of  which  weighed  thirty  pounds  and  the  largest 
about  seventy-five  pounds." 

The  Tarpum  is  sometimes  eaten,  and  is  said  to  be  very  palatable.1 

183.  THE  BIG-EYED  HERRING. 

The  "Big-eyed  Herring"  or  "Ten-pounder,"  Elops  aaurus,  was  described  by  Linna-us  from  a 
Carolina  specimen  sent  to  him  by  Garden.  It  occurs  all  along  the  coast  from  Martha's  Vineyard 
southward,  but  only  in  the  summer  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range.  It  is  cosmopolitan  in  its 
distribution,  occurring  throughout  the  West  Indies,  on  the  coast  of  South  America,  on  both  coasts 
of  Mexico,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  iu  East  Africa,  Arabia,  and  China.  At  Fort  Macou  it  is 
known  as  the  "Horse  Mackerel."  It  is  rarely  or  never  eaten  in  the  United  States,  its  flesh  being 
said  to  be  dry  and  bony. 

184.  THE  ANCHOVIES— ENGRAULIDjE. 

A  species  of  Anchovy,  Stolepltorw  Brotcni,  is  extremely  common  about  Fort  Macon,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  "  Sardine"  and  occurs  in  large  schools.  Specimens  of  this  and  of  an  allied  species 
(8.  Mitchilli)  are  occasionally  taken  in  the  vicinity  of  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  and  in  greater 
abundance  in  New  Jersey. 

The  presence  of  a  true  Anchovy  in  America  was  first  announced  by  Professor  Baird  in  1854. 
A  species  was  noticed  by  Mitchill,  but  its  relations  to  the  Anchovy  of  Europe  were  not  recognized. 
In  his  Keport  on  the  Fish  of  the  New  Jersey  Coast,  Professor  Baird  remarked  of  8.  Browni:  "The 
Anchovy  made  its  appearance  early  iu  August  in  the  shallow  waters  along  the  beach,  though  of 
very  small  size;  it  subsequently  became  more  abundant,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  month,  while 
hauling  a  large  net  in  the  surf,  many  were  taken,  measuring  over  six  inches  in  length ;  as  the 

'See  statement  of  W.  II.  Hurrull,  Forest  and  Stream,  ii,  1874,  p.  324. 


612  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

meshes  of  the  net  were  large,  a  great  portion  escaped,  but  with  a  seiue  properly  constructed 
enough  could  be  secured  to  eupply  the  American  market.  I  procured  several  specimens  of  this 
fish  in  1847  at  the  residence  of  Mr.  Audubon,  on  the  Hudson  River  above  New  York." 

There  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  this  species  of  Anchovy  might  be  prepared  in  salt  or  in 
paste,  like  that  of  Europe,  and  that  the  results  would  be  equally  satisfactory ;  as  an  actual  fact, 
however,  most  of  the  Anchovies  put  up  in  Europe  do  not  belong  to  this  genus  at  all,  but  are 
simply  pilchards  or  sprats  preserved  in  a  peculiar  manner,  the  name  "Anchovy  "  having  come  to 
be  descriptive  of  a  peculiar  method  of  preparation  rather  than  of  the  fish  which  is  prepared. 
Our  Anchovy  has  recently  been  sold  in  considerable  numbers  in  New  York  under  the  name 
"Whitebait,"  although  the  fishermen  distinguish  it  from  the  true  "Whitebait,"  the  young  of  the 
herring,  calling  it  "Spearing."' 

CALIFORNIA  ANCHOVY — STOLEPHORUS  RINGENS. 

The  Anchovy  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  reported  by  Jordan  to  be  of  little  economic  value.  The 
commonest  form  is  what  he  calls  the  California  Anchovy,  Stolephorus  ringens,  and  which  is  thus 
described  by  him : 

"This  species  is  everywhere  known  as  the  Anchovy.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  six  inches. 
It  ranges  from  British  Columbia  to  Chili,  and  is  probably  found  on  the  coast  of  Asia  also.  It  is 
found  in  sheltered  bays,  and  is  everywhere  extremely  common,  but  rather  more  abundant  south  of 
San  Francisco  than  northward.  It  serves  as  food  for  the  larger  species  to  a  greater  extent  than 
any  other  single  species.  The  salmon,  bonito,  mackerel  of  all  sorts,  barracuda,  sea-bass,  the 
larger  flounders,  and,  in  fact,  a  majority  of  the  larger  fishes  make  a  large  percentage  of  their  food 
of  Anchovy.  At  San  Francisco  it  is  occasionally  brought  into  the  market.  Some  attempts  have 
been  made  to  pickle  them  with  spices  for  the  trade,  but  this  amounts  to  little  as  yet.  A  great 
many  are  salted  by  the  Chinese,  who  use  them  as  bait  for  the  flounders  and  rock-fish.  Two 
other  species  of  Anchovies,  Stolephorus  compressus  (Grd:)  and  Stolephorus  delicatissimus  (Girard), 
abound  south  of  Point  Concepcion.  They  have  no  economic  value." 

185.— THE  LADY-FISH  FAMILY— ALBULIDJE. 

The  Lady-fish,  Albula  vulpes,  occurs  in  the  West  Indies,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts  of  North  and  South  America,  and  stragglers  have  been  found  in  the  Western 
Atlantic  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod.  It  is  also  found  about  the  Bermudas  and  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Eed  Sea,  and  on  the  coast  of  Japan.  With  us  it  is  usually  called  the 
"Lady-fish";  in  the  Bermudas  the  "Bone-fish,"  or  "Grubber."  At  the  Bermudas  large  schools 
are  taken,  and  there  considered  most  excellent  food-fish.  From  personal  observation  I  can  testify 
that  their  reputation  is  by  no  means  a  false  one.  The  "Lady-fish"  doubtless  occurs  about  Key 
West,  although  the  National  Museum  has  as  yet  received  no  specimen  from  that  locality.  The 
species  is  found  in  some  numbers  in  San  Diego  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  California,  where  it  is  taken 
with  the  mullet.  On  account  of  its  beautiful  color  it  sells  readily,  but  is  not  especially  esteemed 
as  a  table  fish. 

186.— THE  MOON  EYE  FAMILY— HYODONTID.E. 

Three  species  of  this  family  are  known  by  the  names  of  "Moon-eye,"  Hyodon  tergisus  Le  Sueurr 
"Toothed  Herring,"  Hyodon  alosoides  (Raf.)  J.  &  G.,  and  "Silver  Bass,"  Hi/odon  selenops  Jor.  & 
Beau.  The  first-named  species  is  abundant  throughout  the  Lake  region  and  the  larger  tributaries 

1  J.  C.  Brevoort  states  that  while  trolling  in  August,  187:i,  uear  New  York  light-ship,  every  bluefish  captured  wa» 
gorged  with  the  American  Anchovy.  The  Anchovy  is  preserved  by  salting  or  by  griudiug  into  line  paste  with  salt. 
They  may  be  caught  with  tine  puree-nets. 


THE  MOON  11 VI..  613 

of  the  Mississippi;  the  second  is  ton  ml  iu  the  Ohio  Valley  and  northward  to  the  Upper  Missouri 
and  Saskatchewan ;  the  third  is  confined  to  the  rivers  of  the  Southern  States.  None  of  the 
species  occur  east  of  the  Alleghanies.  They  are  little  valued  as  food. 

THE  MOON-EYE — HYODON  TEBGISUS. 

The  Moon-eye  is  a  handsome  and  gamy  fish,  taking  the  hook  readily,  and  feeding  upon  minnows, 
crustaceans,  and  insects.  It  reaches  ft  weight  of  one  to  two  pounds.  In  Lake  Pepin,  according  to 
Dr.  D.  C.  Estes,  "in  some  seasons  they  seem  to  be  quite  plenty,  and  at  others  but  very  few  are 
seen.  On  the  whole,  I  have  always  regarded  it  as  a  rare  fish.  They  are  vigorous  biters,  aud  are 
as  gamy  as  the  striped  bass  (Roccus  saxalilis).  They  take  freely  the  minnow  or  fly,  and  are  one  of 
tin-  smartest  of  fishes.  They  will  come  up,  taste  of  a  fly,  let  go  and  be  gone  before  the  angler  has 
time  to  strike.  Therefore,  to  be  a  '  Moon-eye '  fly-fisher,  one  must  be  very  sharp  and  not  read  a 
book  while  casting,  as  I  once  knew  a  man  to  do.  As  to  his  being  a  food-fish  there  is  not  a  single 
doubt.  I  ate  one  this  very  morning  for  my  breakfast,  and  it  was  excellent,  the  bones  being  far 
less  in  number  and  of  larger  size  than  in  the  herring." 


U— CARP,  SUCKERS,  CATFISH,  AND  EELS. 

187.   THE  SUCKER  FAMILY— CATOSTOMIDJE. 
By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

The  members  of  this  family,  known  as  "Suckers,"  "Mullets,"  "Red  Horse,"  "Buffalo  fish,"  etc., 
are  extremely  abundant  in  all  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States,  no  stream  or  pond  containing 
fish  at  all  being  without  them.  As  all  of  them  reach  a  length  of  more  than  a  foot,  and  are  found 
in  the  markets,  all  must  be  considered  as  food-fishes.  In  all  of  them  the  flesh  is  coarse  and  flavor- 
less, and  the  number  of  small  bones  is  provokingly  great.  They  are  therefore  always  the  cheapest 
of  fish-food,  while  from  their  great  numbers  they  form  a  large  percentage  of  the  food  supply  of 
the  country.  Their  value  is  no  more  than  the  cost  of  catching,  and  often  less.  The  Suckers  feed 
on  mollusks,  insects,  entomostracans,  fish-spawn,  and  some  of  them  chiefly  on  mud.  They  rarely 
catch  other  fishes.  Like  the  Cyprinidce,  they  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  larger  carnivorous 
fishes.  The  Suckers  spawn  in  spring,  many  of  the  species  ascending  small  streams  for  that  purpose. 
At  this  season  great  numbers  of  them  are  speared  or  snared  on  shallow  rapids.  The  distribution 
of  the  different  species  can  be  ascertained  by  reference  to  the  check-list,  and  only  a  few  of  the  most 
important  need  be  mentioned  here. 

THE  BABBIT-MOUTH  SUCKER— QUASSILABIA  LAOERA. 

The  " Babbit-mouth,"  "Hare-lip,"  "Split-mouth,"  or  "May  Sucker"  is  found  in  abundance  in 
many  rivers  of  Tennessee  and  in  some  streams  in  Ohio.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  eighteen 
inches,  being  one  of  the  smaller  species,  but  its  qualities  as  a  food-fish  are  said  to  be  better  than 
usual  in  this  family. 

THE  BED  HORSE — MOXOSTOMA  MACROLEPIDOTUM. 

The  common  "Bed  Horse"  or  "Mullet"  abounds  in  most  streams  westward  and  southward  of 
New  York.  It  reaches  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  is  a  market  fish  of  importance.  Its  coloration  is 
attractive,  but  its  flesh  is  tasteless  and  coarse.  Numerous  other  species  closely  related  to  the  Bed 
Horse,  belonging  to  the  genera  of  Moxostoma,  Minytrema,  and  Placopliarynx,  are  found  in  the  waters 
of  the  West  and  South,  all  going  by  the  general  names  of  Bed  Horse,  White  Sucker,  and  Mullet. 
All  are  alike  poor  as  food-fishes. 

THE  CHUB  SUCKER — ERIMTZON  SUCETTA. 

The  "Chub  Sucker,"  "Sweet  Sucker,"  or  "Creek-fish"  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  widely 
diffused  of  the  Suckers,  being  found  from  Maine  to  Texas.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  species,  reach- 
ing a  length  of  little  more  than  a  foot.  It  is  not  essentially  different  from  the  rest  as  food.  A 
closely  related  species  (E.  Goodei)  abounds  in  Florida. 

THE  COMMON  SUCKER — CATOSTOMUS  COMMERSONI. 

The  common  "Brook  Sucker"  is  the  most  familiar  and  generally  abundant  of  the  group.    It 

inhabits  all  bodies  of  water,  large  and  small,  from  New  England  to  Colorado,    In  the  Great  Lakes 
ou 


THE  SUCKERS.  615 

it  readies  a  length  of  two  feet  or  more.  In  small  brooks  it  is  mature  at  eight  or  ten  inches.  It  is 
a  soft,  poor  fish.  It  varies  much  in  size,  color,  and  form  in  the  different  streams.  It  bites  at  a 
small  hook  baited  with  a  \\cum.  and  is  one  of  the  numerous  tribe  of  boy's  fish  which  may  be  found 
on  every  urchin's  string. 

All  tin-  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  the  Pacific  slope  are  inhabited 
liy  one  or  more  species  of  this  genus,  or  of  the  allied  genera  Chaamistes  and  Pantosteus.  In  Utah 
Lake,  said  to  be  the  "greatest  Sucker-pond  in  the  world,"  are  found  Catostomus  fecundun  and 
ardent,  Chasmintes  liorus  and  Pantosteus  platyrhynchus,  all  in  abundance.  In  Lake  Tahoe,  Cato- 
utonius  tahtHJntut;  in  the  Sacramento  C.  occidental™;  in  the  Columbia  C.  macrochilus;  in  Klamath 
Lake,  Chanmistfx  I it.ru tun  and  Ch.  brevirostris,  abound,  while  in  the  Great  Lakes  and  all  waters 
thence  to  Alaska  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  C.  longirostri*  is  an  important  food  fish.  The  Stone- 
roller  or  Hammer  head  Sucker,  Catostomvs  nigricang,  abounds  in  most  waters  from  the  Great  Lakes 
southward.  The  Stone-roller  is  extremely  abundant  in  every  running  stream  in  the  North  and 
West,  where  its  singular,  almost  comical  form  is  familiar  to  every  school-boy.  It  delights  in  rapids 
and  shoals,  preferring  cold  and  clear  water.  Its  powerful  pectorals  render  it  a  swifter  swimmer 
than  any  other  of  its  family.  Its  habit  is  to  rest  motionless  on  the  bottom,  where  its  mottled 
colors  render  it  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  stones  among  which  it  lies.  When  disturbed  it 
darts  away  very  quickly,  after  the  manner  of  the  etheostomoids.  They  often  go  in  small  schools. 
I  have  never  found  this  fish  in  really  muddy  water,  and  when  placed  in  the  aquarium  it  is  the  first 
fish  to  die  as  the  water  becomes  foul.  Although  called  the  "Mud  Sucker"  in  the  books,  it  is  most 
characteristically  a  fish  of  the  running  streams.  This  species  reaches  a  length  of  about  two  feet, 
and  is  often  caught  in  its  spawning  season  by  means  of  a  spear  or  snare.  It  is,  like  C.  Commersoni, 
a  "boy's  fish,"  and  not  worth  the  eating. 

THE  BLACK  HORSE — CYCLEPTUS  ELONGATUS  (Le  S.)  Ag. 

The  "Black  Horse,"  "Gourd-seed  Sucker,"  "Missouri  Sucker,"  or  "Suckerel"  is  found  chiefly 
in  the  river  channels  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  It  reaches  a  considerable  size,  weighing  five  to 
twelve  pounds,  and  is  said  to  be  a  much  finer  fish  in  flesh  than  any  other  of  its  family.  The  writer 
has  had  no  opportunity  of  testing  this. 

THE  CABP  SUCKER — CARPIODES  CYPRINUS. 

The  different  species  (Ictiolnis  cyprinus,  carpio,  etc.)  known  as  "Carp,"  "Carp  Suckers," 
"  Spear-fish,"  "  Sail-fish,"  "  Quill-back,"  etc.,  abound  in  all  the  larger  bodies  of  water  south  and 
west  of  New  York  as  far  as  the  Rio  Grande.  The  species  are  probably  but  two  in  number,  very 
similar.  They  reach  a  weight  of  four  or  five  pounds,  and  form  an  abundant  but  not  excellent  food. 

THE  BUFFALO-FISHES. 

The  three  species  known  as  "  Buffalo-fishes"  (Ictiobus  bubalus,  urus,  and  cyprinella)  are  found 
mainly  in  the  river  channels  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  They  are  the  largest  of  the 
Suckers,  reaching  a  weight  of  fifteen  pounds  or  more.  In  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Valleys  they 
form  a  largo  percentage  of  the  food-fish  consumed.  They  usually  bring  a  better  price  than  the 
smaller  Suckers,  excepting  the  Black  Horse,  but  at  the  best  they  are  coarse,  poor  fishes,  the  flesh 
being  full  of  small  bones  and  scarcely  worth  the  trouble  of  picking.  The  Buffalo- fishes  are  found 
by  Professor  Forbes  to  feed  on  small  crustaceans  more  than  do  the  other  Suckers,  and  less  on 
moll  asks. 


616  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

188.   THE  CARP  FAMILY— CYPRINIDJE. 
By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

The  species  of  this  family  known  as  "Minnows,"  "Chubs,"  "Shiners,"  and  "Dace"  literally 
swarm  in  all  of  the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States,  as  in  those  of  Europe  and  Africa.  Most  of 
them  reach  a  length  of  less  than  six  inches.  Such  have  of  course  no  value  as  food.  They  are, 
however,  important  as  furnishing  the  greater  part  of  Ihe  food  of  all  our  carnivorous  fresh-water 
fishes — the  bass,  perch,  trout,  pike,  etc.  A  few  of  our  species  reach  a  considerable  size,  especially 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  region.  Some  of  these  become  food-fish  of  importance.  The  flesh  in  all  is, 
however,  deficient  in  flavor  and  full  of  small  bones.  Not  one  of  our  native  species  has  any  high 
money  value,  and  only  the  Carp  (Cyprinus  carpio),  of  all  the  family,  can  be  compared  as  a  food- fish 
with  the  percoids  and  salinonoids. 

Most  of  the  Cyprinidce  are  carnivorous,  the  smaller  species  feeding,  upon  insects,  fish-spawn, 
etc.  Many  large  individuals  are  quite  voracious,  some  of  them  being  very  destructive  to  young 
trout.  All  of  them  spawn  in  spring,  some  of  them  running  up  small  brooks  for  that  purpose. 

Some  of  the  more  important  of  our  Cyprinidce  are  the  following: 

THE  GOLDEN  SHINER — NOTEMIGONUS  CHRYSOLEUOUS. 

This  fish,  the  American  representative  of  the  European  Bream,  abounds  in  most  rivers  east  of 
the  Great  Plains.  It  is  a  sluggish  fish,  frequenting  ponds,  bayous,  and  cut-offs,  preferring  those 
in  which  the  bottom  is  covered  with  aquatic  plants.  It  reaches  a  length  of  nearly  a  foot,  and  is 
sometimes  brought  to  market. 

THE  CHUB  OP  UTAH  LAKE — SQTJALIUS  RHOMALEUS. 

This  species  is  excessively  abundant  in  Utah  Lake,  and  as  it  ascends  the  streams  to  spawn 
almost  simultaneously  with  the  trout  (Salmo  purpuratus),  it  is  extremely  destructive  to  the  young 
of  the  latter.  It  is  taken  in  considerable  numbers  in  seines,  and  is  sold  in  the  markets  of  Salt 
Lake  City  and  other  towns.  It  reaches  a  length  of  nearly  a  foot. 

Numerous  other  species,  belonging  to  the  same  genus  and  similar  in  size  and  habits,  abound 
in  the  region  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  are  used  as  food  by  the 
Indians  and  by  the  white  settlers.  Among  these  are  8.  niger,  8.  purpureus,  8.  obesus,  8.  pan- 
dora, etc.  Species  very  similar  abound  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

SQUALIUS  GIBBOSUS. 

The  "Chub"  of  the  San  Francisco  markets  abounds  in  the  Sacramento  River,  and  is  taken 
in  great  numbers.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot,  and  is  eaten  chiefly  by  the  Chinese. 

GlLA  ELEGANS. 

The  various  species  of  Oila  abound  in  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Colorado  and  Rio  Gila,  and  are 
used  as  food  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  They  reach  a  length  of  about  eighteen  inches.  Oila 
elegam,  robusta,  and  Grahami  are  the  principal  species. 

THE  SACRAMENTO  "PIKE" — PTYCHOCHLLUS  OREGONENSIS. 

This  species  abounds  in  the  Columbia  and  Sacramento  Rivers  and  their  tributaries,  where  it 
is  usually  known  as  the  "Pike."  It  reaches  a  length  of  three  or  four  feet  at  least,  a  size  much 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  of  our  representatives  of  this  family.  A  great  many  are  brought 
into  the  markets  of  San  Francisco  in  the  winter.  Its  flesh  is  of  course  not  much  esteemed.  A 


TIIE  CARP  FAMILY.  617 

second  species  (Ftychochilux  llarfonli)  acr<>mp:mics  /'.  ureijonengis  in.  the  Sacramento,  and  is  brought 
with  it  to  the  markets.    A  third  species  (Itychochilus  luciun)  occurs  in  the  lower  course  of  the  Rio 
•  Colorado,  and  is  said  to  reach  a  still  larger  size — a  length  of  five  or  six  feet. 

MYLOPHARODON  CONOCEPHALUS. 

This  species  occurs  with  Ptychochilun  oreyonenxis  in  the  Sacramento,  and  is  brought  with  it 
into  the  markets.  It  reaches  a  size  scarcely  less  thau  that  of  P.  oregonensis,  but  is  less  plentiful. 

MYLOCHILUS  OAURINUS. 

This  species  abounds  from  California  to  Puget  Sound  in  all  the  streams  of  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton, and  Idaho,  and  often  enters  the  sea.  It  reaches  a  length  of  little  more  than  a  foot,  and  is 
little  used  for  food  where  trout  and  other  better  fishes  abound.  Its  great  numbers,  however,  give 
it  a  special  claim  to  notice. 

THE  SPLIT-TAIL — POGONICHTHYS  MACBOLEPIDOTUS. 

The  "Split-tail"  is  very  common  in  the  Sacramento,  and  is  brought  in  considerable  numbers  to 
the  San  Francisco  market.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  eighteen  inches. 

THE  FALL-FISH — SEMOTILUS  BULLARIS. 

The  "Fall-fish,"  "Chub,"  "Roach,"  or  "Dace"  is  abundant  in  the  streams  of  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States  east  of  the  Alleghauies.  It  reaches  a  length  of  eighteen  inches,  being  the  largest 
of  the  Cyprinida  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  has  no  special  importance  as  a  food-fish, 
although  often  taken  with  hook  and  line.  According  to  Thoreau,  the  Chub  is  a  soft  fish  and 
tastes  like  brown  paper  salted. 

THE  HORNED  DACE — SEMOTILUS  CORPOBALIS. 

This  species  abounds  in  all  small  streams  and  ponds  from  Western  Massachusetts  to  Nebraska 
and  southward.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot,  and  is  par  excellence  a  small-boy's  fish.  Large 
specimens  are  often  found  in  streams  which  the  boy  can  step  across,  and  a  small  hook  baited  with 
an  angle-worm  will  draw  the  fish  from  its  lurking  place.  The  "horns"  in  this  and  other  Minnows 
and  Chubs  are  dermal  excrescnces  developed  on  the  males  in  the  breeding  season. 

THE  HORNY-HEAD — CERATICHTHYS  BIGUTTATUS. 

The  "  Horny-head,"  "  River  Chub,"  or  "  Jerker  "  is  one  of  the  most  widely-diffused  of  fresh- 
water fishes,  occurring  from  New  York  to  Utah  and  Alabama.  It  reaches  a  length  of  ten  or 
twelve  inches.  It  inhabits  larger  streams  than  the  Horned  Dace,  which  delights  in  little  brooks. 
It  takes  the  hook  readily,  and  throughout  the  Southwest  forms  a  source  of  satisfaction  to  the 
juvenile  angler.  The  flesh  of  this  and  other  small  Cyprinidce  is  very  palatable  when  fried  crisp 
soon  after  being  taken  from  the  water. 

PLATYGOBIO  GRACILIS. 

Toward  the  Northwest  this  Chub  takes  the  place  of  the  preceding,  and  reaches  a  somewhat 
larger  size. 

THE  SHINER — MINNILUS  CORNUTTJS. 

The  "Shiner,"  "Red-fin,"  or  "Red  Dace"  abounds  in  all  streams  from  New  England  to  Kansas 
and  Alabama,  being  in  most  waters  more  numerous  than  any  other  species.  In  clear,  cool 
lakes  it  is  often  found  in  great  schools.  At  the  mouths  of  small  rivers  in  Lake  Michigan 


618  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

hundreds  of  them  can  be  taken  in  a  short  time  on  a  small  hook  baited  with  worms  or  flies.  This 
species  reaches  a  length  of  about  ten  inches.  It  assists  to  swell  the  urchin's  string,  but  has  no 
tangible  importance  as  a  food-fish.  Its  flesh  spoils  very  quickly  after  the  fish  is  taken  from  the 
water,  hence  the  name  "  Rot-gut  Minnow,"  applied  to  it  in  Alabama.  A  large  part  of  the  food  of 
the  black  bass,  trout,  and  other  predatory  fish  is  contributed  by  the  Shiner  and  by  its  numerous 
congeners. 

THE  CUT-LIPS— EXOGLOSSUM  MAXILLINGUA. 

The  "Cut-lips,"  "Day  Chub,"  or  "Nigger  Chub,"  has  but  a  narrow  distribution,  being  found  in 
abundance  only  in  the  basin  of  the  Susquehanna.  It  reaches  a  length  of  six  or  eight  inches,  and 
has  no  economic  importance. 

LAVINIA  EXILICAUDA. 

This  species  is  found  in  some  abundance  in  most  streams  of  California,  and  comes  occasionally 
into  the  markets.  It  reaches  a  length  of  about  fifteen  inches. 

OETHODON  MICROLEPIDOTUS. 

This  species  occurs  in  most  streams  of  California  in  considerable  abundance.  A  good  many 
are  sent  to  the  market  of  San  Francisco,  where  they  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese.  It  reaches  a  length 
of  about  eighteen  inches. 

HARD-MOUTH — ACROCHILUS  ALUTAOEUS. 

The  Hard-mouth  Chub  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Washington  and  Oregon.  It  reaches  a  length 
of  about  a  foot  but  is  only  rarely  eaten. 

189.  THE  CARP— CYPRINUS  CARPIO. 
By  RUDOLPH  HESSEL.' 

THE  RACES  OF  CARP— THEIR  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. — The  Carp,  Cyprinus  carpio,  of  the 
family  Cyprinidte,  has  a  toothless  mouth,  thick  lips,  and  four  barbels  on  the  upper  jaw.  In  place 
of  the  usual  teeth  of  the  mouth  there  are  a  number  of  stout  teeth  on  the  pharyngeal  bones,  which 
are  arranged  in  three  rows.  It  has  one  single  dorsal,  which  is  longer  than  the  anal.  Both  these 
fins  have  at  their  origin,  on  the  anterior  edge,  a  strong  ray,  which  is  serrated  in  a  downward 
direction.  The  caudal  is  of  semicircular  shape,  and  the  natatory  bladder  is  divided  into  two 
sections,  with  connecting  air-passage.  The  scales  have  an  entire  edge,  and  the  body  is  compressed 
on  the  sides.  The  general  color  of  the  back  and  sides  is  a  dark  olive-brown,  the  abdomen  often 
of  a  whitish-yellow  or  orange  tint.  The  coloring  depends,  as  with  all  fishes,  partly  upon  the  age 
and  season,  partly  upon  the  water,  the  soil,  and  also  upon  the  food  of  the  fish. 

Be  it  remarked  that  the  Carp,  which  has  occasionally  been  compared  to  the  buffalo-fish,  has 
no  resemblance  to  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  similarity  of  their  coat  of  scales ;  neither  does  the 
flesh  of  the  buffalo-fish  ever  come  up  to  the  excellence  of  that  of  the  Carp. 

The  Carp  was,  in  all  probability,  originally  introduced  into  Europe  from  Central  Asia  many 
centuries  ago,  and  is  now  common  in  most  of  the  large  rivers.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  princi- 
pally in  Bohemia,  Austria,  Southern,  Central,  and  Northern  Germany,  it  has  become  domesti- 
cated. 

The  Carp  is  alleged  to  have  been  imported  into  England  in  the  year  1504.  In  Austria,  which 
possesses  the  most  extensive  carp  fisheries  in  Europe,  the  culture  of  the  Carp  can  be  traced  as 
far  back  as  the  year  1227.  The  Emperor  Charles  IV  of  Germany,  by  granting  sundry  privileges, 

1  Extract  from  Report  of  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  iv,  1875-76,  pp.  865-876. 


VA1MKTIHS  OF  THE  CARP.  619 

favored  tlu>  establishment  of  ponds  in  liis  (loniinioiiH,  and  the  monks  were  especially  assiduous  in 
the  culture  of  fish  in  ponds.  As  curly  as  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Bohemia  had  its 
first  large  carp  poi-d.  and  the  culture  of  this  fish  progressed  in  that  country,  as  also  in  Poland, 
ami  that  district  \vliich  now  comprises  German  Austria;  also  in  I  pj.fi  Lusutiu,  Saxony,  Silesia 
and  Havana.  A  celebrated  c Mablishment  for  carp-culture,  with  large,  extensive  ponds,  was 
located,  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century,  near  the  town  of  Wittinguu,  in  Bohemia,  Austria.  The 
first  beginning  of  it  may  be  traced  back  to  the  year  1367.  At  that  time  the  lords  of  Rosenberg 
called  into  existence  and  maintained  for  centuries  these  establishments  on  a  scale  so  extensive 
that  to  this  day  they  are  the  admiration  of  the  visitor,  the  main  parts  having  survived,  while  the 
race  of  the  Uosenbergs  has  long  been  extinct. 

The  manor  of  Wittiugau  suffered  greatly  from  the  calamities  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and 
with  it,  in  consequence,  its  fish-culture.  The  latter  only  recovered  the  effects  of  it  after  passing, 
together  with  the  large  estate  of  a  rich  monastery  of  the  same  name,  in  the  year  1670,  into  pos- 
session of  the  princes  of  Schwarzenberg,  their  present  owners.  The  extent  which  carp  culture 
has  reached  on  these  princely  domains  will  be  seen  from  the  circumstance  that  their  artificial  ponds 
comprise  an  area  of  no  less  than  twenty  thousand  acres.  The  proceeds  amount  to  about  five  hundred 
thousand  pounds  of  Carp  per  annum.  The  ponds  of  the  princes  of  Schwarzenberg  are  probably 
i  In-  most  extensive  of  the  kind  on  the  globe.  They  are  usually  situated  in  some  undulating  low- 
laud  country,  where  small  valleys  have  been  closed  in  by  gigantic  dams  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
reservoirs.  Similar  establishments,  though  not  equally  extensive,  are  found  in  the  provinces  of 
Silesia  and  Brandenburg;  as,  for  instance,  near  Breslau  and  Cottbus,  in  Peitz  and  Pleitz,  which  I 
visited  last  year.  In  Hesse-Cassel,  Hanover,  Oldenburg,  Mecklenburg,  and  Holstein  there  are  also 
many  hundreds  of  ponds,  none  of  them  covering  more  than  a  few  acres,  but  almost  every  large 
farm  possessing  at  least  one  of  them. 

It  will  be  easily  understood  that  after  such  an  exclusive  culture  in  ponds,  continued  through 
centuries,  as  also  an  existence  in  open  water,  where  the  Cyprinidce  were  left  more  to  themselves,  a 
number  of  varieties  or  rather  genuine  species  Cyprinua  carpio,  showing  striking  differences  from 
the  races,  were  developed :  these  races,  though  derived  directly  from  the  original  type,  just  as  with 
our  domestic  animals.  They  are  divided  into  three  chief  groups : 

1.  Cyprinus  carpio  communis,  the  "Scale  Carp";  with  regular,  concentrically  arranged  scales, 
being,  in  fact,  the  original  species  improved. 

2.  Cyprinus  carpio  specularis,  the  "  Mirror  Carp" ;  thus  named  on  account  of  the  extraordinarily 
large  scales  which  run  along  the  sides  of  the  body  in  three  or  four  rows,  the  rest  of  the  body  being 
bare. 

3.  Cyprinus  carpio  coriaceus,  sive  nudtut,  the  "  Leather  Carp" ;  which  has  on  the  back  either 
only  a  few  scales  or  none  at  all,  and  possesses  a  thick,  soft  skin,  which  feels  velvety  to  the  touch. 

The  two  last  named  are  distinguished  from  the  original  form  by  a  somewhat  shorter  and 
stouter  but  more  fleshy  body.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  decide  which  of  these  three  species  is  the 
most  suitable  for  culture.  There  are  some  districts  where  only  Scale  Carp  are  bred  and  Mirror 
Carp  are  not  valued,  as  there  is  no  demand  for  any  but  the  former  in  the  market,  as,  for  instance, 
in  Bohemia,  in  the  above-mentioned  domain  of  Wittingau.  Again,  in  other  districts,  as  in  parts  of 
Bavaria  and  Saxony,  etc.,  for  the  same  reason,  Mirror  Carp  or  Leather  Carp  only  are  bred.  There 
is,  in  fact,  no  sufficient  reason  for  making  any  distinction  among  these  three  varieties,  for  if  they 
are  genuine  types  of  their  respective  species,  they  are  indeed  excellent  and  desirable  fish. 

The  assertion  which  has  been  made  at  times  that  the  Scale  Carp  is  better  adapted  for  trans- 
portation than  either  the  Mirror  or  Leather  Carp  by  reason  of  its  coat  of  scales,  which  would  pro- 


620  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

tect  it  more  efficiently  from  the  accidents  incidental  to  transfer,  as  also  against  inimical  or  hurtful 
attacks  in  the  ponds  (the  Mirror  Carp  having  very  few  and  the  Leather  Carp  no  scales),  is  not 
correct.  In  transportation  scales  are  not  only  inefficient  for  protection,  but  they  frequently  cause 
the  death  of  the  fish,  especially  in  transporting  the  so-called  breeding  fish ;  for  if  a  scale  be  torn  off 
iu  part  only  ulceration  will  ensue,  and  the  fish,  of  course,  will  die.  Again,  should  any  scale  be  lost, 
the  bare  spot  will  very  soon  begin  to  fester,  or  develop  a  confervaceous  growth,  and  the  conse- 
quences will  be  the  same.  On  the  contrary,  the  Leather  Carp,  which  oddly  enough,  like  the  frog, 
is  destitute  of  covering,  will  bear  a  great  deal  more  ill-usage  and  injury,  whether  young  or  old, 
than  the  Scale  Carp.  The  smooth,  slippery  skin  of  the  Leather  Carp  suffers  much  less  from  fric- 
tion during  transportation  than  the  Scale  Carp,  and  any  slight  wound  will  heal  up  much  more 
easily,  as  the  epithelium  will  cover  it  immediately  and  the  formation  of  a  new  skin  can  progress 
under  its  protection.  I  have  often  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  such  scars  upon  the  skin  of  the 
Mirror  Carp,  and  even  more  so  on  that  of  the  Leather  Carp.  They  are  the  effects  of  injury 
from  the  sharp  edges  of  the  heron's  bill,  the  bite  of  a  pike,  or  some  other  hurt,  and  I  never  saw 
anything  of  the  kind  on  a  Scale  Carp,  for  if  one  of  these  be  wounded  it  almost  invariably  dies. 

The  Carp  will  sometimes  cross  with  some  related  species  of  the  Cyprinidce,  for  instance,  Caras- 
siux  vulgaris;  and,  in  consequence,  hybrids  have  been  engendered  which  sometimes  resemble  the 
genuine  Carp  so  much  that  it  is  often  difficult  for  the  student  as  well  as  for  the  professed  culturist 
and  experienced  fisherman  to  immediately  recognize  them.  Such  fishes  are  valueless  as  food,  on 
account  of  their  bad  and  very  bony  flesh.  One  of  the  hybrids  mentioned  is  the  Carpio  Kollarii — 
Cyprinw  striatus,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  a  separate  species.  It  is  a  cross  between  the 
Carp  and  Carassius  vulgari*  (crucian  Carp),  a  very  poor  and  bony  fish,  which,  in  Germany,  is  some- 
times called  "Poor  man's  Carp."  Some  varieties  exist  of  this  common  fish.  The  latter  has  even 
been  dignified  by  a  specific  name  of  its  own,  Carassius  gibelio. 

The  spawning  seasons  of  the  crucian  and  the  true  Carp  coincide,  and,  where  kept  together, 
hybrid  races  may  readily  be  formed;  that  period  including  the  time  from  the  month  of  May  until 
August. 

In  order  to  determine  this  question,  I  myself  managed  to  bring  about  such  crosses  by  placing 
(1)  female  common  Carp  with  male  crucian  Carp,  and  (2)  female  crucian  Carp  with  male  common 
Carp,  iu  small  tanks,  constructed  with  this  end  in  view;  (3)  I  also  put  together  female  Carpio  Kol- 
larii with  male  common  Carp;  this  for  the  sole  purpose  of  testing  the  capability  of  propagation  of 
the  C.  Kollarii,  which  had  been  doubted.  In  the  two  former  cases  I  obtained  forms  analogous  to 
the  Carpio  Kollarii  sometimes  approaching  in  appearance  the  true  Carp,  at  others  the  crucian 
Carp.  In  the  third  case,  however,  having  placed  ripe  Carpio  Kollarii  together  with  Cyprinus 
carpio,  1  obtained  a  product  with  difficulty  to  be  distinguished  from  the  genuine  Carp.  1  took 
the  trouble  to  feed  tuem  for  three  years,  in  order  to  try  their  fitness  for  the  table,  but  their  flesh 
was  exceedingly  poor  and  very  bony,  and  could  not  be  compared  by  any  means  to  that  of  the 
common  Carp. 

Considering,  then,  the  whole  extensive  tract  of  country  devoted  ta  fish-culture  in  Central 
Europe,  where  crucian  Carp  are  to  be  found  from  Italy  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  from  France  to  the 
boundary  of  Eastern  Siberia,  considering  the  many  who  cultivate  on  a  small  scale  and  the  owners 
of  badly  stocked  pomls,  with  their  different  doubtful  productions,  how  often  do  we  find  in  the 
markets  or  ponds  very  nice  crosses  which  have  been  propagated  through  from  three  to  ten  gen- 
erations and  which  are  sold  for  Carp!  There  arc  many  small  .sheets  of  water  in  Germany,  France, 
Austria,  Italy,  Holland,  and  Belgium,  and  probably  also  in  England,  the  proprietors  of  which 
imagine,  in  good  faith,  that  they  have  stocked  their  ponds  with  good,  genuine  Carp,  which  in 


HABITS  OF  THE  CARP.  621 

reality,  through  careless  selection  or  ignorance,  are  hybrids  which  may  even  have  been  cultivated 
for  two  or  three  generations.  In  some  ponds  in  Swit/.i  rlaiul,  near  the  lake  of  Constance,  some 
crosses  nl'  .\lii-tniiis  hi-iiniii  urn-  !'mm<l  a-~  lulc  as  Iwriitv  \i-:ir>  :i^n. 

HABITS. — The  Carp  is  partial  to  stagnant  waters,  or  such  as  have  a  not  too  swift  current,  with 
a  loamy,  muddy  bottom  and  deep  places  covered  with  vegetation.  It  inhabits  now  most  of  the 
larger  and  smaller  rivers  of  Europe,  particularly  the  Elbe,  Weser,  Rhine,  Danube,  Po,  Rhone, 
Garonne,  Loire,  then  the  Bavarian  and  Swiss  lakes,  the  lake  of  Constance,  etc.;  even  salt  water 
seems  to  agree  with  it  very  well.  I  have  taken  it  in  the  Black  Sea,  where  its  weight  often  amounts 
to  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Caspian  Sea  in  great  numbers,  and  is 
known  there  by  the  name  of  Sassan. 

It  is  an  advantage  that  the  Carp  is  able  to  live  in  water  where  other  fishes  could  not  possibly 
exist;  for  instance,  in  the  pools  of  bog  meadows  or  sloughs.  However,  it  is  not  by  any  means  to 
be  inferred  from  this  that  the  best  locality  for  carp  ponds  of  a  superior  kind  could  be  in  such  sit- 
uations. The  presence  of  too  much  hnmic  acid  is  unfavorable  to  the  well-being  of  the  Carp,  as  we 
shall  see  presently  in  the  chapter  upon  the  establishing  of  fish-ponds.1 

The  Carp  lives  upon  vegetable  food  as  well  as  upon  worms  and  larva  of  aquatic  insects,  which 
it  turns  up  from  the  mud  with  the  head.  It  is  very  easily  satisfied,  and  will  not  refuse  the  oft'al  of 
the  kitchen,  slaughter-houses,  and  breweries,  or  even  the  excrement  of  cattle  and  pigs.  I  propose 
to  enter  further  upon  the  subject  of  feeding  it  when  I  speak  of  its  culture  in  ponds. 

In  the  moderate  zone,  that  is  to  say  in  Central  Europe,  the  Carp  will,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
cold  season,  seek  deeper  water  to  pass  that  period  in  a  kind  of  sleep.  This  will  sometimes  occur 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  November,  if  the  winter  shonld  set  in  early ;  and  it  is  to  be  remarked 
that  they  will  retire  at  an  earlier  period  in  ponds  than  in  rivers.  They  do  so  always  in  groups  of 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  more.  They  make  a  cavity  in  the  muddy  ground,  called  a  il  kettle"; 
in  this  they  pass  the  time  until  spring,  huddled  together  in  concentric  circles  with  their  heads 
together,  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  raised  and  held  immovably,  scarcely  lifting  the  gills  for 
the  process  of  breathing,  and  without  taking  a  particle  of  food.  They  do  not  take  any  food  from 
the  beginning  of  October,  and  continue  to  abstain  from  it,  in  some  countries,  until  the  end  of 
March,  and  in  colder  districts  even  somewhat  later.  It  will  not  answer,  however,  to  depend  on 
this  habit  when  transporting  them  for  propagation  in  the  spring  or  winter  time,  more  especially 
young  Carp  one  or  two  years  old.  The  fish  will  arrive  in  a  worn  and  hungry  condition,  and  must 
be  kept  in  a  tank  constructed  on  purpose  for  observation,  where  it  has  no  chance  to  bury  itself  in 
the  mud ;  here  it  will  sometimes  take  a  little  food.  At  such  times  I  generally  make  use  of  boiled 
barley,  or  rye  flour  converted  into  a  kind  of  tough  paste  by  the  addition  of  hot  water,  and  with 
this  I  mix  a  little  loam  and  dry  bread ;  but  I  continue  the  feeding  only  until  I  can  judge  from  the 
looks  of  the  fish  that  they  have  recovered.  This  method  I  followed  with  the  Carp  wuich  I  imported 
from  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  breeding  in  the  winter  of  1876-'77.  It  is  a  most  striking  fact  that 
the  Carp,  though  it  does  not  take  any  food  during  this  winter  sleep  in  its  natural  retreat,  does  not 
diminish  in  weight,  while,  in  the  so-called  "  winter  chambers,"  it  does  so  to  a  remarkable  degree. 
These  "  winter  chambers"  are  large  tanks,  one  thousand  to  five  thousand  square  feet  in  size  or 
less;  they  are  sometimes  walled  in  with  masonry,  sometimes  they  are  constructed  of  wood.  Fishes 
intended  for  sale  are  kept  in  them  for  a  few  weeks  or  months  during  the  winter. 

The  Carp  does  not  grow  in  the  winter.  Warmth  alone  seems  to  exercise  a  favorable  influence 
upon  it  and  to  promote  growth.  It  only  grows  in  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August, 
and  does  not  appear  to  continue  doing  so  in  September.  This  slight  increase  in  weight  which 

'Report  United  States  Fish  Commissioner,  pt.  iv,  p.  876  et  leg. 


622 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


takes  place  during  the  latter  month  seems  to  grow  out  of  an  accumulation  of  fat  which  is  being 
deposited  around  the  entrails.  In  ponds  which  contain  plenty  of  food  and  healthy  water,  in  an 
ordinary  year,  the  growth  and  increase  of  weight  in  the  year  will  be  represented  in  figures  as 
follows : 


Per  cent,  of 
original 
weight. 

Per  cent,  of 
growth. 

Mav 

10-15 

13 

33 

31 

July 

36 

34 

20 

18 

6 

4 

Total                                                       

110 

100 

If  the  weather  in  the  mouth  of  May  be  mild  and  warm  from  the  beginning,  a  better  growth 
may  be  expected,  amounting,  as  in  June,  to  about  thirty  per  centum.  This  month  (May)  is  decid- 
edly of  great  importance  for  the  growth  of  the  fish  during  the  current  year,  for,  in  proportion  as 
the  fish  has  grown  in  the  short  space  of  one  month,  it  will  take  more  food  in  the  following  ones,  as 
the  increase  of  its  growth  and  consequent  wants  will  demand.  Guitarists,  therefore,  consider  the 
mouth  of  May  as  being  the  most  important  of  the  whole  period  of  the  Carp's  growth.  The  above- 
given  calculations,  of  course,  are  limited  to  ponds  in  which  no  artificial  feeding  is  resorted  to,  but 
in  which  there  is  sufficient  food  by  reason  of  the  good  quality  of  the  water  and  soil  which  pro- 
duces it. 

In  small  ponds,  situated  in  parks  or  gardens,  which  possess  favorable  soil  and  river  water,  the 
increase  of  weight  will  be  even  a  little  greater  if  feeding  is  had  recourse  to,  for  such  small  ponds 
(covering  only  half  an  acre)  cannot  produce  sufficient  food  themselves.  On  the  whole,  feeding  is 
a  makeshift,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  and  which  in  very  large  ponds  of  more  than  from  twenty 
to  one  thousand  acres  should  not  be  made  use  of. 

The  above  calculations  are  only  admissible  for  Central  Europe,  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Baltic 
and  the  North  Sea.  In  countries  farther  north,  as  in  Sweden,  the  growth  of  the  Carp  is  less,  as, 
on  the  contrary,  in  more  southern  countries  than  Central  Europe,  for  instance  in  Illyria,  Dalmatia, 
Southern  Italy,  Southern  Spain,  and  partly,  also,  Southern  France,  the  result  is  more  favorable 
still.  There  a  milder  and  warmer  climate,  an  early  spring,  a  very  warm  summer  and  autumn,  and 
a  late  winter,  which,  in  addition,  is  mild  and  short,  combine  to  exercise  a  favorable  influence  upon 
the  thriving  condition  of  the  fishes.  In  these  warm  climates  the  fish  becomes  lively  at  a  much 
earlier  season,  if  it  does  at  all  pass  the  winter  in  that  lethargic  state,  without  taking  any  food, 
than  it  does  in  the  countries  of  the  northern  parts  of  Central  Europe. 

REPRODUCTION. — The  pond  Carp  of  Central  Europe  generally  leaves  its  winter  retreat  when 
the  rays  of  the  spring  sun  have  warmed  the  water  thoroughly,  while  at  the  same  time  it  begins  to 
seek  for  food  at  a  somewhat  earlier  period  in  rivers  and  lakes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  month  of 
March  the  eggs  have  developed  themselves  considerably  in  the  body  of  the  fish,  and  it  only  needs 
a  few  weeks  of  warm  weather  to  bring  about  the  spawning  season.  This  commences  in  the  middle 
of  May  in  such  lakes  and  ponds  of  Central  and  Northern  France,  Southern  Germany  and  Austria, 
as  have  a  warm  situation  and  are  sheltered  from  the  cold  winds.  It  continues  in  some  localities 
throughout  June  and  July,  and  sometimes,  in  more  elevated  situations,  until  August,  as,  for 
instance,  in  Francouia  and  Upper  Bavaria.  The  spawn  of  so  late  a  season,  however,  is  scarcely 
fit  for  breeding  purposes,  as  the  fish  cannot  grow  much  more  during  the  short  space  of  warm 
•weather.  It  remains  very  small  and  suffers  greatly  from  the  ensuing  winter  weather,  and  is  easily 


REPRODUCTION  OF  THE  CARP.  623 

at  that  time.  The  spawning  of  tbe  individual  fish  doea  not  take  place  all  at  once.  Days 
and  weeks  may  pass  U-iore  it  will  have  left  the  last  egg  to  the  care  of  nature.  At  times,  upon  the 
setting  in  of  rainy,  cool  weather  during  this  period,  it  will  be  interrupted,  but  reassumed  as  soon 
as  the  temperature  grows  warmer  again.  Culturists  altogether  dislike  cold  weather  at  this  time, 
as  not  only  the  eggs  but  the  young  fry  also  suffer  much  from  it.  Wet,  cold  summers  are  no  more 
profitable  to  the  culturists  of  Carp  than  to  the  agriculturist.  In  the  southern  part  of  Europe  the 
-[•awning  season  commences  at  an  earlier  date  than  in  Central  Europe.  In  Sicily,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Palermo,  where  there  are  some  private  ponds,  the  Carp  begins  to  .spawn  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  month  of  April.  This  is  said  to  be  the  case  also  in  the  French  province  of  Con- 
st a  mine,  Algeria,  Africa. 

The  abundance  of  eggs  in  the  Carp  is  very  great,  and  it  is  this  circumstance  which  will 
explain  its  extraordinary  increase  in  the  natural  waters.  A  fish  weighing  from  four  to  five  pounds 
contains,  on  an  average,  400,000  to  500,000  eggs.  Other  statements  figure  still  higher.  I  not  only 
made  calculations  myself  formerly,  repeating  them  in  1876  on  a  female  Mirror  Carp,  which  I 
obtained  from  the  environs  of  Guuzenhausen,  Bavaria,  and  which,  curiously  enough,  at  the  end 
of  November,  was  entirely  ripe,  but  I  also  obtained  statements  from  culturists  on  whom  I  could 
depend.  The  calculation  I  made  in  the  following  manner:  After  freeing  the  eggs  from  all  the  fat 
and  the  inclosing  membrane,  ami  after  having  washed  them  in  alcohol,  1  counted  off  exactly  1,000 
of  them;  these  I  weighed,  and  according  to  the  result  I  deduced  the  number  of  the  whole.  In 
the  somewhat  longer-bodied  Scale  Carp,  1  generally  found  comparatively  more  eggs  than  in  a 
Mirror  or  Leather  Carp,  though  all  were  of  equal  age  and  weight. 

During  the  spawning  season  an  appreciable  change  takes  place  iu  the  male,  protuberances, 
like  warts,  appearing  on  the  skin  of  the  head  and  back,  and  disappearing  upon  the  expiration  of 
that  period.  This  is  a  peculiarity  with  most  of  the  cypriuoids.  Some  time  before  the  spawning 
season  sets  in,  the  falling  out  of  the  pharyngeal  teeth  takes  place;  these  grow  anew  every  year. 

Some  days  before  spawning  the  fish  show  an  increased  vivacity;  they  rise  more  often  from 
the  depths  below  to  the  surface.  Two  or  three  or  more  of  the  male  fish  keep  near  the  female;  the 
latter  swims  more  swiftly  on  a  warm,  sunny  morning,  keeping  mostly  close  to  the  surface,  followed 
by  the  males.  This  is  called  "s<retcA«»"=runuiug-8pawning,  and  is  more  frequent  in  warm  than 
in  windy  and  rainy  weather.  The  female  prefers  spots  which  are  overgrown  with  grasses  and  other 
kinds  of  aquatic  plants,  such  as  Utricularia,  Nymphea,  and  Aliama.  The  male  fishes  follow  close 
to  the  very  water's  edge,  as  far  as  the  diminished  depth  will  allow  them.  They  lose  all  their  timid- 
ity and  precaution,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  quite  easily.  They  lash  the  water  in  a  lively  way, 
twisting  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body  energetically,  and  shooting  through  the  water  near  its 
surface  with  short,  tremulous  movements  of  the  fins.  They  do  so  in  groups  of  two  or  three  males 
to  one  female  fish,  and  forming  an  almost  compact  mass.  This  is  the  moment  when  the  female 
drops  the  eggs,  which  immediately  are  impregnated  by  the  milter.  As  this  process  is  repeated 
several  times,  the  female  drops  probably  only  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  eggs  at  a  time,  in 
order  to  gain  resting  time,  so  that  it  will  require  days  and  weeks  before  it  has  given  up  the 
last  egg. 

The  eggs  of  the  Carp  are  adhesive,  not  detached,  like  those  of  the  Salmonidte,  these  latter 
lying  loosely  on  the  ground,  while  the  former  adhere  in  lumps  to  the  object  upon  which  they  have 
fallen.  As  soon  as  the  egg  has  left  the  body  of  the  fish  it  swells  up  a  little,  the  mucus,  which 
surrounds  it,  serving  as  a  means  to  fasten  itself  upon  some  aquatic  plant,  stone,  or  brush-wood. 
Those  eggs  which  have  no  such  object  to  cling  to  are  lost.  I  found  numerous  eggs  on  the  reverse 
sides  of  the  leaves  of  the  Nymphaeea  and  their  stems,  the  Phellandrium  and  Utricularia,  but  the 


624  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

greater  number  of  them  I  discovered  on  the  Festuca  fluitans,  which  among  fishermen  is  known 
generally  by  the  name  of  "water-grass."  Its  narrow,  long,  strap-shaped,  thin  leaves  spread  softly 
over  the  water's  surface,  as  also  its  numerous  branches  in  the  water  afford  to  Ihe  fish  the  sought- 
for  opportunity  to  deposit  its  eggs  upon  its  tender  leaves.  The  seeds  of  this  grass  are  an  excellent 
food  for  the  Carp.  This  may  be  regarded  as  a  useful  indication  to  be  acted  upon  in  the  construc- 
tion of  ponds. 

The  eggs  will  develope  themselves  quickly  if  assisted  by  warm  weather.  As  early  as  the  fifth 
or  sixth  day  the  first  traces  of  dusky  spots,  the  eyes,  will  be  visible,  and  toward  the  twelfth,  or  at 
the  latest  the  sixteenth  day  the  little  embryo  fish  Will  break  through  its  envelope.  This  rapid 
development  takes  place  only  in  shallow,  thoroughly-warmed  ponds,  or  in  such  as  were  expressly 
constructed  for  hatching,  and  called  breeding  ponds.  If  these  poiids  are  deep,  and  consequently 
their  water  is  colder,  the  hatching  process  may  require  as  many  as  twenty  days.  In  from  three  to 
five  days  the  young  fish  has  absorbed  the  yolks,  and  seeks  its  food.  If  the  breeding  pond  be  pro- 
ductive enough  to  furnish  the  necessary  food  for  so  many  young  fishes,  these  will  grow  very  rap- 
idly. I  shall  return  to  this  subject  hereafter. 

I  remarked  above  that  the  Carp  prefers  stagnant  or  slowly-running  water  with  a  muddy  bot- 
tom, and  that  it  lives  upon  vegetable  as  well  as  animal  food,  aquatic  plants,  seeds,  worms,  and 
larvae  of  water  insects;  it  is  therefore  no  fish  of  prey.  It  does  not  attack  other  fishes,  and  has  no 
teeth  in  its  mouth,  but  only  in  the  throat,  and  is,  on  account  of  its  harmlessness,  an  excellent  fish 
for  the  culturist,  as  well  as  for  stocking  large  lakes  and  rivers  in  general. 

GROWTH  AND  SIZE. — Its  growth  differs,  according  as  the  fish  inhabits  cold  or  warm  water,  a 
river,  lake,  or  pond,  finding  plentiful  food  therein,  or  I'eing  fed.  An  additional  factor  is  the  quality 
of  the  soil,  whether  muddy  or  stony.  In  cold  water,  or  such  as  has  a  stony  ground,  the  Oarp  will 
not  progress  favoiably.  For  this  reason,  the  statements  concerning  its  normal  size,  attained  to 
in  a  certain  given  time,  differ  widely.  Very  naturally,  it  will  exercise  an  extremely  great  influence 
upon  the  thriving  of  the  fishes  whether  the  pond  contains  a  great  number  or  only  a  few  of  them; 
whether  it  is  overstocked,  as  culturists  term  it,  or  whether  there  are  only  a  proportionate  number 
of  fishes  in  it,  according  to  its  capability  of  producing  food.  Other  considerations  remain  to  be 
mentioned,  namely,  Is  the  pond  provided  with  supplies  from  brooks  falling  into  it,  or  are  th«  fishes 
to  be  fed  t  The  latter  course  is  almost  indispensable  in  the  culture  of  trout.  The  expenses 
incurred  in  this  case  diminish  the  income  of  the  culturist;  if  not  resorted  to,  the  result  will  be  the 
same,  as  the  value  of  the  fish  will  be  smaller.  This  feeding  is  needless  with  the  Carp,  if  it  be  cul- 
tivated judiciously  in  suitable  ponds,  and  for  this  reason  alone  the  culture  of  the  Carp  is  preferable 
to  that  of  the  trout. 

In  rivers  and  lakes  it  grows  larger,  although  the  same  fish;  for  the  reason,  probably,  that  in 
a  larger  space,  which  at  the  same  time  yields  more  sheltered  retreats,  it  escapes  from  the  pursuit 
of  man  more  easily  than  in  regular  artificial  ponds,  and  finds  more  plentiful  supplies  of  food. 

The  question  of  the  species,  or  I  would  rather  say  the  race,  is  of  great  moment,  particularly  in 
respect  to  carp-culture  in  ponds. 

A  favorable  result  may  be  expected  from  the  culture  of  this  fish  wherever  the  necessary  water 
ia  to  be  found,  be  it  in  the  north  or  south,  and  that,  too,  as  well  in  ponds  as  in  open  lakes  and 
rivers. 

The  normal  weight  which  a  Carp  may  attain  to  in  three  years,  whether  it  be  Scale  Carp, 
Mirror  Carp,  or  Leather  Carp,  is  an  average  of  from  three  to  three  and  one-fourth  pounds;  that 
is,  a  fish  which  has  lived  two  summers,  consequently  is  eighteen  months  old,  will  weigh  two  and 
three  fourths  to  three  and  one-fourth  pounds  the  year  following.  The  growth  may  turn  out  to  be 


SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  TUB  CAEP.  625 

even  more  favorable  in  a  warm  year,  or  if  only  a  few  fishes  have  been  placed  in  a  pond,  as  we 
shall  see  farther  on,  in  the  chapter  treating  of  pond-culture  and  the  operations  of  the  culturist.1 

Carps  in;iy  reach  a  very  advanced  age,  as  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  Austria  over  one 
hundred  and  forty  years  old.  The  increase  in  length  only  continues  up  to  a  certain  age,  but  its 
circumference  will  increase  up  to  its  thirty-fifth  year. 

I  have  seen  some  common  Carp  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe — in  the  lowlands  of  Hungary, 
Servia,  Croatia,  Wallachia,  as  also  in  Moldavia  and  the  Buckowina — which  weighed  from  thirty  to 
forty  pounds  and  more,  measuring  nearly  three  and  one-half  feet  in  length  by  two  and  three-fourths 
feet  in  circumference. 

Old  men,  whose  credibility  and  truthfulness  could  not  be  doubted,  assured  me  and  gave  the 
most  detailed  accounts  of  the  capture  of  this  species  of  fish  in  former  years,  giants,  which  weighed 
from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds,  and  which  they  had  seen  themselves.  During  the  Crimean  war  in  1853, 
a  French  engineer  officer,  stationed  at  Widclin,  on  the  Danube,  in  Turkey,  killed  a  Carp  by  a  bullet- 
shot,  some  distance  below  the  city ;  this  fish  weighed  sixty-seven  pounds.  I  had  some  of  its  scales 
in  my  possession,  of  which  each  had  a  diameter  of  two  and  one  half  inches.  Their  structure  indi- 
cated to  a  certainty  that  the  age  of  this  fish  could  be  no  more  than  twenty-four  years  at  the  most. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  two  large  Carps,  weighing  from"  forty-two  to  fifty-five  pounds,  were 
taken  several  years  ago  on  one  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Oldenburg's  domains  in  Northern  Germany. 
They  have  been  kept  in  some  particularly  favorable  water,  productive  of  plentiful  food,  and  had 
been  used  as  breeding  fishes.  These  two  specimens  might,  from  their  size,  be  calculated  to  be 
comparatively  very  aged  fishes;  it  was  proved  that  they  were  only  fifteen  years  old.  If  we  may 
credit  the  chronicles  kept  centuries  ago  by  old  families,  nnd  especially  by  the  monks,  who  had 
taken  possession  of  all  the  best  localities  along  the  banks  of  the  beautiful  blue  Danube,  then  still 
greater  giants  had  been  caught,  and  that  in  the  waters  of  the  Danube  itself.  A  ch'rouicle  of  the 
monastery  of  Molk,  in  Austria,  refers  to  a  Carp  weighing  seventy-eight  pounds,  which  had  been 
captured  on  Ascension  Day  in  1520.  Another  record  speaks  of  a  Carp  which  had  been  taken  in 
the  third  decennium  of  the  present  century  in  the  lake  of  Zug,  in  Switzerland,  and  which  weighed 
ninety  pounds.  These  giants  are  certainly  only  wonderful  exceptions,  and  have  become  celebrated 
through  the  scarcity  of  such  occurrences,  but  still  these  facts  are  encouraging  illustrations  that  it 
is  possible  for  such  large  specimens  to  grow  up  in  favorable  waters.  All  the  countries  where 
these  large  fishes  have  been  found,  and  which  are  situated  between  the  Black,  the  North,  and  the 
Baltic  Seas,  are  pretty  nearly  such  as  have  a  late  spring  and  a  long,  cold  winter.  Near  Widditi 
the  Danube  has  been  frozen  repeatedly.  There  the  Carp  passes  from  five  to  seven  months  in  its 
winter  sleep,  during  which  it  does  not  grow.  If  this  fish  thrives  so  well  in  the  countries  which 
have  such  a  very  cold  winter  (on  an  average  they  have  the  same  winter  temperature  as  Boston, 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Pittsburgh,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Baltimore  and  Saint  Louis),  where  the 
rivers,  have  not  enough  food  for  these  fishes  by  far,  their  level  being  regulated  by  dams,  which  are 
a  subject  of  constant  complaint  to  the  fishermen,  how  much  more  would  they  thrive  in  the  waters 
of  this  country  with  their  great  riches  of  food!  But  if  we  take  into  account  the  rivers  of  the  mild 
South  and  Southwest  of  the  United  States,  what  success  may  not  be  expected  for  this  fish  in  those 
regions  t 

If  the  Carp  finds  food  in  superfluity  it  will  grow  much  more  rapidly  than  the  above  statement 
indicates.  This  gives  an  increase  of  from  three  to  three  and  one-fourth  pounds  in  one  year  and  six 
mouths ;  but  this  is  only  the  normal  one,  the  food  consumed  being  of  an  average  amount.  If  the 
fish  obtain  food  very  plentifully  it  will  grow  more  rapidly.  In  this  case,  again,  it  is  to  be  consid- 

1  Report  of  the  United  State*  Fish  Commision,  pt.  i v,  p.  876  et  ieq. 
40  F 


626  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ered  that  the  waters  of  the  milder  climates  of  this  country  possess  this  advantage,  scarcely  to  be 
judged  of  or  estimated  at  its  proper  value  as  yet,  that  the  fish  may  be  able  during  three-quarters 
of  the  year,  or  even  the  whole  year  round,  to  take  food,  and  will  omit  the  lethargic  winter  sleep 
conditioned  by  the  cold  winter.  There  is  scarcely  a  comparison  to  be  made,  so  far  as  the  Carp  is 
concerned,  between  the  rivers  of  this  country,  so  richly  supplied  with  food,  which  it  will  not 
be  compelled  to  seek  under  a  constant  strife  for  existence,  and  the  much  poorer  waters  of  the 
Rhine,  Elbe,  Rhone,  etc.  In  the  waters  of  its  native  country,  in  Central  Europe,  after  its  first 
awakening  from  the  long  winter  sleep,  it  seeks  most  diligently  the  contents  of  the  seeds  of 
the  Nwphar  luteum  and  Nymphcea  alba  (the  yellow  and  white  water-lily),  the  Phellandrium  aqua- 
ticum,  Festuca  fluitans,  etc.  The  waters  of  the  United  States  abound  in  all  these  plants  and 
numerous  others  the  seeds  of  which  will  serve  the  fish  as  food;  for  instance,  the  wild  rice  (Zizania 
aquatica  and  Z.  Jluitam),  the  well  known  Tuscarora  rice  or  "water-oats"  with  its  great  riches  of 
seeds,  and  many  others,  which  will  yield  food  profusely,  and  which  European  waters  do  not  possess, 
thus  giving  a  great  advantage  to  the  American  carp  culturist.  And  then  there  is  the  culture  of 
fish  iu  ponds.  There  are  culturists  in  Central  Europe  who,  wishing  to  see  the  fish  grow  more  rap- 
idly, take  the  trouble  to  feed  them  with  soaked  barley,  which  they  occasionally  throw  out  in  differ- 
ent places,  and  by  doing  so  they  have  had  a  very  full  success,  the  fish  growing  larger,  that  is,  more 
quickly  than  when  not  thus  fed.  By  introducing  the  above-named  wild  or  natural  water  plants 
in  carp  ponds  they  will  be  perpetuated,  and  the  grains  which  have  fallen  to  the  bottom  of  the 
water  will  form  an  ample  article  of  food  for  the  first  spring  days,  if  we  do  not  prefer  to  give  them 
the  almost  worthless  offal  of  the  slaughter-houses.  I  do  not  advocate  the  so-called  artificial  feeding 
of  this  fish  where  the  ponds  themselves  yield  food  in  ample  abundance,  a  consummation  toward 
which  the  Tuscarora  rice  will  largely  contribute. 

Let  us  once  more  consider  the  fact  of  its  extraordinary  increase  of  weight  of  about  one 
hundred  and  ten  per  centum  in  the  exceedingly  short  space  of  four  months,  for  during  the  cold 
winter  time,  when  ice  thickly  covers  rivers  and  lakes,  nature  banishes  it  into  its  temporary  tomb 
which  it  chooses  and  digs  for  itself,  to  hold  its  winter  sleep  in.  This  fish  needs  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  months  of  growth  to  gain,  according  to  a  low  estimation,  the  weight  of  three  pounds 
without  being  fed.  But  much  more  satisfactory  results  are  frequently  arrived  at  when  favorable 
circumstances  combine  and  when  it  will  reach  a  greater  weight.  There  are  some  culturists  who 
obtain  in  the  same  space  of  time  fishes  of  four  pounds'  weight;  of  course  they  possess  warmly  situ- 
ated ponds  which  thaw  very  early  in  spring,  and  perhaps  they  assist  nature  in  some  degree  by 
feeding  the  fishes.  I  have  done  so  myself  in  two  successive  years,  which  were  exceptionally  warm, 
when  I  fed  the  fishes  with  the  almost  worthless  malt  refuse  or  "  grains."  They  increased  visibly 
and  attained  to  the  above-mentioned  weight  in  the  same  space  of  time. 

This  fifteen  to  eighteen  months  of  the  actual  time  of  growth  transpires  during  a  period  of  three 
years  and  six  months,  as  intervening  months  of  winter  sleep  are  to  be  included,  during  which  the 
growth  is  interrupted. 

I  will  not  recur  to  what  this  fish  promises  to  become  in  the  milder  regions  of  the  South,  where 
neither  ice-bound  water  nor  cold  temperatures  force  upon  it  the  lethargy  of  the  winter  sleep,  where 
it  will  have  the  longer  space  of  from  eight  to  ten  months,  or  may  be  the  whole  year,  including  the 
mild  winter,  for  the  most  vigorous  and  rapid  development,  not,  as  in  Europe,  the  sparingly  allotted 
four  or  five  months.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  the  Carp  will  arrive  at  the  weight  of  from  two 
and  three-fourths  to  four  poundsin  one  year  in  those  warm  climates,  when  in  colder  regions  it 
requires  two  years  and  six  months.  I  do  not  think  that  I  am  mistaken  in  this;  I  am  ready  to 
stand  by  this  assertion,  which  the  future  will  surely  verify. 
40  F 


CATFISH    FAMILY.  627 

For  a  full  account  of  the  methods  of  culture  the  iuquirer  is  referred  to  the  Report  of  the 
Fmird  States  Commission  of  Fish. Tics,  part  iv,  1875-'7G,  pp.  876-900,  and  to  other  papers  in  the 
subsequent  reports.  At  the  time  of  the  publication  of  this  volume  the  progeny  of  the  three 
hundred  and  forty  live  young  Carp  brought  over  from  Germany  in  .May,  1877,  have  been  dis- 
t  ri  I  in  ted  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Carp  is  almost  as  familiar  to  our  people  as  is 
any  other  kind  of  domesticated  animal. 

"The  Car]),"  writes  Jordan,  "has  been  extensively  introduced  into  California  and  Oregon,  and 
it  has  thriven  admirably.  In  many  parts  of  California  there  are  now  carp  ponds,  but  they  are 
most  numerous,  and  perhaps  most  profitable,  in  Sonoma  County." 

189.  THE  CATFISH  FAMILY— 8HUEID2E. 
By  DAVID  8.  JORDAN. 

The  Catflshes  abound  in  all  the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains. The  species  of  the  three  genera,  Ictalurus,  Amiurus,  and  Leptops,  which  constitute  the  bulk 
of  the  family  as  represented  in  North  America,  all  reach  a  length  of  from  one  to  five  feet,  and  are 
all  food-fishes  of  more  or  less  importance.  One  of  the  Catfishes,  Ictalurus  ponderosvs,  is  our 
largest  fresh- water  fish,  weighing  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  two  of  the  others, 
Leptops  olivaris  and  Ictalurus  nigricans,  reach  a  very  considerable  size. 

The  Catfishes  are  voracious  and  indiscriminate  feeders,  any  kind  of  animal  substance,  living  or 
dead,  being  greedily  swallowed  by  them.  They  are  also  (es]>ecially  the  species  of  Ami  urns)  extremely 
tenacious  of  life,  living  for  a  long  time  out  of  water,  and  being  able  to  resist  impurities  in  the 
water  better  than  any  other  of  our  food-fishes.  They  spawn  in  spring,  and  the  female  fish  keeps  a 
watch  over  the  school  of  young,  much  asa  hen  takes  care  of  chickens.  The  Catfishes  are  especially 
adapted  for  stocking  ponds  and  sluggish  streams  with  mnddy  bottoms,  or  which  become  partly 
dry  in  summer,  bodies  of  water  not  suited  for  the  more  aristocratic  trout  and  bass. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Ictalurus — known  as  "Channel  Cats"  are  much  less  hardy  than  the 
other  Catfishes,  and  do  not  thrive  well  except  in  river  channels.  Any  water  which  does  not  dry 
up  absolutely  to  the  bottom  in  summer  will  suffice  to  nurture  the  common  small  Catfishes. 

The  flesh  of  all  the  Catfishes  is  of  fair  quality,  not  delicate  nor  tender,  but  of  good  flavor. 
The  Channel  Cats  have  whiter  meat  than  the  ordinary  small  Catfish,  but  the  flesh  is  drier,  and  the 
latter  are  usually  preferred. 

THE  COMMON  CHANNEL  CAT — ICTALURUS  PUNCTATUS. 

The  Channel  Cat  or  Blue  Cat  abounds  in  all  the  larger  Western  and  Southern  streams,  living 
in  the  river  channels.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  five  to  ten  pounds  and  is  readily  salable,  but  its 
flesh  is  not  better  than  that  of  its  less  attractive  relatives.  It  takes  the  hook  readily.  This  species 
is  abundant  in  the  Saint  John's  River,  Florida.  In  1878  many  were  taken  near  the  bar  at  Mayport 
in  brackish  water.  For  table  use  they  are  much  more  highly  esteemed  than  the  Mud  Catfish. 

GREAT  MISSISSIPPI  CAT — ICTALURUS  PONDEROSUS. 

This  species,  the  largest  of  our  Catfish,  is  found  in  the  Mississippi,  and  probably  in  its  larger 
tributaries,  where  it  reaches  a  weight  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  Little  distinctive 
is  known  of  its  habits,  which  probably  agree  with  those  of  the  next  species. 


628  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  GREAT  LAKE  CATFISH;  FLANNEL-MOUTH  CAT  (the  young)— ICTALURUS  NIGEICANS. 

This  species,  the  most  abundant  of  the  large  Catfishes,  abounds  in  the  Great  Lakes  and  in 
the  larger  streams  of  the  West  and  South  as  far  as  Florida.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  fifty  to  one 
hundred  pounds,  perhaps  more.  In  all  the  markets  of  the  region  where  found  it  is  one  of  the 
most  important  species,  and  its  flesh,  which  can  be  cut  in  "steaks"  like  halibut,  is  generally 
esteemed.  Nothing  distinctive  is  known  of  its  breeding  habits  or  rate  of  growth.  Professor  Goode 
remarks:  "  I  have  observed  frequently  enormous  specimens  of  this  species  in  the  Saint  John's  River, 
where  they  are  called  Mud  Cats." 

THE  CHANNEL  CAT  OF  THE  POTOMAC — ICTALURUS  ALBIDUS. 

The  White  Catfish  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  is  very  abundant  in  the  Susque- 
hanna  and  Potomac  Rivers,  and  forms  an  important  part  of  the  fish  supply  of  the  Washington 
market.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  two  to  five  pounds,  being  much  smaller  than  the  preceding  species, 
which  it  resembles. 

THE  HORNED  POUT— AMIURUS  NEBULOSUS. 

The  common  "Horned  Pout,"  "Bull-head,"  "Bull-pout,"  or  "Minister"  of  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States  is  the  most  generally  abundant  and  familiar  representative  of  this  family.  It 
reaches  a  length  of  about  eighteen  inches  and  rarely  exceeds  three  or  four  pounds  in  weight,  while 
the  majority  of  those  seen  in  the  markets  are  still  smaller.  It  is  probably  the  hardiest  of  all  our 
fresh-water  fishes,  thriving  in  any  waters,  but  preferring  those  which  are  quiet  and  shaded. 
Numerous  other  species  very  similar  to  this  occur  in  our  fresh  waters. 

The  Bull-head  has  been  introduced  from  the  Schuylkill  into  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
Rivers  in  California.  It  has  there  very  rapidly  multiplied,  and  is  now  common  in  all  the  sloughs 
and  bayous  of  the  lower  courses  of  these  rivers.  As  a  food-fish  it  is  not  very  highly  valued  by 
the  Califomians,  most  of  those  brought  to  market  being  taken  by  the  Chinese. 

THE  MUD  GAT— LEPTOPS  OLIVARIS. 

The  "Mud  Cat,"  "Yellow  Cat,"  "Goujon,"  or  "Bashaw"  is  found  in  all  the  large  rivers  of  the 
West  and  South.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  at  least  fifty  pounds.  It  is  found  only  in  the  larger 
streams,  swimming  near  the  bottom.  It  is  less  attractive  in  its  appearance  than  the  other  Cat- 
fishes,  but  we  are  not  aware  that  its  flesh  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  others.  This  species,  and  other 
of  the  larger  Catfishes,  are  often  caught  by  "jugging,"  the  bait  being  attached  to  a  jug  filled  with 
air,  which  will  in  time  tire  out  the  fish  and  bring  it  to  the  surface. 

THE  STONE  CAT — NOTURUS  FLAVUS. 

This  species  reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot ;  the  other  Stone  Cats  (Noturua)  are  still  smaller, 
and  none  of  them  can  be  considered  as  food- fishes. 

THE  GAFF-TOPSAIL  CATFISH — ^LURICHTHYS  MARINUS. 

This  species,  which  ranges  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida,  is  found  chiefly  in  brackish  water.  It  is 
not  uncommonly  taken  at  Arlington,  Florida,  and  Empire  Point.  It  is  known  here  and  at  Pensa- 
cola  as  the  "  Sea  Cat,"  and  at  Brunswick,  Georgia,  as  "  Gaff- topsail,"  in  allusion  to  the  shape  of 
the  first  dorsal  fin.  According  to  Mr.  H.  8.  Williams,  it  is  abundant  in  the  Indian  River.  It  is 
common  also  along  the  Gulf  Coast,  but  is  nowhere  valued  as  food.  Many  of  the  fishermen  believe 
this  species  to  be  viviparous.  'Mr.  8.  C.  Clarke,  writing  from  New  Smyrna  March  31,  1874, 
remarks :  "  They  have  eggs  in  them  as  large  as  cherries." 


Till.  (  Al.irni.'MA  ri»\c,i;i;  KKI,.  629 

THE  SALT-WATER  CATFISH — Auius  PELIS. 

The  Salt  water  Cattish  is  found  along  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  as  far  north  as  Capo 
Ilatteras.  In  the  first  volume  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  p.  278, 
is  an  interesting  account  of  its  breeding  habits,  as  observed  by  Prof.  N.  T.  Lupton.  The  species 
spawns  there  in  July,  and  the  parent  (sex  not  stated)  carries  the  eggs  in  its  mouth.  Silas  Stearns 
says  of  this  flsh : 

"The  Salt-water  Catfish  is  very  abundant  everywhere  on  the  Gulf  coast.  It  is  found  on  the 
sea-beaches,  the  shores  and  bottoms  of  bays  and  bayous,  and  even  some  distance  up  fresh-water 
streams.  It  is  a  bottom-loving  flsh,  feeding  upon  worms  and  small  crustaceans  chiefly,  but  will 
readily  eat  anything  else — fish,  flesh,  or  fowl,  dead  or  alive.  As  the  pest  of  these  waters,  it  is  ever 
present  and  never  welcome.  It  breeds  in  the  summer,  in  June,  July,  and  August.  The  spawn  is 
deposited  in  the  depression  in  the  sand  and  impregnated  with  the  milt.  One  of  the  parent  flsh 
then  takes  the  eggs  in  his  mouth  and  by  some  movement  fixes  them  against  the  gills,  or  between 
the  leaves  of  the  gills.  The  eggs  are  carried  in  this  position  until  the  embryo  flsh  are  hatched  and 
have  become  perfect  and  able  to  care  for  themselves.  The  eggs  when  full  size  resemble  white 
grapes;  they  are  large  and  clear.  Sometimes  the  parent  fish's  jaws  are  much  distended  by  the 
eggs  anil  young  inside  and  its  appearance  is  comical. 

••The  Catfish  emits  a  grunting  noise  (similar,  although  louder,  to  several  fishes  of  this  coast — 
the  grunt,  drum,  mademoiselle,  croaker,  etc.),  which  comes,  I  believe,  from  the  swimming  bladder. 
This  noise,  when  there  are  many  fish  present  and  all  else  is  still,  is  very  annoying,  and  I  have  passed 
more  than  one  wakeful  night  from  hearing  it  on  the  Southern  coast,  where  the  fish  were  swimming 
under  my  boat.  The  Catfish  will  always  take  the  hook,  and  is  not  at  all  particular  as  to  the  kind 
of  bait;  attains  a  weight  of  ten  or  twelve  pounds,  though  the  average  is  much  less.  It  is  seldom 
eaten  except  as  a  last  resort  for  fresh  food ;  it  is,  however,  quite  palatable.  When  canght  it  is 
almost  invariably  mangled  and  consequently  thrown  away." 

190.   THE  MORAYS— MUR^NIDJE. 

On  our  Southern  coasts  are  several  species  of  eel-like  fishes  belonging  to  this  family.  On 
account  of  their  sharp  teeth  and  strong  jaws  they  are  rather  dreaded  by  the  fishermen,  who  fear 
their  bites.  Some  species,  however,  are  here,  as  in  various  parts  of  the  "West  Indies,  in  considerable 
demand  for  food.  The  most  important  species  is  the  Speckled  Moray,  Sidera  ocellata,  which  is  occa- 
sionally brought  to  the  Key  West  markets. 

CALIFORNIA  CONGER  EEL— SIDERA  MORDAX. 

"This  species,"  writes  Jordan,  "is  always  "known  as  'Conger  Eel'  or  'Congeree.'  It  reaches 
a  length  of  five  feet  and  a  weight  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds.  It  is  found  among  rocks  about 
the  Santa  Barbara  Islands,  and  southward  along  the  coast  of  Lower  California.  About  the  islands 
it  is  qnite  common.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  ferocious  disposition.  When  captured  it  shows  fight 
and  bites  savagely,  striking  like  a  snake.  Its  flesh  is  very  fat,  resembling  that  of  Angnilla,  and 
is  very  palatable  when  fried.  The  skin  is  said  by  the  fishermen  to  be  'very  pizen.'  This  species 
is  brought  into  the  Los  Angeles  market,  where  it  meets  with  a  ready  sale.  Considerable  numbers 
are  salted  and  dried  by  the  Chinese." 

The  Sea-snakes  (Ophichthyx  ocellatus,  0.  chrysops,  etc.)  are  occasionally  seen  on  the  fishing- 
smacks  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  having  been  obtained  from  the  stomachs  of  large  groupers  and 
snappers,  with  which  it  is  a  favorite  food.  Stearns  has  obtained  specimens  at  Pensacola  canght 
with  hook  and  line  on  the  snapper  banks,  sixty  miles  east  of  that  port. 


630  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

191.  THE  EEL— ANGUILLA  VULGARIS. 

CLASSIFICATION. — There  is  no  group  of  fishes  concerning  the  classification  and  history  of 
which  there  is  so  much  doubt  as  the  Eel  family;  an  infinite  number  have  been  described,  but 
most  are  so  badly  characterized  or  founded  on  individual  or  so  trivial  characters  that  the  majority 
of  ichthyologists  will  reject  them.1 

In  his  "Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  in  the  British  Museum"  Dr.  Giinther  has  claimed  to  retaiu 
those  as  species  which  are  distinguished  by  such  characters  that  they  may  be  recognized,  though 
he  remarks  that  he  is  by  no  means  certain  whether  really  specific  value  should  be  attached  to 
them,  remarking  that  the  snout,  the  form  of  the  eyes,  the  width  of  the  bands  of  teeth,  etc.,  are 
evidently  subject  to  much  variation.  lu  his  more  recent  work  he  remarks,  "Some  twenty-five 
species  of  Eels  are  known  from  the  coast  waters  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones." 

Other  recent  writers  have  cut  the  knot  by  combining  all  of  the  Eels  into  three  or  four,  or 
even  into  one,  species,  and  it  seems  as  if  no  other  course  were  really  practicable,  since  the  different 
forms  merge  into  one  another  with  almost  imperceptible  gradations.  In  his  monograph  of  the 
family  of  anguilliform  fishes,2  M.  C.  M.  Dareste  remarks: 

"Dr.  Giinther  has  recently  published  a  monograph  of  the  apodal  fishes  in  which  he  begins 
the  work  of  reducing  the  number  of  specific  types.  The  study  of  the  ichthyological  collection 
of  the  Paris  Museum,  which  contains  nearly  all  of  Kaup's  types,  has  given  me  the  opportunity 
of  completing  the  work  begun  by  Dr.  Giinther,  and  of  striking  from  the  catalogue  a  large  number 
of  nominal  species  which  are  founded  solely  upon  individual  peculiarities. 

"How  are  we  to  distinguish  individual  peculiarities  from  the  true  specific  characters?  In 
this  matter  I  have  followed  the  suggestions  made  with  such  great  force  by  M.  Siebold  in  his 
'History  of  the  Fresh-water  Fishes  of  Central  Europe.'  This  accomplished  naturalist  has  shown 
that  the  relative  proportions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body  and  the  head  vary  considerably 
in  fishes  of  the  same  species,  in  accordance  with  certain  physiological  conditions,  and  that  conse- 
quently they  are  far  from  having  the  importance  which  has  usually  been  attributed  to  them  in  the 
determination  of  specific  characters. 

"The  study  of  a  very  large  number  of  individuals  of  the  genera  Conger  and  Anguilla  has 
fully  convinced  me  of  the  justice  of  this  observation  of  Siebold;  for  the  extreme  variability  of 
proportions  forbids  us  to  consider  them  as  furnishing  true  specific  characters. 

"  I  also  think,  with  Siebold,  that  albinism  and  melanism,  that  is  to  say,  the  diminution  or 
augmentation  of  the  number  of  chromatophores,  are  only  individual  anomalies  and  cannot  be 
ranked  as  specific  characters.  Risso  long  since  separated  the  black  Congers  under  the  name 
Murcena  nigra.  Kaup  described  as  distinct  species  many  black  Anguillas.  These  species  should 
be  suppressed.  I  have  elsewhere  proved  the  frequent  occurrence  of  melanism  and  albinism  more 
or  less  complete  in  nearly  all  the  types  of  fishes  belonging  to  this  family,  a  fact  especially  interest- 
ing since  albinism  has  hitherto  been  regarded  as  a  very  exceptional  phenomenon  in  the  group  of 
fishes.  This  also  occurs  in  the  Symbranchidai.  I  have  recently  shown  it  in  a  specimen  of  Monop- 
terug  from  Cochin  China  presented  to  the  museum  by  M.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire. 

"I  must  also  signalize  a  new  cause  of  multiplication  of  species;  it  is  partial  or  total  absence 
of  ossification  in  certain  individuals.  This  phenomenon,  which  may  be  explained  as  a  kind  of 
rachitis  (rickets),  has  not  to  my  knowledge  been  noticed,  yet  I  have  found  it  in  a  large  number  of 
specimens.  1  had  prepared  the  skeleton  of  a  Conger  of  medium  size,  the  bones  of  which  are 

1  GONTHER:  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  in  the  British  Museum,  viii,  p.  24. 

'  < :. .in j itcs-rc ml i is  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris. 


t;i. <><;i;  AiMiir.M.  l>isTi:i!;i  TION  OF  Tin;  i:i  i  .  631 

flexilili-  ami  ha\e  remained  in  an  entirely  cartilaginous  state.  Still  ii  is  not  necessary  to  prepare 
the  skeleton  to  determine  the  absence  of  ossification,  for  we  can  establish  this  easily  in  nnskinned 
specimens  by  the  tlc\ibilitv  of  the  jaws.  It  is  very  remarkable  thai  this  modification  of  the 
skeleton  is  not  incompatible  with  healthy  existence,  and  that  it  does  not  prevent  the  fish  in  whiuh 
it  is  found  from  attaining  u  very  large  si/e. 

"Those  lislies  in  which  ossification  is  absent  are  remarkable  by  reason  of  the  great  reduction 
of  the  number  of  teeth,  which,  although  the  only  parts  which  become  hard  by  the  deposit  of  cal- 
careous salts,  remain  however  much  smaller  than  in  individuals  whose  skeletons  are  completely 
ossified. 

••We  can  thus  understand  how  such  specimens  could  present  characters  apparently  specific, 
and  that  they  should  have  been  considered  by  Kaup  as  types  of  new  species.  These  considera; 
lions  have  led  me  to  reduce,  on  an  extensive  scale,  the  number  of  species  in  the  family. 

"So,  in  the  genus  Anguilla,  I  find  but  four  species:  Anguilla  vulgariit,  occurring  throughout 
the  northern  hemisphere,  in  the  New  World  as  well  as  the  Old;  Anguilla  marmorata  and  A.  motca 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Anguilla  megalostoma  of  Ocean ica. 

"There  are  at  least  four  distinct  types,  resulting  from  the  combination  of  a  certain  number  of 
characters;  but  the  study  of  a  very  large  number  of  specimens  belonging  to  these  four  specific 
t\  IK»S  has  convinced  me  that  each  of  these  characters  may  vary  independently,  and  that  conse- 
quently certain  individuals  exhibit  a  combination  of  characters  belonging  to  two  distinct  types.  It 
is  therefore  impossible  to  establish  clearly  denned  barriers  separating  these  four  types. 

"The  genus  Anguilla  exhibits,  then,  a  phenomenon  which  is  also  found  in  many  other  genera, 
and  even  in  the  genus  Homo  itself,  and  which  can  be  explained  in  only  two  ways:  Either  these 
four  forms  have  had  a  common  origin  and  are  merely  races,  not  species,  or  else  they  are  distinct 
in  origin,  and  are  true  species,  but  have  beeu  more  or  less  intermingled,  and  have  produced  by 
their  mingling  intermediate  forms  which  coexist  with  those  which  were  primitive.  Science  is  not 
in  the  position  to  decide  positively  between  these  alternatives."1 

It  is  the  disposition  of  American  ichthyologists,  at  least,  to  accept  the  views  of  Dareste,  and 
to  consider  all  the  Eels  of  the  northern  hemisphere  as  members  of  one  polymorphic  species. 
Giinther  is  inclined  to  recognize  three  species  in  North  America:  one  the  common  Eel  of  Europe, 
Anguilla  vulgaris;  one  the  common  American  Eel,  Anguilla  bostoniewti*  (roxtrata),  which  he  finds 
also  in  Japan  and  China;  and  the  third,  Anguilla  texana,  described  and  illustrated  by  Girard,  in  the 
"Report  of  the  United  States  and  Mexican  Boundary  Survey,"  under  the  name  of  A.  texuna,  which, 
he  remarks,  is  scarcely  specifically  distinct  from  A.  bostoniennui,  from  which  it  differs  only  in  the 
greater  development  of  the  lips,  a  distinction  which  seems  to  be  imaginary.  The  distinction 
between  A.  bontoniensis  and  A.  vulgariti,  as  stated  by  him,  consists  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  dorsal 
fin  is  situated  a  little  farther  back  upon  the  body,  so  that  in  the  former  the  distance  between  the 
commencement  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fin  is  shorter  than  the  head,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  equal 
to  or  somewhat  longer  than  it.  This  character  does  not  appear  to  be  at  all  constant. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION.— Assuming  the  specific  identity  of  the  Eels  of  the  Old  and  the 
New  World,  the  distribution  of  the  common  Eel  may  be  defined  somewhat  as  follows:  In  the  rivers 
and  along  the  ocean  shores  of  Eastern  North  America,  south  to  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  north  at 
least  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  but  absent  in  the  waters  tributary  to  Hudson  Bay,  the  Arctic 


'These  conclusions  of  Dareste  Lave  a  very  mediaeval  ring.  "Science"  is  certainly  in  the  position  to  say  that 
neither  of  these  hypotheses  can  be  true.  From  the  stand  point  of  modern  zoology,  the  common  origin  of  the  gpecing 
of  Anguilla  admits  of  no  reasonable  doubt.  Between  the  four  "  species "  of  Dareste  ami  tln-ii  K-.ss  xliarply  defined 
races,  no  permanent  difference  exists.  The  name  "  species"  certainly  cannot  be  refused  to  forms  having  snpposably 
a  common  origin. — J. 


632  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC!  ANIMALS. 

Sea  and  the  Pacific;  present  in  Southern  Greenland  (?)  and  Iceland,  latitude  65°  north;  on  the 
entire  coast  of  Norway,  from  the  North  Cape,  latitude  71°,  southward;  abundant  in  the  Baltic, 
and  in  the  rivers  of  Russia  and  Germany  which  are  its  tributaries,  and  along  the  entire  western 
and  Mediterranean  coasts  of  Europe,  though  not  present  in  the  Black  Sea,  in  the  Danube  or  any 
of  its  other  tributaries,  or  in  the  Caspian;  occurring  also  off  Japan  and  China  and  Formosa;  also 
in  various  islands  of  the  Atlantic,  Grenada,  Dominica,  the  Bermudas,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores. 

HABITS. — The  habits  of  the  Eel  are  very  different  from  those  of  any  other  fish,  and  are  as  yet 
but  little  understood. 

"This,  so  far  as  we  know,"  writes  Professor  Baird,  "is  the  only  fish  the  young  of  which  ascend 
from  the  sea  to  attain  maturity,  instead  of  descending  from  the  fresh  to  the  salt  water.  Its 
natural  history  has  been  a  matter  of  considerable  inquiry  within  a  few  years,  although  even  now 
we  are  far  from  having  that  information  concerning  it  that  would  be  desirable,  in  view  of  its 
enormous  abundance  and  its  great  value  as  a  food-fish. 

''The  eggs  of  the  Eel  are  for  the  most  part  laid  in  the  sea,  and  in  the  early  spring,  the  period 
varying  with  the  latitude,  the  young  fish  may  be  seen  ascending  the  rivers  in  vast  numbers,  and 
when  arrested  by  an  apparently  impassable  barrier,  natural  or  artificial,  they  will  leave  the  water 
and  make  their  way  above  the  obstruction,  in  endeavoring  to  reach  the  point  at  which  they  aim. 
Here  they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  and  feed  on  any  kind  of  animal  substance,  the  spawn  of 
fish,  the  roes  of  shad,  small  fish,  etc.  At  the  end  of  their  sojourn  in  the  ponds  or  streams  they 
return  to  the  sea,  and  are  then  captured  in  immense  numbers  in  many  rivers  in  what  are  called 
fish-baskets.  A  V-shaped  fence  is  made,  with  the  opening  down-stream  into  the  basket,  into 
which  the  Eels  fall,  and  from  which  they  cannot  easily  escape.  This  same  device,  it  may  be 
incidentally  stated,  captures  also  great  numbers  of  other  fish,  such  as  shad,  salmon,  and  other 
anadroinous  fish,  to  their  grievous  destruction. 

"As  might  be  expected,  however,  the  Falls  of  Niagara  constitute  an  impassable  barrier  to  their 
ascent.  The  fish  is  very  abundant  in  Lake  Ontario,  and  until  artificially  introduced  was  unknown 
in  Lake  Erie.  At  the  present  time,  in  the  spring  and  summer,  the  visitor  who  enters  under  the 
sheet  of  water  at  the  foot  of  the  falls  will  be  astonished  at  the  enormous  numbers  of  young  Eels 
crawling  over  the  slippery  rocks  and  squirming  in  the  seething  whirlpools.  An  estimate  of  hun- 
dreds of  wagon-loads,  as  seen  in  the  course  of  the  perilous  journey  referred  to,  would  hardly  be 
considered  excessive  by  those  who  have  visited  the  spot  at  a  suitable  season  of  the  year. 

"The  economical  value  of  the  Eel  as  a  food-fish  has  been  well  established,  and  it  is  now 
greatly  sought  after  for  introduction  into  the  localities  where,  for  some  physical  or  other  reason,  it 
is  unknown.  The  advantages,  as  summed  up  by  a  German  writer,  are,  first,  that  an  Eel  will  live 
and  grow  in  any  water,  however  warm,  and  whatever  be  the  general  character  of  the  bottom, 
though  it  prefers  the  latter  when  muddy  and  boggy ;  second,  the  Eel  requires  no  special  food,  but 
devours  anything  living  or  dead ;  it  is  an  excellent  scavenger,  feeding  upon  dead  fish,  crabs,  etc., 
as  well  as  upon  any  living  prey  it  can  secure ;  third,  but  few  conditions  can  interfere  with  its 
development,  while  it  grows  with  very  great  rapidity,  being  marketable  at  the  age  of  three  years; 
fourth,  the  young,  on  account  of  their  hardiness,  can  be  transported  in  a  crowded  condition,  and 
to  any  distance,  with  very  little  risk  of  destruction.  These  considerations  are,  in  the  main,  well 
established,  and  there  is  no  question  but  that  the  Eel  can  be  introduced  In  many  waters  to 
advantage,  supplementing  the  earlier  inhabitants.  It  has  been  planted  in  the  waters  of  the 
Upper  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  River;  in  the  latter  they  have  reached  an  advanced  development. 
It  is,  however,  a  very  undesirable  inmate  of  rivers  in  which  fish  are  taken  by  means  of  gill-nets, 
the  destruction  of  shad  and  herring  in  the  waters  of  the  Susquehanua  and  others  farther  south 


HABITS  OF  THE  BEL.  633 

enormous.  It  is  not  unfrequcnt  that,  when  a  gill-net  is  hauled  np,  the  greater  part  of  the 
ratrh  consists  simply  of  heads  ami  backbones,  the  remainder  being  devoured  by  myriads  of  Eels 
in  tin-  short  time  tin-  net  is  left  out.  The  spawning  shad  are  considered  by  them  a  special  delicacy, 
and  arc  found  emptied  at  the  vent  and  completely  gutted  of  the  ovaries.  Sometimes  a  shad, 
apparently  full,  is  found  to  contain  several  Eels  of  considerable  size.  They  do  not  seem  to  be 
very  destructive  of  living  fish  of  any  magnitude,  although  the  young  fry  are  devoured  with 
gusto." ' 

In  describing  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  Eel  it  was  stated  that  it  occurs  in  the  rivers 
and  along  the  ocean  shores  of  North  America.  This  being  the  case,  as  might  be  supposed,  there 
are  many  inland  lakes  and  streams  of  the  United  States  in  which  this  fish  does  not  occur;  for 
instance,  the  chain  of  the  Great  Lakes  above  Niagara  Falls,  and  the  upper  waters  of  other 
streams  in  which  there  are  considerable  obstructions.  The  cutting  of  canals  in  various  parts  of 
the  country  has,  however,  produced  a  great  change  in  their  distribution ;  for  instance,  it  is  stated 
by  Mitchill*  that  Eels  were  unknown  in  the  Passaic  above  the  Great  Falls  until  a  canal  was  cut 
at  Patersou,  since  which  time  they  have  become  plentiful  in  the  upper  branches  of  that  river. 
They  have  also  been  placed  in  many  new  localities  by  the  agency  of  man.  Concerning  this  Mr. 
Milner  remarks: 

••The  Eel  ( Aiiiinil/ii  Inintiiiiii-Hsis),  appreciated  in  some  localities  and  much  vilified  in  others,  is 
another  species  that  has  been  frequently  transplanted.  It  is  pretty  evident  that  it  never  existed 
naturally  in  the  chain  of  Great  Lakes  any  higher  up  than  Niagara  Falls,  although  specimens  have 
been  taken  in  Lakes  Erie  and  Michigan.  Their  existence  there  is  with  little  doubt  traceable  to 
artificial  transportation. 

"A  captain  of  a  lake  vessel  informed  me  that  it  was  quite  a  common  thing  some  years  ago  to 
carry  a  quantity  of  live  Eels  in  a  tub  on  the  deck  of  a  vessel  while  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  they 
were  often  taken  in  this  manner  through  the  Welland  Canal.  He  said  that  it  was  a  frequent 
occurrence  on  his  vessel  when  they  had  become  tired  of  them,  or  had  procured  better  fishes,  to 
turn  the  remainder  alive  into  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie. 

"In  1871  Mr.  A.  Booth,  a  large  dealer  of  Chicago,  had  an  Eel  of  four  pounds'  weight  sent  him 
from  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  a  few  weeks  afterward  a  fisherman  of  Ahnapee, 
Wisconsin,  nearly  two  hundred  miles  to  the  northward,  wrote  him  that  he  had  taken  a  few  Eels 
at  that  point.  It  was  a  matter  of  interest  to  account  for  their  presence,  and  a  long  time  afterward 
we  learned  that  some  parties  at  Eaton  Rapids,  Michigan,  on  a  tributary  of  the  lal;o,  had  imported 
a  number  of  Eels  and  put  them  in  the  stream  at  that  place,  from  which  they  had  doubtless  made 
their  way  to  the  points  where  they  were  taken.  The  unfortunate  aquarium-car  in  June,  1873,  by 
means  of  the  accident  that  occurred  at  Elkhorn  River,  released  a  number  of  Eels  into  that  stream, 
and  about  four  thousand  were  placed  by  the  United  States  Commission  in  the  Calumet  River  at 
South  Chicago,  Illinois,  two  hundred  in  Dead  River,  Waukegan,  Illinois,  and  thirty-eight  hundred 
in  Fox  River,  Wisconsin." 3 

They  have  since  been  successfully  introduced  into  California. 

LIFE  HISTORY. — Concerning  the  life  history  of  the  Eel  much  has  been  written,  and  there  have 
been  many  disputes  even  so  late  as  1880.  In  the  article  upon  ichthyology,  contributed  to  the 
Encyclopedia  Britanuica,  Giinther  writes: 

"Their  mode  of  propagation  is  still  unknown.    So  much  only  is  certain,  that  they  do  not 

'MS.  note  by  Professor  Baird. 

*  Transaction*  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  New  York,  i,  p.  48. 

'Report  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  ii,  1874,  536. 


634  HATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

spawn  in  fresh  water;  that  many  full-grown  individuals,  but  not  all,  descend  rivers  during  the 
winter  mouths,  and  that  some  of  them  at  least  must  spawn  in  brackish  water  or  in  deep  water  in 
the  sea;  for  in  the  course  of  the  summer  young  individuals  from  three  to  five  inches  long  ascend 
rivers  in  incredible  numbers,  overcoming  all  obstacles,  ascending  vertical  walls  or  flood-gates, 
entering  every  larger  and  swollen  tributary,  and  making  their  way  even  over  terra  firma  to  waters 
shut  off  from  all  communication  with  rivers.  Such  emigrations  have  long  been  known  by  the 
name  lEel-fairs?  The  majority  of  the  Eels  which  migrate  to  the  sea  appear  to  return  to  fresh 
water,  but  not  in  a  body,  but  irregularly,  and  throughout  the  warmer  part  of  the  year.  No 
naturalist  has  ever  observed  these  fishes  in  the  act  of  spawning,  or  found  mature  ova;  and  the 
organs  of  reproduction  in  individuals  caught  in  fresh  water  are  so  little  developed  and  so  much 
alike,  that  the  female  organ  can  be  distinguished  from  the  male  only  with  the  aid  of  a  microscope." 

MIGRATIONS  OF  EELS. — In  attempting  to  review  this  subject  I  am  sure  I  cannot  do  better 
than  to  translate  at  length  a  communication  just  received  from  my  friend  Dr.  Berthold  Benecke, 
professor  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg : 

"The  coloration  of  Eels  varies  greatly  not  only  in  diiferent  localities,  but  in  the  very  same 
places:  the  back  may  be  dark  blue  or  greenish  black;  the  sides,  lighter  blue  or  green ;  the  belly, 
white;  sometimes  the  back  is  only  slightly  darker  than  the  sides;  sometimes  there  are  olive-green 
individuals  with  a  golden-yellow  band  upon  their  back,  sometimes  they  are  entirely  golden-yellow, 
and,  very  rarely,  entirely  white.  The  Eel  lives  in  deep,  quiet  waters  with  muddy  bottom;  it 
burrows  out  holes  and  tunnels  in  which  it  rests  quietly  during  the  day,  while  at  night  it  comes 
out  in  search  of  food.  From  the  deck  of  a  steamer  passing  througli  rivers  or  canals  one  may  see 
upon  the  banks,  which  are  laid  bare  by  the  waves  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  vessels,  numerous 
Eels  with  half  of  their  bodies  projecting  from  their  lurking  holes. 

"The  Eel  feeds  upon  all  kinds  of  small  water  animals,  and  may  be  found  on  the  spawning 
places  of  other  flsh  in  great  troops,  going  there  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  upon  the  eggs.  They 
feed  also  upon  crabs  at  the  period  when  they  are  shedding  their  shells,  and  have  in  many  localities 
in  Germany  completely  exterminated  them.  Since  the  Eel  is  everywhere  known  as  a  greedy 
robber,  many  accounts  have  been  given  of  their  wanderings,  in  which  they  have  made  their  way 
into  the  pea-patches  to  feed  upon  pease.  The  oldest  reference  of  this  kind  is  that  of  Albertus 
Magnus,  who  remarks  in  his  book  of  animals,  published  at  Fraukfort-on-the-Main  in  1545 :  '  The  Eel 
also  comes  out  of  the  water  in  the  night-time  into  the  fields,  where  he  can  find  pease,  beans,  or  lentils.' 
This  statement  was  contradicted  in  1666  by  Baldner,1  who  writes  concerning  the  Eel:  'They  eat 
fish,  do  not  come  on  the  land,  and  do  not  eat  pease,  but  remain  in  the  water  always,  and  are 
nocturnal  animals.' 

"  Forthwith,  new  statements  were  made  which  tended  to  show  the  actuality  of  the  wanderings 
of  the  Eels  in  the  pea-patches.  For  instance,  Bach,  in  his '  Natural  History  of  East  and  West  Prus- 
sia,' published  in  1784,  maintained  that  Eels  frequently  were  caught  in  the  pea-patches  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  water,  where  they  fed  upon  the  leaves,  or,  according  to  other  accounts,  upon  the 
pease  themselves,  and  continues :  '  These  movements  explain  the  paradoxical  fact  that  in  Prussia 
and  Pomerania  fish  have  been  caught  upon  dry  land  by  the  use  of  the  plow,  for  the  peasants, 
in  warm  nights  when  the  Eels  are  in  search  of  the  pease,  towards  morning  when  it  is  not  yet  day 
make  furrows  with  the  plow  between  them  and  the  water,  and  these  are  the  nets  in  which  the 

'Eecht  natUrlicho  Beschreibung  und  Abmahluog  <ler  Wosser-Vogel,  Fischen,  vierfiissigen  Thier,  Insecteu  und 
Gewirm,  so  bey  Strassburg  in  den  Wassern  siud,  die  ich  solber  geschossen  nnd  die  Fisch  gefangen,  aucn  alles  in  meiner 
Hand  gehabt.  Leonhard  Baldner,  Fischer  und  Ilagineister  in  Strassburg  gefertigt  worden  1666.  Manuscript.  (Cited 
by  von  Siebold,  "SUsswasserfische  von  Mitteleuropa,"  Leipzig,  1863.) 


IIKPKODUCTION  OF  Till-:    I-IKL.  63.5 

Eds  arc  caught.  Sim-!-  the  Kel  moves  with  ease  only  upon  the  grass,  its  return  to  the  water  is  cut 
utl'ln  tin-  soil  which  lias  liccn  thrown  up.  The  peasants  consider  it  as  a  sign  of  approaching 
stormy  weather  when  the  Eels  come  out  of  the  water  upon  dry  land." 

••A  person  u  rites  to  me  from  Lyck :  'In  storms  they  coine  out  into  the  pea-patches,  and  at  this 
tiint'  people  spread  sand  or  ashes  around,  and  thus  prevent  their  return.'  Such  tales  are  even  now 
numerous  in  the  newspapers. 

"The  small  si/.e  of  the  gill-opening  makes  it  possible  for  the  Eel  to  live  for  a  long  time  out  of  the 
water,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  their  wanderings  over  moist  meadows  they  may  find  places  in  which 
there  are  snails  and  other  desirable  food.  The  explanation  of  their  supposed  wanderings  over  the 
pea  patches  is,  that  the  Eels,  which  have  been  found  at  different  times  in  the  fields  or  meadows, 
have  been  lost  by  poachers,  who  threw  them  away  in  their  flight.  Many  times  dead  Eels  have 
been  found  upon  meadows  over  which  they  have  swam,  the  meadows  being  flooded,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  nearness  of  the  water,  have  afterwards  been  unable  to  return  to  it. 

"Although  the  activity  and  tendency  among  the  young  Eels  to  wander  is  very  great,  yet  we  can- 
not believe  in  the  wandering  of  adult  Eels  over  wide  stretches  of  land.  According  to  Spallanzani, 
in  Comacchio,  where  for  many  centuries  an  eel  fishery  of  immense  extent  has  been  carried  on, 
although  these  fish  are  found  in  numerous  ponds  and  lagoons,  the  fishermen  have  never  yet  seen 
an  Eel  wandering  over  the  land;  and  once  when,  on  account  of  the  drying  up  of  the  water,  the 
Eels  died  by  the  thousand,  not  one  of  them  made  the  attempt  to  escape  by  a  short  journey  over- 
land into  the  neighboring  lake  or  into  the  river  Po. 

"The  Eel  occurs  in  all  our  waters,  with  the  exception  of  small  rapid  brooks.  The  fishermen 
distinguish  many  varieties  based  upon  the  differences  in  the  form  of  the  head  or  color  and  the 
varying  proportions  in  the  length  of  the  body  and  tail ;  and  the  older  ichthyologists  have  followed 
their  opinions  without  sufficient  reason. 

"  By  rapid  growth  the  Eel  attains  the  length  of  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches,  and  often  a  greater 
size.  On  account  of  their  fat,  which  is  very  highly  flavored,  and  the  absence  of  bones,  they  are 
everywhere  valued,  and  are  caught  in  various  ways.  The  most  profitable  method  of  capture  is  in 
eel-weirs  and  eel-baskets,  and  in  traps  by  the  use  of  nets,  and  on  hooks  they  are  also  caught  in 
great  quantities.  In  winter  many  Eels  are  taken  with  spears  on  the  shelving  shores  where  they 
lie  buried  in  the  mud  in  a  state  of  torpidity.  In  this  fishery  very  often  more  are  wounded  than 
captured,  and,  in  addition  to  the  large  Eels,  great  quantities  of  small  ones  are  taken." 

ANCIENT  BELIEFS  CONCERNING  THE  REPRODUCTION  OF  THE  EEL. — The  reproduction  of  the 
Eel,  continues  Beuecke,  has  been  an  unsolved  riddle  since  the  time  of  Aristotle,  and  has  given  rise 
to  the  most  wonderful  conjectures  and  assertions.  Leaving  out  of  question  the  old  theories  that  the 
Eels  are  generated  from  slime,  from  dew,  from  horsehair,  from  the  skins  of  the  old  Eels,  or  from 
those  of  snakes,  and  the  question  as  to  whether  they  are  produced  by  the  female  of  the  Eel  or  by 
that  of  some  other  species  of  fish,  it  has  for  centuries  been  a  question  of  dispute  whether  the  Eel  is 
an  egg-laying  animal  or  whether  it  produces  its  young  alive ;  although  the  fishermen  believe  that 
they  can  tell  the  male  and  female  Eels  by  the  form  of  the  snout.  A  hundred  years  ago  no  man 
had  ever  found  the  sexual  organs  in  the  Eel. 

Jacoby  has  remarked  that  the  Eel  was  from  the  earliest  times  a  riddle  to  the  Greeks;  while  ages 
ago  it  was  known  by  them  at  what  periods  all  other  kinds  of  fishes  laid  their  eggs,  such  discoveries 
were  never  made  with  reference  to  the  Eel,  although  thousands  upon  thousands  were  yearly  applied 
to  culinary  uses.  The  Greek  poets,  following  the  usage  of  their  day,  which  was  to  attribute  to 

>A  live  and  active  Eel,  a  few  days  since,  was  dug  mn  from  a  depth  of  five  feet  in  the  soil  of  Exeter,  New 
Hampshire.— Gloucester  Telegraph,  October  26,  1870. 


636  NAT  HEAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Jupiter  all  children  whose  paternity  was  doubtful,  were  accustomed  to  say  that  Jupiter  was  also 
progenitor  of  the  Eel. 

"  When  we  bear  in  mind,"  writes  Jacoby, "  the  veneration  in  which  Aristotle  was  held  iu  ancient 
times,  and  still  more  throughout  the  Middle  Ages — a  period  of  nearly  two  thousand  years — it  could 
not  be  otherwise  than  that  this  wonderful  statement  should  be  believed,  and  that  it  should  be 
embellished  by  numerous  additional  legends  and  amplifications,  many  of  which  have  held  their 
own  in  the  popular  mind  until  the  present  day.  There  is  no  animal  concerning  whose  origin  and 
existence  there  is  such  a  number  of  false  beliefs  and  ridiculous  fables.  Some  of  these  may  be  put 
aside  as  fabrications ;  others  were,  probably,  more  or  less  true,  but  all  the  opinions  concerning  the 
propagation  of  the  Eel  may  be  grouped  together  as  errors  into  three  classes : 

"I.  The  beliefs  which,  in  accordance  with  the  description  of  Aristotle,  account  for  the  origin  of 
the  Eel  on  the  basis  of  its  development  not  from  the  mud  of  the  earth,  but  from  slimy  masses  which 
are  found  where  the  Eels  rub  their  bodies  against  each  other.  This  opinion  was  advanced  by  Pliny, 
by  At liriKi'tis,  and  by  Oppian,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  again  advocated  by  Eondelet  and 
reiterated  by  Conrad  Gessner. 

"  II.  Other  authorities  base  their  claims  upon  the  occasional  discovery  of  worm-like  animals 
in  the  intestines  of  the  Eels,  which  they  described,  with  more  or  less  zealous  belief,  as  the  young 
Eels,  claiming  that  the  Eel  should  be  considered  as  an  animal  which  brought  forth  its  young  alive, 
although  Aristotle  in  his  day  had  pronounced  this  belief  erroneous,  and  very  rightly  had  stated 
that  these  objects  were  probably  intestinal  worms.  Those  who  discovered  them  anew  had  no 
hesitation  in  pronouncing  them  young  Eels  which  were  to  be  born  alive.  This  opinion  was  first 
brought  up  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  writings  of  Albertus  Magnus,  and  in  the  following  centuries 
by  the  zoologists  Leeuwenhoek,  Eisner,  Eedi,  and  Fahlberg ;  even  Linnaeus  assented  to  this  belief 
and  stated  that  the  Eel  was  viviparous.  It  is  but  natural  that  unskilled  observers,  when  they 
open  an  Eel  and  find  inside  of  it  a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  living  creatures  with  elongated 
bodies,  should  be  satisfied,  without  further  observation,  that  these  are  the  young  of  the  Eel.  It 
may  be  distinctly  stated,  however,  that  in  all  cases  where  Eels  of  this  sort  have  been  scientifically 
investigated,  they  have  been  found  to  be  intestinal  worms.1 

"  III.  The  last  group  of  errors  includes  the  various  suppositions  that  Eels  are  born  not  from 
Eels,  but  from  other  fishes,  and  even  from  animals  which  do  not  belong  at  all  to  the  class  of  fishes. 
Absurd  as  this  supposition,  which  in  fact  was  contradicted  by  Aristotle,  may  seem,  it  is  found 
at  the  present  day  among  the  eel-catchers  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

"On  the  coast  of  Germany  a  fish  related  to  the  cod,  Zoarces  viviparus,  which  brings  its  young 
living  into  the  world,  owes  to  this  circumstance  its  name  Aalmulter,  or  Eel  Mother,  and  similar 
names  are  found  on  the  coast  of  Scandinavia." 

"In  the  lagoon  of  Comacchio,"  continues  Jacoby,  "I  have  again  convinced  myself  of  the 
ineradicable  belief  among  the  fishermen  that  the  Eel  is  born  of  other  fishes;  they  point  to  special 
differences  in  color,  and  especially  in  the  common  mullet,  Mugil  :ephalus,  as  the  causes  of  varia- 
tions in  color  and  form  among  Eels.  It  is  a  very  ancient  belief,  widely  prevalent  to  the  present 
day,  that  Eels  pair  with  water-snakes.  In  Sardinia  the  fishermen  cling  to  the  belief  that  a  certain 
beetle,  the  so-called  water-beetle,  Dytiscus  Boeselii,  is  the  progenitor  of  Eels,  and  they  therefore 
call  this  'Mother  of  Eels.'" 

1  It  is  very  strange  that  an  observer  so  careful  as  Dr.  Jacoby  should  denounce  iu  this  connection  the  well- 
known  error  of  Dr.  Eberhard,  of  Rostock,  who  mistook  a  species  of  Zoarccs  for  an  Eel,  and  described  the  young, 
which  ho  found  alive  within  the  body  of  its  mother,  as  the  embryo  of  the  Eel.  In  Jacoby's  essay,  p.  24,  he  states 
that  the  animal  described  by  Eberhard  was  simply  an  intestinal  worm,  an  error  which  will  be  manifest  to  all  who 
will  take  the  pains  to  examine  the  figure. 


THE   FEMALE  EEL.  637 

DISCOVEBY  OF  THK  FEMALE  EEL. — A  scientific  investigation  into  the  generation  of  Eels 
could  only  begin  when,  at  tin-  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  prohibition  which  the  veneration  for 
Aristotle  li;id  thrown  over  the  investigations  of  learned  men  was  thrown  aside.  With  the  revival 
of  the  iiiitiinil  sciences  in  the  sixteenth  century  we  find  that  investigators  turned  themselves  with 
•;reat  x.eal  to  this  special  question.  There  are  treatises  upon  the  generation  of  the  Eel  written  by 
the  most  renowned  investigators  of  that  period,  such  as  Rondelet,  Salviani,  and  Aldrovandi. 
Nevertheless,  this,  like  the  following  century,  was  burdened  with  the  memory  of  the  numerous 
past  opinions  upon  the  eel  question,  and  with  the  supposed  finding  of  yonng  inside  the  body  of 
the  Mel. 

The  principal  supporters  of  the  theory  that  the  Eel  was  viviparous  were  Albertus  Magnus, 
I.ecuwenhoek,  Eisner,  Redi,  ami  Fahlberg.  The  naturalists  Franz  Redi  and  Christian  Franz 
Panllini,  who  lived  in  the  seventeenth  century,  must  be  mentioned  as  the  first  who  were  of  the 
n|iii)ion,  founded,  however,  upon  no  special  observations,  that  the  generation  of  the  Eel  was  in  no 
respect  different  from  that  of  other  fishes. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  for  the  first  time  maintained  that  the  female  organs  of  the  Eel 
could  certainly  be  recognized.  It  is  interesting  that  the  lake  of  Comacchio  was  the  starting 
point  for  this  conclusion  as  well  as  for  many  of  the  errors  which  had  preceded  it.  The  learned 
surgeon  Sancassini,  of  Comacchio,  visiting  an  eel  fishery  at  that  place  in  1707,  found  an  Eel 
with  its  belly  conspicuously  enlarged;  he  opened  it  and  found  an  organ  resembling  an  ovary,  and, 
as  it  appeared  to  him,  ripe  eggs.  Thereupon  he  sent  his  find,  properly  preserved,  to  his  friend,  the 
celebrated  naturalist  Vallisneri,  professor  in  the  University  of  Padua,  who  examined  it  carefully, 
and  finally,  to  his  own  great  delight,  became  satisfied  that  he  had  found  the  ovaries  of  the  Eel. 
lie  prepared  an  elaborate  communication  upon  the  subject,  which  he  sent  to  the  Academy  at 
Bologna.1 

At  the  very  beginning  there  were  grave  questions  raised  as  to  the  correctness  of  this  dis- 
covery. The  principal  anatomical  authority  at  Bologna,  Professor  Valsalva,  appears  to  have 
shared  these  doubts,  especially  since  shortly  after  that  a  second  specimen  of  Eel,  which  presented 
the  same  appearance  as  that  which  was  described  by  Vallisneri,  was  sent  from  Comacchio  to 
Bologna.  The  discussion  continued,  and  it  soon  came  to  be  regarded  by  the  scientific  men  of 
Bologna  as  a  matter  of  extreme  importance  to  find  the  true  ovaries  of  the  Eel.  Pietro  Molinelli 
offered  to  the  fishermen  of  Comacchio  a  valuable  reward  if  they  would  bring  him  a  gravid  Eel. 
In  1752  he  received  from  a  fisherman  a  living  Eel  with  its  belly  much  distended,  which,  when 
opened  in  the  presence  of  a  friend,  he  found  to  be  filled  with  eggs.  Unfortunately  the  joyful 
hopes  which  had  been  excited  by  this  fortunate  discovery  were  bitterly  disappointed  when  it  was 
shown  that  the  Eel  had  been  cunningly  opened  by  the  fisherman  and  filled  with  the  eggs  of 
another  fish.  The  eel  question  came  up  again  with  somewhat  more  satisfactory  results  when,  in 
the  year  1777,  another  Eel  was  taken  at  Comacchio  which  showed  the  same  appearance  as  the 
two  which  had  preceded  it.  This  Eel  was  received  by  Prof.  Gaetano  Monti,  who,  being  iudis]K>sed 
and  unable  to  carry  on  the  investigation  alone,  invited  a  number  of  his  favorite  pupils,  among 
whom  was  the  celebrated  Camillo  Galvani,  the  discoverer  of  galvanism,  to  a  council  at.  his 
house.  This  Eel  was  examined  by  them  all,  and  pronounced  to  be  precisely  similar  to  the  one 
which  had  been  described  by  Vallisneri  seventy  years  before.  It  was  unanimously  decided  that 
this  precious  specimen  should  be  sent  for  exhaustive  examination  to  the  naturalist  Mondini,  who 


1 1  fail  to  find  any  record  of  the  publication  of  this  paper,  except  that  given  by  Jacoby,  who  states  that  it  WM 
printed  at  Venice  in  1710,  with  a  plate,  and  subsequently,  in  171'2,  under  the  title  "De  ovario  Angnillarnra,"  in  t.ho 
Proceedings  of  the  Leopold  Academy. 


638  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

applied  himself  with  great  zeal  to  the  task,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in  May,  1777. 
The  paper  is  entitled  "De  Anguillse  ovariis,''  and  was  published  six  years  later  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Bologna  Academy.1  Mondini  was  satisfied  that  the  supposed  fish  which  Vallisneri 
described  was  nothing  but  the  swimming  bladder  of  the  Eel  in  a  diseased  state,  and  that  the 
bodies  supposed  to  be  eggs  were  simply  pustules  in  this  diseased  tissue.  In  connection  with  this 
opinion,  however,  Mondiui  gave,  and  illustrated  by  magnificent  plates,  a  good  description  and 
demonstration  of  the  true  ovaries  of  the  Eel,  as  found  by  himself.  This  work,  which  in  its 
beautiful  plates  illustrates  also  the  eggs  in  a  magnified  fold  of  the  ovary,  must  be  regarded  as 
classical  work,  and  it  is  an  act  of  historic  justice  to  state  that  neither  O.  F.  Miiller  nor  Eathke, 
but  really  Carlo  Mondini,  was  the  first  discoverer,  describer,  and  demonstrator  of  the  female 
organs  of  the  Eel,  which  had  been  sought  for  so  many  centuries.2 

Three  years  later,  entirely  independent  of  Mondini,  the  celebrated  zoologist  Otto  Friedrich 
Miiller  published  his  discovery  of  the  ovary  of  the  Eel  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Naturalists"  at  Berlin.3 

The  discovery  of  Mondini  was  next  specially  brought  into  prominence  through  Lazzaro 
Spallanzaui.  This  renowned  investigator,  in  October,  1792,  went  from  Pavia  to  the  lagoons  of 
the  Po,  near  Comacchio,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  there  studying  the  eel  question.  He  remained 
at  Comacchio  through  the  autumn ;  he  was,  however,  unable  to  find  anything  that  was  new 
regarding  the  question,  but  in  the  report  upon  his  journey  of  investigation  he  entirely  threw 
aside  the  discovery  of  Mondini,  and  announced  that  the  ovaries  discovered  by  this  authority  were 
simply  fatty  folds  of  the  lining  of  the  stomach.4 

"It  was  without  doubt  this  absolute  negative  statement  of  such  a  skilled  investigator  as 
Spallanzaui  which  for  a  long  time  discouraged  further  investigations  on  the.  eel  question,  and 
allowed  what  had  already  been  discovered  to  be  regarded  as  doubtful,  and  finally  to  be  forgotten. 
So  when  Professor  Rathke,  of  Kb'nigsberg,  in  his  assiduous  labors  upon  the  reproductive  organs 
of  fishes,  in  the  year  18U4,  described  the  ovaries  of  the  Eel  as  two  cuff'-and-collar  shaped  organs 
on  both  sides  of  the  backbone,  and  in  the  year  1838  described  them  as  new,  he  was  everywhere 
in  Germany  (and  to  a  large  extent  to  the  present  day)  regarded  as  the  discoverer.4  The  first 
picture  of  the  ovary  after  that  of  Mondini,  and  the  first  microscopical  plate  of  the  egg  of  the  Bel, 

1  Do  Bononiensi  Scientiarom  et  Artium  Institute  atque  Academia  Commentarii.  Tomus  VI.  Bonouiao,  1783,  pp. 
406  f  ( seq. 

'Prof.  G.  B.  Ercolani,  of  Bologna,  and  also  Crivelli  and  Maggi,  in  their  essays  published  in  1872,  have  rightly 
stated  that  Mnndini's  priority  of  discovery  has  been  overlooked  in  Germany.  Neither  Rathke  nor  Hohnbaum- 
Hornscbcch  nor  Schltiser  have  mentioned  his  work.  S.  Nillson,  in  his  "Skandinavisk  Fauna,"  1855,  says  nothing  of 
Mondini.  He  mentioned  as  the  first  discoverer  of  the  ovaries  O.  F.  MUller,  while  Cuvier,  in  his  "  Histoire  Naturelle 
des  Poissons,"  assigns  the  honor  rather  to  Rathke.  Th.  von  Siebold  is  the  first  to  announce  in  his  work,  published 
in  1863,  "Die  Siisswasserfische  von  Mittelenropa,"  page  349,  that  Mondini,  almost  contemporaneously  with  O.  F. 
MUller  and  independently  of  him,  discovered  the  ovaries  of  the  Eel.  The  error,  as  was  discovered  by  Italian  zoologists 
later  than  by  those  of  Germany,  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  announcement  of  Miiller's  discovery  was  printed  in  1780, 
while  that  of  Mondini's,  which  was  mavle  in  1777,  was  first  printed  in  1783. 

"O.  F.  MtlLLER:  BemUhungen  bei  den  Int«Btinal-wtirmern.     Schriften,  Berlin.     Gesellschaft,  i,  1780,  p.  204. 

4 "Rathke,  who  first,  since  Mondini,  has  in  detail  described  (1824,  1838,  and  1850)  the  ovaries  of  the  Eel,  is  con- 
sidered by  some  to  have  recognized  them;  but  this,  however,  is  not  true,  the  additions  made  by  him  to  Mondini's 
description  being  to  a  great  extent  erroneous.  It  is  not  true  that  the  transverse  leaflets  are  wanting  in  the  ovaries 
of  the  Eel,  as  he  asserts  in  his  last  work,  contrary  to  his  former  description,  which  was  probably  based  on  the  law 
of  analogy,  and  that  thereby  they  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  salmon  and  sturgeon.  It  is  not  true,  what 
Rathke  likewise  asserts,  that  the  genital  opening  of  the  Eel  consists  of  two  small  canals,  for  I  have  invariably  only 
found  one,  which  opens  in  the  urethra.  Rathke  has  certainly  described  the  eggs  quite  exactly,  distinguishing  the 
larger  whitish  oucs,  having  a  diameter  of  about  one-fifteenth  of  a  line,  and  the  smaller  transparent  ones,  with  the 
germinal  vesicle  inside ;  but  Mondini  likewise  says:  "inmimerait  ipluErula*  miniman,  cei/uales,  pellucidas,  divisae  tamen, 
I/IK:  in  centre  mactilam  osttndebant,  ecc.  rirfi,"  thus  showing  the  true  nature  of  the  ovaries  and  the  eggs,  and  contrasting 
them  with  the  fatty  formation  and  with  the  ovaries  and  eggs  of  other  osseous  fish." — STRSKI. 


THE  MALE  EEL.  639 

i  lloinsclnicli  presented  in  a  dissertation  published  in  1842 — a  paper  which  should  be 
rightly  consider. -d  .1-  «\'  -n-.it  importance  in  the  literature  of  this  question.  The  questions 
concerning  tin-  ovaries  of  tin-  Kel  may  be  regarded  as  having  been  brought  to  a  distinct  con- 
clusion by  Kathkc,  who,  in  the  year  1850,  published  an  article  describing  a  gravid  female 
Kel.  tin-  tiist  and  only  gravid  specimen  which  had,  tip  to  that  time,  come  into  the  hands  of  an 
investigator.' 

DISCOVERY  OF  THE  MALE  EEL  BY  SYRSKI. — The  history  of  the  search  for  the  female  of  the 
Kel  having  been  given,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  translation  of  the  work  of  Dr.  Jacoby,  it  seems  ap- 
propriate to  quote  the  same  author  concerning  the  search  for  the  male  Eel,  which,  though  much 
shorter,  is  none  the  le»  interesting. 

In  the  dissertation  of  Holinbaum  Hornschuch,  published  in  1842,  the  opinion  was  expressed 
that  certain  cells  found  by  the  author  in  the  ovaries,  which  differed  from  the  egg  cells  by  their  form 
and  contents,  should  be  regarded  as  the  spermary  cells  of  the  Eel,  and  that  the  Eel  should  be 
regarded  as  hermaphrodite.  Six  years  later  Schluser  presented  an  interesting  dissertation  upon 
the  sexes  of  Lampreys  and  Eels  in  which  he  pronounced  these  opinions  of  Hohnbaiiin-Hornschuch 
to  be  erroneous,  and  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  male  Eel  must  be  extremely  rare,  or  that  it 
was  different,  perhaps,  from  the  female.  From  this  time  up  to  the  beginning  of  1870,  a  male  Eel 
was  never  seen,  nor  do  we  find  any  opinions  expressed  concerning  the  form  of  the  male  of  the  Eel 
or  its  reproductive  organs.2 

According  to  Robin,  in  1846  George  Louis  Duveruoy  (Cuvier,  Anatomic  compared,  6<1.  2, 1848, 
tome  viii,  p.  117)  described  the  ruffle  tube  type  of  the  testis  of  the  Lampreys  and  Eels,  with  the 
free  margin  festooned  in  lobules,  shorter  to  the  right  than  to  the  left,  like  the  ovaries,  etc.  He 
added:  "At  the  .breeding  season  we  perceive  in  it  an  innumerable  quantity  of  granulations,  or 
small  spermatic  capsules,  the  rounded  form  of  which  has  often  led  to  their  being  confounded  with 
the  ovules,  at  least  in  the  Eels,  in  which,  in  reality,  these  capsules  are  nearly  of  the  same  size 
as  the  ovules,  but  the  latter  are  distinguished  by  their  oval  form."  The  ovules  are  spherical,  and 
not  oval;  but  the  other  facts  aTe  fundamentally  correct.  It  is  also  in  error  that  Duvernoy  adds 
(p.  133):  "The  Eels  and  the  Lampreys  have  no  deferent  canal,  any  more  than  an  oviduct.  Like 
the  ova,  the  semen  ruptures  the  capsules  in  which  it  has  collected  and  diffuses  itself  in  the  abdom- 
inal cavity,  whence  it  is  expelled  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  ova." 

By  some  droll  coincidence  the  University  of  Bologna,  and  soon  after  that  of  Pavia,  were 
again  prominent  participants  in  the  eel  tournament.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Bologna  Academy, 
December  28, 1871,  Prof.  G.  B.  Ercolani  read  a  paper  upon  the  perfect  hermaphroditisin  in  the 
Eel.3 

Fourteen  days  later  Prof.  Balsamo  Crivelh  and  L.  Maggi  read  a  detailed  and  elaborate  paper 
upon  the  "true  organs  of  generation  in  Eels."  These  investigators,  without  concerted  action,  had 
all  at  once  brought  up  the  celebrated  issue  of  the  previous  century ;  this  time,  however,  having 
specially  in  view  the  male  organs  of  the  Eel.  All  were  convinced  that  they  had  reached  a 
linal  result  by  their  investigations.  The  results  were  certainly  very  peculiar.  In  the  paper  of 
Ercolani  it  was  claimed  that  the  snake-like  folds  of  fat,  which  had  formerly  been  noticed  near  the 
ovarium,  were  nothing  else  than  the  spermaries  of  the  Eel,  and  that  upon  the  left  side  ot  the  animal 

1  Jacoby.    Der  Fischfang  in  der  Lagnns  von  Coniacchio.   Berlin,  1880,  pp.  23-30. 

•Robin,  Comptes  rendns,  1881,  p.  383. 

' Jacoby  states  that  in  a  paper  by  Rathkr,  published  in  1838  in  the  Archiv  fiir  Xaturgetchichte,  he  remarked:  "I 
expect  soon  to  be  able  to  say  something  concerning  the  male  organs  of  the  Eel."  It  would  be  very  interesting  to 
know  whether  in  the  papers  left  by  this  skillful  investigator  there  may  not  have  been  recorded  some  valuable  obser- 
vations concerning  the  male  Eel. 


640  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

this  organ  developed  into  a  true  testicle,  while  the  one  upon  the  right  side  shrank  up  and  became 
functionless.  In  the  work  of  Crivelli  and  Maggi,  on  the  other  hand,  the  folds  of  fat  next  to  the 
ovary  were  also  considered  to  be  the  male  organs  of  the  Eel,  while  the  one  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  animal  was  considered  without  any  doubt  to  be  the  male  reproductive  organ.  The  last- 
named  authorities  described  the  spermatozoa  which  they  had  seen  in  this  stripe  of  fat  upon  the 
right  side.  Since  these  stripes  of  fat  were  universally  found  in  all  Eels,  and  always  in  connection 
with  the  former,  the  investigators  could  come  to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  the  Eels  were 
complete  hermaphrodites. 

The  male  organ  of  the  Eel,  as  described  by  Ercolani,  as  also  by  Crivelli  and  Maggi,  shows 
how  carefully  investigations  may  be  expended  upon  things  which  are  not  in  the  least  equivocal, 
since  there  was  not  the  slightest  trace  of  structure  like  that  of  a  spennary.  The  cells  of  this  body 
in  the  lining  of  the  stomach  next  to  the  ovary  are  simply  fat  cells,  with  all  the  characteristic 
peculiarities,  just  as  they  are  given  in  all  the  manuals  of  histiology.  Professor  Rauber,  of  Leipsic, 
has  examined  these  fat  cells  carefully,  and  they  have  also  been  investigated  in  many  Eels  by  the 
writer,  Dr.  Jacoby.  Never  has  anything  but  fat  cells  and  blood-vessels  been  found  in  them.  The 
so-called  spermatozoa,  described  in  the  work  of  Maggi  and  Crivelli,  proved  to  be  microscopic  fat 
particles  or  crystalline  bodies,  such  as  are  commonly  found  in  fat  cells.1 

In  the  mean  time,  at  Trieste,  the  question  concerning  the  male  organs  of  the  Eel  was  making 
a  very  important  advance.  Darwin  had  already  expressed  the  opinion  that  among  nearly  all  fishes 
the  female  was  larger  than  the  male.  He  states  that  Dr.  GUnther  had  assured  him  that  there  was 
not  a  single  instance  among  fishes  in  which  the  male  was  naturally  larger  than  the  female.  This 
opinion  may,  perhaps,  have  induced  Dr.  Syrski,  director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at 
Trieste,  now  professor  in  the  University  of  Lemberg,  when  he  undertook,  at  the  request  of  the 
marine  officials  of  Trieste,  the  determination  of  the  spawning  time  of  the  fish  which  were  caught 
in  that  region,  and  was  obliged  to  take  up  the  eel  question,  to  devote  his  attention  especially  to 
the  smaller  Eels.  Dr.  Hermes,  in  behalf  of  Dr.  Syrski,  protests  against  this  idea,  stating,  on  the 
authority  of  the  latter,  that  the  published  opinions  of  Giinther  and  Darwin  were  unknown  to  him 
prior  to  the  publication  of  Jacoby's  paper.  Up  to  that  time  every  investigator  had  chosen  for 
investigation  the  largest  and  fattest  of  Eels,  thinking  that  the  largest  and  oldest  specimens  must 
have  the  most  highly  developed  organs  of  generation.  On  November  29, 1873,  Syrski  found  in  the 
second  specimen  which  he  investigated — an  individual  fifteen  inches  long,  which  is  now  preserved 
in  the  museum  at  Trieste — a  completely  new  organ,  which  had  never  before  been  seen  within  the 
Eel  by  any  former  investigator,  although  tens  of  thousands  of  Eels  had  been  zealously  studied.* 
Syrski  published  his  discovery  in  the  April  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Imperial  Academy 
of  Sciences,  Vienna,  in  1874.3  The  most  important  point  of  the  discovery  was  stated  to  be  that, 
in  all  the  specimens  of  Eels  in  which  the  Syrskiau  organ  was  found,  the  well-known  collar-aud- 
cnff  shaped  ovary,  the  female  organ  of  generation,  was  entirely  wanting.  It  was  evident  from 
this  that  Eels  were  not  hermaphrodites.  The  question  now  arose,  is  the  newly  discovered  organ 

'In  a  microscopic  investigation  of  fatty  tissnes  it  is  very  easy  for  the  so-called  Brownian  molecular  movements  to 
be  mistaken  for  moving  spermatozoa,  especially  in  fishes,  whose  spermatozoa,  if  not  very  much  magnified,  show  only 
the  head  and  appear  like  litt.Ie  bod  ies  globular  in  form. 

*"I  commenced  my  investigations,"  writes  Syrski,  "on  the  29th  of  November  last  year  (1873),  and  already  in  the 
second  Eel  which  I  dissected  on  that  day  I  found  the  testicles,  and  therefore  a  male  individual  of  the  Eel.  I  sent  in 
March  of  the  following  year  (1874)  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna  a  preliminary  communication,  which  was 
read  at  the  public  session  held  (he  Kith  April,  and  printed  in  the  reports  of  the  academy." 

'In  1875,  Professor  von  Sielwld  found  male  Eels  in  the  Baltic  at  Wismar,  although  this  discovery  was  not  at  that 
time  made  known  to  the  public.  They  have  since  been  found  in  the  German  Ocean,  in  the  Atlantic,  and  in  the 
Mediterranean. 


INTKKNAI.  CIIAi:.\CTi:i;iSTIGS  OF  TI1K  SKXKS.  (541 

in  tlic  Krl,  iii  its  external  form,  as  well  as  inner  structure,  so  ditl'erent  from  the  ovarv  that  it 
could  he  considered  as  a  partially  developed  or  peculiarly  shrunken  ovaryf  According  to  all 
researches  which  lia\e  u]>  to  tliis  time  been  made  there  is  the  highest  kind  of  probability  that 
this  newly  discovered  structure  is  actually  the  long-sought  male  organ  of  generation.  The  inves- 
tigator  cannot,  howexer,  answer  this  question  with  complete  certainty,  since  the  thing  which  is 
most  necessary  to  the  solution  of  this  question,  namely,  the  finding  and  the  recognition  of  the 
spermatozoa,  has  not  yet  been  accomplished. 

In  February,  l*7!t.  Professor  Packard  announced  the  discovery  of  spermatozoa  in  Eels  from 
Wood's  IIoll,  Massachusetts,  but  soon  after  declared  that  this  was  a  mistake,  and  that  he  had 
been  deceived  by  molecular  movements  among  the  yolk  nuclei  in  the  female  organs.  The  discovery 
of  spermatozoa  in  the  spermaries  of  the  Conger  Eel,  recently  announced  by  Dr.  Hermes,  of  Berlin, 
is,  however,  sufficient  to  demonstrate  fully  the  correctness  of  Syrski's  theory.  The  confirmation 
in  the  case  of  the  common  Eel  is  solely  a  matter  of  time. 

INTERNAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MALE  AND  FEMALE  EELS. — The  differences  between  the 
organs  of  sex  in  the  Eel  are  well  described  by  Benecke.  The  ovaries  of  the  Eel  are  two  yellowish 
or  reddish-white  elongate  organs  as  broad  as  one's  finger,  situated  alongside  of  the  backbone, 
arranged  in  numerous  transverse  folds,  extending  through  the  entire  length  of  the  abdominal 
cavity.  They  have  no  special  opening  to  the  outside  of  the  body,  and  their  contents  must  be 
discharged  into  the  abdominal  cavity  and  must  find  exit  through  the  very  small  opening  situated 
behind  the  anus.  These  two  bodies,  on  account  of  their  great  size,  are  of  course  not  easily  over- 
looked, but  they  contain  such  a  great  quantity  of  fatty  cells  and  the  eggs  imbedded  in  them  are  so 
.~mall  and  delicate  that  one  might  easily  believe,  even  after  a  superficial  microscopic  examination, 
that  the  whole  organ  consists  only  of  fat.  While  the  eggs  of  other  fishes  measure  from  one  to  three 
millimeters  in  diameter,  and  sometimes  are  much  larger,  still  the  eggs  in  the  ovary  of  the  Eel  have, 
on  an  average,  a  diameter  of  about  one-tenth  millimeter,  and  are  so  closely  surrounded  by  fatty 
cells  with  outlines  much  more  strongly  marked  that  it  requires  great  skill  to  prepare  a  microscopic 
slide  in  which  they  shall  be  as  plainly  visible  as  they  are  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  in 
which  they  are  magnified  one  hundred  and  fifty  diameters.  When  a  person  has  a  microscope 
which  magnifies  only  one  hundred  diameters,  it  is  best  to  put  a  portion  of  tbe  ovary  in  water  when 
dissecting  it,  in  order  that  the  eggs  may  be  easily  found.  It  is  much  easier  to  find  the  eggs  in 
young  Eels,  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length,  than  in  adult  fish,  since  in  the  former,  although  the 
ovaries  and  the  eggs  are  smaller,  the  fat  cells  have  not  made  their  appearance,  and  the  eggs  are, 
therefore,  plainly  visible  at  the  first  glance  through  the  microscope.  The  number  of  eggs  is  extra- 
ordinarily large,  amounting  to  many  millions.  The  eggs  of  larger  size  which  sometimes  are  found 
in  great  quantities  in  Eels  that  have  been  cut  up,  and  have  been  considered  to  be  eel  eggs,  have 
always  proved  to  be  the  eggs  of  other  fish  which  they  have  swallowed,  and  in  the  course  of  cutting 
them  up  have  been  found  in  the  Eel's  belly. 

The  male  Eels,  which  are  found  only  in  the  sea  and  in  the  brackish  water,  are  much  smaller 
than  the  females,  rarely  exceeding  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  in  length;  in  them,  in  the  place  of 
the  ovaries  in  the  female,  are  found  spermaries,  which  differ  in  appearance  in  the  manner  shown 
in  the  illustration.  These  consist  of  two  tubes  which  stretch  the  whole  length  of  the  body  cavity, 
situated  close  to  each  other,  and  provided  with  numerous  sacculations.  Ripe  spermatozoa  are 
as  rarely  found  in  these  organs  as  eggs  ready  to  be  laid  have  been  found  in  the  ovaries  of  the 
female.  According  to  many  accounts  the  male  Eels,  which  later  were  found  also  by  von  Siebold 
in  the  Baltic  Sea  at  Wisuiar,  differ  from  the  females  in  the  possession  of  a  proportionally  sharper 


642 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


snout,  less  conspicuous  dorsal  fins,  darker  coloration  of  the  back,  a  more  prominent  and  metallic 
luster  upon  the  sides,  the  clean  white  coloration  of  the  belly,  and  the  larger  size  of  the  eyes.  I 
propose  to  reproduce  here  the  original  descriptions  and  figures  of  Syrski,  the  discoverer  of  the 
male  Eel. 

Having  met,  writes  Syrski,  with  many  errors  regarding  the  female  organs  of  reproduction 

in  the  descriptions  hitherto  given  of  them,  I  intend  to  commence 
by  describing  these  organs,  first  with  the  view  of  rectifying  and 
completing  the  details,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  comparison 
with  the  male  organs. 

THE  OVARIES  OF  THE  EEL. — The  organs  (Fig.  1)  two  in  num- 
ber, are  ribbon-shaped,  with  leaflets  on  their  outer  face,  and  with 
transverse  folds.  In  the  natural  position  of  the  live  fish,  the 
one  extends  to  the  left  and  the  other  to  the  right  of  the  aliment- 
ary tube,  following  most  of  its  angles  nearly  the  whole  length  of 
the  abdominal  cavity  to  the  place  where  the  dorsal  parietes  are 
confluent  with  the  lateral. 

The  right  ovary  commences  at  a  point  nearly  corresponding 
to  that  where  on  the  outside  the  right  pectoral  fin  ends,  and  the 
left  ovary  commences  about  two  centimeters  and  ends  three  to 
four  centimeters  behind  the  former.  They  extend  three  to  six 
centimeters  back  of  the  anus,  into  the  caudal  part  of  the  animal's 
body;  they  do  not,  however,  unite  in  a  single  body,  as  some 
have  asserted,  but  both  are  toward  the  end  inclosed  in  a  perito- 
neal membrane,  and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  union 
of  these  membranes,  having  each  on  their  inner  face  an  accessory 
ovary  (pars  recurrens  ovarii).  ,  In  rare  cases  is  such  an  accessory 
ovary  wanting  either  on  the  right  or  on  the  left  side. 

The  ovaries  in  fully  grown  Eels  are  in  the  middle  about  two 
centimeters  larger,  and  posteriorly  terminate  in  a  thread-like 
form.  They  are  not  smooth  on  both  sides,  but  have,  as  was  said 
above,  on  their  outer  side  numerous  transverse  folds  (Fig.  2)  full 
of  eggs  (Fig.  3). 

It  is  another  of  Rathke's  erroneous  assertions,  likewise  main- 
tained by  others,  that  the  genital  opening  through  which  the 
eggs  pass  out  from  the  abdominal  cavity  is  formed  by  two  holes, 
a  right  one  and  a  left  one.  I  have  invariably  found  in  all  speci- 
mens examined  a  simple  hole,  which  communicates  with  the  right 
and  left  half  of  the  abdominal  cavity  by  means  of  a  transverse 
fissure  between  the  straight  intestine  and  the  urinary  bladder 
(Jumura  recto-vesicalis)  and  opens  in  the  urethra  (Fig.  4). 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  eggs,  when  loosened  from 
the  ovaries,  fall  indiscriminately  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  but  it 
is  not  said  which  way  they  take  in  order  to  go  out  through  the 
genital  aperture.  As  I  have  invariably  found  that  the  fully  developed  ovaries  lean  with  their  outer 
surface  against  the  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  approach  with  their  free  edges  the  lower 
l»ortioii  of  this  side,  forming,  so  to  speak,  a  furrow,  I  must  conclude  that  the  loosened  eggs 


I—-* 


Fin.  l.-Ftmatr  Eel,  lonffitndiiuil  uelion  of  the 
filnitijnfn;  natural  rizf. 

a.  Ki<:ht  ovary. 

b.  Left  ovary. 

e.     \  rri'ftnory  part  of  right  oviry. 
d.    I,rfl  lUTrHMiry  part. 
•      Dividing  membrane. 
/-     A  nnl  <!••  jn  fKNinn . 
a.    Vrinarv  bladder. 
h.    Kat  on  I  lie  right  nidc.  erroneonnly 
taken  for  the  testicle*  by  Home. 
A'.  Similar  fat  covering  the  stomach. 
i.     Kat  "ii  the  left  aide. 
Jr.    Stomach. 
I       1 ' •.  Iciiui. 
m.  Liver, 
n     Kall-bladder. 
o.o.  Pectoral  Una. 


OVAKIKS  OK  TIII-:  1:1:1.. 


descend  between  the  abdominal  partition  and  tb«  folds  ntxl  leaflets  of  the  ovary  in  the  above-men- 
tioned  furrow-,  and  from  it  pass  to  tin*  genital  aperture  without  scattering  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 


Flu.  2. — I*ifer  of  thf  ovary,  drier  in  natural  tilt,  mtk 
ovarian  Itajtrtt  arranged  in  trarttvertal  rotot, 
on  it*  twrfae*. 

Thn  Rtiortxr  Imrdcr  atUchwl  to  the  ilnrnal  w»ll 
of  the  abdominal  cavity ;    the  longer 
froe. 


Flo.  3.  —  ri 


etc  of  a  Kitnrtchat  (trrebtptd  orary.  one  hun- 
dred titnn  the  natural  lizr.  ,h:-winy  the  trant- 


, 

parent  rggi  tritr,  thr  yerminatire 
tkr  germinalier  dutt. 


Flo. 4.— Anal  part  of  a  female  Eel,  twice  thenaturaltize. 
./.   Straight  intratinr. 
6.  Fiiwura  mrto-rfalc.ilia. 
r.  Urinary  bladder. 

(/.    Ann*. 
e.  Partition. 


As  to  the  development  which  the  ovaries  undergo,  I  have  observed  from  the  end  of  Noveml>er 
till  the  beginning  of  March,  in  many  adult  Eels,  of  the  length  of  530  millimeters  and  more,  that 
4     «  /     g  the  ovaries  were  of  the  breadth  of  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
.  millimeters,  and  of  a  yellowish  and  sometimes  reddish- 
white  color,  produced  by  the  development  of  adipose  tissues 
and  of  the  blood-vessels  and  not  by  the  eggs  filled  with 
little  globules  of  fat;  the  genital  aperture  and  the  fissura 
recto-vesivalis  were  open. 

In  other  Eels,  of  a  length  sometimes  of  600  millimeters 
and  more,  I  found  the  ovaries  less  broad,  with  but  little  fat, 
and  of  a  mucous  and  almost  glassy  appearance,  so  that  I 
could  discern  the  so-called  vesicles  and  germinative  dots 
(nuclei  and  nucleoli);  the  genital  aperture  and  the  fissitra 

/  tJroKrnital  ojK-ning. 

g.  Outlet  of  the  c?n>Ul  opening  in  the  urethra.  rectO-VCSlCanS  Were  Closed. 

The  ovaries  of  young  Eels,  of  the  length  of  about  500  millimeters,  contained  invariably 
but  little  fat,  and  the  eggs  were  without  globules.  The  gradual  growth  and  enlargement  of 
the  ovaries  go  on  simultaneously  with  the  opening  of  the  genital  orifice.  According  to  the  quan- 
tity of  fat  contained  in  the  ovaries,  they  have  a  mucous  and  glassy,  or  more  or  less  opaque  or 
white,  appearance,  or  have  small  shining  dots.  From  the  end  of  March  till  October  I  found  in  the 
majority  of  Eels  which  I  examined,  measuring  COO  to  700  millimeters  in  length,  that  the  ovaries 
were  scarcely  white,  and  that  the  genital  aperture  was  closed.  The  number  of  egg»  contained  in 
both  developed  ovaries  reaches,  according  to  my  calculation,  five  millions.  The  larger  eggs 
measured  by  me  had  a  diameter  of  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  millimeter,  while  the  eggs  of  an  adult 
'Grongo'  (Conger)  had,  according  to  my  measurements,  a  diameter  of  one-third  of  a  millimeter, 
and  those  of  the  'Mureua'  (Muratna  helena)  almost  one  millimeter,  which  explains  to  me  why  the 
ovaries  of  the  two  last-mentioned  species  of  fish  have  long  since  become  known. 

In  an  Eel  measuring  51)0  millimeters,  examined  on  the  6th  July,  the  left  ovary  was  entirely 
wanting,  and  replaced  by  a  mass  of  fat. 

THE  SPERMATIC  ORGANS. — The  position  of  these  organs  (Fig.  5),  which  are  not  ribbon- 
shaped  like  the  ovaries,  but  represent  two  longitudinal  rows,  each  \\  iih  about  fifty  lobules  (Fig.  6), 
of  the  width  at  most  of  three  millimeters,  and  found  only  in  Eels  not  more  than  1:50  milli- 
meters long,  corresponds  entirely  with  that  of  the  ovaries.  In  these  organs  are  likewise  found 


644 


NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


••A 


toward  the  posterior  end,  the  spermatic  organs  (paries  recurrentes),  which,  however,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  ovaries,  are  sometimes  wanting. 

The  spermatic  organs  can  be  distinguished  at  the  first 
glance  from  the  ovaries  of  the  adult  Eels  and  those  of  the 
young  Eels,  not  only  by  their  lobular  form,  but  also  by  their 
shining,  glassy  appearance,  by  the  surface  of  the  individual 
lobes,  which  is  smooth  and  without  leaflets,  and  by  the  much 
greater  density  of  the  tissue,  so  that  with  a  pair  of  pincers  one 
can  take  off  a  large  portion  of  the  organ,  which  could  not 
possibly  be  done  with  a  more  developed  ovary  whose  tissue 
is  as  tender  as  a  cobweb,  and  is  composed  of  small  vessels 
formed  of  a  thin  membrane  and  filled  with  eggs  and  fat. 

The  fibrous  tissue  of  the  spermatic  organs  is  composed 
of  vascular  compartments  with  thicker  partitions,  inclosing, 
according  to  the  development  of  the  organ,  granular 
globules  (Fig.  7). 

These  compartments  are  joined  toward  the  inside  and 
the  base  of  the  lobes,  which  are  united  to  a  tube  (vas  deferens), 
which,  cajcal  at  the  commencement,  runs  along  the  entire 
length  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  opens  near  the  straight 
intestine  (rectum)  in  a  triangular  pouch,  which  likewise  con- 
tains a  vas  deferens  starting  from  the  caudal  part  of  the 
spermatic  organ.  This  pouch  has  its  outlet  in  the  general 
orifice,  which  opens  in  the  urethra  (Fig.  8). 

As  regards  the  development  of  the  spermatic  organs,  I 


I— e 


Flo.  5.-  Jfofe  Eel  (naturalize). 
a.  Ubl.t   testicle. 
6.   I.-  li    tent  id «. 
e.  Right  IHT.-M-.OIV  part, 
d.   l.«-ft  a<-o-HH«t  y  part. 
€.  Dividing  membrane. 
/.    D«f«*n>nt  ranal. 

«.  Seminul  pouch. 
.  Anal  ilrpn-HMion. 
i     t"rin»iry  bladder,  covered  to  a  great  extant 

by  th"  aimiinal  poncd. 
k    Fat  <m  th«  \\v\it  aide. 
k  .  Simil  ir  fat .  nv.-i  um  the  stomach. 
1.    Fat  on  the  left  aide. 
m.  Stnti  nrh. 
n.    I'yiornfl. 
v     I.i\ i-i .  turned  up  to  show  the  inner  Biirface 


FIG.  6.— Three  lobet  of  the  right  teiticle,  mth  the  deferent  canal  (enlarged  ten  times). 

a.  Lobes,  Been  from  their  outer  surface. 

b.  Lobe,  seen  from  HH  inner  aurfoce. 

c.  Deferent  canal. 

d.  Anterior  part  of  the  same. 


have  observed  that  the  lobes  of  these  organs  in  young  Eels, 
measuring  not  more  than  200  to  300  millimeters  in  length, 
are  not  yet  very  distinct,  forming  two  thin  ribbons  differing 
but  little  from  ovaries  of  the  female  in  their  average  size.  In 

*"  the  <E'opl"'1!U8  aml  the  Eels  measuring  about  400  millimetersiu  length,  the  testicles 
can  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  ovaries.  The  former, 
much  straighter,  and  with  tissue,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  much  more  solid,  are  provided 
with  a  much  more  developed  net- work  of  vessels;  their  lobes  are  very  distinct  and  the  deferent 
canals  are  usually  open,  while  the  ovaries  present  the  appearance  of  two  continuous  ribbons, 
have  a  more  delicate  tissue,  and  an  almost  mucous  appearance,  and  contain  the  eggs  with  the 
geruiinative  vesicles. 


p.   Gull-bladder. 
9,  9.  Pectoral  fins. 


HXTI:I;NAI.  CIIAI;.\CTI:I;ISTICS  OK  TIIK  SKXKS. 


The  clHVivnt  ranals  an.l  tin-  -.•tiital  orifice  nre  closed  iu  young  Eels  of  the  male  sex,  and  open 
simulta isly  with  the  <h-\ cl(p|uiiciit  <>!'  the  lobes. 

In  the  male  Eels  examined  by  me  from  March  to  October  I  have  found  individuals,  of  400 
millimeters  and  more  in  length,  whose  genital  orifice  and  deferent  canals  were  invariably  open, 
while  111  some  of  the  smaller  ones  they  were  closed  and  in  others  open. 


\f// 


Fio.  7.— Piter  p/  the  trtlitlt  (on*  hundred  and  lixly  timei  enlarged), 
ihomny  the  tateular  titeu*  and  the  mall  granule*. 


Fio.  B.—Anal  part  of  the  male   Eel,   enlarged  tirire. 
a.  Straight  intent  inc. 
ft.  FiHHurn  rt-rto-vfHicaliii,  oxiven-d  liy  th«  out- 

itiilr  wall  of  tin-  Hi-tniDal  i><m.  li 
e.  e.  Outli-t  of  tho  anterior  and  poMcrior  part 

of  tin-  ilrfflrnt  lUlial  Iu  till'  pouch. 

t.  Urinary  bladder. 


Of  the  258  Eels  examined  by  me,  the  males  and  females  were  in  about  even  proportion ;  the 
greatest  length  of  the  former  was  about  430  millimeters,  while  the  latter  were  of  all  sizes  up  to 
1,050  millimeters,  which  shows  that  the  males  are  smaller  than  the  females. 

EXTERNAL  CHARACTERISTICS. — The  external  differences  presented  by  living  Eels  (remarks 
Jacoby),  corresponding  to  the  presence  of  an  ovary  and  the  supposed  male  organ,  are  very  inter- 
esting. 

The  most  important,  writes  Jacoby,  is  (1)  the  difference  in  the  size  and  length  of  the  animal. 
Syrski  states  that  the  largest  Eels  found  by  him  with  the  supposed  male  organ  measured  about 
17  inches  (430min).  I  have,  however,  found  specimens  with  this  organ  at  Trieste  and  in  Comacchio 
which  measured  17  to  19  inches  (450  millimeters  to  480  millimeters).  All  the  Eels  which  exceeded  this 
size,  for  instance  those  which  were  over  three  feet  in  length  (one  millimeter)  many  of  them  growing  to 
the  thickness  of  the  arm  of  a  strong  man,  have  been  hitherto  found  to  be  females.  The  other  recog- 
nizable external  characters  in  the  female  are  (2)  a  much  broader  tip  of  the  snout  in  comparison 
with  the  small,  either  attenuated  or  short  and  sharply  pointed,  snout  of  the  Eel  with  the  supposed 
male  organ ;  also,  (3)  a  clearer  coloration  in  the  female,  usually  of  a  greenish  hue  on  the  back,  and 
yellowish  or  yellow  upon  the  belly,  while  the  others  have  a  deep  darkish-green,  or  often  a  very 
deep  black  upon  the  back  and  always  a  more  perceptible  metallic  luster  upon  the  sides  (I,  once  in 
a  while,  found  Eels  covered  all  over  with  a  brownish  tint,  always  possessing  the  organ  of  Syrski), 
usually  exhibiting  also  a  white  color  upon  the  belly.  In  addition  (4)  there  is  an  important  external 
character  in  the  height  of  the  dorsal  fin ;  all  females  have  these  fins  much  higher  and  broader 
than  the  Eels  of  the  same  size  which  possess  the  supposed  male  organ.  Finally,  (5)  there  is  a 
character,  which  is  not  always  a  safe  one,  in  the  greater  diameter  of  the  eye  in  the  Eels  with  the 
supposed  male  organ.  Eels  with  quite  small  eyes  are  almost  always  found  to  be  females ;  Eels 
with  the  organ  of  Syrski  usually  have  comparatively  large  eyes,  yet  female  Eels  with  quite  large 
eyes  are  not  unusual. 

The  following  proportional  measurements,  the  average  results  of  the  study  of  a  great  number 
of  Eels  measured  by  me,  will  be  of  general  interest.  Column  a  gives  the  total  length  of  the  Eel; 
b  the  breadth  of  the  snout  between  the  nostrils;  c  the  breadth  of  the  snout  between  the  eyes;  d 
the  length  of  the  snout  from  the  center  of  the  eye  to  its  tip;  e  the  average  measurement  of  the 


646 


NATURAL  H1STOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


eyes;  /the  length  of  the  head  to  the  gill-opening;  g  the  height  of  the  dorsal  fins,  all  the  measure- 
ments being  given  in  millimeters. 


A.  Eels  with  supposed  male  organ. 

B.  Female  eels. 

a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

t. 

/. 

g- 

a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 

/• 

g- 

I 

480 

< 

13.5 

15 

8 

52 

5 

480 

8.5 

12 

17 

5 

62 

9 

I 

II 

470 

0 

10.5 

12 

7 

54 

a 

475 

7.5 

14.5 

16 

8 

59 

9.5 

n 

m 

445       5 

11 

12 

6 

47 

6 

440 

8 

12 

14 

r> 

56 

7.5 

in 

IV 

411 

4 

0 

12 

5.5 

47 

6 

410 

8 

12.5 

13 

7.5 

51 

7 

IV 

V 

386 

4.5 

9 

12 

5.5 

46 

4 

378 

7.5 

11 

12 

5 

49 

7.5 

V 

VI 

370 

3.5 

7 

10.5 

5 

40 

6 

MB 

7.5 

11 

13 

6.5 

51.5 

7 

VI 

VII 

344 

4 

7.5 

10 

4.5 

40 

5 

342 

0 

8 

11 

4.5 

44 

0.5 

VII 

VIII 

319 

4 

7 

10     ;    5 

40 

4.5 

313 

5.5 

8 

10.5 

3.5 

41 

6 

vra 

According  to  the  distinguishing  marks  which  have  been  given,  special  reference  having  been 
paid  to  the  height  and  narrowness  of  the  dorsal  fin,  much  success  has  been  met  with  in  picking 
out,  in  the  fish-market  of  Trieste,  the  Eels  which  possessed  the  organ  of  Syrski;  absolute  certainty 
in  recognizing  them  cannot,  however,  be  guaranteed.  If  one  is  searching  among  living  Eels  with 
no  characters  in  mind  with  the  exception  of  the  first — that  of  length — he  will  find  in  every  ten 
Eels,  on  an  average,  eight  females,  and  two  with  the  supposed  male  organ;  but,  if  the  selection  is 
made  with  a  careful  reference  to  all  these  marks  of  difference,  the  proportion  changes,  and  out  of 
every  ten  examples  about  eight  will  be  found  with  the  supposed  male  organ.1 

For  another  excellent  discussion  with  figures  of  the  characters  of  male  and  female  Eels,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  a  translation  of  an  article  by  S.  Th.  Cattie,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  vol.  iii,  pp.  280-284. 

EELS  SUPPOSED  TO  BE  VIVIPAROUS. — The  discovery  of  the  two  sexes  has  not,  however,  writes 
Beuecke,  settled  the  question  whether  the  Eel  lays  eggs  or  brings  its  young  alive  into  the  world. 
There  has  always  been  a  strong  disposition  to  adopt  the  latter  hypothesis,  and  there  are  many  peo- 
ple at  the  present  day  who  claim  to  have  been  present  at  the  birth  of  young  Eels,  or  to  have  found  a 
quantity  of  young  Eels  in  adult  Eels  which  have  been  cut  open.  Frequently  ichthyologists  hear 
accounts  of  occurrences  of  this  kind,  and  receive  specimens  of  supposed  little  Eels,  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  length,  which  have  been  kept  alive  for  several  days  in  a  glass  of  water.  These  are  usually 
thread  worms,  Ascaris  labiata,  which  live  by  the  hundred  in  the  intestinal  cavity  of  the  Eel,  and 
which  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  the  Eels  of  the  same  size  by  the  sharp  ends  of  the  body,  the 
absence  of  fins,  of  eyes  and  mouth,  and  by  the  sluggishness  of  their  motions.  The  smallest  Eels, 
less  than  an  inch  in  length,  have  already  the  complete  form  of  the  adult,  and  are  also  transparent, 
so  that  with  a  magnifying  glass  one  may  perceive  the  pulsations  of  the  heart,  and  see  behind  it  the 
brownish-red  liver;  the  mouth,  the  pectoral,  dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins,  are  easily  seen,  and  the 
black  eyes  cannot  be  overlooked.  In  addition  to  the  intestinal  worms,  the  young  of  a  fish  of  another 
family,  Zoarces  vivipariut,  have  given  opportunity  to  the  ignorant  for  many  discoveries ;  for  instance, 
Dr.  Eberhard,  in  No.  4  of  the  "Gartenlaube"  for  1874,  described  and  illustrated  an  "embryo  of  the 
Eel,"  which,  in  company  with  about  a  thousand  similar  embryos,  had  been  cut  out  of  the  belly  of 
au  Eel.  This  tolerably  good  drawing  at  first  sight  is  seen  to  represent  the  embryo  of  Zoarcea, 
which  is  almost  ready  for  birth,  since  it  still  possesses  a  very  minute  umbilical  sac.  It  is  very 
evident  that  the  minute  egg  of  the  Eel  could  hardly  produce  a  great  embryo  with  an  umbilical  sac 
which  exceeds  by  more  than  a  hundred  times  in  size  the  whole  egg.  It  is  also  evident  that  the 
imagination  of  the  writer  had  exaggerated  the  two  or  three  hundred  young  in  the  Zoarces  to  a 
thousand. 


'JACOBT:  Dor  Fiaohfang  iu  tier  Laguno  von  Comacchio. 


YOUNG  EELS.  647 

Si:.u:<  it  mi;  YI>IN<;  i.r.i.s. — As  might  have  U-en  foreseen,  remarks  Jucoby,  Syrski's  disco\  •  i  \ 
drew  attention  anew  to  the  solution  of  the  eel  problem.  In  the  spring  ami  summer  of  1877  the 
German  and  Austrian  papers  and  journals  were  full  of  articles  and  paragraphs  upon  this  subject. 
Among  others  the  following  announcement  made  the  rounds  of  the  press:  "  Hitherto,  in  spite  of  all 
efforts,  science  has  not  succeeded  in  discovering  the  secret  of  the  reproduction  of  the  Eel.  The 
German  Fiseherei  -Yen-in  in  Berlin  offers  a  premium  of  fifty  marks  to  the  person  who  shall  first  find 
a  gravid  Eel  which  shall  be  sufliciently  developed  to  enable  Professor  Virchow  in  Berlin  to  dissipate 
the  doubts  concerning  the  propagation  of  the  Eel."  Heir  Dallmer,  of  Schleswig,  inspector  of  fisheries 
in  that  province,  otl'ried  to  transmit  communications  to  Berlin,  and  in  1878,  in  the  January  number 
of  the.  "  German  Fishery  Gazette,"  he  published  a  detailed  and  very  interesting  report  of  his  proceed- 
ings. He  wrote,  among  other  things,  that  it  was  quite  beyond  his  expectation  that  this  announce- 
ment would  have  found  its  way  into  nearly  all  the  German  journals  between  the  Ithine  and  the 
Weichsel  and  from  the  Alps  to  the  sea.  The  number  of  letters  which  he  received  first  rejoiced 
him,  then  surprised  him,  finally  terrified  him,  so  that  at  last  he  was  obliged  to  refuse  to  attend  to 
the  communications.  He  had  learned  at  Berlin  that  an  equal  number  of  communications  from  all 
parts  of  Germany  had  been  received,  sent  directly  to  the  address  of  Professor  Virchow.  Objects 
which  were  said  to  be  young  Eels  cut  out  of  the  parents,  but  which  were  really  thread-worms, 

\\n-e   sent   to  him   by  dozens;   tin-   most    ineredihle  storio,  usually  from  women,  al I   -icat  thii-k 

eggs  which  they  had  found  in  Eels,  were  received  by  him.  A  witty  Berliner  communicated  to  him 
in  a  packet  sent  by  express  the  information  that  the  eel  problem  was  now  happily  solved,  since  a 
lady  Eel  in  Berlin  had  given  birth  to  twins.  Finally  Herr  Dallmer  found  himself  compelled  to 
insert  the  following  notice  in  the  "Schleswiger  Xachrichten":  "Since  the  German  Fischerei-Verein 
has  offered  a  premium  for  the  first  gravid  Eel,  the  desire  to  obtain  the  prize,  curiosity,  or  the 
desire  for  knowledge  has  created  so  lively  an  interest  upon  this  point  that  it  might  almost  be 
called  n  revolution.  I  at  one  time  offered,  when  necessary,  to  serve  as  an  agent  for  communica- 
tions, but  since  business  has  compelled  me  to  be  absent  from  home  a  great  part  of  the  time,  I 
would  urgently  request  that  hereafter  packages  should  be  sent  direct  to  Professor  Virchow  in 
Berlin.  I  feel  myself  obliged  to  inform  the  public  upon  certain  special  points.  The  premium  is 
offered  for  a  gravid  Eel,  not  for  the  contents  of  such  an  Eel,  since  if  only  these  were  sent  it  would 
be  uncertain  whether  they  were  actually  taken  from  an  Eel.  The  Eel  must  always  be  sent  alone; 
the  majority  of  senders  have  hitherto  sent  me  only  the  intestines  or  the  supposed  young  of  the 
Eel,  which  were  generally  intestinal  worms;  the  Eel  itself  they  have  eaten;  nevertheless  the  prize 
of  fifty  marks  has  been  expected  by  nearly  all  senders,"  etc.  By  this  transfer  of  the  responsibilities 
the  inspector  of  fisheries  has  rendered  a  very  unthankful  service  to  Professor  Virchow ;  he  was 
obliged  to  publish  a  notice  in  the  papers  in  which  he  urgently  stated  that  he  wished  to  be  excused 
from  receiving  any  more  packages,  for  he  would  hardly  know  what  to  do  with  them.  The  comic 
papers  of  Berlin  now  circulated  the  suggestion  that  hereafter  the  Eel  should  be  sent  to  the  inves- 
tigators only  in  a  smoked  state.  This  amusing  episode  is  interesting  in  showing  how  remarkable 
an  interest  the  whole  world  was  beginning  to  take  in  the  eel  problem.1 

NORMAL  REPRODUCTIVE  HABITS. — "It  may  be  assumed  with  the  greatest  safety,"  writes 
Benecke,  "  that  the  Eel  lays  its  eggs  like  most  other  fish,  and  that,  like  the  Lamprey,  it  only  spawns 
once  and  then  dies.  All  the  eggs  of  a  female  Eel  show  the  same  degree  of  maturity,  while  in  tin- 
fish  which  spawn  every  year,  besides  the  large  eggs  which  are  ready  to  be  deposited  at  the  next 
spawning  period,  there  exist  very  many  of  much  smaller  size,  which  are  destined  to  mature  here- 


1  Zoologischer  Auzoigur,  No. 26,  p.  193;  Am«rio»u  Naturalwt,  xiii,  p.  125;  and  J»eol>.v,  p.  44. 


(548  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

after,  and  to  be  deposited  in  other  years.  It  is  very  hard  to  understand  how  young  Eels  could 
find  room  in  the  body  of  their  mother  if  they  were  retained  until  they  had  gained  any  considera- 
ble size.  The  eel  embryo  can  live  and  grow  for  a  very  long  time  supported  by  the  little  yolk,  but 
when  this  is  gone  it  can  only  obtain  food  outside  of  the  body  of  its  mother.  The  following  circum- 
stances lead  us  to  believe  that  the  spawning  of  the  Eel  takes  place  only  in  the  sea:  (1)  that  the 
male  Eel  is  found  only  in  the  sea  or  brackish  water,  while  female  Eels  yearly  undertake  a  pilgrim- 
age from  the  inland  waters  to  the  sea,  a  circumstance  which  has  been  known  since  the  time  of 
Aristotle,  and  upon  the  knowledge  of  which  the  principal  capture  of  Eels  by  the  use  of  fixed 
apparatus  is  dependent;  (2)  that  the  young  Eels  with  the  greatest  regularity  ascend  from  the  sea 
into  the  rivers  and  lakes. 

All  statements  in  opposition  to  this  theory  are  untenable,  since  the  young  Eels  never  find 
their  way  into  land  locked  ponds  in  the  course  of  their  wanderings,  while  Eels  planted  in  such 
isolated  bodies  of  water  thrive  and  grow  rapidly  but  never  increase  in  numbers.  Another  still 
more  convincing  argument  is  the  fact  that  in  lakes  which  formerly  contained  many  Eels,  but 
which  by  the  erection  of  impassable  weirs  have  been  cut  off  from  the  sea,  the  supply  of  Eels 
has  diminished,  and  after  a  time  only  scattering  individuals,  old  and  of  great  size,  are  taken  in 
them.  An  instance  of  this  sort  occurred  in  Lake  Miiskeudorf,  in  West  Prussia.  If  an  instance 
of  the  reproduction  of  the  Eel  in  fresh  water  could  be  found,  such  occurrences  as  these  would  be 
quite  inexplicable. 

In  the  upper  stretches  of  long  rivers  the  migration  of  the  Eels  begins  in  April  or  May;  in  their 
lower  stretches  and  shorter  streams  later  in  the  season.  In  all  running  waters  the  eel  fishery 
depends  upon  the  downward  migrations.  The  Eels  press  up  the  streams  with  occasional  halts, 
remaining  here  and  there  for  short  periods,  but  always  make  their  way  above.  They  appear  to 
make  the  most  progress  during  dark  nights  when  the  water  is  troubled  and  stormy,  for  at  this 
time  they  are  captured  in  the  greatest  numbers.  It  is  probable  that  after  the  Eels  have  once 
returned  to  the  sea,  and  there  deposited  their  spawn,  they  never  can  return  into  fresh  water,  but 
remain  there  to  die.  A  great  migration  of  grown  Eels  in  spring  or  summer  has  never  been  reported, 
and  it  appears  certain  that  all  the  female  Eels  which  have  once  found  their  way  to  the  sea  are 
lost  to  the  fisherman.  In  No.  8  of  the  German  "  Fischerei  Zeitung"  for  1878,  Dr.  Schock  published 
certain  statements  sent  to  him  by  Dr.  Jacoby.  It  is  remarked  in  this  paper,  among  other  things, 
that  after  the  deposition  of  the  spawn  the  female  Eel  dies  a  physiological  death,  and  that  occasion- 
ally the  sea  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mouths  of  rivers  has  been  found  covered  with  deaa  Eels 
whose  ovaries  were  empty.  When,  where,  and  by  whom  this  observation  was  made,  and  ,vho 
pronounced  upon  the  empty  ovaries  in  these  dead  fish,  is  unfortunately  not  mentioned. 

A  great  number  of  the  Eels  remain  in  inland  waters  while  others  proceed  to  the  sea,  either 
because  their  eggs  are  at  this  time  not  sufficiently  ripe,  or  perhaps  because  they  are  sterile.  It 
would  seem  probable  that  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  eggs  in  the  wandering  Eels  begins  to  be 
very  rapid  after  August  and  September,  while  in  the  earlier  months  of  the  year,  in  all  Eels  of 
moderate  size,  the  eggs  were  at  the  utmost  but  about  0.09  millimeters  in  diameter.  In  Septem- 
ber of  the  same  year,  I  found  (as  an  average  of  numerous  measurements)  a  diameter  of  0.10;  in 
October,  0.16;  in  November,  0.18  to  0.23,  while  the  eggs  showed  other  characters  connected  with 
approaching  maturity  which  earlier  in  the  season  were  not  to  be  seen.  All  the  Eels  which  were 
captured  later — in  December  and  in  January — part  of  which  came  from  rivers  and  harbors,  part 
from  the  harbor  of  Putzig  (Putziger  Wiek),  had  eggs  measuring  from  0.09  to  0.16  millimeters, 
although  among  the  fish  examined  were  some  which  measured  three  feet  in  length. 


MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  EEL.  f,  I'.l 

Do  MALE  KKI.S  t.r.Avr.  mi.  SKA  AND  I;MT.I;  FUESH  WATEEt— This  problem  is  one  of  great 
interest,  lint  h  to  the  biologist  and  tin-  lish  cnlturist;  it  is,  in  fact,  the  one  disputed  i  mint  still  remain- 
ing to  be  solved.  Upon  its  solution  appears  to  depend  the  final  decision  of  the  question,  still  so 
warmly  debated  both  in  Europe  and  America,  "Do  Eels  breed  in  fresh  water  only,  in  salt  water 
only,  or  in  both  fresh  and  salt  water t"  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  theory  for  a  long  time 
generally  accepted  is  that  the  Eels  are  "catadromous,"  descending  to  the  sea  to  spawn.  This 
theory  is,  however,  sharply  contested  by  many  observers,  chief  among  whom  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic  is  Hon.  Robert  B.  Roosevelt,  president  of  the  American  Fish  Cultural  Association.  It 
appears  probable  to  the  writer  that  the  truth  lies  somewhere  between  these  two  extremes,  and 
that  it  will  bo  hereafter  ascertained  that  the  Eel,  like  a  majority  of  other  animals,  has  flexible 
habits,  sometimes  deviating  from  its  ordinary  custom,  which  appears  to  be  to  spawn  in  salt  or 
brackish  water. 

Male  Eels  have  been  found  in  the  following  localities: 

(1)  In  1874,  by  Syrski,  in  the  fish  markets  of  Trieste,  these  markets  being  supplied  with  Eels 
from  Chioggia  on  the  Adriatic,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  from  the  lagoons  of  Gomacchio. 

(2)  In  1875,  on  the  coasts  of  France,  by  Dareste. 

(3)  In  1875,  among  specimens  of  Anguilla  marmorata  from  India. 

(4)  In  1875,  in  the  Baltic,  at  Wismar  on  the  Danish  coast,  by  Professor  von  Siebold. 

(5)  In  1877,  in  the  lagoons  of  Comacchio,  by  Jacoby.    Among  twelve  hundred  specimens,  five 
per  cent,  were  males;  while  among  those  less  than  fifteen  inches  in  length  twenty  per  cent,  were 
males.    This  was  in  brackish  water. 

(6)  In  1879,  at  Trieste,  by  Dr.  Hermes,  who  found  fifteen  males  among  twenty  Eels  selected 
by  Dr.  Syrski. 

(7)  In  1880,  on  the  Baltic  coasts  of  Denmark,  by  Dr.  Hermes.    Out  of  one  lot  of  thirty-six 
from  Wismar,  he  obtained  eight  males,  thus  repeating  von  Siebold's  observation. 

(8)  In  1880,  from  the  Baltic  between  Zealand  and  Salaud,  Denmark.    Out  of  one  lot  of  thirty- 
six,  Dr.  Hermes  obtained  eight  males. 

(9)  In  1880,  in  France,  by  Robin. 

(10)  In  1880,  by  Cattle. 

(11)  In  1880,  by  Dr.  Hermes,  at  Cumlosen,  on  the  Elbe,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
from  the  German  Ocean. 

(12)  In  1880,  at  Riigers  on  the  Baltic,  by  Dr.  Hermes,  who  found  forty-four  and  one-half  per 
cent,  males  in  one  lot  of  137. 

(13)  By  Dr.  Pauly,  among  Eels  planted  at  Hiiniugen,  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Pauly  that  among  the  very  young  Eels  [Montte]  taken  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers  is  a  considerable  percentage  of  males,  which,  when  transplanted  to  fresh  water, 
will  there  retain  their  masculine  characters  and  develop  into  perfect  adult  males.  This  discovery 
is,  of  course,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  fish-culturists  making  the  attempt  to  introduce  Eels  into 
new  waters.  Its  importance  has  already  been  pointed  out  by  Director  Haack. 

The  practical  lesson  to  be  learned  is  simply  this,  that  young  Eels,  for  introduction  into 
strange  waters,  must  be  taken  from  very  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  in  order  that  both  males  and 
females  may  be  secured.  The  interest  to  zoologists  lies  in  the  fact  that  Pauly's  discovery  renders 
the  theory  of  von  Siebold  less  plausible,  indicating  that  the  sexes  of  the  young  Eels  are  differ- 
entiated before  they  begin  to  mount  the  rivers  and  that  the  males  do  not  ascend  beyond  the  limits 
of  brackish  water. 


650  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Dr.  Pauly's  discovery  is  so  interesting  that  I  propose  to  translate  his  own  account  of  it.  The 
investigation  was  made,  I  believe,  in  Munich,  and  the  report  from  which  I  quote  was  published  in 
the  ''Austro-Hungarian  Fishery  Gazette,"  of  Vienna,  December  23,  1880.  Dr.  Pauly  writes: 

"During  the  past  year  I  have  received  from  Court-fisherman  Knffer  a  large  number  of  Eels, 
which  I  have  used  in  my  investigations.  The  large  individuals,  all  of  which  came  from  the  lakes 
of  Northern  Italy,  were  females.  I  received,  however,  from  the  same  individual,  another  lot  of 
Eels,  consisting  of  much  smaller  individuals,  weighing  from  twenty  to  ninety  grams  (two- thirds 
of  an  ounce  to  three  ounces),  also  taken  in  fresh  water.  At  the  request  of  Professor  von  Siebold, 
I  had  paid  particular  attention  to  the  sexes  of  the  Eels  which  I  was  engaged  in  investigating, 
and  to  my  great  astonishment  I  found  that  a  large  majority  of  these  small  Eels  (nineteen  out  of 
twenty-seven)  were  males,  possessing,  instead  of  the  familiar  ovaries,  the  'Lappenorgan'  described 
by  Dr.  Syrski.  A  histological  examination  of  these  organs  convinced  me  that  the  structure  of 
these  tissues  agreed  with  that  described  by  Freud.  .  .  . 

"  My  next  inquiry  was  very  naturally  concerning  the  locality  whence  these  Eels  had  been  ob- 
tained. I  learned  that  Kuffer  had  received  them  two  years  before  from  Director  Ilaack  at  Hiinin- 
gen,  and,  upon  questioning  Director  Haack,  learned  that  they  had  been  brought  from  a  French  river, 
the  Sevre  nantaise,  where  they  were  caught  as  young  fry  [montee]  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  twelve 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  furthermore  were  at  the  time  of  examination  about  four  years  old.  The 
small  size  of  these  fish,  their  age  being  taken  into  consideration,  satisfied  me  that  they  had  been 
reared  in  captivity,  since  uncultivated  Eels  would  have  been  much  heavier.  The  females  in  this 
lot  of  Eels  exceeded  the  males  in  length  and  weight,  and  also  exhibited  those  external  characters 
described  by  Jacoby  as  indicating  sex. 

"The  locality  iu  the  Sevre  niortaise  where  these  fish  were  taken  may  easily,  especially  at  flood 
tide,  have  been  within  the  limits  of  brackish  water ;  my  observations  do  not  prove,  therefore,  that 
male  Eels  enter  fresh  water. 

"Dr.  Jacoby  found  male  Eels  in  the  lagoons  of  Comacchio,  where  the  water  is  brackish.  These 
males  must  have  ascended  in  the  'mounting'  as  fry,  and  probably  at  the  approach  of  sexual 
maturity  descend  with  the  females  to  the  sea.  My  investigations  and  those  of  Jacoby  prove  only 
this:  that  the  young  female  Eels  do  not  necessarily  break  away  from  their  parents  and  from  their 
birthplaces  at  sea,  and  entirely  alone  proceed  upon  their  migrations,  while  the  males  scatter  through 
the  sea,  but  that  their  brothers  seem  to  accompany  them  part  of  the  way  upon  their  journey.  But 
how  far  !  Do  the  males  know  where  pure  fresh  water  begins,  and  are  the  fry  of  different  sexes  found 
mingled  together  only  at  the  river  mouths  t  If  we  bear  iu  mind  the  fact  that  the  male  organs  had 
so  long  escaped  discovery,  that,  on  account  of  their  crystal-like  transparency,  their  detection  in  a 
fresh  Eel  is  so  difficult,  etc.,  may  we  not  admit  that  past  conclusions  are  probably  erroneous,  and 
that  although  thousands  of  fresh- water  Eels  have  been  studied  by  different  investigators,  male  Eels 
may  yet  be  found  in  our  streams,  especially  when  more  of  the  smaller  individuals  have  been 
examined t" 

Dr.  Pauly  then  discusses  the  observations  of  Dr.  Hermes,  who  found  eleven  per  cent,  of  males 
among  Eels  taken  at  Wittenberge,  on  the  Elbe,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  the  Ger- 
man Ocean,  and  no  males  whatever  at  Havelberg,  twenty  or  thirty  miles  higher  up  the  stream,  and 
closes  his  essay  with  the  following  conclusions :  "  Male  Eels  undoubtedly  ascend  the  rivers,  but  the 
numerical  percentage  of  males  to  females  appears  to  diminish  as  one  proceeds  up  the  streams."  This  fact 
is  opposed  to  the  theory  proposed  by  some  one  that  young  Eels  are  at  first  of  undifferentiated  sex, 
and  have  the  tendency  under  the  influence  of  fresh  water  to  become  females,  under  that  of  salt 
water  to  develop  male  characters. 


MOVEMENTS  OF  YOUNG  EELS.  051 

BENECKE  ON  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  YOUNG  EELS.— Benocke  gives  the  following  thorough 
discussion  of  the  movements  of  young  Eels: 

The  young  Eels,  hatched  out  of  the  eggs  at  sea,  doubtless  live  at  the  bottom  until  they  grow, 
through  consumption  of  rieli  fowl  substances  there  to  be  found,  to  a  size  from  one  to  three  cen- 
timeters. When  they  have  attained  this  size  they  begin  their  wanderings  in  immense  schools, 
proceeding  to  ascend  into  the  rivers  and  lakes.  These  wanderings  of  the  young  Eels  have  been 
known  for  a  very  long  time;  for  instance,  in  the  lagoons  of  Comacchio,  in  which  they  may  be  found, 
for  the.  most  part,  after  they  have  gained  the  length  of  from  six  to  eight  millimeters,  and  in  France, 
later  also  in  England,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and,  more  recently,  in  Germany  they  have  also  been 
observed. 

According  to  the  French  reports  young  Eels  are  hatched  out  early  in  the  winter,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, having  attained  the  length  of  four  or  five  centimeters,  they  appear  in  the  brackish  water 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  in  immense  numbers,  soon  to  begin  their  wanderings  up  the  stream. 
They  swim  in  crowded  schools  at  the  surface  of  the  river  right  up  to  the  banks,  and  little  detach- 
ments of  the  army  deploy  at  the  mouth  of  each  tributary  and  pursue  their  wanderings  along  its 
course.  These  swarms  of  young  Eels  are  called  in  France  "Montee,"  in  Italy,  "Montata."  The 
number  of  the  young  fish  is,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  number  of  the  eggs  in  the  ovary  of  the 
Eel,  wonderfully  large.  Kedi  has  recounted  that,  from  the  end  of  January  to  the  end  of  April  the 
young  fish  continue  wandering  up  the  Arno,  and  that  in  1867  over  three  million  pounds  of  them 
were  taken  in  five  hours.  Into  the  lagoons  of  the  Comacchio  the  Eels  pour  from  February  to 
April.  In  March  and  April  they  have  been  noticed  in  many  French  rivers,  in  which  the  migra- 
tion continues  for  from  eight  to  fourteen  days.  The  first  account  of  these  wanderings  in  Germany 
was  that  given  by  von  Ehlers.  In  1863  he  wrote  to  von  Siebold:  "This  took  place  about  ten 
years  ago,  in  the  village  of  Drenuhausen,  in  the  province  of  Wesen,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover. 
As  we  were  walking,  towards  the  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of  July,  on  a  dike,  which  at  that 
pla«e  projects  out  into  the  Elbe,  we  noticed  that  along  the  entire  shore  there  might  be  seen  a 
moving  band  of  a  dark  color.  Since  everything  which  takes  place  in  the  Elbe  is  of  interest  to  the 
inhabitants  of  that  region,  this  phenomenon  immediately  attracted  attention,  and  it  soon  became 
apparent  that  this  dark  baud  was  composed  of  an  innumerable  body  of  young  Eels,  which  were 
pressing  against  each  other,  as,  at  the  surface  of  the  stream,  they  were  forcing  their  way  upwards 
towards  its  source,  while  they  kept  themselves  so  close  to  the  shore  that  they  followed  all  its 
bendings  and  curves.  The  width  of  this  band  of  fish  at  the  place  where  it  was  observed  (where 
the  Elbe  has  a  considerable  depth)  was  perhaps  a  foot,  but  how  deep  it  was  could  not  be  observed, 
so  thickly  crowded  together  were  the  young  Eels.  As  they  swam  a  great  number  could  be  taken 
in  a  bucket,  and  it  was  very  annoying  to  the  people  who  lived  along  the  Elbe  that,  so  long  as  the 
procession  of  fish  lasted,  no  water  could  be  taken  out  of  the  river  which  was  not  full  of  the  little 
fish.  The  length  of  the  young  Eels  was,  on  an  average,  from  three  to  four  inches;  the  thickness 
of  the  body  was  about  equal  to  that  of  a  goose-quill.  By  themselves  might  here  and  there  be  seen 
swimming  Eels  of  greater  size,  but  none  of  them  were  probably  more  than  eight  inches  in  length. 
All  of  them,  even  the  smallest,  were  dark  colored.  This  wonderful  procession  of  fishes  continued 
unbroken  and  of  the  same  density  throughout  the  whole  of  the  day  on  which  it  was  first  observed, 
and  continued  .also  upon  the  following  day.  On  the  morning  of  the  third  day,  however,  not  one 
of  the  young  Eels  was  to  be  seen." 

Similar  observations  have  been  made  at  Wittenberge,  on  the  Elbe.  KuflVr  observed  great 
quantities  of  young  Eels,  of  about  three  centimeters  in  length,  in  the  brackish  water  of  the  Eider 
at  Fried  richsstadt;  so  also  did  von  Stemann. 


652  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"  Every  year,"  writes  the  latter,  "  from  April  to  the  end  of  June,  there  appear  great  masses  of 
young  Eels,  which  are  present  in  large  schools  towards  the  Upper  Eider,  seeking  in  every  way  to 
pass  each  other.  In  April  the  first  Eels  show  themselves  generally  singly;  cold  weather  has 
evidently  kept  them  back  up  to  this  time;  since  this  year,  until  to-day,  no  ascent  whatever  has 
taken  place,  and  now  the  approach  of  the  great  schools  is  beginning.  Where  the  current  is  feeble 
the  procession  is  broad;  but  where  the  Eels  encounter  a  strong  current — near  a  mill — it  becomes 
small,  and  presses  close  to  the  shore,  in  order  to  overcome  the  currents.  The  little  animals  swim 
eagerly  and  rapidly  along  near  the  banks  until  they  find  a  place  over  which  they  decide  to  climb. 
Here  they  lie  in  great  heaps,  and  appear  to  await  the  rising  of  the  tide,  which  makes  their  ascent 
easier.  The  tide  having  risen,  the  whole  mass  begins  to  separate  without  delay ;  Eel  after  Eel 
climbs  up  on  the  steep  wall  of  rock,  determined  to  reach  the  little  pools,  at  the  height  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  inches,  into  which  some  of  the  water  from  the  Upper  Eider  has  found  its  way.  Into 
these  holes  the  little  animals  creep,  and  have  yet  to  travel  a  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  feet  under 
the  roadway  before  they  can  reach  the  Upper  Eider.  Another  detachment  betakes  itself  to  the 
sluiceways,  and  clings  to  the  cracks  in  the  wood;  also  around  the  mills  their  ascent  may  be 
observed,  especially  about  sunrise."1 

Davy  sends  a  similar  account  from  Ireland.  He  was  a  witness  of  the  ascent  of  young  Eels,  or 
"  Elvas,"  at  Ballyshannon,  at  the  end  of  July,  1823 ;  he  speaks  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  under  the 
fall  being  "blackened  by  millions  of  little  Eels  about  as  long  as  a  finger,  which  were  constantly 
urging  their  way  up  the  moist  rock  beside  the  fall."  "Thousands,"  he  adds,  "died;  but  their 
bodies,  remaining,  served  as  a  ladder  by  which  the  rest  could  make  their  way;  and  I  saw  some 
ascending  even  perpendicular  stones,  making  their  way  through  wet  moss  or  adhering  to  some 
Eels  that  had  died  iu  the  attempt."2 

Such  is  the  energy  of  these  little  animals  that  they  continued  to  find  their  way  in  immense 
numbers  to  Loch  Erne. 

In  the  little  Eels  which  ascend  the  rivers  there  are  no  traces  of  sexual  organs,  but  in  the  fresh 
water  they  develop  only  into  females.  One  of  the  most  recent  observations  made  by  Dr.  Pauly, 
in  Munich,  would  appear  to  contradict  this  idea,  since  he  discovered  male  Eels  among  the  fish 
which  were  brought  with  a  lot  of  young  Eels  to  Hiiningen,  were  kept  there  for  two  years  in  ponds, 
and  were  finally  released  in  the  fish  pond  of  Court-fisherman  Kufler.  We  should  bear  in  mindj 
however,  that  these  young  Eels  were  captured  at  the  mouths  of  fresh  rivers  in  brackish  water ; 
and  that  among  the  numerous  small  Eels  which  swim  in  the  brackish  water  there  must  be  many 
larger  specimens,  in  which  the  male  organs  have  already  begun  to  develop.  Such  are  doubtless 
those  which  were  sent  in  the  male  condition  to  Hiiningen  and  Munich,  and  were  there  recognized 
as  males.  This  presumption  can  be  set  aside  only  if  male  Eels  shall  hereafter  be  found  among  the 
fish  which  are  caught  in  the  upper  part  of  rivers  in  the  condition  of  young  fry. 

Concerning  another  important  fact  which  is  connected  with  the  movements  of  the  young  fry  of 
the  Eel,  I  became  acquainted  last  year  (in  the  course  of  an  exploration  of  the  waters  of  the  district  of 

1  Professor  Benecke  had  in  his  possession  some  of  the  young  Eels,  which  escaped  from  all  the  vessels  in  which 
they  were  confined,  and  even  climbed  to  the  ceiling  of  his  room. 

-  l.i  i  i  ML-  IN  CONNECTICUT.— Fresh-water  Eels  may  be  caught  in  large  numbers,  in  weirs  along  the  lake 
streams,  when  descending  at  the  fall  equinox  to  deposit  their  spawn  in  some  lower  region,  and  in  the  following 
August  their  offspring,  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  return  in  immense  numbers.  The  basin  of  the  Still  River 
Falls,  near  Colebrook  line,  is  for  several  days  alive  with  them.  They  may  be  seen  laboriously  crawling  up  every 
rock  which  is  moistened  by  the  spray  of  the  fall,  and  endeavoring  to  reach  their  ancestral  lake  or  dam.  At  the  foot 
of  the  Niagara  Falls  this  phenomenon  may  be  witnessed  on  a  largo  scale  at  the  same  season  of  the  year  or  later,  and 
probably  in  other  places  where  the  fall  is  too  high  and  the  current  too  swift  for  the  young  Eels  to  stem  it  without 
contact  with  the  rocks.— BOYD  :  Annals  of  Winchester,  Connecticut,  p.  26. 


JACOBY'S  JOUENEY  TO  COMACCHIO. 

Konitzkunde)  with  the  river  Brahe,  at  Miihlhof,  above  Rittol,  where  a  high  dam  was  built  in  1840 
and  1847  for  the  puq>ose  of  watering  a  large  system  of  meadows  by  the  overflowing  of  the  stream. 
Below  the  daui  is  an  inclined  plane  (constructed  of  boards),  about  three  hundred  feet  long,  built 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  water,  which  rushes  out  when  the  sluice-gate  is  opened,  from 
washing  away  the  bottom  of  the  stream  and  its  banks.  This  plank  floor  consists  of  two  layers,  the 
lower  one  of  two-inch,  the  upper  one  of  three-inch  boards.  The  grade  of  the  dam  at  Miihlhof 
(thirty  three  feet  three  inches)  has  entirely  cut  off  the  ascent  of  the  fry  of  the  Eel  into  the  ii|>i» -r 
pan  of  the  Brahe  and  the  lakes  tributary  to  it,  and  the  number  of  Eels  caught  above  the  dam — 
which  was  formerly  very  considerable — has  become  reduced  almost  to  nothing.  In  the  year  1847 
the  construction  of  the  dam  and  the  inclined  plane  was  completed.  In  1852  the  upper  layer  of  the 
planks  on  the  plane  had  warped  aud  sprung  up  in  many  places,  so  that  it  had  to  be  torn  up  for 
repairs.  The  cause  of  the  warping  was  immediately  discovered ;  thousands  of  Eels,  as  thick  as  a 
man's  finger,  somewhat  flattened  in  shape,  and,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  light,  of  a  pure 
white  color,  filled  the  space  between  the  two  layers  of  planks,  and  their  united  pressure  from 
beneath  had  caused  the  upper  layer  to  yield ;  these  Eels  had  found  their  way  between  the  boards 
as  fry,  where  they  had  found  sufficient  food  and  had  grown  to  such  a  size  that  the  pressure  of  their 
united  strength  had  pushed  up  the  roof  of  their  prison.  These  facts,  observed  by  an  old  mill- 
wright, were  communicated  to  me  by  Privy  Councillor  Schmid,  of  Marienwerder,  who  supervised 
the  construction  of  the  Miihlhof  dam,  and  ho  fully  confirmed  them. 

Eels  of  four  inches  in  length,  which  in  May  are  plenty  in  fish  ponds,  by  the  end  of  October 
reach  a  length  of  ten  inches  and  the  thickness  of  a  man's  little  finger;  in  the  following  fall  they 
measure  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches,  and  in  the  third  year  are  ready  to  be  eaten.  On 
account  of  their  rapid  growth  and  hardy  nature,  in  consequence  of  which  latter  they  live  in  mud- 
holes  and  unprofitable  waters  of  all  kinds,  the  breeding  of  Eels  is  a  very  remunerative  business. 
The  young  fish  (of  which,  at  the  time  of  their  first  appearance  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  it  lakes 
1,500  to  1,700  to  make  a  pound,  while,  when  taken  later  and  a  little  farther  from  the  sea,  it  takes 
only  350  to  400  for  the  same  weight)  may  be  obtained  at  low  prices  from  France  through  Hiiuingen, 
or  in  Germany  from  Randesberg,  and,  through  the  Berlin  Aquarium,  from  Wittenberge,  and,  when 
the  temperature  of  the  air  is  not  too  high,  may  be  carried  in  soft  moss  throughout  all  Germany. 

According  to  the  statement  of  the  well-known  Paris  fish-merchant,  Millet,  two  pounds  of 
Eels,  planted  in  a  muddy  pond  in  1840,  in  five  years  yielded  5,000  pounds  of  fine  Eels. 

JACOBY'S  TOUR  TO  COMACCHIO  IN  1877,  AND  HIS  CONCLUSIONS. — "  In  the  fall  of  1877,"  writes 
Jacoby,  "I  undertook  a  journey  from  Trieste,  by  way  of  Ravenna,  to  Comacchio.  Convinced  of 
the  difficulty  of  the  questions  to  be  solved  by  my  own  previous  labors,  I  had  not  great  hopes  of 
finding  sexually  mature  Eels,  either  gravid  females  or  mature  males.  My  highest  aim  was  at 
the  beginning  to  determine  the  following  points:  (1)  Whether  evidences  of  preparation  for  breed- 
ing might  not  be  found  in  the  Eels  which  were  wandering  in  the  fall  toward  the  sea;  (2)  to  what 
extent  Eels  with  the  organ  of  Syrski  could  be  found  participating  in  this  migration;  (3)  as  far  as 
possible  to  obtain  Eels  from  the  sea  at  a  distance  from  the  coast  in  order  to  compare  their  organs 
of  reproduction  with  those  of  the  Eels  in  the  lagoons. 

"In  determining  the  answers  to  the  first  two  questions  I  was  able  to  make  some  new  and  inter- 
esting discoveries,  but  with  regard  to  the  latter,  my  most  diligent  efforts  were  absolutely  fruitless. 

"I  found  that  the  Eels  when  migrating  to  the  sea  in  the  fall  took  no  food.  In  many  hundreds 
examined  by  me,  caught  during  their  movement,  I  found  stomach  and  intestines  entirely  empty; 
that  the  Eels  during  their  migrations  eat  nothing  is  also  known  to  all  fishermen  and  watermen  of 
Comacchio.  At  the  same  time,  the  Eels  which  remained  in  the  lagoons  were  more  or  less  filled 


654 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 


with  food,  not  only  those  which  were  not  sufficiently  mature  to  migrate,  but  also  a  breed  of  Eels 
which  never  goes  to  the  sea,  but  remains  throughout  its  entire  life  in  the  lagoons. 

"There  may  be  found  in  Comacchio,  and  doubtless  everywhere  where  Eels  live  in  great  num- 
bers in  brackish  water  along  the  coast,  a  peculiar  group  of  Eels  which,  as  far  as  I  could  deter- 
mine, consists  entirely  of  sterile  females.  These  female  Eels  with  ovaries  present  a  very  peculiar 
phenomenon;  when  they  are  opened  one  finds,  instead  of  the  well-known  yellowish-white,  very 
fatty,  cufl'-shaped  organ,  a  thin,  scummy,  slightly  folded  membrane,  not  at  all  fatty,  often  as  trans- 
parent as  glass,  and  of  about  the  same  proportional  size  as  the  so-called  cuff-shaped  organ.  When 
this  membrane  is  examined  under  the  microscope  there  may  be  seen  in  it  eggs  very  transparent  in 
appearance,  with  yolk-dots  absent  or  with  yolk-dots  very  small  and  lew.  This  organ  appears  to  be 
an  abnormally  developed  ovary  incapable  of  fertilization.  These  sterile  females,  which  I  found 
of  all  sizes,  even  up  to  the  length  of  twenty-seven  inches,  present  all  of  the  acknowledged  female 
characters  in  great  prominence  and  in  an  exaggerated  degree:  the  snout  is  broader,  and  often, 
especially  at  the  tip  of  the  under  jaw,  extraordinarily  broad ;  the  dorsal  fins  are,  on  the  average, 
higher;  the  eyes  are  much  smaller,  especially  in  large  specimens,  and  the  coloring  is  clearer;  the 
back  of  a  clearer  green  and  the  belly  yellower  than  in  the  normal  female.  The  flesh  of  these 
sterile  females  lias  a  very  delicate  flavor,  and  quite  different  from  that  of  other  Eels.  I  was  quite 
astonished  at  the  fine  flavor  when  I  tasted  them  for  the  first  time  in  Comacchio.  The  flesh,  as  the 
expression  goes,  melts  upon  the  tongue.  It  is  even  possible  to  distinguish  them  while  living,  by 
feeling  them  with  the  hand,  their  soft  bodies  being  very  different  from  the  hard,  solid,  muscular 
flesh  of  the  others. 

"In  Comacchio  these  Eels  are  called  'Pasciuti.'  Coste  called  them  'Priscetti,'  and  defined 
them  to  be  those  Eels  which  had  not  become  ripe,  but  which  were  at  least  a  pound  in  weight.  The 
name  'Priscetti'  is,  however,  very  incorrect,  as  I  have  become  convinced  by  questiouing  the  fish 
inspectors  and  by  hearing  the  conversations  of  the  fishermen.  'Pasciuto'  means  'pastured,'  and 
the  fishermen  understand  by  this,  those  Eels  which  do  not  migrate,  but  which  remain  through  the 
whole  year  feeding  in  the  lagoons.  They  include,  however,  under  this  name,  Eels  of  two  kinds — 
the  sterile  females  already  described,  and  the  Eels  which  are  not  yet  ripe,  as  well  as  the  normal 
females  and  supposed  males  whose  period  of  migration  is  somewhat  remote.  This  circumstance 
is  a  cause  of  much  difficulty  to  the  investigator.1 

"The  studies  on  the  second  point  to  be  solved  were  of  special  interest,  viz,  the  determina- 

"It  has  been  noticed  by  many  early  writers  that  there  are  certain  Eels  which  never  come  to  the  sea — Risso,  in  his 
"Histoire  Naturelle,"  tome  3,  p.  108,  ami  S.  Nilsson,  in  his  "Scandinavisk  Fauna,"  tomo  4,  p.  663.  The  latter  called 
this  variety  "Grasaal,"  or  Grass-Eel,  and  spoke  of  its  yellowish-green  coloration  and  the  soft,  delicious  flesh.  Strange 
enough,  both  these  writers  spoke  of  the  sharper  snout  of  this  Eel,  and  Risso,  who  founded  upon  it  another  species, 
Angiiilla  arntirostrix,  described  it  as  blackish  above  and  silvery  below.  These  descriptions  apply  in  every  particular 
to  thi)  non-migratory  Kel  of  Comaccliio.  Jacoby  remarks  that  all  the  sterile  females  brought  to  him  under  the  name 
"Pascinti"  were  distinguished  by  their  broad  snouts.  The  following  tables  were  prepared  at  Comacchio.  a  gives 
the  total  length  of  the  body  of  the  Eel ;  6,  tho  breadth  of  the  snout  between  the  nasal  tubes,  in  millimeters. 


A—Sterile  femileo  or  1'Mcinti. 

B.—  Normal  female*. 

C.—  Eela  with  supposed  male  organs. 

a. 

b. 

a. 

6. 

a. 

6. 

I 

506 

10 

i 

511 

8 

I 

II 

480 

as 

it 

497 

7 

11 

480 

6 

m 

458                  11 

m 

46S 

9 

III 

470 

6 

IV                     443 

9 

IV 

447 

7                        IV 

445 

5 

V                     426                     8.  5 

y 

425 

0 

V 

428 

5 

VT                     408                     8                        VI 

407 

6 

VT 

403 

5 

VII                     SOJ                   11 

VII 

M 

7 

VII 

39! 

5.5 

OI:SI.I;VATIONS  or  .i.\coi;v. 


856 


lion  of  llit-  presence  at  ( 'omacchio.  and  the  behavior  of  Eels  with  organs  of  Syrski.  I  can  answer 
this  question  \er\  lirieily,  sinew  among  twelve  hundred  siMH-imens  examined  by  mo  at  the 
fishing  stations  ami  at  tin-  so  called  eel  factories  (with  the  exception  of  the  largest  specimens, 
which  arc  always  females)  I  found  an  average  of  five  per  cent,  with  the  organ  of  Syrski;  of 
the  Kels  under  liftccii  inches  in  length  (forty-five  centimeters)  on  an  average  there  were  twenty 
per  cent.,  so  that  the  conclusions  as  to  their  abundance  were  very  similar  to  those  at  Trieste,  where 
the  fish  market  is  supplied,  for  the  greater  part,  with  Eels  from  Chioggia,  and  to  a  less  extent  with 
those  from  Coniacchio. 

"In  Coniacchio  the  largest  Eels  with  the  organ  of  Syrski,  which  I  have  observed,  were  about 
seventeen  inches  (forty-eight  centimeters)  in  length,  the  smallest  about  nine  inches  (twenty-four 
centimeters).  All  of  these  were  found  among  the  Eels  taken  during  their  migration  to  the  sea, 
and,  like  the  females,  were  found  with  stomachs  completely  empty  or  slightly  tilled  with  a  slimy 
substance.  It  was  impossible  to  find  in  any  specimen  a  more  advanced  development  of  the  Syr- 
skian  organ  than  in  those  examined  in  summer  at  Trieste. 

"With  reference  to  the  third  question  undertaken  by  me,  which  relates  to  the  actual  kernel  of 
the  eel  question,  that  is,  the  possibility  of  obtaining  the  Eels  which  have  migrated  out  to  sea,  in 
order  to  obtain  in  this  manner  the  sexually  mature  milters  and  spawners,  I  have  been  unable  to 
obtain  any  results.  I  have,  so  far  as  my  opportunities  permitted,  left  no  stone  unturned  to  gain 
its  solution.  I  went  out  to  sea  from  Magnavacca  and  from  Codigoro,  on  Chioggian  vessels,  and 
many  times  have  fished  myself,  and  have  stimulated  the  fishermen  by  offers  of  reward  to  endeavor 
to  obtain  Eels  at  sea,  but  I  am  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  with  the  ordinary  means  this  cannot 
be  done. 

"Intelligent,  gray-headed  fishermen  of  Chioggia,  who  by  means  of  their  fishing  apparatus 
know  this  part  of  the  Adriatic  as  well  as  they  know  their  own  pockets,  have  assured  me  that 
throughout  their  entire  lives  they  have  never  caught  a  grown-up  river  Eel  in  the  sea  at  any  dis- 
tance from  the  coast.  The  Eels  which  were  brought  to  me  at  Mannbach  as  having  been  caught 
in  the  sea,  and  which  I  found  to  be  the  ordinary  females,  or  Eels  with  the  Syrskian  organ,  were 
either  from  localities  close  to  the  shore  where  they  are  not  rare,  or  were  taken  in  the  Palotta 
Canal.  There  was  no  lack  of  attempts  at  deception.  Fishermen  took  Eels  from  the  shore  with 
them  in  order  to  be  able,  on  their  return,  to  claim  that  they  had  been  caught  at  sea.  In  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  the  coast  they  are,  as  it  has  been  stated,  in  the  spring-time  not  rare,  and 
there  are  not  the  slightest  differences  between  these  and  the  Eels  of  the  lagoons.  I  fonnd  l>oth 
females  and  Eels  with  the  organ  of  Syrski  with  thoir  reproductive  organs  in  the  same  immature 
condition  as  inComacchio;  evidently  they  had  just  come  through  the  Palotta  Canal  from  the 
lagoon  into  the  sea.  A  certain  distance,  perhaps  one  or  two  marine  miles  from  the  coast,  every 
trace  is  lost  of  the  adult  Eels  which  wander  by  the  many  thousand  into  the  sea.  Strange  as  this 
problem  appears  at  hist  sight,  it  is  easily  understood  when  the  character  of  the  fishing  apparatus 
is  considered:  the  nets  are  those  used  in  the  capture  of  lobsters,  and  are  thrown  over  the  bottom; 
they  have  meshes  much  too  large  to  hold  the  Eels,  or,  when  they  are  small-meshed,  they  do  not 
touch  the  bottom.  The  problem  can  only  be  solved  by  using  apparatus  constructed  especially  for 
the  purpose."1 

Jacoby  proposes  the  following  questions,  which,  in  his  opinion,  cover  the  still  unanswered 
points  concerning  the  natural  history  of  the  Eel,  and  answers  them  in  accordance  with  the  results 
of  his  own  observations: 


1  JACOBY:  Der  Fischfang  in  der  Lagune  von  Comacchio,  pp.  45-63. 


656  NATUKAL  HISTOHY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Question  1.  How  can  the  fact  be  accounted  for  that  no  one  has  ever  found  mature  females  and 
males,  spawners  and  milters,  among  the  Eels  t 

Answer.  The  Eels  require  the  influence  of  sea-water  for  the  development  of  their  reproductive 
organs.  As  is  now  definitely  understood,  they  leave  the  rivers  and  the  brackish  lakes  on  account 
of  the  undeveloped  condition  of  their  reproductive  organs,  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  sexually 
mature  at  sea.  That  these  migrations  to  the  sea  take  place  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction  appears 
to  be  certainly  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  young  Eels  leave  the  sea  in  the  spring,  and  that  the 
migrating  Eels,  like  other  fishes  at  the  spawning  season,  abstain  from  eating. 

Q.  2.  When  and  where  occurs  the  necessary  development  of  the  reproductive  organs  of  the 
Eel  to  a  condition  in  which  they  are  capable  of  fertilization  ? 

A.  Development  of  the  reproductive  organs  takes  place  in  the  sea,  not  close  to  the  shore, 
but  at  a  distance  and  in  deep  waters.  This  development  is  extraordinarily  rapid,  when  the 
immature  state  in  which  the  migrating  Eels  are  found  is  taken  into  consideration;  they  must 
become  sexually  mature  within  a  few,  probably  five  or  six,  weeks  of  the  time  that  they  enter  the 
sea.  At  Comacchio  the  emigration  takes  place  between  the  beginning  of  October  and  the  end  of 
December. 

Q.  3.  Where  does  the  act  of  spawning  take  place,  the  fertilization,  and  the  deposition  of 
the  eggs  t 

A.  There  are  probably  certain  definite  spawning  places  in  the  sea,  off  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers.  These  are  the  mud-banks  to  which  the  Eels  go,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  in  great 
numbers.  The  young  fish  are  developed  upon  these  mud- banks,  and  from  eight  to  ten  weeks 
after  their  birth,  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  find  their  way  to  the  mouths  of  rivers,  which  they 
ascend. 

Q.  4.  What  becomes  of  the  grown-up  Eels  after  spawning  time,  and  why  do  they  remain 
lost  to  sight  and  never  again  come  back  into  the  rivers  t 

A.  The  old  Eels,  male  and  female,  without  doubt,  die  soon  after  the  spawning  season. 
The  very  unusual  rapid  development  of  their  reproductive  organs  has  such  an  effect  upon  the 
systems  of  the  adult  Eels  that  they  die  soon  after  the  act  of  reproduction.  That  is  the  reason 
why  they  are  never  seen  to  wander  back  again.1 

An  intelligent  Chioggian,  the  owner  of  a  fishing  vessel,  in  answer  to  my  question  as  to  where 
the  old  Eels  staid,  answered,  "  They  die  on  the  mud-banks  after  they  have  propagated  their 
young." 

This  hypothesis  may  be  confirmed  in  a  scientific  manner  by  the  analogous  circumstances  in 
the  history  of  the  Lamprey.  Panizza,  in  his  description  of  the  sea  Lamprey,  Petromyzon  marina, 
remarks  that  both  the  males  and  females  of  this  species  after  the  spawning  period  are  brought, 
up  dead.  Concerning  the  river  Lamprey,  P.  fluviatilis,  Statius  Miiller  remarks  that  when  they 
spawn  they  slowly  fall  away  and  die.  Concerning  the  little  Lamprey,  P.  planeri,  August  Miiller, 
the  discoverer  of  its  larval  form,  has  recorded  the  same  opinion.8 

192.  THE  CONGEE  EEL— CONGER,  OE  LEPTOCEPHALUS  CONGEE. 

The  Conger  Eel  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  summer  on  the  coast  of  the  New  England  and 
middle  States,  and  is  known  to  our  fishermen  as  the  "  Sea  Eel."  No  observations  ha,ve  been 
made  of  its  habits  by  American  zoologists. 

>!••  confirmation  of  this  view,  von  Siebold  was  the  first  to  make  tins  hypothesis. 
«Op.  cit.,  pp.  53-56. 


IIKK.MKS    «>l;>i:i;\  ATIONS. 


667 


The  observations  of  Dr.  Otto  Hermes,  director  of  the  Berlin  Aquarium,  who  has  recently  dis. 
covered  the  true  nature  of  the  organ  of  Syrski  in  the  Conger,  are  extremely  interesting: 

"Since  S.vrski,  in  1874,  found  the  organs  in  Anguilla  vulyariit — which  are  called  by  his  name 
and  which,  by  him  and  most  zoologists,  were  taken  for  the  male  reproductive  organs— it  is  only 


JTJ. 


FIG.  9. — A.  Jiip»  male  rtproductire  organ*  of  • 

t'liagrr  Eel  thirty  inches  in  length, 

I  natural  lite, 
a.  Inlentinnl  raual. 
d',  upper,  d".  middle,  d'",  lower  portion 

of  the  liver,  which  baa  been  thrown 

to  one  Hide. 
/.  Air-bladder. 
ff.  G^ll-l.l...l.l,i. 
h.  Anal  aperture. 

i,,  i't.  u.  "•  Fold*  of  the  left  nuermary. 
ti,  In,  h.  tt,  fa.    Folds  of  the  right  sper- 

inary. 

I.    Seminal  pf.ncb. 
m.  Urinary  bladder. 
p.  Skinny  covering  of  the  upennary. 
H.  Spermatozoa. 


Flo.  10. — C    Undtreloptd  rfproductirt  organ  of  a/tmaU 
Conatr  Ktl  thirty-four  \nclut  long,  |  nat- 
ural tixe. 
a.   Stomnch. 
6.   Circal  appendage. 
e.    Spleen. 

d.  Liver. 

e.  Right  ovary. 
if.  Left  ovary. 
/.     A !•  l.l.i.l.l.  r. 
a.    (inll  M.idili-r. 
\.  Anal  aperture, 
m-  U  inary  bladder. 
p.    End  vf  left  ovary. 


necessary  that  a  ripe  male  Eel  should  be  found  in  order  to  settle  forever  the  question  of  the  sexes 
of  the  Eel.  Up  to  this  time  all  efforts  have  failed  to  reach  the  desired  result.  The  histiological 
investigations  of  the  Syrskian  organs  pursued  by  S.  Freud  render  it  more  probable  that  these  were 
young  roes;  yet  there  remained  all  the  time  a  doubt,  since  the  spermatozoa  had  not  been  actually 
42  p 


658  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

observed,  aiid  this  uncertainty  is  aii  insuperable  obstacle  to  tbe  acceptance  of  the  Syrskian  dis 
covery.  The  supposed  discovery  of  spermatozoa  by  A.  S.  Packard  in  the  male  Eel  proved  to  be 
another  delusion.  The  contradiction  of  this  imaginary  discovery  appeared  in  No.  26  of  the  second 
volume  of  the  Zoologischer  Auzeiger,  p.  193,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  the  motile  bodies  were  not 
spermatozoa,  but  yolk  particles.  This  correction  was  also  made  by  von  Siebold's  assistant,  Dr. 
Pauly,1  and  by  S.  Th.  Cattie. 

"The  reproductive  organs  of  Conger  vulgar  is  are  very  similar  to  those  of  A  ngml  la  vulgaris;  in 
the  undeveloped  condition  they  show  the  ovaries  lying  in  the  same  position  in  a  cuff-shaped  band 
of  a  proportionally  large  size.  Since  C.  vulgaris  reaches  nearly  twice  the  size  of  A.  vulgaris,  indi- 
viduals of  six  feet  in  length  are  not  rare.  The  ovary  is  developed  in  captivity,  and  this,  I  am 
convinced,  is  often  the  cause  of  the  death  of  the  Eel.  In  a  Conger  which  died  in  the  Berlin  Aqua- 
rium, and  was  cut  open,  the  ovaries  protruded  very  extensively,  and  a  specimen  which  lies  in  the 
Frankfort  Aquarium  burst  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  ovaries.  The  ova- 
ries of  this  Eel,  which  weighed  twenty-two  and  one-half  pounds,  themselves  weighed  eight  pounds, 
and  the  number  of  eggs  was  about  3,300,000.  The  want  of  a  natural  opening  for  tbe  escape  of  the 
eggs  was  evidently  in  this  case  the  cause  of  death.  Male  specimens  of  the  Conger  in  an  undeveloped 
condition  I  have  hitherto  never  had  the  opportunity  to  investigate.  I  received,  however,  in  the 
fall  of  1879  a  number  of  sea  Eels,  taken  in  the  vicinity  of  Havre,  whose  average  length  was  from 
twenty-four  to  twenty-seven  inches.  These  Eels  ate  greedily  and  grew  rapidly.  Only  one  was 
tardy  in  its  development,  so  that  it  could  be  easily  distinguished  from  the  rest.  This,  which  was 
the  smallest  of  the  Congers  in  the  aquarium,  died  on  the  20th  of  June,  1880,  and  was  examined  by 
me  on  the  same  day.  I  was  very  much  delighted  when  I  found  the  sexual  organs  very  different 
from  those  which  I  had  ever  noticed  before.  After  a  single  cut  into  them,  there  flowed  out  a  milky 
fluid,  which,  under  the  microscope,  with  a  power  of  450  diameters,  showed  a  great  number  of  sper- 
matozoa, in  the  liveliest  motion,  and  in  which  head  and  tail  were  evidently  visible.  There  could 
be  no  doubt  that  I  had  found  a  sexually  mature  male  of  Conger  vulgaris.  Two  fragments  of  the 
roc  were  laid  aside  for  further  investigation,  and  the  Eel,  which  was  twenty-eight  inches  long,  was 
prepared  first  in  alcohol  and  then  in  Wickersheimer  fluid." 

In  the  paper  before  us  Dr.  Jacoby  presents  a  full  anatomical  description  of  the  generative 
organs  of  the  Conger  as  demonstrated  by  himself  and  Dr.  Rabl-Ruckhard.  It  seems  unnecessary 
to  repeat  this  description,  since  the  organs  are  very  similar  to  those  in  the  common  Eel.  By  the 
kindness  of  Dr.  Hermes  we  are  permitted  to  reproduce  the  drawings  which  accompany  this 
description. 

Compared  with  the  description  of  the  roe,  and  the  figure  of  the  organ  found  by  Syrski  and  by 
Hermes,  called  "  Lappenorgan,"  a  great  similarity  is  noticed  between  them.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  in  this  case  we  were  comparing  the  entirely  undeveloped  organs  of  the  Eel  with  the 
fully  ripe  reproductive  organs  of  the  Conger,  so  every  doubt  as  to  the  male  nature  of  the  Syrskian 
organs  ought  to  be  thrown  aside.  Also  in  the  comparison  of  the  size  of  the  male  with  that  of  the 
female  the  Conger  shows  the  same  relations  as  the  Eel  investigated  by  Syrski,  to  wit,  that  the 
males  are  smaller  than  the  females. 


'Austrian  Fishery  Gazette,  1880,  No.  12,  p.  90. 


V.— STURGEONS,  SKATES,  SHARKS,  AND  LAMPREYS. 

193.  THE  BOWFINS— AMIIDJE. 
THE  BOWFIN  oil  JOHNNY  GRINDLE — AMIA  CALVA. 

The  one  species  belonging  to  the  single  genus  in  this  family  is  peculiar  to  the  fresh  water* 
of  the  United  States.  It  occurs  in  the  Great  Lakes,  where  it  is  called  "Dogfish"  and  "Sawyer"; 
in  the  streams  of  Western  Vermont,  where  it  is  the  "Mud-flsh"(!),  as  also  in  the  streams 
of  the  Southern  Atlantic  coast  from  the  Neuse  southward.  It  is  also  abundant  in  the  smaller 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  all  parts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  it 
is  variously  called  the  "Johnny  Grindle,"  "Bowfin,"  and  "Dogfish."  The  Bowfin  is  an  object  of 
great  interest  to  naturalists  on  account  of  its  affinities  with  the  great  fossil  group  of  ganoid  fishes. 
It  is  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  like  its  allies,  the  garfishes.  It  attains  the  length  of  two  feet 
and  the  weight  of  twelve  pounds.  Though  not  considered  eatable  in  the  North,  it  is  very  highly 
(•Miriiicil  by  tin-  negroes  of  the  South,  who  s:i\  "there  is  nothing  sweeter  th;m  :i  Mud  ti-.li."  1 1  is 
often  taken  by  sportsmen  on  a  trolling  spoon,  and  is  considered  "gamy." 

The  Bowfin  is  probably  more  interesting  on  account  of  its  voracity,  and  the  wholesale  destruc- 
tion with  which  it  pursues  other  fishes,  than  by  reason  of  its  own  intrinsic  worth.  The  young  are 
thought  to  be  excellent  bait  for  pickerel  and  pike.  The  best  description  of  the  habits  of  this  fish 
is  here  quoted  from  the  pen  of  Charles  Hallock  : 

"They  take  frogs,  minnows,  and  sometimes  the  spoon.  Their  habitat  Is  deep  water,  where  they 
drive  everything  before  them.  They  are  very  voracious  and  savage.  Their  teeth  are  so  sharp 
and  their  jaws  so  strong  that  they  have  been  known  to  bite  a  two-pound  fish  clean  in  two  the  very 
first  snap.  They  are  as  tenacious  of  life  as  the  eel.  The  young,  when  about  six  inches  long- 
make  a  famous  bait  for  pickerel  and  pike.  To  use  it,  run  the  hook  into  the  mouth  right  up 
through  the  center  of  the  head,  through  the  brain,  cast  a  hundred  times,  catch  several  fish,  and  at 
the  end  ot  three  to  six  hours  he  will  kick  like  a  mule.  Put  one  hundred  in  a  rain-barrel  and  you 
can  keep  them  all  summer  without  change  of  water.  For  the  aquarium  the  young  have  no  equal, 
and  on  account  of  the  spot  in  the  tail  are  quite  attractive ;  but  nothing  else  but  snails  can  live  in 
the  tank.  He  will  kill  a  lizard  or  any  other  living  thing  the  instant  it  touches  the  water. 

"Dr.  Estes  says:  'I  have  sent  these  young  Dogfish  hundreds  of  miles  for  the  aquarium.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  keep  them  in  water,  a  change  scarcely  being  required.  The  adults  are  the  great 
'Jumpers'  of  the  lake.  On  certain  days  they  are  to  be  seen  in  all  directions  jumping  clean  out  of 
the  water,  and  turning  complete  somersaults  before  again  striking.  They  spawn  in  May  and  June 
among  the  grass  and  weeds  of  the  sloughs,  if  they  can  reach  them  in  time.  As  soon  as  the  spring 
rise  comes,  usually  in  May  and  June,  and  connects  the  inland  sloughs  with  the  lake  (Pepin),  they 
run  up  and  over  into  the  sloughs,  deposit  their  eggs,  and  remain  near  the  beds  and  young  just  as 
long  as  they  can  and  not  be  shut  in  by  the  receding  water.  The  eggs  hatch  in  eight  and  ten  days, 
the  parents  remaining  with  the  brood  two  or  three  weeks,  if  possible,  but  will  leave  them  much 
sooner  if  necessary  to  save  themselves.  The  young  will  not  make  any  effort  to  escape  to  the  lake 
until  the  next  season,  when,  if  an  opening  occurs,  they  come  pouring  out  in  countless  numbers. 
At  this  time  we  take  them  by  stretching  the  minnow  seine  across  the  opening  and  raising  it  when 
full.  They  are  now  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  fat  and  chubby.  I  come  now  to  mention  a 

m 


660  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

peculiar  habit  of  this  fish,  no  account  of  which  I  have  ever  seen.  It  is  this:  While  the  parent  still 
remains  with  the  young,  if  the  family  become  suddenly  alarmed,  the  capacious  mouth  of  the  old 
fish  will  open,  and  in  rushes  the  entire  host  of  little  ones;  the  ugly  inaw  is  at  once  closed,  and  off 
she  rushes  to  a  place  of  security,  when  again  the  little  captives  are  set  at  liberty.  If  others  are 
conversant  with  the  above  facts,  I  shall  be  very  glad,  if  not,  shall  feel  chagrined  for  not  making 
them  known  long  ago.'" ' 

194.  THE  PADDLE-FISHES— POLYODONTID-iE. 

The  "Paddle-fish"  or  "Duck-billed  Cat,"  Polyodon  spathula,  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
fishes  of  the  rivers  of  the  Western  and  Southern  States.  It  reaches  a  length  of  four  to  six  feet, 
and  a  weight  of  thirty  pounds  or  more.  It  feeds  on  minute  organisms  present  in  mud.  The  long 
snout  or  spatula  is  used  to  stir  up  the  mud  on  which,  and  the  animals  within  it,  the  fish  feeds. 
The  fish  is  rarely  or  never  used  as  food.  Jordan  states  that  it  abounds  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
Ohio  River,  where  it  is  often  taken  in  nets. 

195.  THE  STURGEONS— ACIPENSERID2E. 
THE  STUBGEONS  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  COAST. 

Two  species  of  Sturgeon  are  supposed  to  exist  on  our  Atlantic  coast.  The  most  abundant  of 
these,  Acipenser  oxyrhynchus,  is  now  generally  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  common  Sturgeon 
of  Europe,  A.  sturio.  The  other,  A.  brevirostris,  which  is  distinguished  from  A.  oxyrhynchus  by  its 
shorter  and  blunter  nose,  has  not  yet  been  found  north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  appears  to  be  compara- 
tively less  abundant,  although  both  species  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  larger  rivers  and 
estuaries  during  the  summer  season,  and  are  frequently  seen  leaping  from  the  water,  especially  at 
dusk.  A  leaping  Sturgeon  is  a  striking  object,  the  whole  length  of  the  fish  appearing  above  the 
surface  before  it  falls  back  with  a  splash  into  the  water. 

The  Sturgeon  attains  a  length  of  five  to  twelve  feet.  In  Europe,  individuals  of  the  common 
Sturgeon  eighteen  feet  long  have  been  secured.  The  spawning  season  is  in  spring  and  early 
summer.  Their  eggs  have  several  times  been  artificially  impregnated  by  the  fish  culturists 
attached  to  the  Fish  Commissions  of  the  United  States  and  of  New  York.  They  spawn  in  the 
lower  stretches  of  the  rivers,  and  perhaps  also  at  their  mouths,  in  brackish  water. 

Sturgeon  are  classed  by  fishermen  among  the  fishes  which  "  live  by  suction."  The  mouth  is 
situated  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  head,  and  is  not  provided  with  teeth,  but  is  surrounded  with 
a  cup-shaped  organ  composed  of  powerful  muscular  tissue,  by  means  of  which  it  grubs  for  its  food 
in  the  mud.  Its  stomach  resembles  that  of  the  menhaden  and  mullet,  though  comparatively  more 
muscular,  since,  like  the  gizzard  of  a  fowl,  one  of  its  uses  is  to  triturate  the  food  which  has  been 
swallowed,  and  which  consists  largely  of  mollusks  and  crustaceans.  Around  the  mouth  is  a  group 
of  large  and  sensitive  tentacles,  which  aid  the  fish  in  its  search  for  food. 

No  one  has  yet  made  a  careful  study  of  the  habits  of  the  Sturgeon  in  our  waters,  and  in  fact 
European  zoologists  have  made  little  progress  in  the  study  of  their  own  species. 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  capture  of  the  Sturgeon  for  smoking  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
caviare  from  its  eggs  has  attained  considerable  importance  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  capture  and  economic  uses,  and  the  statistics  of  the  products  of  the  sturgeon  fishery,  will 
be  fully  discussed  by  Col.  M.  McDonald  in  a  subsequent  portion  of  this  work. 

1  Sport MM.-I M'S  Gazetteer,  1877,  pp.  324-336. 


mi:  I.AKI:  sri  KCKOS.  661 

THE  LAKE  STUEOEON— ACIPENSEB  BUBICUNDUS. 

The  most  satisfactory  investigation  of  tlio  Lake  Sturgeon  is  that  published  by  Milm-r  in  Part 
II  of  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  pa^vs  c;  t(,  ;.-,.  This  species  inhabits  the 
(Ireat  Lakes  and  the  waters  lying  to  the  northward,  and  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  It 
is  especially  abundant  in  the  Upper  Lakes.  It  is  a  smaller  species  than  the  Atlantic  Sturgeon, 
and  has  a  greater  number  of  plates  or  scutes  npon  the  sides — according  to  Jordan,  about  thirty- 
four  instead  of  twenty-eight. 

SPAWNING  HABITS. — Milner  records  the  following  observations  upon  the  general  habits  and 
history  of  the  Lake  Sturgeon: 

"The  spawning  season  of  the  Sturgeon  in  the  more  southern  lakes  occurs  in  the  month  of 
Juno;  in  Lake  Superior  it  is  a  little  later.  Early  in  June,  in  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan, 
they  begin  to  congregate  near  the  shores  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  the  Kalamazoo  River, 
emptying  at  Saugatuck,  Michigan,  being  a  favorite  spawning  ground.  They  may  be  seen  in  the 
evening  in  this  river  leaping  from  the  surface,  throwing  their  bulky  forms  entirely  out  of  the 
water.  At  Pier  Cove,  Michigan,  on  the  llth  of  June,  1871,  schools  of  Sturgeons  were  at  the  edge 
of  the  shore  in  a  few  feet  of  water,  and  men  from  the  vicinity  were  in  the  habit  of  wading  out  and 
drawing  them  ashore  with  gaff-hooks.  Eighteen  were  taken  in  this  way  the  morning  we  visited 
the  locality.  They  were  said  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  every  year  about  this  season,  remaining 
about  a  fortnight.  It  is  likely  they  were  spawning  at  the  time.  Whether  the  shore  of  the  Lakes, 
where  the  waves  would  disturb  the  eggs  in  every  storm,  is  a  natural  spawning  ground  is  a  ques- 
tion. They  may  have  been  late  arrivals  seeking  the  month  of  the  Kalamazoo  River,  a  few  miles  to 
the  north  of  which  they  are  said  to  ascend  to  the  first  dam,  many  miles  inland. 

"Mr.  J.  G.  Portman,  of  Benton  Harbor,  successful  as  a  fish-cultnrist,  has  seen  the  Sturgeon  at 
this  season  lying  in  numbers  on  a  shallow  clay  ledge  at  the  edge  of  a  stream,  several  of  them  lying 
flat  on  their  backs,  with  their  bellies  upward,  rolling  and  splashing  in  shallow  water  with  apparent 
enjoyment.  Two  or  three  that  were  taken  with  spears  were  opened  and  the  stomachs  examined 
and  found  to  contain  some  of  the  sturgeon  spawn.  At  the  mouth  of  Calumet  River,  South  Chicago, 
Illinois,  July  1  of  the  year  just  referred  to,  a  large  lift  of  Sturgeon  were  brought  ashore,  looking 
flaccid  and  emaciated,  and  bnt  one  specimen  out  of  over  twenty  individuals  contained  spawn.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Bayfleld,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Superior,  they  were  seen  late  in  the  month  of  July  with 
the  ovaries  full  of  spawn,  and  the  milt  of  the  male  fishes  large,  making  it  probable  that  the  time  of 
spawning  was  later  in  colder  water  than  in  warm. 

"SiZE. — The  Sturgeon  of  this  species  attains  the  largest  size  of  any  fish  of  the  Lakes.  They 
are  taken  only  within  comparatively  shoal  waters  and  in  some  of  the  bays,  and  among  the  islands 
they  are  very  abundant.  The  largest  specimen  it  has  been  my  fortune  to  see  did  not  quite  attain 
the  length  of  six  feet,  though  there  arc  traditions  in  localities  on  the  Lakes  of  nine  foot  Sturgeons; 
the  average  of  the  mature  ones  taken  is  less  than  five  feet. 

"Their  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  the  shell  fish  of  the  Lakes,  principally  gasteropods,  the 
thinner  shelled  kinds  of  the  genera  Physa,  Planorbia,  and  Valvata  being  found  broken  in  the 
stomachs,  while  Limncea  and  Mdantho  remain  whole.  A  few  eggs  of  fishes  have  been  found  at 
different  times,  but  examination  of  stomachs  during  the  spawning  season  of  some  of  the  most 
numerous  fishes  did  not  prove  them  to  be  very  extensive  spawn-eaters. 

"ENEMIES. — In  Green  Bay  the  fishermen  set  their  pounds  for  fall  fishing  about  the  10th  of 
September.  The  Sturgeon  are  in  abundance,  and  the  nets  often  contain  a  hundred  or  more.  This 
is  said  to  continue  until  about  the  middle  of  October,  when  they  diminish  in  number  and  the  white- 


662  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

fish  become  plentiful.  As  the  latter  are  the  fish  sought  for,  the  Sturgeon  are  considered  a  nui- 
sance and  annoyance.  A  few  fishermen  are  considerate  enough  to  lower  the  corner  of  a  net  and 
allow  them  to  escape,  but  the  commoner  way  is  to  draw  them  out  of  the  net  with  a  gaff-hook  and 
let  them  go  wounded,  or  to  take  them  ashore  and  throw  them  on  the  refuse  heap,  asserting  that 
there  will  be  so  many  less  to  trouble  them  in  the  future.  A  very  large  number  are  destroyed  in 
this  way,  probably  equaling  or  exceeding  the  number  taken  in  the  vicinity  of  Sandusky. 

"The  spawn  is  probably  subjected  to  the  depredations  of  numerous  fishes.  It  is  not  likely 
that  the  young  Sturgeon,  except  in  the  earliest  stages  of  their  growth,  suffer  from  the  attacks  of 
other  fishes,  as  they  are  too  well  defended  with  the  sharp  spine  of  their  shields  to  make  a  comfort- 
able mouthful  for  any  fish  of  the  Lakes,  and  after  the  spine  disappears  have  attained  a  size  large 
enough  to  render  them  safe. 

"A  parasite  that  troubles  the  Sturgeon  is  the  Lamprey  Eel,  Petromyzon  argenteus,  Kirt.,  which 
is  found  very  frequently  attached  to  the  skin.  The  circular  scars  and  raw  sores  sometimes  found 
upon  the  Sturgeon  and  attributed  to  this  cause  by  the  fishermen  are  correctly  accounted  for  in  this 
way.  It  is  probable  that  their  natural  food  is  the  slime  or  mucus  exuded  in  abundance  from  the 
pores,  but  they  frequently  retain  their  hold  upon  a  spot  until  they  have  eaten  through  to  the  flesh, 
and  deep  ulcerous  cavities  occasionally  result  from  the  sore. 

"The  decrease  in  numbers  is  apparent  to  a  certain  extent  in  localities  where  the  pound-net 
has  been  in  use  for  a  number  of  years.  At  Saudusky,  Ohio,  the  number  brought  in  from  the  nets 
and  handled  at  the  curing  establishment  in  a  season  are  said  to  have  nearly  reached  eighteen 
thousand  a  few  years  ago,  while  in  1872  the  books  showed  a  record  of  thirteen  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eighty  received.  This  fact  has  several  times  been  advanced  as  an  argument  in  favor 
of  the  pound-nets,  that  the  destruction  of  the  Sturgeon,  asserted  to  be  an  extensive  spawn-eater, 
more  than  compensated  for  the  numbers  of  white-fish  taken. 

"As  an  article  of  food  they  are  not  generally  popular.  But  few  people  in  the  cities  know  the 
modes  of  cooking  that  make  their  meat  a  palatable  dish.  A  certain  quantity  is  disposed  of  fresh 
by  the  peddlers.  With  the  Canadian-French  people  of  the  Lake  shore  they  are  in  demand,  and  are 
prepared  in  the  form  of  soups  (bouillon).  With  a  good,  hearty,  outdoor  appetite  this  is  very  pal- 
atable food,  but  too  rich  in  the  flavor  of  the  oil  of  the  fish  for  ordinary  use.  The  flavor  of  the 
Sturgeon  meat  has  very  little  of  the  taste  of  fish,  and  the  bouillon,  when  carefully  prepared  by 
skimming  off  the  oil,  is  very  much  like  chicken-soup.  A  very  good  pickled  meat  is  made  of  it  by 
boiling  it  and  preserving  it  in  vinegar. 

"But  the  best  form  of  preparing  Sturgeon  is  by  smoking  it.  The  smoking  of  Sturgeon  meat 
has  been  done  at  different  points  of  the  Lakes  on  a  small  scale,  but  is  only  carried  on  to  a  large 
extent  by  Schacht  Brothers,  of  Sandusky,  Ohio.  The  method  employed  by  this  firm  is  the  fol- 
lowing: The  Sturgeons  are  skinned  and  the  viscera  taken  away.  The  thick  parts  are  then  cut  into 
strips,  and  after  a  slight  pickling  in  brine  are  smoked  over  a  close  fire.  The  thin  portions  and 
offal  are  boiled  down  for  oil,  the  spawn  is  made  into  caviare,  and  from  the  bladders  isinglass  is 
manufactured. 

"The  smoked  Sturgeon  is  a  most  palatable  meat,  and  is  quite  popular,  making  an  excellent 
substitute  for  smoked  halibut,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  a  great  many,  having  some  qualities  superior. 

"The  caviare  is  made  by  pressing  the  ova  through  sieves,  leaving  the  membranes  of  the 
ovaries  remaining  in  the  sieve  and  the  eggs  falling  through  into  a  tub.  This  is  continued  until 
the  eggs  are  entirely  free  from  particles  of  membrane,  when  they  are  put  into  salt  pickle  and 
allowed  to  remain  for  some  time." 


TIM:  rum  i:i;.\  r. \MII.V.  ( •,<;:; 

OBSERVATIONS  BY  LUDWN;  KTMLIEN  ON  THE  STURGEON  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES.— Mr.  Kum- 

lien,  while  i-n^i-i-cl  in  eolleeting  tin-  statiMirs  of  (be  Great  Lakes  tislieiies  in  1880,  made  a  number 
of  very  important  miles  njjoii  (lie  abundance  of  the  Sturgeon  and  ui>on  tlie  sturgeon  fishery  in 
that  region,  wliieli  will  lie  quoted  in  a  subsequent  portion  of  this  work. 

THE  STURGEONS  OP  CALIFORNIA. 

"The  common  Sturgeon  of  the  Pacific  coast,  called  distinctively  the  'White  Sturgeon,'"  writes 
.Ionian,  "is  .\< -1/n  nxrr  tntiixmontaiuix.  It  rearhes  a  length  of  eight  or  ten  feet  or  more,  and  is  said 
to  attain  a  weight  of  four  to  five  hundred  pounds.  We  have  seen  none  of  over  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds'  weight.  It  is  found  in  the  Sacramento,  Columbia,  and  Frazer  Rivers  in  abun- 
tlanee,  aseeiiding  them  at  the  time  of  the  salmon  run  in  the  spring  for  the  purpose  of  spawning. 
Whether  it  enters  the  small  streams,  how  long  the  run  continues,  and  how  far  the  Sturgeon  ascend, 
are  matters  at  present  unknown.  The  Sturgeon  feeds  on  Crustacea,  carrion,  etc.  In  Frazer  River 
they  gorge  themselves  on  the  eulachon. 

"The  Sturgeon  is  one  of  the  most  important  fish  in  the  San  Francisco  market,  being  always 
abundant  and  very  cheap.  Elsewhere  the  abundance  and  superiority  of  the  salmon  cause  it  to  be 
little  used.  Many  are  smoked.  Caviare  is  made  from  the  eggs. 

"Acipenser  medirostris  is  known  as  the  'Green  Sturgeon.'  Its  size  and  distribution  are  the 
same  as  that  of  the  White  Sturgeon.  It  is,  however,  much  less  abundant.  It  is  not  used  as 
food,  being  reputed  poisonous.  We  are  unable  to  say  on  what  facts  this  evil  reputation  is  based." 

THE  SHOVEL-NOSED  STURGEON:  WHITE   STURGEON — SCAPHIRHYNCHOPS   PLATYRHYNCHUS. 

This  species  is  found  in  abundance  in  all  the  larger  rivers  of  the  West  and  South.  It  spawns 
early  in  May,  ascending  smaller  streams  for  that  purpose.  Jordan  states  that  in  the  Ohio  Kiver  it 
is  taken  in  seines  in  considerable  numbers  and  is  used  for  food,  though  it  does  not  seem  to  be 
highly  valued.  He  surmises  that  its  habits  arc  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Lake  Sturgeon. 

196.  THE  CHIMJERA  FAMIIT— CHIH£RIO£. 
RAT-FISH  OF  CALIFORNIA — CHIMERA  COLLIEI. 

"This  fish,"  writes  Jordan,  "is  known  as  the  'Rat-fish'  or  'Rat-tail.'  It  reaches  a  length  of 
nearly  two  feet,  and  a  weight  of  six  to  eight  pounds.  It  is  very  abundant  everywhere  from  Mon- 
terey Bay  northward  along  the  coast,  especially  in  deep  bays.  It  feeds  on  fishes  and  takes  the 
hook  very  readily.  It  spawns  in  July.  The  egg  cases  are  two  or  three  inches  long,  lanceolate, 
long  and  slender,  without  tentacles. 

"The  liver  of  the  Chimera  is  very  large  and  well  filled  with  an  oil  said  to  be  superior  to  ordinary 
shark  oil.  The  flesh  is  worthless  and  the  fish  is  too  small  to  be  an  object  of  pursuit.  It  has, 
therefore,  no  economic  value." 

THE  BLUE  CHIMERA — CHIMERA  AFFINIS. 

A  species  of  Chimera  is  frequently  taken  by  the  New  England  fishermen  on  the  off-shore 
lishiiig  banks.  It  was  described  by  Professor  Gill  under  the  name  C.plumbea,  but  proves  to  be  a 
species  previously  discovered  on  the  coast  of  Spain.  It  has  no  economic  importance. 

197.  THE  GAR-PIKES— LEPIDOSTEIDJE. 
THE  LONG-NOSED  GAR-PIKE— LEPIDOSTEUS  OSSEUS. 

This  fish  is  known  as  "Gar-pike,"  "Bill-fish,"  " Sword-fish,"  etc.,  the  names  "Gar"  and  "Gar- 
pike"  usually  predominating.  It  is  found  in  the  Great  Lakes,  and  throughout  the  Mississippi 


664  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Valley,  as  well  as  in  all  the  streams  of  the  South  from  Mexico  to  New  Jersey.  In  all  the  larger 
streams  it  is  abundant,  sometimes  extremely  so,  but  in  the  smaller  rivers  it  is  scarce.  It  is  a 
hardy  and  voracious  fish,  being  usually  considered  very  destructive  to  the  young  of  other  and 
better  fishes.  It  is  fair  to  say  that  remains  of  fishes  are  rarely  found  in  its  stomach.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  five  to  six  feet.  It  is  usually  considered  wholly  worthless,  being  killed  and  thrown  away 
whenever  taken.  The  flesh  is  very  tough,  and  is  said  to  be  noxious.  I  have  never  known  it  to  be 
eaten.  It  spawns  in  early  summer,  running  up  smaller  streams,  often  in  company  with  the  various 
Sturgeons.  At  Ogdensburg,  New  York,  they  come  upon  the  shoals  for  this  purpose  about  May  20. 
Another  spawning  ground  is  on  a  beach  near  Point  Salubrious,  Chaumont  Bay,  New  York,  about 
a  mile  from  the  post-office. 

The  Short-nosed  Gar-pike  (Lepidosteus  platystomus)  occurs  in  the  same  waters,  reaches  about 
the  same  size,  and  is  similar  in  habits.  It  is  most  common  south  west  ward. 

Le  Sr.  de  Champlain,  visiting  the  lake  which  bears  his  name  in  the  year  1609,  speaks  of  a 
large  fish,  undoubtedly  the  Gar-pike,  there  found  : 

"Among  the  rest  there  is  one  called  by  the  Indians  of  the  country  Ohaousaron,  of  divers  lengths. 
The  largest,  I  was  informed  by  the  people,  are  of  eight  to  ten  feet.  I  saw  one  of  five,  as  thick  as 
a  thigh,  with  a  head  as  big  as  two  fists,  with  jaws  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  and  a  double  set  of 
very  sharp  and  dangerous  teeth.  The  form  of  the  body  resembles  that  of  the  pike,  and  it  is  armed 
with  scales  that  the  thrust  of  a  poniard  cannot  pierce,  and  it  is  of  a  silver-gray  color.  The  point 
of  the  snout  is  like  that  of  a  hog.  This  fish  makes  war  on  all  others  in  the  lakes  and  rivers,  and 
possesses,  as  these  people  assure  me,  a  wonderful  instinct ;  which  is,  that  if  it  wants  to  catch  any 
birds  it  goes  among  the  rushes  or  reeds  bordering  the  lake  in  many  places,  keeping  the  beak  out 
of  the  water  without  budging,  so  that  when  the  birds  perch  on  the  beak,  imagining  it  the  limb  of 
a  tree,  it  is  so  subtle  that  closing  the  jaws,  which  it  keeps  half  open,  it  draws  the  birds  under 
water  by  the  feet.  The  Indians  gave  me  a  head  of  it,  which  they  prize  highly,  saying  that  when 
they  have  a  headache  they  let  blood  with  the  teeth  of  this  fish  at  the  seat  of  pain,  which  immedi- 
ately goes  away." ' 

THE  ALLIGATOR  GAR— LEPIDOSTEUS  SPATULA. 

This  species  is  known  almost  universally  as  the  "Alligator  Gar";  in  Spanish,  "  Manuari."  It 
abounds  in  large  bodies  of  water  tributary  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  found  in  Mexico  and  Cuba 
as  well  as  in  the  United  States.  Its  northern  range  extends  to  the  Ohio  Kiver,  where,  however, 
it  is  not  common.  It  reaches  an  enormous  size,  being  sometimes  more  than  ten  feet  in  length.  In 
habits  it  is  probably  essentially  similar  to  the  smaller  Gar-pikes.  It  has  no  value  as  food,  but  is 
said  to  be  somewhat  dangerous  to  men  and  domestic  animals.2 

It  is  found  in  various  tributaries  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  also  in  the  headwaters  of  Saint 
John's  River,  Florida.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  broad  snout.  In  Arkansas  the  country  people 

1  Doc.  Hist,  of  N.  Y.,  iii,  1850,  6.    See  also,  SAOARD:  Grand  Voyage  dn  Pays  des  Huron,  Paris,  1632. 

•A  MAN'S  FIGHT  WITH  A  FISH.— Mr.  Jame«  F.  Simmons,  of  Redbone  district,  had  a  narrow  and  peculiar  escape 
the  other  day.  He  was  fishing  on  Flint  River,  and  had  attempted  to  swim  across  to  get  a  bateau  from  the  opposite 
•ide.  About  half  way  over  the  stream  he  stopped  on  a  root  or  tree  to  rest.  After  remaining  there  a  short  time,  he 
plunged  off  for  the  other  shore.  Jnst  as  he  made  a  plunge  a  tremendous  fish,  known  as  the  Oar,  struck  him,  catching 
hi»  thigh  in  its  month,  and  leaving  an  ugly  and  painful  wound.  A  regular  battle  then  took  place  between  the  man 
and  the  flsh,  and  lasted  for  some  minutes,  until  finally  Mr.  8.  got  back  on  hig  resting  place,  and  his  enemy  departed. 
During  the  fight  Mr.  8.  threw  the  fish  some  feet  above  the  water,  but  it  continued  the  attack.  Mr.  S.  was  thoroughly 
frightened  and  called  lustily  for  help.  He  has  several  ugly  and  painful  wounds  given  him  by  the  fish,  yet  none 
serious.  This  is  the  first  time  we  ever  heard  of  a  Gar  attacking  a  man,  yet  they  say  it  frequently  does  go.—Talboltov 
(G».)  Standard,  July,  1879. 


THE  STING  KAYS. 

manufacture  from  it  a  kind  of  oil,  which  is  used  as  a  liniment  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  bnffulo- 
gnat.    Mr.  Stearns  writes : 

"The  Alligator  Gar  is  very  abundant  everywhere  on  the  Gulf  coast,  living  in  both  fresh  and 
salt  water.  Like  the  salt-water  catfish,  it  will  eat  anything.  It  preys  largely  upon  all  fish  smaller 
than  itself,  and  the  young  are,  I  believe,  particularly  destructive  to  fishes'  eggs  and  young  fry. 
Some  think  that  this  fish  does  more  damage  to  the  small  food-fishes  than  any  other  nsh  on  the 
coast  does.  It  is  simply  useless  to  place  'set-nets'  where  the  Gar  is  abundant.  Many  are  caught 
in  seines  with  other  fishes  and  are  thrown  ashore  to  be  destroyed.  I  have  seen  Gars  that  would 
measure  seven  feet  in  length ;  the  average  ts  two  feet.  With  the  larger  ones  the  bill  is  not  pro- 
portionately as  long  as  with  the  smaller  ones,  but  is  stouter." 

198.  THE  RAYS,  TORPEDOES  AND  SKATES—  RAIJE. 

There  are  six  or  seven  species  of  Kays  upon  the  Atlantic  coast,  none  of  which  are  of  impor- 
tance to  man,  except  so  far  as  they  are  dangerous  or  annoying  to  the  fishermen,  or  are  destructive 
of  useful  marine  animals. 

THE  STING  RAYS. 

The  Sting  Kay,  Trygon  centrura,  ranges  farther  to  the  north  than  any  of  the  other  species,  having 
been  observed  on  the  shoal  parts  of  George's  Banks ;  it  does  not,  however,  pass  the  limit  of  Cape 
Cod.  The  Sting  Ray  attains  an  enormous  size,  its  disk  sometimes  measuring  five  or  six  feet  across, 
and  its  entire  length,  including  the  long,  flexible  tail,  ten  feet  or  more.  It  feeds  entirely  upon  the, 
large  species  of  matine  invertebrates,  such  as  crabs,  squids,  clams,  and  sea-snails.  The  strong 
serrated  spine  situated  upon  the  top  of  the  tail  near  its  junction  with  the  body  can  inflict  dan- 
gerous wounds,  and  several  instances  are  on  record  of  serious  injury  to  fishermen  who  have  had 
their  hands  or  feet  transfixed  by  it.  These  fish  are  often  taken  in  considerable  numbers  in  the 
pounds  and  weirs. 

There  are  two  or  three  other  species  of  Sting  Ray  or  Stingaree  on  the  southern  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts,  the  commonest  of  which,  Trygon  sabina,  is  found  in  the  rivers,  ascending  the  Saint 
John's  to  the  upper  lakes,  and  also  clear  along  the  coast.  Concerning  its  habits  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  Mr.  Stearns  writes : 

"The  Sting  Ray  or  Stingaree  is  abundant  all  along  the  Gulf  coast  It  is  present  all  the  year, 
but  is  most  commonly  seen  is  warm  weather,  while  upon  the  shoals  in  search  of  food.  I  have 
caught  these  fish  with  young  continuously  from  April  to  the  latter  part  of  October.  The  usual 
number  of  a  brood  is  three  or  four,  but  I  have  seen  as  many  as  eight  or  nine  taken  from  largo 
individuals.  Possibly  the  age  or  size  of  the  parent  may  affect  the  number  of  young  they  bear. 
They  feed  upon  shell-fish.  Small  ones  are  quite  tame,  coming  near  the  shore  in  search  of  food, 
and  when  disturbed  quickly  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  or  dart  away  a  short  distance.  The 
larger  and  older  ones  are  more  wary,  seldom  coming  into  very  shoal  water,  ami  at  the  least  disturb- 
ance swim  away  with  great  rapidity  to  deep  water.  The  Sting  Ray  has  a  barbed  spine  on  its  tail 
which  it  uses  in  self-defense.  It  is  sometimes  caught  with  hook  and  line,  but  more  often  in  seines, 
and  then  it  uses  its  tail  as  a  whip  upon  its  captors,  trying  to  wound  them  with  its  spine.  Such 
wounds  are  often  dangerous,  and  very  painful  and  difficult  to  heal.  The  Sting  Ray  attains  an 
enormous  size,  and  specimens  six  or  seven  feet  across  the  back  are  frequently  caught.  I  caught  a 
specimen  off  Cedar  Keys  whose  spine  had  been  broken  off  and  replaced  by  a  new  one  which  grew 
out  beneath  the  old  one. 

"Capt.  Joseph  Fogarty,  of  Manatee,  reports  having  seen  a  large  school  of  Sting  Rays  in  Long 
Boat  Inlet.  They  were  swimming  near  the  bottom,  very  closely  crowded  together. 


666  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"The  Sting  Ray  and  Whip  Ray  are  very  often  eaten  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  are  sold  daily  in 
the  New  Orleans  market." 

THE  BUTTERFLY  RAY. 

The  Butterfly  Ray,  Pteroplatea  maclura,  although  a  member  of  the  same  family  with  the  Sting 
Ray,  differs  very  much  in  its  external  appearance,  and  would  hardly  be  supposed  by  the  unlearned 
to  be  a  fish  at  all.  The  tail  is  exceedingly  small,  while  the  pectoral  flaps  are  enormously  devel- 
oped. The  body  often  attains  the  weight  of  ten  or  twelve  pounds,  while  its  length  is  not  more 
than  three  or  four  feet.  The  enormous  extent  of  the  pectoral  flaps,  resembling  wings,  have  given 
origin  to  the  common  name.  In  an  individual  of  the  above-mentioned  size  the  tail  would  not  be 
more  than  three  or  four  inches  long.  This  species  is  taken  in  summer  in  the  pounds,  and,  when 
Skates  become  more  popular  as  an  article  of  food,  will  doubtless,  on  account  of  its  great  size,  be 
of  economic  importance.  Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  its  habits. 

THE  EAGLE  RAYS. 

Of  the  Eagle  Ray  family,  Myliobati&ce,  of  which  there  are  three  species,  all  except  the  Bishop 
Ray  straggle  north  to  Southern  New  England  in  summer,  but  only  one  seems  to  be  found  in 
Florida  and  the  Gulf;  this  is  the  "Whipparee"  or  "Corn-Cracker"  of  the  South  (Rhlnoptera  quad- 
riloba).  Its  habits  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Silas  Stearns : 

"The  Whipparee  is  common  on  the  Florida  coast.  It  is  present  in  the  bays  the  year  round. 
In  warm  weather  it  lives  on  sand  bars  in  shoal  water,  and  in  cold  weather  retires  to  deeper  water. 
It  feeds  upon  molluscous  animals,  chiefly  the  razor-shell  fish,  which  is  one  of  the  commonest  kinds. 
The  Whij)  Ray  is  viviparous  and  brings  forth  its  young  in  spring  and  summer,  the  breeding  season 
apparently  extending  over  five  or  six  months.  I  have  not  found  a  Whip  Ray  containing  more  than 
three  young  ones,  usually  only  two.  When  the  young  fish  leave  the  parent  they  are  quite  active 
and  undoubtedly  able  to  care  for  themselves.  The  adults  have  stout  dorsal  spines,  which  they  use 
as  weapons  of  defense.  These  spines  are  barbed  and  slimy,  and  wounds  from  them  are  very  trouble- 
some and  sometimes  dangerous.  The  Whip  Ray  is  sometimes  six  or  seven  feet  across  the  back. 
During  the  last  of  July,  1880, 1  saw  large  schools  of  young  Whip  Rays,  probably  about  half- 
grown,  swimming  at  the  surface  at  sea  off  Saint  Andrew's  Bay,  and  also  at  a  point  twenty  miles 
up  that  bay." 

The  "  Eagle  Ray,"  or  "  Sharp-nosed  Ray,"  Mylobath  Fremenvillei,  does  not  attain  a  large  size 
and  is  comparatively  unusual  in  occurrence.  Its  food,  as  observed  in  Southern  Massachusetts,  is 
closely  similar  to  that  of  the  common  Sting  Ray. 

The  Bishop  Ray,  Stoasodon  narinari,  the  "Obispo"  of  Cuba,  is  found  in  the  West  Indies  and 
at  the  Bermudas ;  stragglers  have  been  observed  at  Norfolk,  Virginia. 

THE  DEVIL-FISHES. 

The  Devil-fish,  Mania  birostris,  has  been  observed  as  far  north  as  Cape  May,  and  is  said  to  be 
often  see  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida,  as  it  swims  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  species  attains 
an  enormous  size ;  individuals  have  been  caught  measuring  thirty  feet  or  more  from  tip  to  tip  of 
the  flaps.  It  is  especially  abundant  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  where  its  pursuit  is  a  favorite 
amusement  among  the  planters,  or  rather  was  in  former  years.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the 
thrilling  accounts  given  of  this  amusement  by  Elliott  in  his  "Carolina  Sports  by  Land  and  Water." 
There  are  instances  on  record  of  small  vessels  having  been  carried  out  to  sea  by  these  fish  which 
have  become  entangled  in  the  anchor  ropes.  The  appearance  of  these  fish  at  the  surface,  especially 
at  the  breeding  season,  has  given  origin,  doubtless,  to  some  of  the  stories  of  sea-serpents  current 
on  the  Southern  coast. 


TIM:  i;.\vs  AND  SKATKS  <>r  mi:  PACIFIC  COAST.  G67 

THE  SKATES. 

Of  the  Skates,  Kaiida;  there  are  five  species  on  our  Atlantic  coast,  a  list  of  which,  with  (li<  ir 
coiiunon  and  scientific  names  and  a  statement  of  their  geographical  distribution,  will  be  found  on 
the  check-list  in  the  appendix.  They  are  all  troublesome  to  the  lishermau,  clogging  his  lines  and 
pound-nets;  but  none  of  them  are  of  the  slightest  economical  value  except  the  so-called  "  Barn  door 
Skate,"  Raia  tern,  which  is  occasionally  salted  for  use  by  the  fishermen  of  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire,  and  which  has,  within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  attracted  some  notice  in  New  York. 
Miss  Corson,  in  her  cooking  school,  has  called  attention  to  its  excellent  qualities  as  a  food-fish, 
and  Skates  may  be  found  on  the  bill  of  fare  at  certain  restaurants,  such  as  Mouquin's,  on  Fulton 
street.  Only  the  "  wings,"  or  the  fleshy  flaps  to  the  pectoral  fins,  are  used. 

THE  TOBPEDO— TORPEDO  OCCIDENTALIS. 

The  Torpedo  is  found  north  as  far  as  Cape  Ann,  a  specimen  having  been  taken  at  Lanesville 
in  the  summer  of  1878.  It  is  more  or  less  abundant  along  the  Southern  New  England  and  middle 
Slati^  ma-.!. 

The  Torpedo  is  occasionally  thrown  upon  the  shore,  and  its  capture  in  the  pound-nets  is  not 
unusual.  It  is  of  no  economic  importance,  but  is  of  great  interest  to  physiologists  on  account  of 
its  powerful  electric  apparatus.  The  fishermen  know  its  peculiarities,  and  carefully  avoid  handling 
it,  since  a  shock  from  a  living  individual  is  sufficient  to  knock  a  man  down.  It  is  usually  called 
the  "Cramp-fish,"  and,  in  pursuance  of  the  old  idea  of  the  influence  of  signatures  in  medicines, 
the  oil  made  from  the  liver  is  prized  by  fishermen  as  a  specific  for  rheumatism  and  cramp.  Captain 
Atwood  writes: 

"I  have  seen  considerable  many.  They  run  ashore,  and  they  have  been  harpooned  from  the 
shore.  I  have  seen  five  hundred,  I  think.  I  used  to  go  and  look  for  them  for  their  livers,  for  the 
oil.  The  oil  is  one  of  the  best  lamp  oils  that  I  ever  saw.  It  has  been  used  sometimes  beneficially 
in  cases  of  cramp.  I  got  a  gallon  of  oil  from  one  liver.  I  don't  know  but  I  have  seen  a  Cramp- 
fish  big  enough  to  make  three  gallons  of  oil." 

THE  RAYS  AND  SKATES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 

Of  the  numerous  Hays  on  the  Pacific  coast  only  two  or  three  are  of  economic  value,  being 
brought  into  the  market  of  San  Francisco,  when  their  pectoral  tins  are  sold  to  the  French  and 
Italians.  These  are  of  little  importance,  as  they  are  so  cheap  that  there  is  no  profit  in  bringing 
them  to  the  city  at  all  when  any  transportation  charges  are  paid.  One  of  the  Sting  Hays  (I'tero- 
platea  marmorata)  sometimes  comes  into  the  market  of  Los  Angeles,  and  the  tails  of  Rhinobatun 
product tu  are  sometimes  preserved  and  eaten  by  the  Chinese  and  Mexicans. 

The  following  is  a  full  list  of  the  species  now  known :  Manttt  Irirotttritt,  the  Devil-fish,  the  largest 
of  all  Hays;  sometimes  come  north  to  San  Diego.  Myliobatia  ctilifornicus,  the  common  Sting  Hay, 
from  Cape  Mendociuo  southward;  is  destructive  to  oyster  beds,  which  are  always  shut  in  with  a 
sort  of  picket-fence  to  keep  these  animals  out.  The  "sting"  of  this  and  other  species  often  pro- 
duces severe  flesh  wounds,  which  may  be  accompanied  by  blood-poisoning,  and  sometimes  causes 
death.1  Fteroplatea  marmorata,  Tryyon  dipterurun,  and  Urolophus  HalUri,  all  Sting  Kays,  found 

'On  Thursday  week,  as  D.  K.  Williams,  of  Anaheim,  was  at  the  landing  amusing  himself  li.sliing  with  a  net,  he 
was  severely  .-hiii;;  by  a  lish  known  OH  the  Slingaree.  He  was  lifting  a  few  small  lish  from  tin-  net.  and  among  others 

picked  up  what  appeared  to  lie  a  small  flounder,  when  he  received  :i  tierce  sting  from  the  tail  of  the  reptih liin 

liglit  forefinger.     He  immediately  cum need  .•.licking  the  poison  from  the  wound,  lint  in  a  few  moments  he  suffered 

great  agony  and  became  delirious.  His  friend*  took  him  at  once  to  a  hoUHC  :iud  gave  him  three  pints  of  wbiaky, 
uhii -h,  together  with  constant  attention,  brought  him  through  safely  in  about  tiftceu  hours,  and  be  is  now  entirely 
recovered. — Anaheim  Gazette,  April  14,  1871. 


668  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

south  of  Point  Conception  only.  Baia  inornate,  Baia  binoculata,  Baia  rhina,  and  Baia  stellulata, 
all  true  Rays,  ranging  from  Santa  Barbara  or  Monterey  northward;  B.  binoculata  and  B.  rhina 
as  far  as  Alaska.  B.  inornata  and  B.  binoculata  are  brought  into  the  market  of  San  Francisco  in 
considerable  numbers.  The  latter  reaches  a  length  of  six  feet,  the  former  of  two  and  a  half  feet. 
Bhinobatus  exasperatus,  J.  &  G.,in  San  Diego  Bay;  Bhinobatus productus,  and  Bhinobatus  triseriatus, 
from  San  Francisco  southward,  and  the  Torpedo,  Torpedo  californica,  about  San  Francisco,  com- 
plete the  list. 

Only  the  French  in  San  Francisco  can  be  said  to  be  fond  of  the  Rays,  and  so  long  as  the 
present  abundance  of  better  flsh  continues  none  of  them  will  have  any  special  economic  value. 
The  oil  in  the  liver  is  so  little  that  it  is  only  preserved  by  the  Indians. 

199.  THE  SAW-FISH— PEISTIS  PECTINATUS 

Of  the  Saw-fishes,  Pristidce,  there  is  at  least  one  species,  Pristis  pectinatus,  on  the  Florida 
coast.  Stragglers  are  taken  occasionally  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  even  farther  north.  A 
specimen  sixteen  feet  three  inches  in  length  and  four  feet  in  width  was  taken  at  Cape  May  in  July, 
1878.  Its  saw  was  four  feet  three  inches  long,  and  was  armed  with  forty  nine  teeth.  The  Saw- 
fish is,  however,  rarely  seen  north  of  Florida.  In  the  Everglades  these  fish  are  said  to  be  exceed- 
ingly abundant.  In  the  Saint  John's  River  individuals  of  all  sizes,  from  one  to  eight  feet  in 
length,  are  taken  as  high  up  as  Jacksonville.  They  are  considered  by  the  fishermen  to  be  very 
ranch  of  a  nuisance,  since  they  are  exceedingly  powerful  and  play  great  havoc  with  the  shad  nets. 
As  they  swim  they  move  laterally,  with  a  swinging  motion,  the  head  and  snout,  which  latter  is 
powerfully  armed  on  each  side  with  very  strong  teeth.  Mr.  Camps,  of  New  Berlin,  told  me  that 
he  had  three  cast-iron  rowlocks  broken  off  close  to  the  gunwale  by  a  single  blow  of  the  saw  of  a 
large  individual.  In  the  Indian  River  and  its  tributaries  the  Saw-fish  is  said  to  be  very  common, 
attaining  the  width  of  six  or  eight  feet.  On  the  Gulf  coast,  according  to  Stearns,  it  is  rather 
common,  being  a  bottom  fish  and  frequently  caught  in  seines.  Stearns  states  that  he  once  saw  a 
specimen  in  Saint  Andrew's  Bay  that  must  have  been  fully  fifteen  feet  long. 

200.  THE  SHARKS—  SQUALL 

There  are  at  least  twenty  species  of  Sharks  upon  our  Atlantic  coast,  some  of  which  are  of 
considerable  economic  value,  while  others  are  simply  of  interest  as  being  annoyances  to  fishermen. 

THE  BONE  SHARK — CETORHINUS  MAXIMUS. 

This  species  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic  Seas,  but  has  been  observed  in  the  Western  Atlantic  as 
far  south  as  Now  York,  and  on  the  European  coast  to  Portugal.  It  is  known  among  our  fisher- 
men as  the  "Bone  Shark,"  and  is  also  called  the  "Basking  Shark"  from  its  habit  of  basking  or 
remaining  quiet  for  a  long  time  in  one  place.  It  is  the  "  Sun-fish"  of  the  Irish  and  Welsh  coasts; 
the  "Sail-fish"  of  Northern  Great  Britain,  while  in  the  Orkneys  it  is  called  the  "Hoe  Mother," 
contracted  to  "Homer" — the  word  "Homer"  signifying  the  mother  of  the  spiny  Dogfish  which  is 
there  known  by  the  name  "Hoe."  The  Bone  Shark  is  one  of  the  largest  of  Sharks,  and  many 
years  ago  a  learned  dissertation  was  published  by  its  first  describer,  Bishop  Gunner,  of  Norway, 
attempting  to  prove  that  this  was  the  species  of  fish  which  swallowed  Jonah.  Yarrell  examined 
a  specimen,  taken  off  Brighton,  which  measured  thirty-six  feet  in  length;  a  large  individual  was 
secured  in  the  lower  harbor  at  New  York  in  1822,  while  in  1828  a  smaller  individual  obtained  in 
Maine  was  brought  to  New  York,  the  dimensions  of  which  were  twenty-eight  feet  in  length  and 
sixteen  feet  in  circumference.  In  September,  1839,  an  individual  thirty-four  feet  long  was  stranded 


THE  BONE  SHAKK.  669 

at  Eastport,  Maine.    Storer  records  the  capture  of  an  individual,  taken  at  Provincetown  in  1839 

ami  exhibited  at  Boston,  which  measured  thirty  feet  and  three  inches.  It  is  not  unfrequoutly  har- 
pooned l>v  the  whalers  on  the  Pacific  coast.  A  specimen  was  examined  at  Monterey  by  Jordan 
and  Gilbert. 

Very  little  is  known  of  its  habits.  It  is  usually  seen  in  summer,  though  this  is  doubtless  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  fishermen  are  then  in  a  position  to  observe  them,  while  in  winter  the  fishermen 
remain  in  harbor  and  would  not  be  so  likely  to  notice  their  occurrence.  Yarrell  remarks:  "When 
north  winds  prevail  they  are  most  frequent  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  also  on  the  north  and 
west  roast  of  Ireland  ;  it'  westerly  u  imK  tlie\  are  net  mniMial  alonu  t|M>  \\  h,.le  hnent'  the  M.iitliein 

coast." 

If  these  observations  are  correct,  it  seems  probable  that  easterly  and  northerly  winds  are  most 
favorable  for  their  appearance  in  the  waters  of  New  England. 

These  Sharks  are  sluggish  in  their  movements,  swimming  lazily  at  the  surface,  and  are  said  to 
be  so  indifferent  to  the  approach  of  boats  that  they  will  allow  them  to  touch  their  bodies  without 
moving,  though,  when  struck  with  the  harpoon,  they  swim  away  with  much  rapidity  and  strength. 

The  only  observations  upon  its  food  have  been  made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Orkneys  by  Mr. 
Lowe,  who  states  that  its  stomach  contained  a  red,  pulpy  mass,  probably  the  roe  of  sea-urchins. 
I.ime.eus  supposed  its  food  to  consist  chiefly  of  medusae  or  jelly-fishes.  The  teeth  are  very  small, 
and  the  structure  of  the  gill-rakers  would  indicate  that  it  feeds  at  the  surface,  straining  its 
food,  like  the  whalebone- whales.  The  gill-openings  extend  from  the  back  nearly  to  the  median  line 
of  the  throat.  The  liver  of  this  Shark  is  very  large  and  yields  a  great  quantity  of  oil.  When 
they  make  their  appearance  in  our  waters  they  are  usually  harpooned  by  the  fishermen,  who  con- 
sider their  discovery  as  a  great  piece  of  good  fortune.  About  the  middle  of  last  century  there  is 
said  to  have  been  quite  an  extensive  pursuit  of  this  species  in  Massachusetts,  considerable  quan- 
tities of  oil  being  taken.  In  1848  a  vessel,  cruising  on  the  coast  of  Maine  for  humpback-whales, 
fell  in  with  many  of  them  off  Cape  Elizabeth,  and  secured  several  of  them.  Captain  Atwood 
writes:  "  They  are  very  rare  now;  once  in  a  great  while  you  will  see  one.  I  don't  think  that  more 
than  half  a  dozen  have  been  caught  near  Provincetown  since  1810.  I  have  heard  of  as  high  as 
twelve  barrels  being  taken  from  a  single  one,  but  have  never  seen  one  which  yielded  more  than 
eight  barrels." 

In  1835  an  individual  was  caught  in  a  mackerel-net  in  Provincetown  Harbor  and  harpooned; 
in  1836  or  1837  a  second  one  was  caught  in  a  net,  and  after  being  secured  the  carcass  was  freed 
by  the  fishermen  from  the  net  and  afterwards  drifted  ashore  in  a  state  of  decomposition.  After 
lying  on  the  beach  several  days  a  fisherman  visited  him  in  order  to  get  a  slice  to  feed  to  his  hens, 
as  is  the  custom  at  Provincetowu — he  supposing  it  to  be  a  dead  whale.  Ascertaining  what  the 
animal  was,  he  removed  the  liver  and  sold  the  oil  in  Boston  for  $103.  it  having  produced  five  or 
six  barrels.  In  1847  a  third  was  capt.ired.  The  pursuit  of  this  animal  is  attended  with  consider- 
able excitement  and  danger. 

Yarrell  has  recorded1  the  occurrence  in  the  summer  of  1870  at  Eastport,  Maine,  of  three  speci- 
mens, twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  length,  and  also  of  one  taken  in  1868,  which  measured  thirty- 
five  feet.  Captain  Atwood  gives  the  following  account  of  his  experience  with  one: 

"Coming  one  time  from  Boston  to  Provincetown  with  my  two  boys,  I  saw  the  fin  of  a  big 
Bone  Shark.  We  lowered  the  boat  and  pulled  up  on  to  him.  This  was  about  1863.  I  should 
think  he  was  thirty-five  or  thirty -eight  feet  long.  It  was  smooth  weather,  and  I  threw  the  harpoon 

'Bulletin,  Esoex  Inntitutc,  iii,p.6. 


670  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

into  him  and  lie  darted  down  into  tbe  water,  and  finally  he  went  down  again,  and  kept  coming  up 
and  going  down.  I  began  at  four  o'clock  and  tried  to  haul  him  up  until  a,bout  supper-time,  but  could 
not,  and  he  towed  the  smack  all  night.  He  came  on  until  he  got  abreast  of  the  oil  works  at 
Provincetown,  and  then  he  turned  and  I  couldn't  get  him  up;  he  went  about  as  fast  as  you  would 
row  a  dory  moderately.  The  water  became  shoaler  and  shoaler  until  there  was  eight  or  ten  feet 
over  his  back,  and  then  he  went  towards  Beach  Hill.  We  were  in  the  dory  and  he  then  came 
back  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  vessel.  We  went  aboard  and  got  something  to  eat.  We 
got  him  within  six  or  eight  feet  of  the  top  of  the  water  and  the  warp  parted  and  we  lost  him.  I 
don't  think  one  has  been  killed  here  for  more  than  twenty  years." 

These  monsters  are  occasionally  stuffed  and  carried  about  the  country  by  showmen,  advertised 
under  various  high-sounding  names. 

THE  MACKEREL  SHARK — LAMNA  CORNUBICA. 

This  species,  called  at  Provincetown  the  "Blue  Shark,"  occurs  in  the  Northern  Atlantic,  being 
occasionally  seen  at  various  points  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States  from  Newfoundland  to  Florida, 
and  in  the  West  Indies.  In  the  Eastern  Atlantic  it  is  found  everywhere  from  the  south  of  the 
North  Cape,  entering  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  also  been  recorded  from  Japan.  It  is  abundant 
on  the  coast  of  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "Porbeagle."  It  also  occurs  in  California. 

The  ordinary  length  of  this  species  is  from  eight  to  ten  feet.  They  roam  about  in  summer, 
often  several  together,  preying  upon  small  fish  and  squids,  being  particularly  fond  of  mackerel. 
They  are  very  abundant  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  in  the  mackerel  season,  and  are  a  great 
annoyance  to  the  fishermen  who  use  nets,  since  they  become  entangled  in  the  twine,  destroying 
the  nets  by  tearing  them  and  rolling  them  up.  Although  their  livers  yield  a  considerable  quantity 
of  oil,  formerly  prized  by  curriers,  I  am  unable  to  learn  that  they  are  now  regarded  as  of  any 
practical  value. 

Storer  wrote,  in  1847,  that  the  procuring  of  oil  from  these  fish,  which  was  once  a  regular  busi- 
ness, had  at  that  time  been  almost  entirely  abandoned.  The  practice  of  saving  the  oil  was  a  com- 
mon one,  but  had  been  abandoned  on  account  of  the  apparent  decrease  in  the  quantity  obtainable.1 
Storer  also,  in  1846,  quoting  from  Captain  At  wood,  remarked :  "  Seven  gallons  of  oil  were  at  that 
time  frequently  extracted  from  the  liver  of  a  single  fish,  while  eleven  and  a  half  gallons  have  been 
taken  from  one.  Of  late  years  this  fish  has  yielded  less  oil  than  formerly,  so  that  they  are  now 
scarcely  worth  saving.  Formerly  a  barrel  of  oil  was  made  from  the  livers  of  eleven  fish.  Captain 
Atwood  tells  me  that,  many  years  since,  his  father  procured  often  a  barrel  of  oil  from  eight  livers; 
not  selecting  the  best,  but  employing  large  and  small  indiscriminately ;  but  now  at  least  one  hun- 
dred livers  would  be  required  to  furnish  this  amount  of  oil." 

THE  MAN-EATER  SHARK — CAROHARODON  CARCHARIAS. 

The  so-called  "  Man-eater  Shark,"  the  American  form  of  which  has  been  described  under  the 
name  Carcharodon  Atwoodii,  in  honor  of  Captain  Atwood,  who  sent  specimens  to  Storer,  the  histo- 
rian of  the  "  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  is  probably  identical  with  the  Great  Blue  Shark,  Carcha- 
ria*  Rondektii,  common  throughout  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean,  and  also  known  to  occur  in 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Australia.  In  tropical  seas  it  attains  an 

1 A  Mackerel  Shark,  measuring  nine  feet  in  length,  was  seen  by  two  men  flouncing  upon  the  flats  in  this  harbor 
on  Saturday  last,  having  got  entangled  in  the  eel-grass  in  shoal  water,  who  went  to  him  and  cut  his  throat.  His  liver 
made  three  gallons  of  pure  oil.— liarnstable  Patriot,  September  8,  1833. 


Till.  SAND  SHARK.  671 

mormons  size.  The  British  Museum  has  the  jaws  of  an  individual,  thirty-six  feet  in  length,  taken 
in  Australia.  Its  inoutli  is  wide,  its  teeth  large,  and  its  jaws  strong;  it  is  probable  that  this 
species  and  the  Tiger  Shark  aiv  among  the  most  voracious  of  their  kind. 

Th  is  is  an  exceedingly  rare  species  ou  our  Atlantic  coast.  Storer  could  learn  of  the  capture  of 
but  three  individuals  from  1820  to  1800,  one  measuring  six  feet  in  length,  a  second  nine  feet, 
and  a  third  thirteen  feet.  The  specimen  which  he  described  was  captured  at  Provincetown,  and 
was  brought  to  Boston  for  exhibition.  When  llrst  seeu  it  was  swimming  in  ten  feet  of  water  on 
the  Long  Point  side  of  Provincetown  Harbor.  A  boat's  crew  having  given  chase,  a  harpoon  was 
thrown  into  it,  when  it  turned  toward  the  boat  and  seized  it  with  great  ferocity  near  the  Iwws. 
lnt  he  act  several  of  its  teeth  were  broken  oft".  It  was  eventually  killed  by  being  frequently  lanced. 
A  specimen  was  observed  at  Kastport,  Maine,  in  August,  1872.  It  is  frequently  taken  in  Monterey 
l!ay.  A  specimen  lately  taken  at  Soquel,  California,  had  a  young  sea-lion  whole  in  its  stomach. 

Captain  At  wood  writes:  "The  Man-eater  is  rare;  I  don't  remember  of  having  fallen  in  with 
but  four;  these  were,  with  one  exception,  all  caught  in  mackerel-nets.  I  suppose  about  two  or 
three  may  be  caught  every  year  about  Provincetown,  but  fishermen  cut  them  out  of  the  nets  and 
let  them  go." 

The  enormous  fossil  Sharks'  teeth  which  are  found  in  the  phosphate  beds  of  South  Carolina 
belong  to  a  Shark  closely  related  to  our  Man-eater,  and,  judging  from  the  proportionate  size  of  the 
teeth,  individuals  measuring  seventy  or  eighty  feet  in  length  cannot  have  l>een  at  all  uncommon. 

The  alleged  attacks  upon  men  by  Sharks,  if  any  credence  is  to  be  attached  to  them,  should 
doubtless  be  credited  to  this  species  and  to  the  Tiger  Sharks.  Such  attacks  are,  however,  of  very 
rare  occurrence,  and  the  stories  of  them  lose  nothing  of  the  marvelous  in  repetition.  I  quote 
one  of  the  few  accounts  which  have  found  their  way  into  permanent  record: 

"On  the  12th  of  July,  1830,  Mr.  Joseph  Blaney,  aged  fifty -two,  went  out  in  a  fishing-boat  at 
Swampscot,  Massachusetts,  when  a  Shark  overset  his  boat  and  killed  him.  [This  Shark  must  have 

lieeli  lAtremely   ferocious.      .Mr.   l;l;illf\    unit   out    inlo  the  li;i\    ill  one  <>!'  the  l.ilirc  S\\  am|»i-ot    boats, 

which  he  left,  and  in  a  small  boat  rowed  away,  alone,  to  fish.  After  some  hours  he  was  seen  to 
wave  his  hat  for  assistance.  Another  boat  immediately  started  toward  him,  and  presently  the  fish 
was  seen  to  slide  off,  Mr.  Blaney  still  remaining  in  his  boat.  But  the  Shark  renewed  the  attack, 
carrying  down  the  boat  before  the  other  could  arrive.  It  came  to  the  surface  bottom  up,  and  the 
unfortunate  man  was  no  more  seen.]"1 

THE  SAND  SHARK — ODONTASPIS  LITTORALIS. 

This  species,  known  also  ou  the  coast  of  Maine  as  the  "  Shovel-nosed  Shark,"  and  at  Prov- 
incetowu  as  the  "Dogfish  Shark,"  is  found  on  our  coast  from  New  England  southward  to  Charles- 
ton, and  is  believed  by  Giinther  to  occur  also  about  Australia  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Little  is 
known  of  its  habits  or  movements;  it  is  occasionally  found  straggling  upon  the  shores  at  Cape  Cod 
or  entangled  in  the  mackerel-nets.  It  is  a  sluggish  species  and  hugs  the  bottom  closely,  feeding 
upon  crabs,  lobsters,  and  squids.  The  ordinary  length  is  five  or  six  feet,  but  about  Nantucket 
they  grow  much  larger,  attaining  the  length  of  nine  or  ten  feet  and  the  weight  of  two  hundred 
pounds  or  more.  It  is  a  favorite  amusement  of  summer  visitors  at  Nantucket  to  fish  for  them,  and 
ten  or  twelve  are  frequently  taken  by  one  man  in  a  day.  Their  bodies  are  used  for  manure,  while 
the  livers  are  saved  for  the  oil  which  they  contain.  The  liver  of  a  large  individual  will  yield  a 
gallon  of  oil,  worth  about  seventy-five  cents.* 

'Lewis  <fc  NKWHALL:  History  of  Lynn,  p.  395. 

•JACKSON:  Proceedings  Host.  800.  Nat.  Hist.,  vi,  1857,  p.  259. 


(J72  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

THE  THRASHER  SHARK — ALOPIAS  VULPES. 

The  Thrasher  Shark,  known  in  Europe  as  the  "Fox  Shark,"  and  to  our  fishermen  most  usually 
as  the  "Swingle  Tail,"  is  found  in  the  Northern  Atlantic  and  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  also  ofl' 
California.  It  is  one  of  the  most  grotesque  of  sea  animals,  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  being 
exceedingly  long,  curving  upwards  and  resembling  in  form  the  blade  of  a  scythe. 

The  Thrasher  attains  the  length  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet  and  the  weight  of  five  hundred 
pounds.  An  individual  was  taken  in  November,  1864,  in  the  harbor  of  Marion,  Massachusetts, 
which  was  thirteen  feet  long  and  weighed  four  hundred  pounds.  This  species  is  quite  common  all 
along  the  coast  of  New  England,  and  is  frequently  an  annoyance  to  the  mackerel  fishermen  by 
becoming  entangled  in  their  nets;  otherwise  it  is  quite  harmless.  It  is  found  also  in  California. 

The  tales  which  are  current  regarding  the  ferocious  attacks  of  these  Sharks  upon  whales  are 
apparently  without  foundation. 

These  animals  feed  upon  fish,  and  it  is  said  by  the  fishermen  that  they  kill  them  by  blows  of 
the  long,  flexible  tail.  When  they  become  entangled  in  the  nets,  or  are  caught  on  hooks,  they 
make  a  powerful  resistance  and  cause  the  fishermen  much  trouble.  Their  livers  are  sometimes 
used  by  the  oil-makers.  There  is  a  belief  widely  current  to  the  effect  that  the  Thrasher  Shark, 
singly  or  in  companies,  is  accustomed  to  attack  whales.  This  belief  is  undoubtedly  founded  upon 
errors  of  observation,  as  I  think  I  have  demonstrated  in  the  chapter  relating  to  the  Sword-fish. 

THE  HAMMEE-HEAD  SHARK — SPHYENA  ZYG^NA. 

This  species  is  found  all  along  the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  southward,  and,  indeed,  in  tropical 
and  subtropical  seas  the  world  over ;  it  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the  curious  form  of  the  head, 
which  is  broad,  flattened,  and  laterally  elongated  into  two  arms,  which  have  been  compared  to 
the  arms  of  a  balance.  It  attains  the  length  of  seven  or  eight  feet.  Dillwyn  obtained  a  female 
specimen  at  Swansea,  which  contained  thirty-nine  young  ones  on  the  point  of  birth. 

The  Hammer-head  Shark  is  not  uncommonly  taken  in  summer,  but  is  of  no  special  impor- 
tance. In  MitchilPs  "  Fishes  of  New  York,"  under  the  head  of  this  species  it  is  stated :  "  Three 
Sharks  of  the  Shovel-nosed  species  were  taken  (in  September,  1805)  in  a  net  by  Mr.  Joshua  Turry, 
of  Eiverhead.  The  largest  was  eleven  feet  long.  On  opening  him,  many  detached  parts  of  a  man 
were  found  in  his  belly;  these  were  collected  and  buried;  there  was  also  found  a  striped  cotton 
shirt,  patched  on  the  sides  and  sleeves  with  bright-colored  pieces."1 

It  seems  probable  that  the  Shovel-nosed  Shark  referred  to  in  the  above  paragraph  was  rather 
a  Garchariat,  since  these  Sharks  are  often  called  "  Shovel-nosed  Sharks  "  by  the  coast  fishermen. 

BONNET-HEADED  SHAEK— SPHYRNA  TIBUEO. 

This  species  is  found  in  our  waters  in  company  with  the  preceding  species,  and  when  both  are 
known  to  the  fishermen,  the  names  "  Hammer-head "  and  "  Shovel-nosed "  are  used  indiscrimi- 
nately for  both.  Its  distribution  as  at  present  understood  is  less  extensive,  since  it  has  been  found 
only  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  on  the  coast  of  China.  It  is  very  common  on  our 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast,  where  it  is  often  distinguished  as  the  "Bonnet-head."  The  -habits 
of  the  two  species  are  doubtless  very  similar. 

THE  BLUE  SHARK  AND  THE  DUSKY  SHABK — CARCHARIAS  O^ERULEUS  AND  CAROHARIAS 

OBSOURUS. 

These  two  species,  which  are  somewhat  common  in  our  waters  south  of  Cape  Cod  and  which 
can  be  distinguished  apart  only  by  trained  observers,  attain  the  length  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet, 

1  Transactions  of  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  New  York,  i,  p.  48. 


THH   IIOK'NKD  DOGFISH.  573 

and  are  occasionally  taken  in  nets.    They  are  of  no  sj>ecial  value,  and  cause  much  annoyance  to 

tin-  fishermen.  An  individual  taken  at  Wood's  Hull,  Massachusetts.  in  .Inly,  18;r>,  iiiea^im-.l  nine 
feet  seven  inches.  and  weighed  three  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  the  liver  weighing  thirty-eight 
pounds.  It  had  in  its  stomach  a  l>luetish  of  five  pounds'  weight  These  two  species  feed  upon 
mollusks  as  well  as  upon  fish.  Individuals  examined  by  the  Fish  Commission  were  found  to 
contain  bluefish,  flounders.  crabs,  lobsters,  and  quantities  of  a  small  species  of  a  bivalve  shell, 


THE  BLACK-PINNED  SHARK—  ISOGOMPHODON  MAOULIPINNIS. 

This  sjieeies  resembles  in  shape  the  Hlue  Shark,  from  which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its 
lighter  color  and  the  presence  of  a  prominent  black  spot  upon  the  tip  of  each  flu.  The  species  is 
found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central 
America.  It  was  first  discovered  on  our  coast  in  1875,  when  several  specimens  were  taken  at 
Wood's  Hull,  Massachusetts. 

THE  TIGER  SHARK  —  GALEOCERDO  TIGRINUS. 

This  is  a  8|>ecies  which  is  found  throughout  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  and  on  the  coast 
of  Japan.  It  was  first  noticed  in  our  waters  by  Captain  Atwood,  who  obtained  specimens  at 
Provineetown,  and  has  since  been  observed  occasionally.  It  is  one  of  the  most  active  and  grace- 
ful of  Sharks,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  ferocious.  Its  teeth  are  like  razors.  In  the  stomach  of 
a  specimen  taken  by  Captain  Atwood  at  Provineetown,  nearly  a  whole  full  grown  sword-fish  was 
found  ;  ten  or  twelve  wounds  in  the  skin  of  the  Shark  gave  evidence  of  the  contest  that  must 
have  occurred.  It  feeds  upon  mollusks  as  well  as  upon  other  flshes.  A  specimen  caught  at 
Wood's  IIoll  in  1871  contained  large  univalve  shells,  Buccinum  undatum,  and  the  sea-snail,  Lvnatia 
hero». 

THE  SMOOTH  OR  BLUE  DOGFISH  —  MUSTELUS  CAMS. 

The  Smooth  Dogfish  of  our  waters,  Mustelv*  canis,  is  without  doubt  specifically  identical  with 
one  of  the  common  European  species,  M.  vulgaris.  The  American  name  has,  however,  the  right 
of  priority.  Hitherto,  only  a  single  species  has  been  recognized  upon  Atlantic  coasts.  It  is  quite 
abundant  on  the  coast  of  Southern  New  England.  It  feeds  upon  crabs,  lobsters,  and  other  bottom- 
loving  invertebrates,  its  smooth  pavement-like  teeth  being  adapted  for  crushing  the  thick  shells 
of  these  animals  rather  than  for  seizing  and  holding  active  fishes. 

In  Bermuda  this  fish  is  known  as  the  ''Nurse  Shark."  and  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  negroes 
as  food,  and  is  also  an  important  bait  in  the  local  fisheries.  At  Folkstone,  England,  they  are 
dried,  and  go  by  the  name  of  "  Folkstone  beef." 

THE  HORNED  OR  SPINY  DOGFISH—  SQUALUS  ACANTHIAS. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  North  Atlantic,  occurring  on  the  coast  of  Europe  from  the  North 
Cape  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  our  own  waters  south  to  New  York.  On  the  west  coast  it 
ranges  south  to  Santa  Harbara.  Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  its  habits.  I  cannot  do  better 
than  quote  fully  the  observations  of  Captain  Atwood,  who  writes: 

"Thia  Shark  is  the  mo.<l  common  one  upon  our  coast.  I  have  seen  it  at  Gay  Head,  Martha's 
Vineyard,  but  know  nothing  further  about  its  southerly  limits.  Both  above  and  below  Caj>e  Cod 
it  is  abundant,  and  is  found  all  along  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  Maine.  Nova  Scotia,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Saiut  Lawrence.  I  myself  have  never  seen  I  hem  fart  IK-  r  north  than  the  Magdalen 
Islands  and  the  east  coast  of  (  'ape  lln-toii  Island,  but  reliable  accounts  say  that  it  is  found  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Newfoundland.  As  the  Dogfish  appear  at  I'mvincetown  a  little  while  after  the 
43  F 


674  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

mackerel,  and  disappear  shortly  before  them,  I  judge  that  they  probably  need  warmer  water  than 
that  fish,  and  therefore  do  not  probably  go  quite  so  far  north.  When  they  first  appear  they  are 
in  great  abundance;  the  females  always  excel  in  numbers  the  males;  but  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season  all  are  females,  and  all  have  young  in  some  stages  of  development,  though  not  in  every 
stage,  there  being  seldom  any  between  the  young  just  forming  and  those  nearly  grown.  The 
gravid  females  may  be  found  with  the  young  in  some  stages  of  development  during  the  whole 
season.  The  mature  male  weighs  five  or  five  and  a  half  pounds,  rarely  as  much  as  six  pounds, 
while  the  female  attains  the  weight  of  eight  or  eight  and  a  half  pounds.  In  spring  they  are 
poor,  and  their  liver  is  of  a  dark  color  and  lean ;  but  in  autumn  it  is  quite  fat  and  large,  and  the 
amount  of  oil  does  not  increase  proportionately  with  the  enlarged  size  of  the  liver,  but  rather 
decreases.  In  the  Oadidce,  on  the  contrary,  the  liver  when  in  poor  condition  affords  no  oil.  Fat 
is  also  found  in  the  flesh  of  the  Dogfish,  which  is  sometimes  used  for  fuel,  burning  well  when 
dried."1 

The  same  authority  also  writes:  "When  I  first  began  to  go  fishing,  in  1810  to  1820,  the 
Dogfish  fishery  was  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  fisheries  that  we  had  around  the  shore. 
They  .appeared  here  in  the  spring,  and  were  very  plenty,  and  would  last  a  day  or  two  and  then 
all  would  be  gone.  Then  you  would  not  see  a  Dogfish  again  all  summer ;  but  about  the  10th,  or 
middle  of  September  they  came  to  us  again  returning  south.  They  would  stay  into  November, 
and  during  that  time  the  fishermen  would  get — a  man  aiuTa  boy — all  the  way  from  eight,  ten,  to 
fifteen  barrels  of  oil.  Twenty -five  years  ago  we  would  occasionally  see  Dogfish  in  the  summer. 
The  last  fifteen  years  they  have  been  here  all  summer.  During  the  war  they  were  plenty  all 
summer  and  the  livers  sold  for  one  dollar  a  bucket,  and  now  they  are  not  worth  but  twenty  and 
twenty-five  cents.  The  female  Dogfish  is  a  good  deal  the  biggest.  I  have  known  of  Dogfish  to 
be  with  full-grown  young  in  November." 

The  annoyance  which  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  Dogfish  may  be  judged  from  the  fact 
that  a  trawl  line,  upon  which  were  five  hundred  hooks,  set  by  the  Fish  Commission  party  of 
Gloucester  in  1878,  had  nearly  one  hundred  and  forty  hooks  bitten  off  by  the  Dogfish  at  one 
setting. 

About  Cape  Ann  the  Dogfish  do  not  come  near  the  shore.  Capt.  S.  J.  Martin,  an  experienced 
fisherman,  assures  me  that  he  has  never  seen  one  within  three  miles  of  land  off  Gloucester.  They 
leave  Cape  Ann,  for  the  most  part,  before  October,  and  remain  on  George's  Bank  until  December. 
They  go  upon  the  shoals  of  George's  about  the  20th  of  May,  and  stay  all  summer  in  the  shoal 
water,  especially,  at  a  dep'.h  of  thirty-five  to  forty  fathoms,  on  the  western  part. 

In  addition  to  the  oil  yielded  by  these  little  Sharks,  the  skin  is  of  considerable  value,  and  will 
doubtless  in  future  be  more  highly  prized  than  it  is  at  present.  It  is  used  by  the  fishermen 
to  polish  their  metallic  mackerel-jigs,  and  sometimes  in  polishing  the  fancy  wood-work  on  ship- 
board. If  properly  brought  into  notice,  the  Dogfish  skins  would  perhaps  be  used  to  advantage 
in  many  departments  of  metal-working. 

In  Southern  New  England  this  fish  is  called  the  "  Bone-fish."  in  the  Orkneys,  the  "  Hoe." 

Couch  remarks :  "  It  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  Sharks,  and  is  sometimes  found  in  incalcu- 
lable numbers,  to  the  no  small  annoyance  of  the  fishermen,  whose  hooks  they  cut  from  the  lines  in 
rapid  succession.  I  hare  heard  of  twenty  thousand  being  taken  in  a  seine  at  one  time ;  such  is  the 
strength  of  instinct  that  little  creatures,  not  exceeding  six  inches  in  length,  may  be  found  in 
company  with  the  larger  and  stronger,  following  schools  of  fish,  although  at  that  time  it  is  impos- 
sible that  they  could  be  able  to  prey." 

'Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  x,  1864-'66,  pp.  81-82. 


THK  SHAHKS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST.  C,7.r) 

Tin.  Ni  i.       SII\I;K  OK  SLKKFER— SOMNIOSUS  MICROCEPIIALUS. 

Tliis  species,  also  culled  liy  our  fishermen  (he  ••  Curry"  or  "Ground"  Shark,  is  a  native  of 
the  Arctic  Seas,  hut  on  our  coa.st  ranges  south  to  Cape  Cod,  and  in  the  Eastern  Atlantic  at  least 
to  Kngland,  while  in  the  Pacific  it  has  been  observed  from  Puget  Sound  northward.  The  name 
"Gurry  Shark"  refers  to  its  habit  of  feeding  upon  the  refuse  fish  thrown  overboard  from  the 

\  e>sels. 

This  8|>ecies  is  occasionally  observed  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  especially  when  the  carcasses  of 
whales  are  floating  about.  Scoresby  writes,  in  his  work  on  the  Arctic  Regions:  "This  Shark  is 
one  of  ilie  foes  of  the  \vhalc;  it  bites  it  and  annoys  it  when  alive  and  feeds  on  it  when  dead.  It 
scoops  hemispherical  pieces  out  of  its  body  nearly  as  big  as  a  person's  head,  and  keeps  scooping 
and  gorging  lump  after  lump  until  the  whole  cavity  of  its  belly  is  full.  It  is  so  insensible  of  pain 
that,  though  it  has  been  run  through  the  body  with  a  scythe  knife,  yet  I  have  seen  it  return  to  its 
l>an<|iiet  uiion  the  whale  at  the  very  spot  where  it  received  its  wound.  Besides  feeding  u|ion 
whales,  these  Sharks  also  eat  small  lishes  and  crabs.  The  sailors  imagine  that  it  is  blind  In-cause 
it  pays  not  the  least  attention  to  the  presence  of  a  man,  and  is,  indeed,  so  apparently  stupid  that 
it  never  draws  back  when  a  blow  is  aimed  at  it  with  a  knife  or  lance." 

Captain  Atwood  writes :  "  We  don't  see  them  very  often  about  Provincetown,  but  sometimes 
thej"  are  seen  in  the  bay.  They  would  eat  a  whale  if  one  were  sunk  there,  and  they  eat  halibut 
n IV  the  trawl.  I  have  hauled  up  halibut  and  like  enough  the  back  would  be  all  eaten  off.  Some 
of  them  are  quite  large.  Robert  E.  Smith,  of  Barnstable,  got  one  about  fifteen  feet  long,  half  of 
whose  liver  filled  a  barrel.  I  don't  know  of  their  having  been  taken  here  for  a  good  many  years. 
The  liver  furnishes  five  or  six  gallons  of  oil ;  in  one  case  a  single  half  lobe  filled  a  flour-barrel 
and  yielded  fifteen  gallons  of  oil." ' 

201.  THE  SHARKS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 
By  DAVID  S.  JORDAN. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Sharks  known  from  the  Pacific  coast.  Of  these,  the  three  very- 
large  species,  Cetorhinm  maxima*.  Carcharoilon  carcharias,  and  Somniosus  microoephalux,  are  valued 
for  the  oil  in  their  livers,  but  are  captured  rather  by  accident,  by  whalers  and  fishermen,  than  by 
design.  They  are  uever  made  objects  of  pursuit.  The  Sharks  Squalu*  acanthias,  Qaleorhinu* 
zyopterus,  and  Heptranchiax  maculatm  are  regular  objects  of  pursuit  for  their  oil,  and  in  the  case  of 
Qaleorhinus  zyopterus  for  their  fins  also.  The  young  of  several  other  species  are  dried  by  the 
Chinese,  who  utilize  everything  which  their  brethren  on  the  railroads  will  eat.  Others  are  used  as 
craw-fish  bait,  and  for  similar  purposes. 

LIST  OF  SHARKS  OP  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 

Squatina  angelus  Dume'ril.    Angel-fish,  Angelo  or  Squat     From  San  Francisco  southward.    Not 

rare. 
Heptranchias  maculatus  (Ayres)  Grd.     Shovel-nosed  Shark.    Monterey  northward. 

'A  large  winter  Shark  was  driven  ashore  in  the  storm  of  the  '^Otli  instant  at  Cotuit  Tort.  It  won  fifteen  fi-i-t  in 
length,  and  his  liver  made  fifteen  gallons  of  m\.—C\oucetttr  Telegraph,  February  •-',  1850. 

The  schooner  "Cosmos,"  of  Swampecot,  lauded  a  formidable  Nnraefish  at  Portsmouth  recently.  It  measured 
sixteen  feet  iu  length  and  weighed  a  limit  twenty-five  hundred  pounds,  and  was  caught  on  a  common  trmwl  lino.— 
Cape  Ann  Adrertiier,  March  11,  1881. 


(570  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Hexanchus  corinus  3.  &  G.    Monterey  northward. 

Heterodontutt  Francisci  (Grd.)  Dum.    Leopard  Shark.    Point  Conception  southward. 

Scylliorhinus  ventriosm  Garinan.    Ground  Shark.     From  Monterey  southward. 

Alopias  vulpes  (Gmel.)  Bonap.    Thrasher.     Monterey  Bay. 

Isurus  sp.     Ban  Pedro. 

Lamna  cornubica  (L.).     Monterey  Bay. 

Carcharodon  carcharias  (L.)  J.  &  G.    Man-eater  Shark.    Monterey  Bay  and  southward. 

Oetorhinus  maximus  (L.)  Blainv.    Ground  Shark.    Monterey  Bay  northward. 

Sphyrna  zygcsna  (L.)  Eaf.    Hammer-head  Shark.     San  Pedro. 

Carcharias  glaucus  (L.)  J.  &  G.    Blue  Shark.    San  Francisco  and  northward. 

Carcluirias  lamella  J.  &  G.    Bay  Shark.    San  Diego. 

Galeocerdo  tigrinus  Miiller  &  Henle.    San  Diego. 

Galeorhinu*  zygopterus  J.  &  G.    Oil  Shark.    San  Francisco  and  southward. 

Triads  semifasdatus  Grd.    Cat  Shark.     San  Francisco  and  southward. 

Triads  Henlei  (Gill.)  Putn.     Monterey  and  northward. 

Mmtelus  californicus  Gill.    Dog  Shark.     San  Francisco  and  southward. 

Squalm  acanthias  L.    Dog-fish ;  Spinarola.    Santa  Barbara  to  Alaska. 

Somniomis  microcephalus  (Bloch)  Gill.    Puget  Sound  northward. 

SHOVEL-NOSED  SHARK — HEPTRANCHIAS  MACULATUS. 

This  species  is  usually  known  as  the  "Shovel-nosed  Shark."  It  reaches  a  length  of  three  to 
five  feet.  It  ranges  from  Monterey  Bay  northward,  being  most  abundant  in  Northern  California. 
About  Eureka,  on  Humboldt  Bay,  it  is  pursued  for  its  oil,  which  has  some  value.  For  a  discus 
sion  of  this,  see  the  account  of  Humboldt  County,  California. 

OIL  SHARK— GALEORHINUS  ZYOPTERUS. 

This  species,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  common  Tope  of  Europe,  is  known  in  California  as 
the  "Oil  Shark"  or  "White  Shark."  It  reaches  a  length  of  five  to  six  feet  and  a  weight  of  thirty 
to  forty  pounds,  the  average  being  about  twenty.  It  ranges  from  Tomales  to  San  Diego,  being 
especially  abundant  in  spring  about  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles,  especially  at  Soquel,  Monterey, 
Westminster,  and  Newport.  It  feeds  on  other  fishes,  herring  being  the  best  bait.  It  brings  forth 
its  young  alive  from  April  to  August,  entering  small  bays  and  lagoons  for  this  purpose.  At  these 
times  it  is  chiefly  taken.  It  is  valued  for  the  oil  in  its  liver  and  for  its  fins.  A  liver  makes  from 
one-half  to  one  gallon  of  oil.  The  fins  are  sold  to  the  Chinese,  who  dry  them,  and  removing  the 
skin  and  flesh  extract  from  the  rays  a  fine,  clear- white  gelatine,  which  is  highly  valued  by  them  for 
making  soups.  This  is  the  only  American  species  the  fins  of  which  they  consider  valuable. 

DOGFISH — SQUALUS  ACANTHIAS. 

This  species  is  everywhere  called  the  "Dogfish."  The  Italian  fishermen  also  call  it  " Spina- 
rola." It  reaches  a  length  of  about  three  feet.  It  ranges  from  Alaska  southward  as  far  as  Santa 
Barbara,  but  its  abundance  is  from  Puget  Sound  northward  among  the  islands.  It  lives 
especially  in  deep  or  quiet  bays  and  channels,  coming  into  shallower  waters  in  pursuit  of  schools 
of  herring,  smelt,  or  salmon.  It  feeds  on  anything,  even  its  own  young,  but  the  herring  make  the 
chief  part  of  its  diet.  The  young  are  brought  forth  in  June  in  Puget  Sound.  It  is  valued  for  its 
liver,  from  which  dogfish  oil  is  extracted. 


IIAT.ITS  OF  TIM:  I.AMI-KKYS.  G77 

202.  THE  LAMPREY  S— PETROMYZONTID.S. 

In  the  fresh  and  brackish  waters  of  the  United  States  occur  several  species  of  the  Lamprey 
family. 

NAMES. — Tin-  habits  of  these  fishes  are  not  well  understood,  and  in  the  present  discussion  wo 
shall  be  obliged  to  rely  to  a  considerable  degree  on  the  observations  of  European  zoologists.  In 
tin- I'nitcd  States  the  fishes,  of  whatever  species,  are  generally  known  as  "Lampreys"  and  "Lamper 
Kris,"  these  names  being  also  in  use  in  England,  where  one  of  the  smaller  species,  /'.  branchialin, 
is  als<»  known  as  the  ••  Pride,"  ••  Prid,"  or  "  Sandpiper."  The  name  "Nine-eye"  is  also  common  in 
Kn-luml,  a  name  which  reappears  on  the  continent  in  the  "Neuuauge"  and  "Neunaugel"  of  Ger- 
many and  Austria,  and  the  "Nejon  ogon"  of  Scandinavia.  This  curious  name  had  its  origin  in  the 
eye  like  appearance  of  the  circular  branchial  openings,  of  which  a  considerable  number  appear  on 
either  side  »!'  the  head.  In  the  common  "  Nine-eye"  of  England,  however,  there  are  only  seven, 
and  even  if  the  eye  be  counted  only  eight,  eye-like  circles  upon  each  side.  In  Germany  the 
name  most  conunohly  in  use  is  "Pricke"  or  "Bricke,"  while  in  France  "Lamproie"  is  their  usual 
appellation,  and  in  Italy  "  Lampreta." 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  Lampreys  are  almost  the  least  specialized  of  fishes.  Although  in  form 
resembling  the  eels,  they  belong  to  a  very  different  group,  which  by  Gill  and  others  of  our  best 
authorities  has  been  considered  a  distinct  class,  and  are  not  even  entitled  to  be  called  fishes.  So 
slight  has  been  the  progress  in  the  scientific  study  of  the  Lampreys,  that  but  little  can  be  definitely 
stated  about  their  geographical  distribution,  excepting  that  they  occur  in  the  fresh  waters  and 
along  the  coasts  of  the  temperate  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  The  largest  and  best  known 
species,  and  the  only  one  which  has  at  present  any  commercial  value,  is  Petromyzon  americaniu, 
by  most  authorities  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  P.  marinus  of  Europe,'  which  occurs  in  the 
streams  and  estuaries  of  our  eastern  coast  from  Nova  Scotia  as  far  south  at  least  as  Cape  Hatteras. 

HABITS. — The  key  to  the  habits  of  the  Lampreys  is  found  in  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  their 
mouth.  In  P.  marinus,  according  to'  Emile  Blanchard,  this  is  completely  circular  and  forms  a 
great  sucker  enormously  capacious,  surrounded  by  a  fleshy  lip  studded  with  tentacles  and  sup- 
ported within  by  a  cartilagiuous  framework.  This  mouth  is  covered  over  its  entire  interior 
surface  with  strong  teeth  arranged  in  conceutric  circles,  some  single,  others  double,  the  larger 
occupying  the  central  portion,  and  the  smaller  forming  the  exterior  rows.  A  large  double  tooth, 
situated  above  the  aperture  of  the  mouth,  indicates  the  situation  of  the  upper  Jaw;  a  large  carti- 
lage, supporting  seven  or  eight  great  teeth,  represents  the  lower  jaw.  The  tongue  also  carries 
three  large  teeth,  deeply  serrated  upon  their  edges. 

The  structure  of  the  intestine,  which,  as  in  the  Sharks,  is  provided  with  an  extensive  spiral 
valve,  indicates  that  these  animals  are  chiefly  carnivorous  in  diet.  They  are  said  to  feed  upon 
worms,  insects,  and  decaying  animal  matter.  Dr.  Benecke,  of  Konigsberg,  and  others  have  found 
their  stomachs  full  of  the  eggs  of  fish.  The  structure  of  the  mouth,  however,  would  teach  us, 
even  in  default  of  observations  upon  their  customary  mode  of  feeding,  that  they  are  semi-parasitic 
in  their  habits,  attaching  themselves  to  large  fish  by  suctorial  action,  and,  while  attached,  tearing 
the  flesh  of  the  fish  with  their  marvelous  mincing  machine,  which  is  composed  of  the  teeth  within 
the  circular  mouth,  while  they  suck  the  blood  of  their  victim.  They  are  often  found  attached  to 
the  larger  fishes,  such  as  shad,  sturgeons,  and  Sharks. 

Captain  Atwood  states  that  small  Lampreys  of  a  bluish  color  are  found  attached  to  various 


'GtNTHKR:  Catalogue  of  Finbee  of  the  British  Muwiun,  viii,  p.  501. 


678  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

species  of  fish  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  such  as  cod,  haddock,  aud  mackerel.  They  cling  to  the  side 
of  the  fish  beneath  the  pectoral,  and  suck  its  blood  until  the  flesh  becomes  as  white  as  paper. 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  to  the  Lampreys  may  be  credited  an  immense  destruction 
of  the  various  food-fishes  which  enter  estuaries  and  rivers.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for 
fishermen  to  find  them  attached  to  halibut  and  other  large  species  caught  at  sea.  Lampreys  are 
found  far  inland,  ascending  most  of  the  creeks  and  rivers  of  Central  Europe  and  of  temperate 
North  America  far  toward  their  sources.  In  fact  the  distances  from  the  sea  at  which  the  so-called 
"sea  Lamprey  "of  Europe  is  constantly  found  are  so  great,  when  their  feeble  powers  of  loco- 
motion are  considered,  that  Dr.  Giiuther  in  his  essay  on  the  fishes  of  the  Neckar  was  induced  to 
advance  the  theory  that  they  are  carried  from  the  sea  to  the  river  sources  by  the  shad,  salmon, 
and  other  fish  to  which  the  Lampreys  attach  themselves.  This  view  is  combated  by  Blan- 
chard,  who  claims  that  no  one  has  ever  seen  Lampreys  attached  to  salmon.  If  I  am  correctly 
iuformed,  salmon  are  largely  annoyed  by  Lampreys  in  the  United  States,  but  it  seems  hardly 
necessary  at  present  to  accept  Giinther's  theory  in  the  fullest  extent,  since  the  Lamprey  is  appar- 
ently not  much  inferior  to  the  eel  in  powers  of  locomotion,  and  the  eel,  it  is  well  known,  accom- 
plishes long  migrations  without  apparent  inconvenience. 

It  has  been  customary  among  writers  upon  fishes  to  class  the  Lampreys  among  the  migratory 
fishes,  and  to  describe  the  migrations  of  the  sea  Lamprey  as  beginning  in  the  spring,  when  they 
are  supposed  to  ascend  the  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  in  their  headwaters.  This  theory 
seems  at  present  hardly  tenable ;  so  little,  however,  is  known  of  their  habits  that  the  theory  cannot 
be  pronounced  absolutely  incorrect.  There  are,  however,  certain  species  of  Lampreys  in  Europe 
which  are  believed  to  live  entirely  in  fresh  water.  A  similar  statement  can  most  positively  be 
made  regarding  our  species  inhabiting  the  Great  Lakes  aud  other  inland  waters  of  North  America. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  sea  Lampreys  remain  in  salt  and  brackish  water  throughout  (he 
year.  There  appears,  however,  to  be  excellent  evidence  that  some  of  the  Lampreys  move  from 
brackish  water  into  fresh  for  purposes  of  spawning. 

Benecke,  speaking  of  the  habits  of  the  river  Lamprey  of  the  Baltic,  remarks:  "Concerning  the 
habits  of  'Nine-eyes'  in  the  sea  nothing  is  known.  In  summer  they  make  their  way  from  the 
Baltic  into  the  Kurisches  Haff  and  the  Frisches  Haff,  and  toward  the  end  of  September  begin  to 
ascend  the  rivers,  and  are  caught  in  great  numbers  in  baskets  and  pots.  The  ascent  continues 
until  January.  In  the  upper  reaches  of  the  rivers  they  make  their  appearance  in  the  early  spring, 
and  spawn  in  April  and  May  in  small  schools  in  shallow  places,  where  the  water  flows  rapidly 
over  shingly  bottom.  The  act  of  spawning  has  been  observed  by  us  from  year  to  year  in  the 
passage  between  the  bridges  at  Braunsberg.  After  the  eggs,  which  are  one  millimeter  in 
<liameter,  grayish-yellow  in  color,  aud  entirely  opaque,  have  been  deposited  in  little  masses,  the 
Lampreys  die. 

"  The  development  of  the  spawn  is  extremely  dependent  upon  the  weather,  so  that  during 
many  years  only  a  very  small  brood  of  young  fishes  makes  its  appearance.  The  young  of  this 
species  have  been  found  by  August  Miiller  in  the  Oder  and  the  Alle,  aud  in  the  latter  (?)  the 
drying  up  of  one  of  its  tributaries  near  the  mill  at  Pinne  gives  an  opportunity  every  year  to  collect 
hundreds  of  them  in  the  bottom  mud.  They  are  never  found  partially  grown,  aud  we  must  believe 
that  they  go  back  to  the  sea,  there  to  attain  their  full  size." 

KEPEODUCTION. — Concerning  the  breeding  habits  of  the  brook  Lamprey,  P.  planeri,  Benecke 
writes :  "  The  brook  Lampreys,  like  the  allied  species,  feed  upon  little  animals,  aud  are  found  in  almost 
all  the  clear  brooks  in  Prussia,  seeming  never  to  migrate  to  the  sea,  although  Yarrell  claims  that  he 
Las  found  them  there.  The  clear  gray  or  grayish-yellow  eggs,  which  are  one  millimeter  in  thick- 


Till:  IIKI'KOIH  (  TION  OF  TUE  LAMPREY.  C.T'.i 

ii.  — .  an'  deposited  in  March  or  April.  The  adult  fish  gather  themselves  together  in  companies  of 
from  ten  to  fifty  individuals  to  spawn  in  water  of  little  depth,  whore  the  current  flows  swiftly  "\.i 
rough  ground.  In  close  proximity  to  each  other  they  cling  with  their  mouths  to  the  bottom,  and 
their  hodie.s  st  framing  out  in  the  current  squirming  like  the  bodies  of  snukes.  Every  once  in  a 
while  ( he  observer  can  see  a  male,  easily  recognizable  by  its  size  and  black  color,  seize  upon  one  of 
the  females  with  its  suctorial  month,  and  therewith  firmly  attaching  itself  to  her  close  behind  the 
head.  The  two  then  extend  themselves  with  a  powerful  backward  squirm,  and  while  the  male, 
with  a  half  turn  of  its  body,  brings  his  abdominal  aperture  close  to  that  of  the  female,  a  part  of 
her  spawn  may  be  seen  flowing  forth  in  a  clear,  semi-opaque  stream.  This  action  is  repeated 
until  the  female  has  deposited  all  of  her  eggs.  The  young  Lampreys,  when  hatched,  burrow  in  the 
mud.  They  require  a  period  of  four  or  five  years  before  they  attain  the  length  of  twenty  centim- 
eters." 

The  development  of  the  Lamprey  is  extremely  remarkable.  It  was  first  worked  out  thoroughly 
by  Prof.  August  Miiller  in  1850.'  The  young  was  formerly  considered  to  be  a  member  of  a  distinct 
genus,  Ammoccetex.  The  young  of  the  brook  Lamprey,  P.  planeri,  which,  in  a  general  way,  corre- 
sjwnd  to  those  of  other  species,  are  thus  described  by  Professor  Benecke:  "They  are  tawny  yellow, 
without  any  trace  of  silvery  hues,  and  have  half  moon  shaped,  toothless  mouths,  not  intended  for 
suctorial  uses.  Their  small  eyes  are  hidden  deeply  under  their  thick  skins,  and  hardly  visible. 
Their  gill-openings  lie  in  a  deep  furrow.  The  head  is  small  and  pointed,  and  the  tins  continuous." 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  as  early  as  1866  Leonhart  Boldner,  of  Strasbourg,  investigated  and 
thoroughly  understood  the  development  and  metamorphoses  of  the  Lamprey,  as  is  indicated  in  the 
following  paragraph,  translated  from  his  work  upon  the  water-birds,  fishes,  and  other  aquatic 
animals  of  Strasbourg : 

"  From  August  to  December,  Lampreys  with  eyes  are  not  often  seen  and  are  rarely  taken,  but 
blind  Lampreys  are  found  throughout  the  entire  year.  The  Lampreys  with  eyes  and  the  blind 
Lampreys  are  all  of  the  same  kind,  for  the  young  from  the  very  beginning  are  all  blind,  and  bury 
themselves  at  once  in  the  mud  as  soon  as  they  make  their  escape  from  the  eggs.  The  blind 
Lampreys  develop  no  eggs  until  they  develop  their  eyes."* 

Like  the  eel,  the  Lamprey  was  formerly  believed  to  be  hermaphrodite.* 

As  far  as  I  am  aware,  few  observations  are  on  record  which  indicate  the  date  of  the  spawning 
of  the  Lampreys  in  this  country.  P.  niger  spawns  in  early  spring.  Wittmack,  in  his  excellent 
work  upon  the  "Fishery  Statistics  of  Germany,"  states  that  P.  marinus  spawns  at  I  lame] n  in  June, 
and  in  the  Rhine,  at  Zurich,  in  March  and  April;  P.  fluviatilis  in  various  parts  of  Northern  Ger- 
many, chiefly  in  March,  April,  May,  and  June,  though  in  the  Kurisches  Ilaff  also  in  November, 
December,  and  February.  In  Bavaria  their  spawning  season  is  from  March  to  June;  in  Austria 
in  April  and  May,  and  in  Switzerland  in  March  and  April.  P.  planeri  is  said  by  the  same  author 
to  spawn  in  Pomerauia  in  May;  in  the  Rhine  Provinces  in  March  and  April;  in  Banover  in  May 
and  June;  in  Gotha  in  March  and  April,  and  in  Lower  Bavaria  in  May,  June,  and  July;  in  the 
Tyrol  in  March,  April,  May,  and  June,  and  in  Switerland  in  March  and  April.  In  the  rivers  of 
Connecticut,  where  a  lamprey  fishery  is  still  carried  on,  Lampreys  are  reported  to  be  abundant  in 
May  and  June;  and  it  is  probable  that  these  months  are  included  within  the  period  of  spawning. 
The  artificial  propagation  of  the  Lamprey  was  first  successfully  accomplished  on  the  24th  of  May, 
1879,  when  M.  Frauen,  employed  by  the  German  Fishery  Union  in  gathering  sturgeon-eggs  in 

'MOLLER:  ArcLiv  fiir  Naturgeschichte,  1856,  p.  £25. 

•VON  SIP.BOLO:  SUaswamerfoche  Mittelenropas,  p.  378. 

»8lB  EDWARD  HOME  in  Philosophical  Transactions,  1815,  p.  266. 


680  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Schleswig-Holstein,  fertilized  the  eggs  of  the  river  Lamprey  aud  placed  them  in  a  breeding  box. 
Between  June  3  aud  June  16,  many  young  were  hatched  out,  and  on  July  17  the  entire  contents  of 
the  breeding  box  escaped.1 

As  has  already  been  stated,  it  requires  four  or  five  years  for  the  larval  Lamprey  to  undergo 
its  metamorphoses  and  become  capable  of  reproducing  its  kind.  The  sea  Lamprey,  P.  marinm, 
often  attains  the  length  of  three  feet;  but  those  species  which  are  found  only  in  fresh  water  are 
usually  much  smaller. 

The  name  Petromyzon  signifies  "  a  stone-sucker,"  it  being  a  common  habit  of  these  auimals  to 
cling  to  stoues  and  pebbles.  In  swift  currents  this  habit  is  of  great  importance  to  them,  since  it 
enables  them  to  hold  their  own  where  their  swimming  powers  would  often  be  severely  taxed.  It 
is  stated  by  careful  observers  that  they  have  some  way  of  transporting  stones,  and  that  they  build 
nests,  or  rather  circular  fortifications  of  stonework,  around  the  crevices  in  which  they  lurk.  As 
may  be  inferred  from  what  has  already  been  said  of  the  manner  in  which  they  prey  upon  other 
fishes,  Lampreys  are  among  the  most  troublesome  enemies  of  many  large  species.  Giinther  states 
that  salmon  have  often  been  captured  in  the  middle  courses  of  the  Rhine  with  marine  Lampreys 
attached  to  them.  Milner,  in  his  "Report  on  the  Fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes,"2  remarks:  (>A 
parasite  that  troubles  the  sturgeon  is  the  Lamprey  Eel,  Petromyzon  argenteus,  Kirt.,  which  is  found 
very  frequently  attached  to  the  skin.  The  circular  scars  aud  raw  sores  sometimes  found  upon  the 
sturgeon,  and  attributed  to  this  cause  by  the  fishermen,  are  correctly  accounted  for  in  this  way. 
It  is  probable  that  their  natural  food  is  the  slime  or  mucus  exuded  in  abundance  from  the  pores, 
but  they  frequently  retain  their  hold  upon  a  spot  until  they  have  eaten  through  to  the  flesh,  and 
deep  ulcerous  cavities  occasionally  result  from  the  sore." 

ECONOMIC  USES  AND  CAPTURE. — The  Lamprey  was  formerly  highly  esteemed  as  an  article 
of  food,  and  iu  early  days  is  said  to  have  constituted  an  important  dish  in  certain  civic  feasts  of 
Europe.  It  was  once  the  custom  to  drown  Lampreys  in  wine  and  then  to  stew  them.  This  process 
was  supposed  to  impart  a  higher  flavor  to  the  flesh.  It  is  stated  by  Lacepede  that  King  Henry  I, 
of  England,  came  to  an  untimely  end  by  too  full  a  repast  of  Lampreys.  At  the  present  time,  in 
Germany  and  France,  they  are  cooked  in  earthenware  jars  with  vinegar  and  spices,  and  are  fre- 
quently seen  among  the  relishes  aud  hors-d'oeuvre  brought  upon  the  tables  as  a  preliminary  course. 
They  are  also  highly  esteemed  in  many  other  parts  of  the  continent.  At  present  in  this  country 
Lampreys  are  but  little  prized,  except  in  certaiu  portions  of  New  England,  particularly  along  the 
Connecticut  River.  Col.  Theodore  Lyman,  in  his  report  as  fish  commissioner  of  Massachusetts  for 
1876,3  states  that  the  Lamprey  Eel  is  a  fish  greatly  esteemed  by  the  country  people  of  Massachusetts, 
and  one  which  was  formerly  taken  in  almost  incredible  numbers  in  the  Merrimack.  It  was  found  as 
far  north  as  Plymouth,  New  Hampshire,  and  by  the  Connecticut  Hiver  also  it  passes  into  the  same 
State.  When  the  Saiut  Lawrence  dam,  in  1847,  was  first  completed,  several  cart-loads  were  daily 
taken  by  one  man  for  a  considerable  period.  In  1840  Mr.  Joseph  Ely  took  thirty-eight  hundred  in 
one  night  at  Hadley  Falls.  It  was  then  the  custom  of  the  country  for  each  family  to  salt  down 
several  barrels  of  Lampreys  for  winter  use.  "  Now,  in  1866,"  he  continues,  "  this  valuable  fish  has 
become  nearly  extinct  in  both  rivers."  This  remark  should  be  interpreted  as  applying  simply  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Connecticut,  since  in  the  tributaries  of  its  lower  stretches  there  is  still  a 
considerable  lamprey  fishery  and  a  large  local  consumption. 

Mr.  George  Lyou,  of  Bridgewater,  Connecticut,   writes  under  date  of  August  25,   1879 : 

'Circnlar  der  Deutschen  Fischerei-Verein,  1879,  pp.  135, 136, 159. 
'Report  United  States  Fish  Commission,  part  ii,  1874,  p.  74. 
3  Page  40. 


THE  HAG-FISF1ES.  681 

"  Previous  to  tlio  building  of  the  dam  over  the  Housatonic  at  Birmingham,  Lampreys  were  taken 
in  large  c|iiantitiex  us  far  up  (In-  river  as  tin-  falls  in  the  town  of  New  Milford;  now  none  are  MM 
ahovo  (In-  dam.  Then,  standing  over  the  falls  on  shelving  rocks,  one  could  hook  them,  as  they 
cliing  to  the  rocks  with  their  suckers,  by  means  of  a  large  sharp  hook  fastened  to  a  long  pole,  this 
hook  In-ill;,'  imbedded  in  the  holes  in  the  sides  of  their  necks.  Many  people  formerly  salted  barrels 
of  tin-in  for  their  own  consumption.  Their  use  at  present  has  much  decreased,  owing  to  the  dis- 
turbance in  the  fisheries  caused  by  the  building  of  the  dams.  Those  now  used  in  the  vicinity  of 
I'.ridgcwatcr  a iv  taken  in  the  Housatonic  at  Birmingham,  and  during  the  months  of  May  and  June 
arc  peddled  through  the  country  by  the  people  who  catch  them." 

Mr.  X.  M.  Mnckctt,  of  Lakeville,  Connecticut,  states  that  in  that  vicinity  the  annual  average 
catch  is  about  t\v,.  thousand  fish,  the  implement  of  capture  used  being  a  pole  about  six  feet  in 
length  with  a  hook  in  its  end.  The  fisheries  are  located  in  Salmon  River  about  two  miles  from  the 
Connecticut,. just  above  tide  water,  and  the  Lampreys  sell  in  the  markets  of  the  adjoining  villages 
at  an  average  price  of  live  dollars  a  hundred. 

Mr.  M.  A.  Hart,  of  Rivertou,  Connecticut,  says  that  thirty  years  ago,  and  before,  Lampreys 
were  found  in  the  Farmingron  River  in  the  vicinity  of  Kiverton,  but  have  long  ago  been  exhausted. 
Quant  it  ics  are  sold  in  the  city  markets  of  Southern  Connecticut,  chiefly  obtained  in  the  Connecticut 
Ki\  er  in  spring  and  early  summer.  They  are  easily  caught  with  the  hands,  and  fishermen  captur- 
ing them  in  this  way  always  use  mittens.1 

Mr.  C.  M.  Hunt,  of  Northville,  Connecticut,  states  that  in  New  Milford  large  quantities  are 
consumed  in  May  and  June  which  are  caught  in  the  Housatonic  at  Birmingham.  Before  the  dam 
was  built  they  were  caught  everywhere  in  the  Housatonic  and  the  small  streams  which  are  its 

tributaries. 

i 

203   THE  HAG-FISHES— MYXINID.E. 

The  "  Slime  Eel,"  Myxine  glutinom,  is  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  in 
the  deeper  water  even  further  south.  It  occurs  also  on  the  coasts  of  Northern  Europe.  It  is  a 
great  annoyance  to  the  fishermen,  whose  baits  it  devours,  and  who  entertain  for  it  a  superstitions 
dread.  Little  is  known  of  its  habits,  and  its  importance  to  man  is  very  slight.  Jordan  writes: 

"The  Hag-fishes  (Mi/j-inidas)  are  represented  along  the  California  coast  by  one  species,  Poli- 
ttotrema  Stotiti.  It  is  most  abundant  in  Monterey  Bay,  where  it  is  very  destructive  to  fishes  caught 


'The  Hartford  (Conn.)  "Post,"  in  Juno,  1876, contained  the  following  paragraph: 

"CuRlocs  HABITS  OP  LAMPliKY  EELS. — Two  gentlemen  from  Granby,  Connecticut,  Messrs.  Dewey  and  Good- 
rii-h.  were  in  town  last  week  on  a  visit,  and  took  away  with  them  on  their  return  one  hundred  and  ten  Lamprey  Eels, 
which  they  captured  in  the  creeks  hereabout.  The  Eels  were  all  of  good  size,  sixty-two  of  them  weighing  one  bun* 
tired  ]K>unds.  These  Eels  are  esteemed  to  be  a  great  delicacy  by  the  people  of  Granby  and  neighborhood,  and  are 
held  to  In'  worth  twelve  cents  apiece,  or  they  offer  to  exchange  a  barrel  of  pork  for  a  barrel  of  cured  Kels.  The 
method  of  taking  these  Eels  is  quite  novel.  They  are  found  only  in  shallow  water,  with  stony  or  gravelly  bottom, 
and  the  fisherman  goes  provided  with  a  large  bag  of  nett  ing,  the  month  of  the  bag  being  distended  with  a  hoop,  and 
an  instrument  of  iron  about  eighteen  inches  long  terminating  in  a  hook. 

"The  Eels  have  what  are  called  nests,  made  by  heaping  np  stones  in  a  circle  of  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 

These  KtiincN  tln-\  pl:n-i-  in  tin-  | K IN! i  inn  li\  t MM . •niiiL1  1 1"-; i  sin  ki  r  inmu  I >-  i  !n- IMdlMTlBg  IfcMDMlTM  .  '!•  i.i!l\ , 

ilr.-iu  inxr  the  stones  along  with  them.  Inside  this  circle  of  stones  lie  usually  from  three  to  five  Eels,  parallel  with 
one  another,  their  heads  all  in  one  direction  and  each  Eel  made  fast  by  unction  to  »  stone.  The  bold  li-herman  ap- 
proaches them  from  behind,  and,  skillfully  putting  his  hook  under  an  Eel,  he  suddenly  brings  it  up  with  such  force 
that  it  penetrates  the  hide,  and  brings  out  the  fish,  when,  after  two  or  three  flourishes  in  the  air  to  get  him  in  the 
right  position,  he  is  deposited  in  the  hug.  Each  Eel  in  the  nest  is  in  turn  made  the  subject  of  a  similar  operation, 
the  creatures  often  holding  on  to  the  stone  with  such  tenacity  as  to  bring  it  out  of  the  water  with  them,  when  the 
aerial  flourish  causes  it  to  become  detached  and  to  fly  to  a  considerable  distance. 

"These  Eels,  it  is  said,  arc  wholly  free  from  bones  nave  the  backbone,  which  is  removed  in  dressing,  and  when 
iwlteil  for  a  few  weeks  and  fried  make  an  article  of  food  second  to  none  in  the  way  of  li-h." 


682  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

in  gill-nets.  It  fastens  itself  on  the  eyes,  or  especially  the  gills,  of  fishes  and  works  itself  into  the 
inside  of  the  body,  where  it  devours  all  the  flesh  without  breaking  the  skin,  so  that  the  fish  is  left 
a  mere  hulk  of  head,  skin,  and  bones.  Every  gill-net  in  summer  at  Monterey  has  more  or  less  of 
these  empty  hulks  (Sebastichtkys,  Ophiodon,  Rhacochilus,  Paralichthys,  etc.)  in  it.  It  is  thought  by 
the  fishermen  that  the  Hag-fish  will  eat  a  fish  of  five  or  six  pounds  weight  in  a  single  night. 
When  a  hulk  is  taken  out  of  the  water  with  a  Hag-fish  in  it,  the  parasite  will  scramble  out  with 
great  alacrity.  They  reach  a  length  of  fourteen  inches." 

204.  THE  LANCELETS— BRANCHIOSTOMIDJE. 

The  Lancelot,  or  Amphioxus,  Branchiostoma  lanceolatum,  interesting  as  being  the  lowest  and 
least  specialized  of  vertebrate  animals,  has  been  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake,  at  Flatts 
Village,  Bermuda,  and  at  San  Diego,  California. 


IV. 


MOLLUSKS. 


W.—  MOLLUSKS  IN  GENERAL BY  ERNEST  INOERSOIX. 

X.— THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  OYSTER BY  JOHN  A.  RYDER. 


883 


ANALYSIS. 


W.— MOLI.USKS  IN  GENERAL. 

205.  The  Cuttles:  Cephalopoda 687 

20G.  The  Sea-snails:  Gasteropoda 093 

207.  The  Wing-shells:  Pteropoda 709 

208.  The  Tusk-shells:  Solcnoconcha 703 

209.  The  Bivalves:  Lamellibranchiata  703 

X.— A  CONTRIBUTION  TO  THE  LIFE-HISTORY  OF  THE  OYSTER. 

210.  Outline  Sketch  of  the  Coarser  Anatomy  of  the  Oyster 711 

211.  The  Minute  Anatomy  of  the  Oyster 715 

212.  Sex  of  the  American  and  European  Oysters 719 

213.  New  Methods  of  Distinguishing  the  Sexes  and  of  Taking  the  Eggs  of  the  Oyster 722 

214.  Rate  of  Growth  of  Ostrea  virgin  ion 796 

2i:>.  The  Food  of  the  Oysters 789 

216.  The  Cause  of  the  Green  Color  of  Oysters 736 

217.  Local  Variations  in  the  Form  and  Habits  of  the  Oyster 742 

218.  The  Oyster  Crab  as  a  Mess-mate  and  Purveyor 744 

219.  Physical  and  Vital  Agencies  Destructive  to  Oysters 746 

220.  Natural  and  Artificial  Oyster  Banks. 760 

(686) 


W.— MOLLUSK8. 

205.  THE  CUTTLES— CEPHALOPODA. 

The  mollusks  called  "  Cuttles"  or  "Cuttle-fishes"  bear  a  very  important  relation  to  the  fisheries 
and  consequently  to  the  food  supply  of  the  United  States.  It  has  recently  been  ascertained  that 
some  of  these  Cuttle-fishes  attain  huge  bulk  and  corresponding  abilities  for  destruction.  The  two 
species  of  Arclnteuthw  (A.  princeps  and  A.  Hameyi),  roaming  through  the  North  Atlantic  and  now 
and  then  stranded  upon  the  beaches  of  Newfoundland,  have  each  a  total  length  of  from  thirty  to 
tilty  feet,  and  a  weight  of  solid  flesh  amounting  to  thousands  of  pounds. 

"  The  Cuttles,"  says  Dr.  Philip  Carpenter,  "  have  very  acute  senses.  They  have  an  approach 
to  a  brain,  inclosed  in  a  cartilaginous  skull.  They  can  hear  sounds,  and  evidently  enjoy  the  taste 
of  their  food.  They  have  a  large,  fleshy  tongue,  armed  with  recurved  prickles,  like  that  of  the  lion. 
They  either  crawl  on  their  head  tail  upwards,  or  swim,  tail  foremost,  by  striking  with  their  arms, 
or  squirt  themselves  backwards  by  forcing  water  forward  through  their  breathing  funnels. 

"They  are  ferocious  creatures,  the  tyrants  of  the  lower  orders,  and  do  not  scruple  to  attack 
and  devour  even  fishes.  The  larger  kinds  are  deservedly  dreaded  by  man.  Their  weapons  con- 
sist in  their  powerful  arms,  which  are  abundantly  furnished  with  rows  of  cup-like  suckers,  each 
of  which  fastens  on  its  prey  or  its  foe  like  a  limpet  to  the  rock.  Often  these  are  accompanied  with 
sharp-curved  teeth,  strong  enough  to  be  preserved  even  in  fossil  species." 

The  giant  Cuttle-fishes  of  the  north  (Architeuthis)  and  the  commoner  Squids  and  Calamariesof 
our  Atlantic  coast  belong  to  the  ten-armed  division  of  the  order  termed  Decapods.  The  three 
smaller  species  ordinarily  met  with  are  Loligo  Pealei,  Loligo  Pealei  var.  pallida,  and  Ommastrephet 
illecebrosus.  On  the  extreme  southern  coast  they  are  replaced  by  an  Octopod  (Octopus  granulatus). 

Of  these  four,  Loligo  Pealei  is  the  common  Squid  of  Long  Island  Sound  and  southward,  and 
when  full  grown  it  is  more  than  a  foot  in  length.  The  color  when  living  is  very  changeable,  owing 
to  the  alternate  contractions  of  the  color-vesicles  or  spots,  but  red  and  brown  predominate,  so  as 
to  give  a  general  purplish-brown  color.  An  allied  variety  or  subspecies,  named  pallida,  is  a 
"pale,  translucent,  gelatinous-looking"  creature,  with  few  spots  on  the  back  and  nearly  white 
beneath.  Commonly  five  or  six  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  arms,  it  frequently  grows  much  larger, 
and  is  of  broader  and  stouter  proportions  than  the  type-form,  from  which  it  is  further  distin- 
guished by  its  broader  caudal  fin  and  the  larger  size  of  its  suckers.  It  belongs  especially  to  the 
western  end  of  Long  Island  Sound,  "  where  it  is  abundant  with  the  schools  of  menhaden,  on  which 
it  feeds." 

"This  species,"  writes  Verrill,1  "is  found  along  the  whole  coast  from  South  Carolina  to  Massa- 
chusetts Bay. 

"It  is  the  Common  Squid  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  Cape  Cod.  In  Long  Island  Sound  ami  Vin.-\  ;ud 
Sound  it  is  very  abundant,  and  is  taken  in  large  numbers  in  the  fish-i>ound8  and  seines,  and  used 
to  a  large  extent  for  bait.  It  is  comparatively  scarce,  though  not  rare,  north  of  Cape  Cod.  The 
young  were  trawled  by  us  in  many  localities  in  Massachusetts  Bay  in  1878.  Large  specimens  were 
taken  in  the  pounds  at  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  August,  1879.  It  was  taken  in  considerable 

'Report  U.  8.  Fiah  Commission,  part  vii,  1883,  p.  366. 

'.- . 


688  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

quantities,  in  breeding  condition,  in  the  fish-pounds  at  Cape  Ann,  near  Gloucester,  Massachusetts, 
May,  1880  (var.  borealis).  It  has  not  been  observed  north  of  Cape  Ann.  Its  southern  limit  is  not 
known  to  nie,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  found  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina. 

"In  depth,  it  has  occurred  from  low-water  mark  to  fifty  fathoms.  The  eggs'  have  often  been 
taken  by  us  in  the  trawl,  in  great  abundance,  at  many  localities  along  the  southern  shores  of  New 
England,  in  five  to  twenty-five  fathoms. 

"It  is  known  to  be  a  very  important  element  in  the  food  supply  of  the  bluefish,  tautog,  sea- 
bass,  striped  bass,  weakfish,  king-fish,  and  many  other  of  our  larger  market  fishes. 

"In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  this  species  appears  to  be  replaced  by  another  species  (Loligo  Gahi 
D'Orbigny).  Of  this  we  have  several  specimens,  collected  on  the  west  coast  of  Florida,  at  Egmont 
Key,  near  Tampa  Bay,  by  Col.  E.  Jewett  and  Mr.  W.  T.  Coons.  This  species  is  closely  allied  to 
L.  Pealei,  but  has  a  more  slender  form,  with  the  caudal  fin  shorter  and  narrower  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  the  mantle.  The  pen  has  a  shorter  and  broader  shaft,  and  a  narrower  and  more 
oblong  blade,  which  has  parallel,  thickened,  and  darker-colored  portions  between  the  midrib  and 
margins.  The  tentacular  suckers  have  their  horny  rings  more  coarsely  and  equally  toothed,  there 
being  only  a  partial  alternation  of  larger  and  smaller  teeth. 

"Along  our  southern  coast,  from  Delaware  Bay  to  Florida,  a  much  shorter  and  relatively 
stouter  species  (Loligo  brevis  Blainv.)  occurs,  which  might  be  mistaken  by  a  careless  observer  for 
the  present  species.  In  addition  to  its  shorter  body,  it  has  very  different  large,  tentacular  suckers, 
with  the  teeth  on  the  horny  rim  coarser  and  all  of  similar  form  and  size.  Its  pen  is  also  shorter 
and  relatively  broader,  and  different  in  structure." 

"I  am  not  aware,"  he  says  elsewhere,2  "that  any  definite  information  has  hitherto  been 
published  as  to  the  rate  of  growth  or  length  of  life  of  any  of  our  cephalopods.  By  some  writers  it 
has  been  stated  that  the  Squids  are  all  annual,  but  this  seems  to  be  a  mere  assumption,  without 
any  evidence  for  its  basis.  Therefore  I  have  for  several  years  past  preserved  large  numbers  of 
specimens  of  the  young  of  Loligo  Pealei,  collected  at  different  seasons  and  localities,  in  order  to 
ascertain,  if  possible,  the  rate  of  growth  and  the  size  acquired  during  the  first  season,  at  least. 
One  of  the  following  tables  (I)  shows  some  of  the  data  thus  obtained.3 

"There  is  considerable  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  age  of  these  Squids,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  spawning  season  extends  through  the  whole  summer,  so  that  the  young  ones  hatched  early  in 
June  are  as  large  by  September  as  those  that  hatch  in  September  are  in  the  following  spring. 
Owing  to  the  same  cause,  most  of  the  large  lots  of  young  Squids  taken  in  midsummer  include 
various  sizes,  from  those  just  hatched  up  to  those  that  are  two  or  three  inches  long.  They  are 
often  mixed  with  some  of  those  of  the  previous  year,  considerably  larger  than  the  rest.  Earlier  in 
the  season  (in  May  and  the  first  part  of  June),  before  the  first-laid  eggs  begin  to  hatch,  the 
youngest  specimens  taken  (60mm  to  100mm  long)  are  presumed  to  belong  to  the  later  broods  of 
the  previous  autumn,  while  those  somewhat  larger  are  believed  to  be  from  earlier  broods  of  the 
previous  summer,  and  to  represent  the  growth  of  one  year  very  nearly. 

"Taking  these  principles  as  a  guide,  I  have  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions  from  the  data 
collected : 

"1.  The  young,  Byrida  begin  to  hatch  at  least  as  early  as  the  second  week  in  June,  ou  the 

'In  early  summer  this  Squid  resorts  to  gravelly  and  weedy  bottoms  to  lay  its  eggs.  They  are  contained  in  bunches 
or  clusters,  sometimes  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  consisting  of  hundreds  of  gelatinous  capsules  each  holding 
numerous  eggs.  These  clusters  are  attached  to  some  fixed  object,  and  the  oysters  upon  planted  beds  offer  conveniences 
which  the  Squid  is  very  likely  to  adopt.  This  occurrence  seems  to  be  a  source  of  decided  harm  in  Delaware  Bay,  for  the 
oystermen  there  assert  that  the  larger  "sea-grapes  "  (as  they  call  the  egg-bunches)  lift  many  oysters  from  the  bottom  by 
their  buoyancy  and  float  them  off  in  stormy  weather.— E.  I. 

'Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  part  vii,  1882,  pp.  353-355. 

'  See  the  original  article. 


BATE  OF  GROWTH  OF  YOUNG  SQUIDS. 

southern  coast  of  New  England,  and  continue  to  hatch  till  the  middle  of  September,  and  perhaps 
later. 

"  2.  By  the  second  week  in  July,  the  first  hatched  of  the  June  Squids  have  grown  to  the  size 
in  which  the  body  (or  mantle)  is  30mm  to  48"""  long;  but  these  are  associated  with  others  that  are 
younger,  of  all  sizes  down  to  those  just  hatched.  They  begin  to  show  a  disposition  to  go  in 
'schools '  composed  of  individuals  of  somewhat  similar  sizes. 

"3.  By  the  second  week  in  August,  the  largest  June  Squids  have  become  50mm  to  08mm  in 
length  of  body,  and  the  later  broods  are  5mm  to  30mm  long.  As  before,  with  these  sizes  occur  others 
of  all  ages  down  to  those  just  hatched.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  in  those  of  our 
tabulated  lots  taken  by  the  trawl  the  very  small  sizes  are  absent,  because  they  pass  freely  through 
the  course  meshes  of  the  net. 

"4.  By  the  second  week  in  September,  the  June  Squids  have  the  mantle  60miu  to  82mm  long. 
All  the  grades  of  smaller  ones  still  abound.  A  few  larger  specimens,  taken  the  last  of  August 
and  in  September,  84mm  to  110mm  long,  may  belong  to  the  June  brood,  but  they  may  belong  to 
those  of  the  previous  autumn. 

"5.  In  the  first  week  of  November,  the  larger  young  Squids  taken  had  acquired  a  mantle- 
length  of  79mm  to  8omm,  but  these  are  probably  not  the  largest  that  might  be  found.  Younger 
ones,  probably  half  lied  in  September  and  October,  8mm  to  20mm  in  length  of  body,  occurred  in  vast 
numbers  November  1,  1874.  The  specimens  taken  November  16,  off  Chesapeake  Bay,  having  the 
mantle  40mm  to  70mm  long,  probably  belong  to  the  schools  hatched  in  the  previous  summer. 

"ti.  In  May  and  June  the  smallest  Squids  taken,  and  believed  to  be  those  hatched  in  the 
previous  September  or  October,  have  the  mantle  62mm  to  100mm  long.  With  these  there  are  others 
of  larger  sizes,  up  to  152mm  to  188"1111,  and  connected  with  the  smaller  ones  by  intermediate  sizes. 
All  these  are  believed  to  belong  to  the  various  broods  of  the  previous  season.  In  these  the  sexual 
organs  begin  to  increase  in  size  and  the  external  sexual  characters  begin  to  appear.  The  males 
are  of  somewhat  greater  length  than  the  females  of  the  same  age. 

"  7.  In  July,  mingled  with  the  young  of  the  season,  in  some  lots,  but  more  often  in  separate 
schools,  we  take  young  Squids  having  the  mantle  75mm  to  100ram  long.  These  we  can  connect  by 
intermediate  sizes  with  those  of  the  previous  year  taken  in  June.  I  regard  these  as  somewhat 
less  than  a  year  old. 

"8.  Beyond  the  first  year  it  becomes  very  difficult  to  determine  the  age  with  certainty,  for  those 
of  the  first  season  begin,  even  in  the  autumn,  to  overlap  in  their  sizes  those  of  the  previous  year. 

"9.  It  is  probable  that  those  specimens  which  are  taken  in  large  quantities,  while  in  breeding 
condition,  during  the  latter  part  of  May  and  in  June,  having  the  mantle  n5mm  to  225mm  long  in 
the  females  and  200mm  to  275mm  long  in  the  males,  are  two  years  old. 

"H).  It  is  probable  that  the  largest  individuals  taken,  with  the  mantle  300mn)  to  42501111  long, 
are  at  least  three  years,  and  perhaps  in  some  cases  four  years  old.  The  very  large  si>ecimen8 
generally  occur  only  in  small  schools  and  are  mostly  males.  The  females  that  occur  with  these 
very  large  males  are  often  of  much  smaller  size,  and  may  be  a  year  younger  than  their  mates. 

"  11.  When  Squids  of  very  different  sizes  occur  together  in  a  school,  it  generally  happens 
that  the  larger  ones  are  engaged  in  devouring  the  smaller  ones,  as  the  contents  of  their  stomachs 
clearly  show.  Therefore,  it  is  probable  that  those  of  a  similar  age  keep  together  in  schools  for 
mutual  safety. 

"12.  Among  the  adult  specimens  of  var.  pallida  taken  November  16  and  December  7,  at 
Astoria,  there  are  several  young  ones,  from  75'""'  to  120min  in  length,  with  rudimentary  repro- 
ductive organs.    These  may,  perhaps,  l>e  the  young  of  the  year,  hatched  in  June." 
44F 


690  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Young  Squids  in  inconceivable  numbers,  and  even  the  adults,  are  greedily  devoured  by 
bluefish,  black  bass,  striped  bass,  weakfish,  mackerel,  cod,  and  many  other  marine  animals. 
Thus  they  are  really  of  great  importance  as  food  for  our  most  valuable  market  fishes. 

North  of  Cape  Cod  the  Squid  is  represented  by  the  Sea-arrow  or  Flying  Calamary,  Omma- 
8trephf8  illecebrosus,  sometimes  called  "short-finned"  in  contrast  to  the  long  "fins"  characteristic 
of  the  Loligos,  which  they  resemble  in  size  and  color. 

Professor  Verrill  has  given  the  following  graphic  account  of  this  species : 

"  When  living,  this  is  a  very  beautiful  creature,  owing  to  the  brilliancy  of  its  eyes  and  its  bright 
and  quickly-changing  colors.  It  is  also  very  quick  and  graceful  in  its  movements.  This  is  the 
most  common  'Squid'  north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  extends  as  far  south  as  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  and 
in  deep  water  to  the  region  off  Cape  Hatteras.  It  is  very  abundant  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  and  northward  to  Newfoundland.  It  is  taken  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  in 
immense  numbers,  and  used  as  bait  for  codfish.  It  occurs  in  vast  schools  when  it  visits  the  coast, 
but  whether  it  seeks  those  shores  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  or  in  search  of  food  is  not  known. 
I  have  been  unable  to  learn  anything  personally  in  regard  to  its  breeding  habits,  nor  have  I  been 
able  to  ascertain  that  any  one  has  any  information  in  regard  either  to  the  time,  manner,  or  place 
of  spawning.  At  Eastport,  Maine,  I  have  several  times  observed  them  in  large  numbers  in  mid- 
summer. But  at  that  time  they  seemed  to  be  wholly  engaged  in  the  pursuit,  of  food,  following 
the  schools  of  herring,  which  were  then  in  pursuit  of  shrimp  (Thysanopoda  norvegica),  which  occur 
in  the  Bay  of  Fuudy,  at  times,  in  great  quantities,  swimming  at  the  surface.  The  stomachs  of  the 
Squids  taken  on  these  occasions  were  distended  with  fragments  of  Thysanopoda,  or  with  the  flesh 
of  the  herring,  or  with  a  mixture  of  the  two,  but  their  reproductive  organs  were  not  in  an  active 
condition.  The  same  is  true  of  all  the  specimens  that  I  have  taken  at  other  localities  in  summer. 
From  the  fact  that  the  oviducts  are  small  and  simple,  and  the  nidamental  glands  little  developed, 
I  believe  that  it  will  eventually  prove  that  this  species  discharges  its  eggs  free  in  the  ocean,  and 
that  they  will  be  found  floating  at  the  surface,  either  singly  or  in  gelatinous  masses  or  bands,  not 
having  any  complicated  capsules  to  inclose  them.  Nothing  is  known  as  to  the  length  of  time 
required  by  this  species  to  attain  its  full  size.  It  probably  lives  several  years. 

"This  Squid  is  an  exceedingly  active  creature,  darting  with  great  velocity  backward,  or  in 
any  other  direction,  by  means  of  the  reaction  of  the  jet  of  water  which  is  ejected  with  great  force 
from  the  siphon,  and  which  may  be  directed  forward  or  backward,  or  to  the  right  or  left,  by 
bending  the  siphon.  Even  when  confined  in  a  limited  space,  as  in  a  fish-pond,  it  is  not  an  easy 
matter  to  capture  them  with  a  dip-net,  so  quick  will  they  dart  away  to  the  right  and  left.  When 
darting  rapidly  the  lobes  of  the  caudal  fin  are  closely  wrapped  around  the  body  and  the  arms  are 
held  tightly  together,  forming  an  acute  bundle  in  front,  so  that  the  animal,  in  this  condition,  is 
sharp  at  both  ends,  and  passes  through  the  water  with  the  least  possible  resistance.  Its  caudal 
fin  is  used  as  an  accessory  organ  of  locomotion  when  it  slowly  swims  about  or  balances  itself  for 
some  time  nearly  in  one  position  in  the  water. 

"The  best  observations  of  the  modes  of  capturing  its  prey  are  by  Messrs.  S.  I.  Smith  and  Oscar 
Harger,  who  observed  it  at  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  among  the  wharves,  in  large  numbers, 
July  28,  1872,  engaged  in  capturing  and  devouring  the  young  mackerel,  which  were  swimming 
about  in  '  schools,'  and  at  that  time  were  about  four  or  five  inches  long.  In  attacking  the  mackerel 
they  would  suddenly  dart  backward  among  the  fish  with  the  velocity  of  an  arrow,  and  as  suddenly 
turn  obliquely  to  the  right  or  left  and  seize  a  fish,  which  was  almost  instantly  killed  by  a  bite  in 
the  back  of  the  neck  with  their  sharp  beaks.  The  bite  was  always  made  in  the  same  place,  cutting 
out  a  triangular  piece  of  flesh,  and  was  deep  enough  to  penetrate  to  the  spinal  cord.  The  attacks 


HABITS  OF  THE  SEA-AKHOW. 

were  uot  always  successful,  and  were  sometimes  repeated  a  dozen  times  before  one  of  these  active 
and  wary  ttsbes  could  be  caught.  Sometimes,  after  making  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  one  of 
the  Squids  would  suddenly  drop  to  the  bottom,  and,  resting  upon  the  sand,  would  change  its  color 
to  that  of  the  sand  so  perfectly  as  to  be  almost  invisible.  In  this  position  it  would  wait  until  the 
fishes  came  back,  and  when  they  were  swimming  close  to  or  over  the  ambuscade,  the  Squid,  by  a 
sadden  dart,  would  be  pretty  sure  to  secure  a  fish.  Ordinarily,  when  swimming,  they  were  thickly 
spotted  with  red  and  brown,  but  when  darting  among  the  mackerel  they  appeared  translucent  and 
Vale.  The  mackerel,  however,  seemed  to  have  learned  that  the  shallow  water  was  the  safest  for 
them,  and  would  hug  the  shore  as  closely  as  possible,  so  that  in  pursuing  them  many  of  the  Squids 
became  stranded  and  perished  by  the  hundreds,  for  when  they  once  touch  the  shore  they  begin 
to  pump  water  from  their  siphons  with  great  energy,  and  this  usually  forces  them  farther  and 
farther  up  the  beach.  At  such  times  they  often  discharge  their  ink  in  large  quantities.  The 
attacks  on  the  young  mackerel  were  observed  mostly  at  or  near  high  water,  for  at  other  times  the 
mackerel  were  seldom  seen,  though  the  Squids  were  seen  swimming  about  at  all  hours,  and  these 
attacks  were  observed  both  in  the  day  and  evening. 

••  It  is  probable,  from  various  observations,  that  this  and  other  species  of  Squids  are  mainly 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  or  at  least  are  much  more  active  in  the  night  than  in  the  day.  Those 
that  are  caught  in  the  pounds  and  weirs  mostly  enter  in  the  night,  evidently  while  swimming 
along  the  shores  in  'schools.'  They  often  get  aground  on  the  sand-flats  at  Provincetown, 
Massachusetts,  in  the  night.  On  the  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  even  where  there  are  no  flats, 
I  have  often  found  them  in  the  morning  stranded  on  the  beaches  in  immense  numbers,  especially 
when  there  is  a  full  moon,  and  it  is  thought  by  many  of  the  fishermen  that  this  is  because,  like 
many  other  nocturnal  animals,  they  have  the  habit  of  turning  toward  and  gazing  at  a  bright 
light,  and  since  they  swim  backwards,  they  get  ashore  on  the  beaches  opposite  the  position  of  the 
moon.  This  habit  is  also  sometimes  taken  advantage  of  by  the  fishermen,  who  capture  them  for 
bait  for  codfish.  They  go  out  in  dark  nights  with  torches  in  their  boats,  and  by  advancing  slowly 
toward  a  beach  drive  them  ashore.  They  are  taken  in  large*  quantities  in  nets  and  pounds,  and 
also  by  means  of  'jigs'  or  groups  of  hooks,  which  are  moved  up  and  down  in  the  water,  and  to 
which  the  Squids  cling,  and  are  then  quickly  pulled  out  of  the  water.  They  are  also  sometimes 
caught  by  fish-hooks,  or  adhering  to  the  bait  used  for  fishes. 

"Their  habit  of  discharging  an  inky  fluid  through  the  siphon,  when  irritated  or  alarmed,  is 
well  known.  The  ink  is  said  U>  have  caustic  and  irritating  properties. 

"  This  Squid,  like  the  Loligo,  is  eagerly  pursued  by  the  cod  and  many  other  voracious  fishes, 
even  when  adult  Among  its  enemies  while  young  are  the  full-grown  mackerel,  who  thus  retaliate 
for  the  massacre  of  their  own  young  by  the  Squids.  The  specimens  observed  catching  young 
mackerel  were  mostly  eight  to  ten  inches  long,  and  some  of  them  were  still  larger. 

"This  species,  like  the  common  Loltgo,  has  the  instincts  and  habits  of  a  cannibal,  for  small 
Squids  of  its  own  species  form  one  of  the  most  common  articles  of  its  diet.  From  an  adult  female 
of  ordinary  size  (G,  of  our  tables),  caught  at  Eastport,  Maine,  I  took  a  great  mass  of  fragments 
of  small  Squids,  with  which  the  stomach  was  greatly  distended.  These  fragments  coropletely 
tilled  a  vial  having  a  capacity  of  four  fluid  ounces. 

"From  the  rapidity  with  which  the  Squids  devour  the  fish  that  they  capture  it  is  evident 
that  the  jaws  are  the  principal  organs  used,  and  that  the  odotitophore  plays  only  a  subordinate 
part  in  feeding.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  condition  of  the  fowl  ordinarily  found  in  the  stomach, 
for  both  the  tishes  and  the  shrimp  are  usually  in  fragments  and  shreds  of  some  size,  and  smaller 
creatures,  like  amphipods,  are  often  found  entire,  or  nearly  so;  even  the  vertebrae  and  other 


692  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

boues  of  herring  are  often  present.  On  the  other  hand,  in  some  specimens,  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  are  finely  divided,  as  if  the  odontophore  had  been  used  for  that  purpose."1 

The  loss  which  the  fisheries  sustain  through  their  voracity,  however,  is  probably  equalized  by 
the  food  which  Cuttle-fishes  furnish  the  carnivorous  fishes  and  various  other  denizens  of  the  deep. 
For  example,  the  sperm  whale  seems  to  rely  largely  upon  a  diet  of  big  Squids,  sinking  to  the 
bottom  where  they  are  groping  about,  to  drag  them  up,  or  nipping  off  their  large  arms  as  they 
swim  about  iiear  the  surface.  Dolphins  and  porpoises  also  prey  upon  the  Cuttles,  and  all  the 
flesh-eating  fishes  pursue  and  devour  them  at  every  opportunity,  particularly  the  cod  and  bluefish. 

Knowledge  of  this  fact  long  ago  led  to  the  Squid  being  taken  by  fishermen  as  an  attractive 
bait.  More  than  half  of  all  the  Bank  fishing  is  said  to  be  with  such  bait.  When  the  shoals  of 
this  mollusk  \Loligo  Squid]  approach  the  coast  hundreds  of  vessels  are  ready  to  capture  them, 
forming  an  extensive  cuttle  fishery,  engaging  five  hundred  sail  of  French,  English,  and  American 
ships.  Their  habit  of  moon-gazing,  also,  is  sometimes  taken  advantage  of  on  the  coast  of  Maine 
by  the  fishermen,  who  capture  them  for  bait  for  codfish;  they  go  out  in  dark  nights  with  torches 
in  their  boats  and  by  advanciug  slowly  toward  a  beach  drive  them  ashore.  Violent  storms  heap 
great  windrows  of  dead  Squids  on  the  beach,  where  they  are  gathered  up,  and  they  are  also 
sometimes  taken  on  lines  adhering  to  the  bait  set  for  fishes.  These  "drives"  and  accidents 
happen  in  the  spring,  when  Cuttles  are  flocking  into  shallow  water  to  lay  their  eggs. 

Since  this  solidly-fleshed  animal  is  so  extensively  eaten  by  other  animals  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  that  men  also  should  number  it  among  the  edible  products  of  the  sea.  "The  flesh  of  the 
large  cephalopodous  animals,"  says  Simmonds,2  "  was  esteemed  as  a  delicacy  by  the  ancients. 
Most  of  the  Eastern  nations,  and  those  of  the  Polynesian  Islands,  partake  of  it  and  relish  it  as 
food.  They  are  exposed  for  sale  dried  in  the  bazaars  or  markets  throughout  India,  and  .  .  . 
dried  Cuttle-fish  may  be  seen  among  the  articles  of  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Siamese  food.  In 
Chili  the  flesh  is  also  considered  a  delicacy,  and  in  Barbados  the  bastard  Cuttle-fish  or  'Calmar' 
(Loligo  gagittata  Lam.)  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  by  the  lower  classes." 

In  the  Mediterranean  also,  particularly  near  Tunis,  and  along  the  Portugal  coast,  the  catch 
and  consumption  of  Cuttles  is  large,  amounting  to  nearly  a  million  pounds  a  year,  most  of  which 
is  sold  in  Greece,  after  being  salted  and  dried  or  pickled.  These  are  Octopods.  The  same  sort  of 
Cuttle-fish  (Octopus  punctatus)  serves  the  double  purpose  on  the  Pacific  coast,  from  California  to 
Alaska,  of  bait  for  the  fisheries  and  food  for  the  Indians.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  is  chiefly 
sought  in  Puget  Sound,  where  the  coast  tribes  hunt  and  kill  Octopods  often  large  enough  to  be 
dangerous  foes  in  a  quarrel,  by  going  to  their  haunts  in  canoes  and  spearing  them.  To  some  small 
tribes  the  Octopus  affords  the  chief  supply  of  animal  food.  There  is  no  reason  why  squid-flesh 
from  the  northern  Atlantic  Ocean  should  not  become  available  as  food,  and  prove  desirable — to 
those  who  like  it.  It  would  be  both  wholesome  and  cheap;  and  a  single  Architeuthis  would 
furnish  a  meal  for  a  frigate's  crew.  In  Bermuda  the  Octopus  granulatus  regularly  forms  a  portion 
of  the  fare  of  the  fisher  families.  As  the  Bermudan  fish  and  methods  of  capture  prevail  across 
among  the  Florida  reefs,  no  doubt  this  habit  prevails  there  also.  In  New  York  City  there  is  a 
considerable  sale  of  fresh  Squids  to  foreign  residents,  and  the  trade  is  increasing.  There  seems 
no  reason  why  on  some  coasts  this  flesh  should  not  be  far  more  thoroughly  utilized  than  it 
is  at  present. 

In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  bait,  or  as  a  source  of  oil  (our  Ommastrephes  has  been  thus 
utilized  somewhat),  and  as  possible  food,  the  cephalopods  contribute  two  or  three  useful  articles 

1  Report  U.  8.  Pish  Commission,  part  vii,  1882,  pp.  305-308. 
"Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea,  p.  116. 


THE  SEA-SNAILS.  i','.i;; 

to  commerce.  A  large  portion  of  them  carry  iiuder  the  skin  of  the  back  a  long,  Hat,  calcareous 
'•bone"  or  plate,  which  serves  as  a  stay  or  support  to  the  frame  in  lien  of  a  skeleton.  In  some 
species  it  is  long  and  slender  like  a  quill-pen.  This  bone,  reduced  to  powder,  forma  a  useful 
pounce,  "  used  in  rewriting  over  erasures  to  prevent  blotting,  and  in  medicine  as  an  antacid."  It 
is  also  combined  into  a  dentifrice.  The  principal  use  for  it,  nevertheless,  is  for  feeding  to  caged 
birds  requiring  lime  for  their  health.  For  this  purpose  several  hundred- weight  of  "cuttle-bone" 
are  brought  into  the  United  States  annually.  It  is  furnished  chiefly  from  Chinese  waters, 
but  is  also  collected  floating  in  the  Mediterranean.  None  of  our  American  species  afford  a  useful 
cuttle-bone,  however;  so  that  this  import  can  scarcely  be  diminished.  The  name  "Calamary" 
is  often  applied  to  a  Cuttle-fish,  and  arises  from  the  fact  that  each  of  them  carries  in  an  internal 
gland  a  supply  of  blue-black,  ink-like  liquid,  which  upon  the  slightest  alarm  he  discharges  into 
the  water,  making  a  dense  cloud  under  cover  of  which  he  rapidly  retreats.1  This  ink,  removed  and 
dried  into  little  cakes,  with  a  greater  or  less  adulteration,  forms  the  sepia  of  painters  and  the 
India  ink  of  draughtsmen.  Now  it  is  brought  almost  wholly  from  Oriental  ports,  via  London, 
but  it  might  probably  be  saved  on  our  coast  as  well.  Provided  with  pen  and  ink  on  all  occa- 
sions, these  mollusks  seem  truly  to  stand  at  the  head  of  the  class  of  animals  they  represent — 
not  wholly  because  of  their  superior  size  and  loftier  brain  and  organization,  but  also  on  the  score 
of  literary  accomplishments. 

206.  THE  SEA-SNAILS— GASTEROPODA. 

The  Gasteropod  mollusks,  bearing  a  shell  in  a  single  piece  and  usually  spirally  whorled,  are 
not  of  much  direct  utility  to  man,  as  a  rule,  on  this  side  of  the  world,  north  of  the  tropics;  but  there 
are  a  few  species  which  deserve  mention.  Their  principal  claim  to  notice  in  this  connection  lies 
in  the  fact  that  they  figure  upon  the  habitual  bill  of  fare  of  various  fishes.  No  doubt  the  list 
appended  might  be  greatly  enlarged  if  we  were  better  informed,  particularly  in  respect  to  the 
southern  coast.  Thus  far  the  chief  knowledge  possessed  in  respect  to  the  molluscan  food  of 
American  fishes  is  derived  from  Gould's  "  Report  upon  the  Invertebrates  of  Massachusetts,"  and 
Prof.  A.  E.  Yen-ill's  report  to  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  From  this  and  other  sources 
is  compiled  the  succeeding  catalogue  of  species  of  Gasteropod  mollusks  that  are  fed  upon  by 
fishes;  these,  it  must  be  observed,  are  confined  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and,  to  a  great  extent,  to  the 
waters  of  New  England,  through  lack  of  information  in  respect  to  the  similar  food  of  the  fishes  of 
the  southern  and  the  western  coast.  The  list  includes  about  fifty  species,  and  reads: 

Bela  turricula,  Bela  harpularia,  Bela  pyramidalis,  Bela  decussata,  Adinet6  CouthouyJ,  Ncptunea 
despecta,  Buccinum  undatum,  Buccinum  ciliatum,  Tritia  trivittata,  llyanawa  obtoleta,  Trophon 
dathratu*,  Trophon  clathratus  var.  scalar  if  or  mis,  Purpura  lapillwi,  Astyri*  ronacca,  Astyris  lunata, 
Natica  clausa,  Lunatia  heros,  Lunatia  grcentandica,  Lunatia  immaculate,  Amauropsiti  islandica, 
Velutina  sonata,  Velutina,  laicigata,  Lamellaria  perspicua,  Littorina — several  species,  Triforis  nigro- 
cinctutt,  Bittium  nigrum,  Turritella  erona,  Trichoiropis  borealig,  Grepidula  fornicata,  Crepidula  plana, 
Aporrhais  occidental!*,  Scalar ia  grccnlandica,  Scalaria  Novanglice,  Margarita  cinerea,  Margarita 
grcenlandica,  Margarita  argentata,  Machcnroplaj;  obscura,  Puncturella  noachina,  Tonicella  marmora, 
Trachydermon  albu*,  Trachydermon  ruber,  Chiton — various  species,  Auricula  veatita  var.  Emer»onii, 

"There  are  frightful  tales  abroad  of  the  ferocity  with  which  the  larger  of  these  creatures  will  attack  man,  and  they 
are  greatly  dreaded  by  the  shell-divers  of  the  South  Seas;  but  the  truth  is  the  Cuttle-fish  ia  timid,  and  will  hide  or  run 
away  whenever  ho  can  from  anything  so  large  and  strange  as  a  man;  that  is,  any  Cuttles  smaller  than  the  giants  of 
Newfoundland.  A  diver  who  touched  a  large  Octopus  would  instinctively  be  seized,  of  course,  since  the  creature  would 
know  no  different  course  of  action;  but  voluntary  attack  is  not  credited  by  those  who  know  most  about  the  habits  of  the 
animal. 


694  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Odostomia  stria-tula,  Philine  lineolata,  Amphisphyra  hi  emails,  Amphisphyra  debilis,  Diaphana  Goulflii, 
and  Cylichna  alba  among  salt-water  forms;  with  many  species  of  Melampm,  Paludina,  Planorbis, 
Limnea,  Physa,  and  other  fresh-water  genera. 

But  many  of  these  species,  and  several  not  mentioned  here,  have  additional  claims  to  our 
notice.  For  example,  Buccinum  undatum,  the  Cape  Ann  "Periwinkle,"  might  well  serve  as  food, 
since  in  Europe  it  has  long  been  thus  utilized.  In  all  the  coast  towns  of  England  and  Scotland 
this  shell  is  peddled  for  food,  under  the  name  "Whelk"  or  " Wilk,"  and  it  may  be  bought  at  all 
the  street-corners  in  the  poorer  quarters  of  London,  where  it  is  esteemed  a  great  luxury.  Our 
•Whelk  might  equally  well  be  eaten,  and  is  very  common  northward  from  Cape  Cod  to  the  arctic 
regions,  living  chiefly  on  rocky  shores,  but  also  inhabiting  muddy  bottoms.  It  is  thus  accessible 
to  castaways  upon  bleak  arctic  coasts  where  no  other  edible  shell-fish  of  consequence  occurs,  and 
ought  not  to  be  forgotten  by  those  who  take  the  risk  of  shipwreck  in  Labrador  or  Greenland. 

Next  demanding  attention  are  two  of  the  largest  mollusks  on  the  Atlantic  coast  north  of  the 
tropics — Fulgur  carica  and  Sycotypus  canaliculata.  North  of  New  Jersey  these  two  are  confused 
under  the  general  names  of  "  Periwinkle,"  "  Winkle,"  and  "  Wrinkle."  The  former  of  these  species 
extends  "northward  only  to  Cape  Cod,"  and  is  uncommon  beyond  Long  Island,  while  the  second 
is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  in  Vineyard  Sound  and  along  the  Connecticut  shore  than  south- 
ward. Both  are  carnivorous,  and  find  in  the  Oysters  a  quiet,  easy  prey ;  they  consequently  do 
great  damage  to  the  beds,  and  are  properly  destroyed  by  fishermen  whenever  a  chance  occurs.  I 
believe  this  is  especially  true  of  the  Sycotypus.  On  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  southward, 
where  the  Fulgur  reaches  an  immense  size,  and  is  known  as  the  "Conch,"  the  oystermen  complain 
very  little  of  it. 

The  Sycotypus  is  more  common  north  of  New  York,  though  it  does  not  exist  at  all  beyond 
Cape  Cod;  while  along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  and  southward  it  is  the  Fulgur  which  is  charge- 
able with  nearly  all  mischief  perpetrated,  since  the  other  species  is  rarely  seen.  Occasionally,  as 
Verrill  mentions,  specimens  of  both  may  be  found  crawling  on  sandy  flats  or  in  the  tide-pools, 
especially  during  the  spawning  season,  but  they  do  not  ordinarily  live  in  such  situations,  but  in 
deeper  water,  on  hard  bottoms  off  shore.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  they  do  not  burrow  at  all, 
though  they  are  able  to  insert  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot  into  the  sand  sufficiently  to  afford 
them  a  strong  anchorage  against  currents.  A  very  soft  or  a  very  rocky  bottom  they  equally 
avoid. 

The  curious  egg-cases  of  these  mollusks,  to  which  the  names  "sea-ruffle"  and  "sea-necklace" 
are  often  given  by  fishermen,  always  attract  the  attention  of  visitors  to  the  sea  side,  who  find 
them  cast  upon  the  beaches;  and  we  can  well  echo  the  pious  exclamation  of  the  old  historian  of 
Martha's  Vineyard, — "The  Author  of  nature  makes  a  wonderful  and  copious  provision  for  the 
propagation  of  this  worm!"  The  eggs  are  discharged  in  a  series  of  disk-shaped,  subcircular,  or 
reniform,  yellowish  capsules,  parchment-like  in  texture,  united  by  one  edge  to  a  stout  stem  of  the 
same  kind  of  material  often  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  in  length.  "The  largest  capsules,  about 
an  inch  in  diameter,  are  in  the  middle,  the  size  decreasing  toward  each  end.  On  the  outer  border 
is  a  small  circular  or  oval  spot,  of  thinner  material,  which  the  young  ones  break  through  when 
they  are  ready  to  leave  the  capsules,  each  of  which,  when  perfect,  contains  twenty  to  thirty  or 
more  eggs  or  young  shells,  according  to  the  season."  Verrill  adds  interesting  particulars,  as 
follows : 

"Dr.  Elliott  Coues,  who  has  observed  Fulgur  carica  forming  its  cases  at  Fort  Macon,  North 
Carolina,  states  that  the  females  bury  themselves  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  sand  on 
the  flats  that  are  uncovered  at  low  water,  and  remain  stationary  during  the  process.  The  string 


or  mi:  CONCH.  ,;«»;, 

of  capsules  is  gradually  thrust  upward  a-s  fast  as  formed,  ami  tinally  protrudes  from  the  surface  of 
the  sand,  anil,  when  completed,  lie*  exposed  on  it.s  surface.  The  string  In-gins  as  a  single  shred, 
two  or  three  inches  long,  without .well-formed  eases;  the  first  eases  are  small  and  imperfect  in 
shape,  but  they  rapidly  increase  in  size  and  soon  become  jwrfect,  the  largest  being  in  the  middle; 
the  series  ends  more  abruptly  than  it  began,  with  a  few  smaller  and  less  iterfuct  capsules.  The 
number  of  capsules  varies  considerably,  but  there  are  usually  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  or 
more.  At  Fort  Macon  Dr.  Coues  observed  this  species  spawning  in  May,  but  at  New  Haven  they 
spawn  as  early  as  .March  and  April.  It  is  probable  that  the  period  of  spawning  extends  over 
several  months.  Mr.  Sanderson  Smith  thinks  that  they  also  spawn  in  autumn  on  Long  Island.  It. 
is  not  known  how  long  a  time  each  female  requires  for  the  formation  of  her  string  of  capsules. 
There  are  two  forms. of  these  capsules,  about  equally  abundant  in  this  region.  In  one  the  sides  of 
the  capsules  are  nearly  smooth,  but  the  edge  is  thick  or  truncate  along  most  of  the  circumference, 
and  crossed  by  numerous  sharp  transverse  ridges  or  partitions,  dividing  it  into  facets.  Dr. 
Cones  states  that  these  belong  to  Fulgur  carica.  An  examination  of  the  young  shells,  ready 
to  leave  the  capsules,  confirms  this.  The  other  kind  has  larger  and  thinner  capsules,  with  a  thin, 
sharp  outer  edge,  while  the  sides  have  radiating  ridges  or  raised  lines.  Sometimes  the  sides 
are  unlike,  one  being  smooth  and  more  or  less  concave,  the  other  convex  and  crossed  by  ten 
or  twelve  radiating,  elevated  ridges  extending  to  the  edge.  This  kind  was  attributed  to  Fulgur 
carica  by  Dr.  G.  H.  Perkins,  and  formerly  by  Mr.  Sanderson  Smith,  but  a  more  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  young  shells,  within  the  capsules,  shows  that  they  belong  to  Sycotypus  canaliculate."1 

Eggs  so  exposed  are  subject  to  numberless  accidents,  being  drifted  ashore,  ground  to  pieces 
by  storms,  and  no  doubt  eaten  by  bottom-feeding  fishes,  so  that  only  a  few  eggs  out  of  the 
hundreds  in  each  "necklace"  are  ever  born,  or,  accomplishing  that,  are  able  to  survive  the  perils 
of  unprotected  youth  and  grow  to  adult  age  and  strength.  Having  once  done  so,  however,  this 
mollusk  probably  lives  to  a  very  great  age. 

An  examination  of  a  specimen  of  either  of  these  species  will  show  that  in  both  the 
muscular  part  is  large  and  strong  and  the  mouth  powerful.  The  food  of  the  Conch  being  mainly 
the  ile*h  of  other  mollnsks,  its  method  of  killing  them  is  one  of  brute  strength,  since  it  is  unpro- 
vided with  the  silicious,  file-like  tongue  by  means  of  which  the  small  "Drills"  set  at  naught  the 
shelly  armor  of  their  victims.  The  Conch  is  a  greater  savage  than  that.  Seizing  upon  the  unfor- 
tunate Oyster,  unable  to  run  away,  he  envelops  its  shell  in  the  concave  under  surface  of  his  foot, 
and,  by  just  such  a  muscular  action  as  you  would  employ  in  grasping  an  object  in  the  palm  of 
your  fist,  crushes  the  shell  into  fragments  and  feasts  at  leisure  on  the  flesh  thus  exposed.  Where 
Oysters  or  other  prey  are  abundant,  this  operation  is  quickly  repeated  and  vastly  destructive. 
One  planter  in  the  upper  part  of  Buzzard's  Bay,  where  these  pests  are  very  troublesome,  thought 
one  Winkle  was  capable  of  killing  a  bushel  of  Oysters  in  a  single  hour.  They  do  not  confine 
themselves  to  Oysters  altogether,  of  course ;  any  mollusks  or  other  marine  animal,  sluggish  and 
weak  enough  to  be  caught  and  broken  up,  suffers  from  their  predacity.  I  was  told  in  New 
Jersey,  by  an  intelligent  man,  that  the  Conch  would  even  draw  the  Razor-shell  out  of  his  burrow 
and  devour  it.  If  this  be  true,  no  doubt  the  Soft  Clam  also  falls  a  victim  to  the  same  marauder. 
The  Quahaug  is  generally  safe  in  his  massive  shells. 

The  oyster-beds  most  subject  to  attack  and  harm  by  the  Winkles  and  Concha  are  those 
planted  in  water  which  is  quite  salt,  as  is  the  practice  in  New  England  and  Long  Island  Sound. 
The  beds  of  the  Great  South  Bay,  Si  a  i  en  Island,  and  the  southern  Jersey  coast  are  well  protected 
by  the  outer  beaches  from  the  sea,  and  to  these  barriers  owe  their  immunity  from  the  Fulgur, 
while  the  Sycotypu*,  though  present  inside  the  beaches,  seems  to  do  small  damage.  Oystermen 

'Report  U.  8.  Fuh  Commission,  part  i,  1873,  pp.  366,  358. 


696  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

will  tell  you,  also,  tbat  beds  which  are  disturbed  from  time  to  time  by  the  planter  will  suffer  more 
harm  than  neglected  beds,  especially  in  summer.  Of  course  it  is  to  be  expected,  as  reported,  that 
where  planting  has  gone  on  for  many  years,  there  these  predatory  mollusks  have  visibly  increased 
in  numbers. 

In  regard  to  ridding  our  beds  of  (his  pest,  I  can  only  advise,  as  heretofore,  that  every  effort 
be  made  to  destroy  every  specimen  taken  and  every  "necklace"  of  eggs  which  can  be  got  hold  of. 
The  trawl,  tangles,  etc.,  recommended  for  the  suppression  of  star-fishes,  in  my  Report  to  the 
Census  Bureau  upon  the  Oyster  Industries,  would  take  up  these  eggs  at  the  same  time,  and  thus 
do  double  service.  Persistent  fighting  is  the  only  resource  against  this  enemy,  however,  as  in 
the  case  of  others. 

Some  points  of  minor  interest  may  be  mentioned  before  leaving  this  subject.  Both  of  these 
shells  were  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  coast  ceremonially,  and  as  material  for  the  making  of  white 
wampum,  their  money  of  inferior  value,  which  consisted  of  bead-shaped  sections  of  the  central 
column  of  the  shell.  From  them,  also,  were  fashioned  sundry  articles  of  service  and  ornament, 
such  as  trowels,  spoons,  and  dippers;  they  are  sometimes  even  yet  called  "ladle  shells."  The 
Indians  ate  the  animals,  too,  when  hard  pressed  for  food,  and  have  been  followed  in  this  practice 
by  the  whites,  to  some  extent.  De  Voe  says  they  used  sometimes  be  sent  into  Catharine  Market, 
New  York,  from  Long  Island,  and  found  sale;  "but,"  he  adds,  "they  are  not  generally  relished. 
being  somewhat  strong  flavored.  They  are  mostly  used  by  the  poor  who  live  near  the  coast." 
Several  foreign  mollusks,  not  greatly  different,  are  eaten — generally  being  boiled — and  perhaps 
proper  cooking  would  make  these  Conchs  more  palatable  than  they  have  hitherto  proved. 

Under  the  name  of  "Drill"  is  included  a  numerous  class  of  univalve  mollusks,  which  are 
carnivorous  in  their  tastes,  and  armed  with  a  tongue-ribbon  so  shaped  and  so  well  supplied  with 
flinty  teeth  that  by  means  of  it  they  can  file  a  round  hole  through  an  enemy's  shell, — a  habit 
which  renders  them  of  much  account  in  the  fisheries,  where  the  victim  they  attack  is  the  valuable 
Oyster,  as  they  are  sadly  prone  to  do.  The  mode  in  which  the  entrance  is  made  has  been  clearly 
described  by  Rev.  Samuel  Lockwood,  as  follows : 

"The  tongue  is  set  with  three  rows  of  teeth  like  a  file;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  tongue-file,  or  dental 
band,  and  is  called  by  conchologists  the  lingual  ribbon.  .  .  .  Having  with  the  utmost  care 
witnessed  a  number  of  times  the  creature  in  the  burglarious  act,  I  give  the  following  as  my  view 
of  the  case:  With  its  fleshy  disk,  called  the  foot,  it  secures  by  adhesion  a  firm  hold  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  Oyster's  shell.  The  dental  ribbon  is  next  brought  to  a  curve,  and  one  point  of  this 
curve,  on  its  convex  side,  is  brought  to  bear  directly  on  the  desired  spot.  At  this  point  the  teeth 
are  set  perpendicularly,  and  the  curve,  resting  at  this  point,  as  on  a  drill,  is  made  to  rotate  one 
circle,  or  nearly  so,  when  the  rotation  is  reversed;  and  so  the  movements  are  alternated,  until, 
after  long  and  patient  labor,  a  perforation  is  accomplished.  This  alternating  movement,  I  think, 
must  act  favorably  on  the  teeth,  tending  to  keep  them  sharp.  To  understand  the  precise  movement, 
let  the  reader  crook  his  forefinger,  and,  inserting  the  knuckle  in  the  palm  of  the  opposite  hand, 
give  to  it,  by  the  action  of  the  wrist,  the  sort  of  rotation  described.  The  hole  thus  effected  by 
the  drill  is  hardly  so  much  as  a  line  in  diameter.  It  is  very  neatly  countersunk.  The  hole 
finished,  the  little  burglar  inserts  its  siphon  or  sucking-tube,  and  thus  feeds  upon  the  occupant  of 
the  house  into  which  it  has  effected  a  forced  entrance.  To  a  mechanic's  eye  there  is  something 
positively  beautiful  iu  the  symmetry  of  the  bore  thus  effected— it  is  so  'true';  he  could  not  do  it 
better  himself,  even  with  his  superior  tools  and  intelligence." 

These  small  "Snails,"  "Drills,"  "Borers,"  and  "Snail-bores,"  as  they  are  variously  called, 
belong  to  several  species  of  Natica,  Purpura,  Anachis,  Aatyris,  Tritia,  Ilyanassa,  etc. ;  but  the  master 


DESTRUCTIVENESS  OF  THE  COMMON  DRILL.  697 

amiinost  destructive,  as  well  as  most  abumlunt  of  them  all,  is  the  Urosalpinx  cinerea  of  Stimpaon. 
It  is  this  which  is  the  common  "Drill"  of  the  oyster-beds;  and  it  is  its  eggs,  laid  in  small  vase- 
shapcd  capsules,  which  are  often  found  attached  in  groups  to  the  under  surfaces  of  stones. 
Several  of  the  small  mollusks  mentioned  above  lay  eggs  in  this  way,  but  the  Drill's  capsules  have 
very  short  stalks,  or  are  almost  sessile,  and  are  compressed  with  an  ovate  outline,  while  angular 
ridges  pass  down  their  sides.  The  natural  home  of  the  Drill  is  the  tide-pools  and  weedy  borders 
of  rocky  shallows,  where  barnacles,  hydroids,  anemones,  rock-loving  limpets,  and  other  associated 
forms  that  find  shelter  among  the  alga)  afford  it  abundant  food.  Though  this  is  precisely  where 
the  Mussels  grow  till  the  rocks  are  almost  black  with  them,  it  is  said  that  they  are  never  attacked 
by  the  Drills. 

The  Uro»alpinx  sometimes  strays  to  the  oyster-beds,  but  is  usually  carried  there  with  the  seed 
supplies,  and,  finding  plenty  of  nourishment,  lives  and  increases.  Though  its  multiplication  is  not 
very  rapid,  it  is  fast  enough  to  make  it  a  very  serious  obstacle  to  success  in  the  course  of  a  few 
\cars.  In  nearly  every  case  I  was  told  that  formerly  there  were  no  Drills,  but  now  the  oyster- 
beds  were  overrun.  This  was  reported  in  particular  of  the  Great  South  Bay  of  Long  Island  and 
at  Key  port,  New  Jersey.  I  heard  less  of  its  ravages  in  New  Jersey,  except  in  the  Delaware ;  but 
in  Chesapeake  Bay  nearly  every  dredge-haul  in  any  part  of  Maryland  or  Virginia  waters  brings 
tlifiu  up.  The  Potomac  seems  to  be  the  district  least  infested.  Of  course,  in  such  natural  haunts 
as  Hie  rocky  shores  of  Buzzard's  Bay  and  Connecticut  they  would  be  present  if  there  were  no 
Oysters,  and  are  all  the  harder  to  dislodge. 

Once  having  attacked  an  oyster-bed,  they  work  with  rapidity,  and  seem  to  make  sudden  and 
combined  attacks  at  considerable  intervals.  Their  disappearance  from  certain  restricted  localities, 
too,  for  a  long  time  is  unexplained. 

What  is  the  best  way  to  combat  them,  or  whether  there  is  any  hope  of  ridding  the  beds  of 
them,  are  questions  often  discussed  by  oyster-culturiste.  It  is  certain  that  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
might  be  avoided  if  care  were  exercised  in  culling  seed  to  throw  out — not  into  the  water,  but  on 
the  ground  or  deck — all  the  Drills,  instead  of  carrying  them  to  one's  beds,  deliberately  planting 
iliciii,  and  then  grumbling  at  destruction  which  previous  care  would  have  avoided.  It  would  cost 
less  in  point  of  mere  labor,  no  doubt,  to  prevent  this  plague  than  to  cure  it  when  it  became  no  longer 
endurable.  Some  planters  clean  up  pieces  of  bottom  very  thoroughly  before  planting,  in  order  to 
get  all  this  sort  of  vermin  out  of  their  way,  as  well  as  to  stir  up  the  mud  and  fit  it  for  the  reception 
of  spat.  It  is  on  hard  bottom  that  Drills  are  especially  troublesome,  and  here  some  planters  go 
over  the  ground  with  a  fine-meshed  dredge  in  order  to  get  them  up,  but  they  fail  to  catch  all. 
This  is  done  at  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  I  know,  and  the  men  who  have  steamers  find  in  the  celerity 
with  which  they  are  able  to  accomplish  this  sort  of  work  a  great  argument  against  any  restriction 
to  exclusively  sailing-rig. 

The  Drill  can  be  exterminated  to  a  great  extent,  also,  by  diligently  destroying  its  eggs.  Small 
boys  might  well  be  paid  to  search  for  them  and  destroy  them  among  the  weedy  rockH  by  the  shore 
at  low  tide.  A  gentleman  at  Sayville,  Long  Island,  assured  me  that  in  those  years  when  eels 
were  plentiful  the  Drills  were  kept  down  because  the  eels  fed  on  their  eggs.  This  gentleman  said 
in  the  Great  South  Bay  the  Drills  were  nearly  conquering  the  planters,  and  he  advised  the 
removal  of  all  shells  from  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  in  order  that  the  Drills  might  have  nothing  left 
on  which  to  place  their  eggs.  This  might  do  there,  where  there  are  no  rocks  along  the  shore  and 
the  Drill  is  not  native;  but  I  doubt  whether  so  sweeping  a  measure  of  protection  could  ever  be 
carried  out. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  Qastrochcena  and  various  pholadiform  mollusks  are  a  great  bane  to  the 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

oyster-beds,  but  they  penetrate  by  digging  burrows  wherein  their  whole  shell  is  lodged.  Where 
large  numbers  of  these  are  present,  with  the  help  of  boring- worms  and  sponges,  they  may  so 
riddle  a  reef  as  to  cause  its  entire  disintegration  under  the  first  gale.  A  fourth  borer  is  Purpura 
lapillus,  which  is  of  interest  in  another  direction.  The  famous  Tyrian  purple  of  ancient  days— 
the  regal  dye  that  was  deemed  too  splendid  a  color  to  be  worn  by  any  but  kings  and  nobles- 
was  produced  from  a  sea-snail,  and  conchologists  have  busied  themselves  to  discover  which 
particular  one. 

In  the  works  of  Pliny  and  Aristotle,  the  earliest  sources  of  knowledge  on  the  subject,  the 
information  is  too  vague  to  be  relied  upon.  Dr.  Roth,  of  Munich,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Jeru- 
salem Literary  Society,  says  that  several  years  ago  (previous  to  1857)  he  found  at  Jaffa  the 
Purpura  patula,  sought  as  food  by  the  Christians  during  fast  days :  "  On  puncturing  this  animal 
there  issued  a  greenish  liquid,  which,  when  exposed  to  the  sunshine,  changed  to  purple.  This 
purple  increased  in  brilliancy  when  it  was  washed."  Comparing  this  with  the  accounts  left  by  the 
ancients,  Dr.  Roth  thinks  the  color  he  produced  is  evidently  their  blue  color,  for  they  had  a  blue- 
purple,  a  deep  purple,  and  a  red-purple.  "Between  Soor  and  Saida,"  according  to  the  same 
author,  "  the  Murex  truncatut,  or  trunculus,  is  found  in  abundance,  and  its  color  is  more  brilliant 
than  that  of  the  Purpura.  One  of  these  Murex  is  sufficient  to  dye  a  square  inch  of  cloth,  which 
would  require  five  individuals  of  Purpura  patula.  Wool  takes  the  dye  better  than  any  other 
substance ;  silk  takes  it  with  difficulty."1 

Liuton,  in  his  work  "  On  Ancient  and  Modern  Colours,"  as  quoted  by  Simmonds  ("  Commer- 
cial Products  of  the  Sea,"  p.  304),  states  that  the  Purpurce  of  the  best  description  were  chiefly  found 
on  the  rocks  of  Tyre,  on  the  coast  of  Asia.  They  were  also  collected  at  Miniuge,  on  the  Gra3tulau 
shore  in  Africa,  and  on  the  coast  of  Laconia  in  Europe.  The  colors  varied  according  to  the 
locality  in  which  they  were  taken,  and  also  according  to  the  animal's  haunt,  as  has  since  been 
proved  by  zoologists.  Thus,  when  it  lived  among  sea-weeds  or  mud  the  juice  it  contained  was 
comparatively  worthless ;  when  among  pebbles  its  quality  was  improved ;  and  the  dye  was  best 
when  the  food  and  surroundings  were  varied.  Researches  carried  still  farther  proved  that  to 
produce  the  richest  and  most  costly  dye  which  art  could  exhibit,  the  liquid  must  be  used  in 
conjunction  with  that  procured  from  other  shell-fish.  Just  what  the  species  were  that  were  used 
it  is  now  impossible  to  tell,  but  they  were  allied  to  Murex  and  Buccinum.  Niter,  urine,  water,  salt, 
and  certain  sea-weeds  were  also  mixed  with  the  Purpura  liquor  in  compounding  certain  tints.  "  In 
the  reign  of  Augustus,"  says  Simmonds,  "  one  pound  of  wool  dyed  with  the  Tyriau  purple  sold  for 
about  £36  sterling  [about  $175].  We  need  not  wonder  at  this  enormous  price  when  the  tedious 
nature  of  the  process  is  considered,  and  the  small  quantity  of  dye  obtained  from  each  mollusk. 
For  fifty  pounds  of  wool  the  ancients  used  no  less  than  two  hundred  pounds  of  the  liquor  of  the 
Murex  and  one  hundred  pounds  of  that  of  the  Purpura,  being  six  pounds  of  liquor  to  one  of  wool ; 
consequently  the  rich  Tyrian  purple  fabrics  vied  in  value  even  with  gold." 

The  liquor  was  procured  by  placing  the  small  shells  in  a  mortar  and  crushing  them.  Animals 
extracted  from  the  larger  shells  were  added,  and  also  urine,  pure  water,  or  water  in  which  purple 
Snails  had  been  allowed  to  putrefy.  In  this  mixture  the  cloth  was  soaked  and  afterwards  exposed 
to  the  light,  sometimes  under  the  influence  of  warmth  to  accelerate  the  process. 

It  is  said  that  the  dyeing  property  is  a  transformation  of  uric  acid  into  purpurate  of  ammonia, 
called  murexide.  This  is  a  splendid  substance  when  pure,  presenting  in  one  direction  beautiful 
metallic  green  reflections,  and  in  others  brown  and  purple  tints.  Some  chemists  assert  that  it  is 

1  PHIMON  :  Utilization  of  Minute  Life.    London  Oroombridge  &  Sons,  1864,  p.  144. 


SHELLS  ISI.D  FOH  CAMEO  CUTTING. 

to  this  substance  tliat  the  iridescent  plumes  of  humming  -birds  pheasants,  and  peacocks  owe  their 
wonderful  brilliancy.  Mnrcxide  is  now  obtained  not  only  from  inollusks,  but  from  yii.iiin.  etc. 

Dyes  fro  in  inollusks  liave  IH-I-II  obtained  in  all  ages  and  almost  all  quarters  of  the  world,  and 
not  only  our  Purpura  htpillun,  but  also  another  species  which  \ve  share  with  (Jreat  ISritain.  the 
Whelk  (Iluwhuiiii  H  mint  urn),  have  been  the  subject  of  successful  experiment  A  of  this  sort.  "  If  the 
shell  of  I'lirpiini  Injiinus  is  broken,  there  is  seen  ou  the  back  of  the  animal,  under  the  skin,  a 
slender,  longitudinal,  whitish  vein,  containing  a  yellowish  liquor.  When  this  juice  Is  applied  to 
linen,  by  means  of  a  small  brush,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  it  l>ecoraes  green,  blue,  and  purple,  and 
at  last  settles  into  a  (hie  unchangeable  crimson."  The  housewives  of  New  England  therefore  have 
Crowing  abundantly  on  their  sea-side  rocks  little  living  bottles  of  indelible  ink  which  cannot  be 
excelled  by  any  manufactured  product  for  either  beauty  or  durability,  siuce  neither  acid  nor  alkali 
will  affect  its  color. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  occur  shells  of  the  genus  Olivelln,  so  called  because  they  resemble  small 
olives.  There  are  three  species,  Olivella  biplicata,  0.  gracilin,  and  0.  (Jama.  The  first  named  of 
these  shells  certainly,  and  possibly  the  other  two,  now  and  then  were  made  into  money  by  many 
California!]  tribes  of  Indians,  which  money  circulated  widely  on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  common 
Indian  name  for  this  Olivella  money  was  "colcol."  It  was  made  by  grinding  off  the  apex  or  spire 
of  the  shells  in  such  a  way  that  they  could  be  strung.  They  are  still  used  by  some  tribes  in  the 
form  of  double  necklaces  as  ornaments,  but  are  regarded  as  of  small  value.  Sometimes  the  shell 
was  broken  crosswise  and  ground  into  little  disks  which  passed  as  coins.  This  money  was  very 
ancient  and  widespread  through  aboriginal  traffic  in  connection  with  other  forms  of  shell-money  to  be 
mentioned  hereafter,  and  which  the  present  writer  has  fully  discussed  in  a  paper  on  "Wampum" 
contained  in  the  American  Naturalist,1  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

Cameos  are  articles  of  ornament  made  by  carving  portions  of  various  shells  in  such  a  way  that 
a  raised  figure  of  one  color  shall  be  relieved  against  a  ground  of  another  tint  constituting  the  under 
layer  of  the  shell.  These  colors  may  vary — white  on  an  orange  ground,  or  on  dark  claret ;  pale 
salmon-color  on  orange ;  yellow  on  pink,  etc.  Anciently  cameos  were  cut  upon  gems  with  immense 
labor,  but  latterly  this  easier  imitation  in  shell  has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  intaglios  in 
onyx,  agate,  and  jasper.  The  cameo  artists  live  mostly  in  London  and  Paris,  and  use  several 
species  of  large  shells  that  combine  a  white  crust  with  a  nacreous  understratum  of  a  different  tint. 
Two  only  of  these  shells  come  from  American  waters,  and  these  only  touch  our  coast  in  tropical 
Florida — Caxsin  mudayaftcarienniii  and  Strombits  gigan — the  •'  Helmet-shell"  and  the  "Conch." 

Of  the  Helmet-shell  several  sorts  are  used  in  cameo-cutting.  Our  American  example  (which 
got  its  name,  madagascarienni«,  through  an  error  in  regard  to  the  locality  of  the  type-specimen) 
has  a  blackish  inner  coat,  called  an  "  onyx  "  ground,  and  shows  up  white  on  a  dark  claret  color. 
It  is  known  to  the  trade  as  the  Black  Helmet,  and  is  highly  esteemed  by  cameo-cutters. 

The  Conch  or  Queeu  Couch  (Strombus  giyas)  is  of  less  account  in  cameo-making,  because  it 
affords  a  less  quantity  of  surface  suitable  for  the  work— a  portion  of  its  broad,  rose-tinted  lip. 
Various  other  ornaments  are  often  made  from  this  and  other  large  shells  by  turning  and  sawing 
with  special  machinery,  and  thus  a  large  demand  is  created,  which  is  satisfied  chiefly  through 
brokers  in  London  and  Liverpool.  Just  how  many  shells  are  sent  to  England  annually  it  is 
impossible  to  tell;  but  the  amount  reaches  some  tens  of  thousands.  There  is  also  a  large 
commerce  in  them  both  to  Europe  and  to  the  United  States  to  be  used  as  ornaments  alone,  and  to 
be  given  away  by  grocers  and  tea-dealers  to  promote  their  custom.  In  the  West  Indies,  and  on 

'American  NatnralUt,  xvii,  May,  1883,  pp.  467-479. 


700  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

many  plantations  in  the  Gnlf  States,  the  Conch  is  perforated  at  the  apex  of  the  spire,  and  forma 
a  horn,  used  to  call  workmen  in  from  the  fields  and  at  dinner.  From  fragments  of  this  great 
uiollusk,  also,  the  Indians  of  Florida  and  the  Antilles  made  their  most  esteemed  beads  and 
pendants.  Cabeza  de  Vaca  says  that  the  columella  of  large  Conchs  were  chiefly  available  for  this 
purpose.  "These  beads  are  more  or  less  cylindrical  or  globular,  and  always  drilled  lengthwise. 
Some  are  tapering  at  both  ends,  resembling  a  cigar  in  shape,  and  were  two  and  one-half  inches  in 
length.  The  aborigines  also  made  .  .  .  peculiar  pin-shaped  articles  consisting  of  a  more  or 
less  massive  stem  which  terminates  in  a  round  knob." 

The  Strombw  enters,  when  ground,  into  the  manufacture  of  porcelain ;  is  extensively  burned 
for  lime;  and  is  carefully  calcined  for  medicinal  purposes.  There  is  also  derived  from  it  a 
secondary  product  of  great  value — the  conch-pearl.  When  perfect,  this  pearl  is  described  as  either 
round  or  egg-shaped  and  somewhat  larger  than  a  pea,  of  a  beautiful  rose  color,  and  watered,  that 
is,  presenting,  when  held  to  the  light,  the  sheeny,  wavy  appearance  of  watered  silk.  It  is 
however,  very  rare  to  find  a  pearl  which  possesses  all  the  requirements  that  constitute  a  perfect 
gem,  and  such  proves  an  exceedingly  valuable  prize.  Although  many  of  these  pearls  are  annually 
obtained  by  the  fishermen  in  the  Bahamas,  not  more  than  one  in  twenty  proves  to  be  a  really 
good  gem.  Pink  is  the  most  common  and  only  desirable  color,  although  white,  yellow,  and  brown 
pearls  are  occasionally  found.  Even  among  the  pink  ones  there  is  usually  some  defect  which  mars 
their  beauty  and  materially  injures  them ;  some  are  very  irregular  in  shape  and  covered  apparently 
with  knobs  or  protuberances;  others  are  too  small,  while  many  lack  the  watering  which  gives 
them  their  great  value  and  chief  beauty.  Most  of  the  conch-pearls  have  been  sent  to  London, 
and  the  demand  for  them  is  increasing;  a  few  come  to  New  York. 

Lunatia  heros  is  very  conspicuous  along  our  coast,  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  to  Cape 
Hatteras  or  beyond,  wherever  sandy  shores  and  pure  waters  are  to  be  found,  and  it  is  abundant 
and  of  very  large  size  on  the  outer  beaches  of  the  coast  of  New  Jersey.  "When  in  motion  the 
white  soft  parts  are  protruded  from  the  shell  to  a  remarkable  extent  and  spread  out  broadly  on 
all  sides,  so  as  nearly  to  conceal  the  shell ;  the  foot  is  large,  flat,  and  broadly  expanded,  with  thin 
edges,  and  by  means  of  it  the  animal  is  able  to  burrow,  like  a  mole,  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
sand."  This  Snail,  like  many  others  of  its  tribe,  drills  round  holes  through  the  sides  of  various 
bivalve  shells  by  means  of  the  small  flinty  teeth  on  its  ribbon-like  tongue,  which  acts  like  a  rasp, 
and  having  thus  made  an  opening  it  inserts  its  proboscis  and  sucks  out  the  contents.  All  sorts  of 
burrowing  bivalves  in  this  way  fall  victims  to  this  and  its  close  ally,  the  Neverita  duplicata.  "Nor 
do  they  confine  themselves  to  bivalves,  but  will  drill  any  unfortunate  Gasteropods  they  may  happen 
to  meet,  not  even  sparing  their  own  young."  Their  usual  haunts  are  away  from  the  oyster-beds, 
however,  so  that,  although  they  are  a  familiar  sight  in  the  dredge,  the  harm  they  do  to  this 
industry  is  of  small  account. 

Following  this  in  the  list  come  various  small  shells,  such  as  those  of  the  genera  Littorina, 
Rissoa,  Melampus,  and  Bittium,  of  which  it  can  only  be  said  that  they  serve  a  very  useful  purpose  as 
scavengers,  swarming  upon  the  mud  exposed  at  low  tide  and  greedily  devouring  carrion  of  fishes, 
etc.,  which  would  otherwise  decay  and  pollute  both  air  and  water.  The  same  good  service  is  done 
by  the  small  mollusks  previously  noticed  as  "Borers,"  and  many  following. 

This  brings  us  to  the  beautiful  family  of  Abaloues,  Ormer-shells,  or  Sea-ears,  in  which  there  is 
a  very  large  trade  on  the  Pacific  coast,  under  the  industry  of  the  Chinese  there,  to  which  will  be 
given  a  special  chapter. 

In  the  Limpets  (Crepidula  and  Acmea)  the  oystermen  consider  they  have  a  friend,  since  when 
they  see  these  clustering  upon  thtir  planted  beds  they  look  forward  to  a  profitable  harvest  the 


THE  EDIBLE  LAND  SNAILS.  701 

coining  autumn.     A  California!!  species  (Fissvrella  aculeata)  was  usea  as  money  by  some  of  the 
native  ml  men  of  the  coast. 

In  respect  to  the  odd  pill-bug-like  shells  of  the  several  species  of  Chiton  of  onr  eastern 
shore  I  can  say  nothing ;  but  in  Bermuda  a  larger  Chiton  is  gathered  for  soup,  and  the  broth  is 
said  to  be  very  good.  The  Bermudans  also  make  use  of  that  Chiton  as  a  bait  with  which  to  take 
the  large  lobsters  of  the  island,  themselves  intended  to  act  as  bait  for  fishes. 

The  sea  surrounding  Bermuda  is  of  great  transparency,  and  the  fishermen  can  readily  discern 
the  long  horns  of  the  lobster  protruding  from  his  hiding  place  among  the  rocks,  at  a  considerable 
depth.  The  only  plan  by  which  they  can  get  him,  however,  is  to  entice  him  out  of  his  refuge. 
To  do  this  they  mat  together  a  quantity  of  Chitons  until  they  have  formed  a  ball  several  inches  in 
diameter.  To  this  they  attach  a  string,  and — having  previously  baited  the  bottom  in  front  of  the 
lobster's  den  and  left  him  to  enjoy  it  until  his  confidence  was  captured — let  the  ball  dangle  before 
his  nose.  Thinking  this  only  a  larger  tidbit,  he  seizes  it,  and,  to  his  amazement,  is  swiftly  drawn 
up  to  daylight  and  torn  to  pieces  to  form  a  lure  for  equally  unwary  fishes. 

"These  shells  have  been  called  by  different  names,  all,  however,  indicative  of  their  form,  such 
as  « Wood-louse,' '  Sea-boat,' '  Rattle-snake's  Tail,' '  Lobster's  Tail,' '  Sea- bug,'  and  '  Sea-caterpillar.' 
The  French  say  that  the  animal  may  be  eaten,  and  we  are  told  that  the  Iceland  fishers  swallow  it 
raw  to  quench  thirst,  and  pretend  that  it  is  good,  also,  against  sea-sickness."  The  American 
Indians  of  the  Northwest  coast,  South  Sea  Islanders,  and  other  savages  find  the  Chiton  acceptable 
as  food. 

In  Melampnts  b-identatun  we  have  a  small  shell  which  swarms  upon  the  mud  and  among  the 
eel  grass,  affording  food  to  many  fishes  and  acting  as  a  scavenger  of  the  marshes.  In  addition  to 
this,  it  has  a  place  in  these  remarks  because  it  belongs  to  the  division  of  air-breathing  mollusks, 
and  introduces  not  only  the  fresh-water  shells  Limnea,  Physa,  Planorbis,  etc..  that  feed  the  inland 
fishes,  but  also  the  edible  land  Snails.  To  these  latter  interesting  mollusks  I  lately  devoted  a 
chapter  in  my  "Friends  Worth  Knowing,"1  from  which  I  quote  whatever  applies  to  the  present 
1  purpose: 

"  Snails,  being  great  eaters,  meet  their  just  reward  in  being  eaten.  The  paludine  forms  are 
sought  after  by  all  sorts  of  water  birds,  particularly  ducks  and  rails;  while  the  thrushes  and 
other  birds  crush  the  shells  of  the  land  Snails  and  extract  their  juicy  bodies.  The  woodland 
birds,  however,  will  not  eat  the  naked-bodied  Slugs :  the  slime  sticks  to  their  beaks  and  soils  their 
feathers;  but  the  ducks  seem  to  have  no  such  dainty  prejudices.  Some  mammals,  like  the 
raccoons  and  wood-rats,  also  eat  them ;  insects  suck  their  juices,  and  the  carnivorous  Slugs  prey 
upon  one  another.  Lastly,  man,  the  greatest  enemy  of  the  brute  creation,  employs  several  species 
of  Snails  for  culinary  purposes.  By  the  Romans  they  were  esteemed  a  great  luxury,  and  portions 
of  plantations  were  set  apart  for  the  cultivation  of  the  large,  edible  Helix  pomatia,  where  they 
were  fattened  by  the  thousand  upon  bran  sodden  in  wine.  From  Italy  this  taste  spread  throughout 
the  Old  World,  and  colonies  of  this  exotic  species,  survivors  of  classical  '  preserves,'  are  yet  fonnd 
in  Great  Britain  whe: '  *''0  Roman  encampments  were.  They  are  still  regarded  as  a  delicacy 
in  Italy  and  France,  the  favorite  method  of  preparation  being  to  boil  in  milk,  with  plenteous 
seasoning.  Frank  Buckland  says  that  several  of  the  larger  English  species  are  excellent  food  for 
hungry  people,  and  recommends  them  either  boiled  in  milk,  or,  in  winter,  raw,  after  soaking  for 
an  hour  in  salt  and  water.  Some  of  the  French  restaurants  in  London  have  them  placed  regularly 
upon  their  bills  of  fare.  Thousands  are  collected  annually  and  sent  to  London  as  food  for 
cage-birds.  Dr.  Edward  Gray  stated,  a  few  years  ago,  that  immense  quantities  were  shipped 

'Harper  and  Brothers,  New  York,  1880. 


702  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

alive  to  the  United  States  'as  delicacies';  but  I  am  inclined  to  consider  this  an  exaggeration 
growing  out  of  the  fact  that,  among  our  fancy  groceries,  'a  few  jars  of  pickled  Snails,  imported 
from  Italy,'  figure  as  a  curiosity,  rather  than  something  needed  for  the  table.  The  same  author 
records  that  the  glassmen  at  Newcastle  once  a  year  have  a  snail  feast,  collecting  the  animals 
in  the  fields  and  hedges  on  the  Sunday  before. 

"  Mr.  W.  G.  Binney,  for  whom  a  sirup  of  Snails  was  prescribed  by  two  regular  physicians  in 
Paris  in  1863,  points  out  how  old  is  the  belief  that  land  mollusks  possess  valuable  medicinal 
qualities.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  rudimentary  shell  of  the  Slug  acquired  a  high  rank  among  the 
numerous  bezoars  and  amulets  which  were  supposed  to  protect  the  body  from  evil  influences,  and 
to  impart  health  and  activity.  The  accounts  of  these  virtues,  copied  from  one  author  to  another, 
have  perpetuated  the  early  superstitions  until  it  is  difficult  to  overcome  them  by  the  light  of  the 
present  day,  when,  even  in  England,  Snails  are  supposed  to  possess  a  useful  power  in  cases  of  lung 
trouble.  A  full  relation  of  all  the  absurdities  which  gained  credence  would  form  a  curious  and 
marvelous  page  in  the  history  of  credulity.  They  have,  also,  from  very  early  times,  been  used  in 
the  preparation  of  cosmetics ;  and  no  longer  than  two  or  three  centuries  ago  the  water  procured 
from  them  by  distillation  was  much  celebrated,  and  employed  by  ladies  to  impart  whiteness  and 
freshness  to  the  complexion.  Finally,  I  hear  that  there  is  celebrated  in  Eome,  even  now,  a 
midsummer  festival,  upon  which  occasion  all  family  feuds  may  be  made  up,  or  any  differences 
between  friends  easily  adjusted,  since  that  is  the  spirit  of  the  day;  and  a  sign  or  token  of  this 
renewed  friendship  and  good-will  is  the  present  of  a  Snail  from  one  party  to  the  other,  or  an 
exchange  of  mollusks  between  them.  The  symbolism  and  virtue  reside  in  the  alleged  amicable 
influence  of  the  head  and  'horns' — why,  perhaps  comparative  mythologists  may  be  able  to  tell  us. 

"  In  this  country  no  such  fanciful  notions  have  ever  gained  credence.  The  Snails  are  too 
habitually  hidden  to  attract  the  attention  of  any  but  a  few ;  and  even  when  their  existence  is 
known,  they  are  unfortunately  regarded  with  such  a  disgust  as  would  preclude  any  acceptance  of 
them,  either  for  food  or  medicine." 

In  Thomas  De  Voe's  "Market  Assistant,"  p.  312,  is  the  following  information,  which  refers  to 
about  the  year  1860 :  "  From  the  French  journals  we  learn  that  there  are  fifty  restaurants  and 
more  than  twelve  hundred  private  tables  in  Paris  where  Snails  are  accepted  as  a  delicacy  by  from 
eight  to  ten  thousand  consumers.  The  market  price  of  the  great  vineyard  Snails  is  from  2  francs 
50  centimes  to  3  francs  50  centimes  (47  to  66  cents)  per  hundred,  while  those  of  the  hedges,  woods, 
and  forest  bring  only  from  2  francs  to  2  francs  25  centimes  (38  to  43  cents).  Snails  are,  and  have 
been  for  several  years,  imported  [into  New  York]  from  Europe,  but  are  principally  used  by 
foreigners.  They  are  generally  stewed  after  having  been  scalded  out  of  their  shells." 

The  custom  house  counts  this  import  among  "fancy  groceries,"  so  that  no  separate  record  is 
obtainable  of  the  amount  consumed.  In  the  case  of  several  of  the  large  Southern  species,  such  as 
the  Apple-snail  (Ampularia),  the  Kulimi,  and  the  large  pond  Snails,  their  remains  in  the  shell- 
heaps  show  that  in  prehistoric  time  they  formed  a  regular  part  of  the  food  of  the  red  men.  The 
Seminoles,  of  Florida,  and  various  native  races  west  of  the  Kocky  Mountains,  eat  them  yet. 

207.  THE  WING-SHELLS— PTEROPODA. 

The  Pteropods,  or  wing-footed  mollusks,  are  a  small  group  which  swim  freely  throughout  the 
broad  ocean.  Their  shells  are  of  small  size,  fragile,  and  semi-transparent.  They  form,  therefore, 
available  food  fora  large  number  of  surface-feeding  fishes,  and  particularly  of  thecetacea;  the 
right  whale,  indeed,  is  said  to  live  almost  wholly  upon  certain  species  of  them  which  abound  in 


THE  BIVALYK  MOLLU8K8.  7<>:', 

arctic  seas  and  swarm  near  the  surface  at  night,  so  that  he  need  only  drop  his  jaw  and  engulf 
them  by  the  hundred  in  his  capacious  mouth  as  he  swims  along  with  his  head  half  out  of  water. 
Probably  the  same  thiiig  is  true  of  the  other  baliunoids. 

208.  THE  TUSK-SHELLS— SOLENOCONCHA. 

The  class  denominated  in  Professor  Verrill's  Check  List  Solenoconcha  includes  only  one 
mollusk  that  may  concern  us  at  present — Dentalium.  This  mollusk  (chiefly  /'.  pretionum)  occurs 
all  ailing  i  In-  northern  Pacific  coast  of  America,  and  is  known  to  Americans  as  the  "  Tusk  -shell," 
id  Russians  as  "Sookli,"  and  to  the  Alaskan  Indians  as  "Hya-qua."  From  Northern  California 
all  ilu-  way  to  the  arctic  regions  the  coast  tribes  collected  this  shell,  polished  it,  and  arranged  it 
on  strings  as  money — a  circulating  medium  of  trade,  similar  to  the  wainpum  of  the  eastern  coast. 
There  were  certain  rules  as  to  fineness,  arrangement,  size,  and  measurement,  which  decided  the 
value  of  the  shells  before  and  after  stringing;  and  so  useful  was  this  allocochick,  as  the  California 
Indians  called  it,  that  the  Hudson's  Hay  Company  and  other  traders  adopted  it  as  current  coin 
in  their  buying  and  selling  of  peltries  and  provisions. 

The  strings  of  Dentalia  were  also  worn  as  necklaces  by  the  women,  or  twined  in  the  hair  of 
both  sexes;  as  trimming  for  garments,  and  ornaments  for  horse-trappings  and  the  equipments  of 
war  and  the  chase.  Among  other  methods  of  employing  them  to  enhance  personal  charm  was  to 
insert  two  of  them,  point  to  point,  from  opposite  sides,  through  a  perforation  in  the  partition 
which  separates  the  nostrils,  which  decoration  was  further  increased  by  sticking  a  bright  feather 
in  the  large  end  of  each  of  the  hollow  shells.  This  money  is  going  out  of  use  now,  and  only  the 
old  Indians,  conservators  of  ancient  customs,  attempt  to  hoard  it  up.  A  full  account  of  it  may  be 
found  in  the  article  upon  ''Wampum"  already  alluded  to,  printed  in  "The  American  Naturalist" 
for  May,  1883. 

209.  THE   BIVALVES— LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

It  is  in  the  class  of  plate-gilled  or  lamellibranchiate  mollusks,  more  i>opularly  known  as 
"  bivalves,"  that  we  find  the  most  examples  of  direct  utilization  by  man,  or  immediate  contribu- 
tion to  the  fisheries.  Bivalves  are  widespread  and  well-known.  They  afford  luxuries  as  well  as 
solid  nourishment  for  onr  tables,  enter  largely  into  manufactured  products,  serve  as  ornaments, 
and  are  so  beloved  by  food-fishes  generally  that  they  are  useful  as  bait. 

The  partial  list  of  bivalved  mollusks  that  are  ascertained  to  enter  into  the  diet  of  Ameri- 
can food-fishes  includes  the  following,  mainly  from  the  northern  Atlantic  coast  as  in  the  case  of 
the  gasteropoda,  and  is  instructive  as  showing  how  extensively  fishes  depend  upon  molluscau 
food: 

Erwatella  americana,  Crytodaria  siliqua,  Mya  arenaria,  Spuiula  otali*,  Macoma  *abulo*a,  Angulm 
tfiier,  Petricola  pholadiformix,  Venus  mercenaria,  Cyprina  inlandica,  Cardium  pinnulatvm,  Canliinn 
ixlandicum,  Cryptodon  Gouldii,  Venericardia  borealis,  Antarte  quadrant,  Nucitla  proximo,  Nucula 
tennis,  Yoldia  limatula,  Yoldia  sapotilla,  Yoldia  myali*,  Yoldia  thraciformis,  teda  tenuinulcata, 
Argina  pexata,  Mytilus  eduli*,  Modiola  modiolus,  Modiolaria  di»cor»,  Crenella  glanduta,  Pecten 
tenuicostatus,  Pecten  islandicus,  Pecten  irradian*,  and  Ostrea  virginica;  to  which  must  be  added 
Unto,  Anodonta,  and  other  fresh-water  bivalves,  and  the  brachiopods  Rhynconella  psittacus  and 
Terebratultna  septentrional**. 

In  this  ILt  many  species  are  of  importance  otherwise,  and  some  worth  notice,  although  not 
fed  upon  by  fishes,  are  not  mentioned ;  the  first  to  be  named  in  this  latter  class  is  the  dreaded 
Ship-worm  (Teredo),  of  which  there  are  seven  species  in  the  United  States: 


704  NATURAL  H1STOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Teredo  navalis,  Linne".    Cape  Cod  to  Florida ;  Sweden  to  Sicily. 

Teredo  norvegica,  Spengler.    Cape  Cod  northward. 

Teredo  megotara,  Hanley.    Massachusetts  Bay  to  South  Carolina. 

Teredo  dilatata,  Stimpson.    Massachusetts  to  South  Carolina. 

Teredo  Thompson*,  Tryon.    Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts. 

Xylophaga  dorsalis,  Forbes  and  Hanley.    North  Atlantic. 

Xylotrya  fimbriata,  Jeffreys.    Long  Island  Sound  to  Florida ;  British  Columbia;  Europe. 

The  most  commonly  observed  of  these  is  the  Teredo  navalis.  This  is  the  same  species  that  has 
attracted  so  much  attention  in  Europe,  during  nearly  two  centuries,  on  account  of  the  great 
damage  that  it  has  done,  especially  on  the  coast  of  Holland.  Its  history  has  been  reviewed  at 
length  by  Professor  Verrill  iu  his  "  Invertebrates  of  Vineyard  Sound,"  from  which  the  present 
account  is  principally  derived. 

"Although  popularly  known  as  the  'Ship-worm,'  these  creatures  are  not  at  all  related  to  the 
worms,  but  are  true  mollusks,  quite  nearly  allied,  in  many  respects,  to  the  common  'Long  Clam' 
(Mya)  and  to  the  Pholas.  Like  those  shells,  the  Teredo  excavates  its  holes  or  burrows  merely  for 
its  own  protection,  and  not  for  food ;  but  the  Teredo  selects  wood  in  which  to  form  its  holes,  and 
when  these  have  been  excavated  it  lines  them  with  a  tube  of  shelly  material.  The  holes  are  very 
small  at  the  surface  of  the  wood,  where  they  were  formed  by  the  young  Teredos,  but  they  gradually 
grow  larger  as  they  go  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  wood,  until  they  sometimes  become  ten  inches 
or  more  iu  length  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  iu  diameter;  but  the  size  is  generally  not  more  than 
half  these  dimensions.  The  holes  penetrate  the  wood  at  first  perpendicularly  or  obliquely,  but  if 
they  enter  the  side  of  the  timbers  or  planks  across  the  grain  the  burrows  generally  turn  horizon- 
tally in  the  direction  of  the  grain  a  short  distance  beneath  the  surface,  unless  prevented  by  some 
obstruction,  or  by  the  presence  of  other  toredo  tubes,  for  they  never  cross  the  tubes  of  their 
companions  or  interfere  with  each  other  in  any  way,  and  there  is  always  a  thin  layer  or  partition 
of  wood  left  between  the  adjacent  tubes.  It  is,  however,  not  necessary  that  they  should  follow 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  for  they  can  and  do  penetrate  it  in  every  direction,  and  sometimes  not  more 
than  half  the  tubes  run  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  and  they  are  often  very  crooked  or  even 
tortuous.  They  rapidly  form  their  burrows  in  all  kinds  of  our  native  woods,  from  the  softest  pine 
to  the  hardest  oak,  and  although  they  usually  turn  aside  and  go  around  hard  knots,  they  are  also 
able  to  penetrate  through  even  the  hardest  knots  in  oak  and  other  hard  woods.  The  Teredos 
grow  very  rapidly,  apparently  attaining  maturity  in  one  season,  and  therefore,  when  abundant, 
they  may  greatly  damage  or  completely  destroy  small  timber  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  months, 
and  even  the  largest  piles  may  be  destroyed  by  them  in  the  course  of  two  orthree  years. 

"  When  removed  from  its  tube  the  animal  is  found  to  have  a  very  long,  slender,  smooth,  soft, 
whitish  body,  tapering  somewhat  toward  the  outer  or  posterior  end,  which  has  a  muscular,  circularly 
wrinkled  collar,  by  which  the  animal  is,  when  living,  attached  to  the  inside  of  the  shelly  lining  of 
its  tube.  To  the  inside  of  this  collar  two  shelly  plates,  known  as  the  '  pallets,'  are  attached  by 
their  slender  basal  prolongations;  their  outer  portions  are  broad  and  flat,  and  more  or  less 
emarginate  or  two-horned  at  the  end.  These  are  so  connected  with  the  muscles  that  when  the 
animal  withdraws  its  tubes  into  its  hole  the  free  ends  of  these  pallets  are  made  to  fold  together 
and  close  the  opening,  thus  serving  as  an  operculum  to  protect  the  soft  tubes  against  enemies  of 
all  kinds.  Between  the  bases  of  the  pallets  arise  the  siphonal  tubes,  which  are  soft  and  retractile, 
united  together  for  half  their  length  or  more,  but  separate  and  divergent  beyond ;  they  are  nearly 
equal,  but  the  ventral  or  branchial  tube  is  perhaps  a  little  larger  than  the  other,  and  is  fringed 
with  a  few  small  papillae  at  the  end.  The  tubes  are  white  or  yellowish,  sometimes  speckled  with 


IIAHITS  OF  THE  SHIP- WORMS. 

reddish-brown.  At  the  anterior  end  of  the  body,  mid  furthest  from  the  external  owning  of  the 
hole,  is  seen  the  small  but  elegantly  sculptured  white  bivalve  shell.  The  shell  coven*  the  mouth 
ami  palpi.  livi>r,  foot,  and  other  important  organs.  The  foot  is  a  short,  stout,  muscular  organ, 
broadly  truncate  or  rounded  at  the  end,  and  appears  to  be  the  organ  by  means  of  which  the 
excavation  of  the  burrow  is  effected.  The  shell  is  covered  by  a  delicate  epidermis,  anil  probably 
does  not  assist  in  rasping  off  the  wood,  as  many  have  supposed.  The  gills  are  long  and  narrow, 
inclosed  mostly  in  the  naked  part  of  the  body,  and  are  reddish-brown  in  color. 

"  The  Teredos  obtain  their  microscopic  food  in  tbe  same  manner  as  other  bivalve  inollusks,  viz, 
b\  means  of  a  current  of  water  constantly  drawn  into  the  branchial  tube  by  the  action  of  vibrating 
cilia  within;  the  infusoria  and  other  minute  organisms  are  thus  carried  along  to  the  mouth  at  the 
other  end,  while  the  gills  are  supplied  with  oxygen  by  the  same  current;  the  return  current 
passing  out  of  the  dorsal  tube  removes  the  waste  water  from  the  gills,  together  with  the  fteces 
and  excretions  of  the  animal,  and  also  the  particles  of  wood  which  have  been  removed  by  the 
excavating  process. 

"As  the  animal  grows  larger  the  burrows  are  deepened,  the  lining  of  shelly  matter  increases 
in  length  and  thickness,  the  shell  itself  and  the  pallets  increase  in  size,  and  the  terminal  tubes 
grow  longer.  But  as  the  orifices  of  the  terminal  tubes  must  necessarily  be  kept  at  the  external 
opening  of  the  burrow,  the  muscular  collar  at  the  base  of  the  tubes  constantly  recedes  from  the 
entrance,  and  with  it  the  pallet s ;  at  the  same  time  imbricated  layers  of  shelly  matter  are  usually 
deposited  in  the  upper  end  of  the  shelly  tube,  which  are  supposed  to  aid  the  pallets  in  closing  the 
aperture  when  the  tubes  are  withdrawn.  When  the  animal  has  completed  its  growth,  or  when  it 
has  encountered  the  tubes  of  its  companions  and  cannot  pass  them,  or  when  it  approaches  the 
exterior  of  a  thin  piece  of  wood  and  cannot  turn  aside,  it  forms  a  rounded  or  cup-shaped  layer 
of  shelly  matter,  continuous  with  the  lining  of  the  tubes  and  closing  up  the  burrow  in  front  of 
its  shell.  Sometimes  it  retreats  and  forms  a  second  partition  of  the  same  kind. 

"This  species  produces  its  young  in  May  and  probably  through  the  greater  part  or  all  of  the 
summer.  The  eggs  are  exceedingly  numerous,  probably  amounting  to  millions,  and  they  are 
retained  in  the  gill-cavity,  where  they  are  fertilized  and  undergo  the  first  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment. The  embryos  pass  through  several  curious  phases  during  their  growth.  In  one  of  the 
early  stages  they  are  covered  with  fine  vibrating  cilia,  by  means  of  which  they  can  swim  like 
ciliated  infusoria;  later  they  lose  these  cilia  and  develop  a  rudimentary  bivalve  shell,  which  is  at 
first  heart-shaped,  and  the  mantle  begins  to  api>ear  and  larger  retractile  cilia  develop  upon  its 
edge,  which  serve  as  organs  for  swimming;  but  at  this  period  the  shell  is  large  enough  to  cover 
the  whole  body  when  contracted.  In  this  stage  they  swim  actively  about  in  the  water;  later  the 
cilia  become  larger,  a  long,  narrow,  ligulate  foot  is  developed,  by  means  of  which  they  can  creep 
about  and  attach  themselves  temporarily  to  solid  object*;  the  shells  become  rounder,  a  pair  of 
eyes  and  organs  of  hearing  are  developed.  After  this  the  little  animal  begins  to  elongate,  tin- 
locomotive  cilia  are  lost,  the  eyes  disappear,  and  the  mature  form  is  gradually  assumed.  These 
young  Teredos,  when  they  finally  locate  upon  the  surface  of  wood-work  and  begin  to  make  their 
burrows,  are  not  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin,  aud  consequently  their  holes  are  at  first  very 
minute,  but  owing  to  their  rapid  growth  the  holes  quickly  become  larger  and  deeper."  ' 

This  species  is  very  abundant  along  the  southern  coast  of  New  England,  from  New  York  to 
<'ape  Cod,  wherever  submerged  wood-work,  sunken  wrecks,  timber  buoys,  or  floating  pieces  of 
driftwood  occur.  It  also  infests  the  bottoms  of  vessels  not  protected  by  sheathing.  At  Province- 
town,  (ape  Cod,  about  forty  feet  of  the  end  of  the  steamboat  wharf  wa»  *>  witkengfl  by  it> 

1  Report,  U.  S.  Fi»h  Coniniiwion,  part  i.  1*7:!,  pp.  MMM. 
45  F 


706  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

borings  that  it  completely  gave  way  under  a  ship-load  of  merchandise  stored  upon  it.  This  pest 
is  not  confined  to  pure  sea-water,  but  occurs  in  the  piles  and  timbers  of  wharves  in  harbors  that 
are  not  only  brackish,  but  also  muddy  and  contaminated  with  sewage.  Capt.  B.  J.  Edwards 
told  me  that  formerly  when  the  cedar  channel-buoys  in  Buzzard's  Bay,  Massachusetts,  were  not 
taken  up  they  would  last  not  more  than  two  years,  owing  chiefly  to  the  attacks  of  this  Teredo; 
but  under  the  present  system  there  are  two  sets  of  buoys,  which  are  alternately  taken  up  and 
put  down  every  six  months.  After  a  set  has  been  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly  they  are  scraped 
to  remove  the  barnacles,  etc.,  and  then  receive  a  thorough  coat  of  verdigris  paint  each  time 
before  they  are  put  down.  With  this  treatment  they  will  last  ten  or  twelve  years,  but  they 
are  more  or  less  perforated  and  injured  every  year,  until  finally  they  become  worthless.  This 
statement  does  not  apply  to  the  spar-buoys,  which  are  taken  up  only  once  a  year,  in  April 
and  May.  Captain  Edwards  says  that  the  Teredos  would  destroy  an  unpainted  spar  buoy  in 
one  year,  but  when  painted  with  verdigris  they  will  only  work  where  the  paint  becomes  rubbed 
off.  They  first  attack  buoys  or  piles  just  below  the  water's  edge,  but  eventually  will  destroy 
the  entire  submerged  wooden  portion.  Commenting  upon  this  information,  Professor  Verrill  says: 

"  Inasmuch  as  the  Teredos  produce  their  young  all  through  the  summer,  and  they  develope  to 
a  very  large  size  in  one  season,  it  is  evident  that  the  best  time  to  take  up  the  buoys  would  be  in 
midsummer,  before  the  early  crop  of  young  have  grown  large,  and  leaving  too  little  time  for  the 
later  crop  to  become  large,  in  the  buoys  thus  put  down,  before  winter,  when  most  of  them  would 
probably  be  killed  by  the  cold  weather.  In  this  way  the  damage  might  be  materially  diminished, 
if  not  inconsistent  with  the  other  duties  of  the  oflicers  of  the  vessels  employed  in  this  service. 
There  are,  as  yet,  no  means  of  estimating  the  extent  of  the  damage  done  to  our  wharves,  shipping, 
etc.,  by  this  and  the  various  other  species  of  Teredo  found  on  our  coast,  but,  judging  from  their 
abundance  along  the  whole  coast,  it  is  much  greater  than  is  generally  supposed. 

"The  Teredo  navalis  is  also  abundant  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
Black  seas  to  Christiania  and  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  Its  habits  have  been  quite  thor- 
oughly investigated  by  several  Dutch  naturalists,  owing  to  the  great  damage  that  it  has  done 
on  their  coast,  at  times  even  threatening  a  general  inundation  of  the  country  by  destroying  the 
wood-work  of  the  dikes.  This  Teredo  occupies  a  zone  of  considerable  breadth,  for  it  often  lives 
considerably  above  low-water  mark,  and  extends  several  i'eet  below  it,  even  to  the  depth  of  four- 
teen feet,  according  to  some  writers. 

"The  best  remedies  in  common  use  to  resist  or  prevent  its  attacks  are  copper  sheathing,  used 
chiefly  on  vessels ;  broad-headed  nails,  closely  driven,  used  for  piles  and  timbers ;  creosote  and 
coal-tar,  frequently  applied.  The  various  poisonous  substances  that  have  been  applied  to  timber 
for  this  purpose,  however  useful  they  may  be  in  other  respects,  have  little  or  no  effect  on  the 
Teredo,  for  it  does  not  depend  upon  the  wood  for  its  food,  and  even  protects  its  body  externally 
with  a  layer  of  shell,  lining  its  holes.  The  only  remedies  that  are  likely  to  succeed  are  those 
calculated  to  prevent  the  lodgment  and  entrance  of  the  young  ones  beneath  the  surface.  Even 
creosote,  thoroughly  applied  uu-.er  pressure  at  the  rate  of  ten  pounds  per  square  foot,  has  been 
found  insufficient  to  prevent  their  attacks,  for  piles  thus  treated  at  Christiania  were  found  by  Mr. 
Jeffreys  to  be  filled  with  the  Teredo  within  two  years  after  they  were  put  down. 

"  Several  other  species  of  Teredo  also  occur  on  this  coast.  The  Teredo  megotara  has  been  found 
in  floating  pine  wood  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  and  in  cedar  buoys,  etc.,  at  New  Bedford,  Massa- 
chusetts; as  well  as  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  at  Provincetown,  and  other  places;  it  is  also  found  as 
far  south  as  South  Carolina  at  least.  This  species  sometimes  grows  to  a  large  size,  forming  tubes 
at  least  eighteen  inches  long.  It  sometimes  occurs,  also,  in  the  piles  of  wharves  in  this  region. 


THE  CLAMS.  707 

[Vineyard  Sound,  Massachusetts].  The  Teredo  Thornton*  has  been  found  in  great  numtars  in 
the  marine  railway  and  also  in  cedar  buoys  at  New  Bedford.  It  has  also  been  found  at 
Provincetown  in  a  whaling-ship  that  had  cruised  in  the  West  Indies. 

"Tin-  .\'i/l<>tri/<t  jimbriata  is  very  similar  to  the  common  Toredo,  except  that  it  has  long,  oar- 
shaped  pallets,  with  slender  stalks ;  the  blade  is  flattened  on  the  inside  and  convex  externally, 
and  consists  of  ten  to  twelve  or  more  funnel-shaped  segments  which  set  one  into  another;  their 
margins  project  at  the  sides,  making  the  edges  of  the  blade  appear  serrated.  This  species  apjiears 
to  be  indigenous  on  this  coast.  It  has  been  found  living  in  a  sunken  wreck  in  Long  Island  Sound, 
near  New  Haven,  and  I  have  also  taken  it  from  the  oak  timbers  of  a  vessel,  the  "Peterhoff," 
employed  in  the  blockading  service,  during  the  late  war,  on  the  coast  of  the  Southern  States.  It 
grows  to  a  rather  large  size,  often  forming  holes  a  foot  or  more  in  length  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  though  usually  smaller.  The  pallets  are  sometimes  half  an  inch  long." 

Less  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  worms,  but  equally  clever  at  boring,  is  a  group  of  shells  colled 
Pholads,  from  the  Greek  word  yw/.lw,  lurking.  They  perforate  all  substances  that  are  softer  than 
their  own  valves,  and  some  that  seem  to  be  harder.  Woodward  says:  "It  is  to  be  remarked  that 
the  condition  of  the  Pholades  is  always  related  to  the  nature  of  the  material  in  which  they  are 
found  burrowing;  in  soft  sea-beds  they  attain  the  largest  size  and  greatest  perfection,  whilst  in 
hard  and  especially  gritty  rock  they  are  dwarfed  in  size  and  all  prominent  points  and  ridges 
appear  worn  by  friction."  The  Pholads  have  white  shells,  generally  very  thin  but  hard  and 
strong,  and  adorned  with  rasp-like  sculpture.  It  was  supposed  formerly  that  the  excavation  was 
made  by  twisting  and  moving  this  rough  shell  in  the  burrow;  but  the  muscular,  club-shaped  foot 
is  no  doubt  the  instrument  of  abrasion. 

We  have  upon  the  east  coast  three  species,  but  none  of  them  are  of  practical  importance. 
They  might  become  available  for  food,  however,  since  the  same  mollusks  are  eaten  in  the  southern 
counties  of  England,  where  they  are  called  "Piddocks,"  and  some  cousins  (Zirphaa  crispata, 
Platydon  cancellatus,  etc.)  are  esteemed  delicacies  on  the  coast  of  California  under  the  name  of 
''Date-fish."  Other  west-coast  species  (Navea,  Qastrochama,  etc.)  are  enemies  of  the  Oyster, 
Abalone,  and  other  mollusks  which  themselves  have  a  commercial  importance,  since  they  burrow 
into  their  shells  and  so  ruin  them  for  service  to  man.  There  is,  nevertheless,  an  attendant 
advantage  in  this,  since  in  a  state  of  nature  the  Pholads  thus  break  to  pieces  and  tend  to  level 
reefs  that  would  prove  obstructive  to  navigation,  particularly  in  the  case  of  coral  banks.  When 
the  object  leveled  is  an  expensive  dike  or  breakwater,  however,  the  result  is  exactly  reversed,  as 
it  is  very  likely  to  be  where  man's  arts  attempt  to  change,  the  natural  arrangement  of  things. 

Our  Razor-shell  (Ensatella  amcricana)  is  frequently  used  for  food  in  Enro|>e  and  in  New 
England,  and  its  valves  have  occasionally  been  applied  to  artistic  service.  It  passes  under  the 
various  names  of  "  Razor-fish,"  "  Razor-clam,"  "  Knife-handle,"  etc.,  and  is  enticed  from  its  sandy 
burrow  by  sprinkling  salt  upon  the  sand  under  which  it  lies,  or  is  rooted  out  with  a  spade.  John 
Josselyn,  Gent.,  records  that  its  "  shell,  calcinM  and  pulveriz'd,  is  excellent  to  take  off  a  pin  and 
web,  or  any  kind  of  filme  growing  over  the  eye."  The  California!!  Razor-fish  (Siliqmi  /><//«/«)  is 
also  edible. 

Next  upon  the  list  comes  the  "Soft  Clam,"  "Long  Clam,"  or  "Nauninose"  (Mya  arenaria), 
dear  to  New  Englanders  and  only  less  numerous  than  the  Hard  Clam  in  the  markets  of  New  York 
and  Philadelphia.  This  Clam  lives  just  Iteneath  the  surface  of  the  sand  and  mud  above  low-water 
mark,  and  is  easily  dug  out  with  a  hand-shovel.  A  very  large  class  of  persons  all  along  the  shore 
from  Maine  to  Delaware  derive  their  living  wholly  or  in  part  by  digging  it  and  shipping  to  city 
markets.  This  is  chiefly  the  case  north  of  New  York,  however.  On  the  northern  coasts  of  New 


708  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

England  immense  quantities  of  this  bivalve  are  collected  and  salted  to  be  used  as  bait  in  the 
cod  fishery.  Statistics  and  a  full  discussion  of  the  habits  and  artificial  culture  of  this  Chun  will 
be  found  in  the  special  chapter  devoted  to  the  Clams. 

Washed  up  by  storms  from  the  deep  sands — down  at  least  to  ten  fathoms  below  the  low-water 
line— and  hence  known  as  the  "Beach,"  "Sea,"  or  "Surf"  Clam,  the  huge  Spisula  solidissima 
furnishes  occasional  repasts  to  the  dwellers  along  the  whole  Atlantic  shore.  It  is  chiefly  eaten  in 
Massachusetts,  however,  and  its  flesh  is  tough  and  by  some  persons  considered  unwholesome.  It 
is  often  cast  up  in  such  great  quantities  as  to  become  available  for  manure,  mixed  with  various 
other  marine  animals  of  all  sorts  and  sizes  and  much  sea-weed.  The  large,  smooth,  white  valves 
are  collected  in  considerable  quantities  to  be  decorated  inside  with  pictures  in  oil  or  India  ink, 
which  are  again  sold  in  the  picture  stores,  often  for  a  good  price.  This  Clam  is  also  preserved  as 
bait.  On  the  Pacific  coast  an  allied  species  (Spisula  falcata)  serves  the  various  purposes  to 
which  the  eastern  one  is  applied. 

Following  this  comes  the  Quahaug  ( Venus  mercenaria),  which  is  known  in  the  markets  as 
"  Hard  Clam,"  "  Round  Clam,"  or,  in  New  York,  simply  "  Clam."  From  Cape  Cod  to  Florida  it  is 
very  abundant,  but  must  be  gathered  by  raking,  since  it  does  not  burrow  in  the  shore-sands  like 
the  Soft  Clam.  A  commerce  still  larger  than  in  the  case  of  the  Soft  Clam  is  carried  on  with 
this  species  as  bait,  and  also  for  food,  in  which  respect  it  ranks  next  to  the  Oyster  in  the  United 
States. 

On  the  Pacific  coast — where  eastern  shell-fish  are  constantly  sent  for  transplantation  and  for 
immediate  consumption — there  are  various  bivalves  used  as  food,  such  as  Semele  decisa,  the  "  Flat 
Clam";  Macoma  nasuta,  the  "Tellens,"  of  San  Francisco;  ScMzothcerus  Nuttalli,  the  "Gaper"; 
Chione  succincta,  aud  allied  species,  which  replace  eastern  "Little  Necks";  and  Saxidomus  aratus, 
to  relish  which  was  learned  from  the  Indians. 

In  regard  to  this  latter  mollnsk  (Saxidomus  aratus)  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  its  shell  was 
broken  into  pieces  by  the  Indians  of  the  California  coast  and  worked  into  flat,  circular  disks  by 
rubbing  upon  stone.  Eighty  of  these  disks  strung  upon  sinews  were  in  recent  use  by  the  Indians 
of  Lake  County,  California,  as  a  medium  of  exchange  in  trade,  aud  were  valued  at  one  dollar.  In 
Sonoma  County  Saxidomus  gracilis  seems  to  have  served  the  same  purpose. 

Another  form  of  aboriginal  money  was  made  from  the  valves  of  the  ponderous  Hen  Clam  of 
southern  California  (Pachydesma  crassatelloides),  already  mentioned.  This  money  was  called 
"  hawok,"  and  took  the  shape  of  perforated  disks  which  could  be  strung  as  beads.  The  larger 
pieces,  according  to  Stearns,  were  worth  twenty-five  cents,  and  were  cut  from  the  thicker  parts 
of  the  shell ;  while  the  thinner  portions  supplied  beads  worth  only  four  cents  each.  Further 
information  will  be  found  upon  this  in  my  magazine  article  above  referred  to. 

The  Pachydesma  and  its  neighbor,  the  Cardium  Nuttalli,  are  considered  edible  by  the  west 
coast  people;  but  on  the  Atlantic  shore,  where  occur  several  large  species  of  "Cockle"  (as  the 
members  of  the  genera  Cardium,  Astarte,  Venericardia,  and  the  like,  are  called),  they  are  rarely  or 
never  used  as  food.  This  neglect  seems  curious,  since  this  inollusk  is  eaten  in  great  abundance  in 
England,  and  may  be  bought  everywhere  in  London  during  summer.  "  Prodigious  quantities  of 
this  shell-fish  are  also  consumed  in  Holland,  where  their  cheapness  recommends  them  to  the 
common  people  as  a  principal  article  of  food  during  the  winter."  In  New  England  Cyprina  islandica 
is  eaten  now  aud  then,  but  bears  a  poor  reputation  in  comparison  with  the  Quahaug.  In  the 
Southern  States  the  large  "  Painted  Clam  "  (Callixta  giyantca)  is  equally  available  as  food,  and  the 
Onathodon  cuneatus  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  already  an  article  of  diet,  as  well  as  useful  in  road- 
making,  to  which  utility  many  other  mollusks  contribute  in  all  sea-shore  towns. 


Tin:  MTSSKLS.  709 

These  thick  -shelled  bivalves  disposed  of,  a  large  group  of  thin-shelled  mollnsks  deserve 
not  ice.  Foremost  among  these  are  the  Mussels,  which  are  of  several  kinds.  In  Europe  the  Mytilus 
nliillx  (which  is  not  different  from  our  common  Black  Mussel  of  both  the  east  and  west  coasts)  holds 
an  important  place  among  sea-foods.  In  1873  the  mussel  fishery  of  France  alone  was  worth  over 
SOO.iHMi  francs  .  *  H'.it.oiMi).  In  that  country  they  are  regularly  bred  in  inclosures  of  sea-water, 
upon  frames  and  hanging  ropes  constructed  for  the  purpose,  and  many  ]>er8ons  are  employed. 
In  Kiigland,  Scotland,  Ireland,  along  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  along  the  whole 
circumference  of  South  America,  edible  species  of  one  name  or  another  grow.  Our  Mytihai  ctlitli* 
is  circmiipolur  in  its  distribution,  and  is  excessively  numerous  at  all  rocky  point-  suitable  for  its 
growth.  In  New  York  it  is  pickled  in  large  quantities  and  shipped  throughout  the  interior  of  the 
country.  Its  shells  are  extensively  used  by  oyster-planters  as  a  cnltch  upon  which  to  catch  young 
Oysters,  and  when  polished  are  made  into  paint-holders  for  artists  and  various  articles  of  bijouterie 
and  personal  ornament.  The  American  Indians  and  the  native  New  Zealanders  used  them  as 
tweezers  in  pulling  out  their  beards. 

Mussels  of  a  different  sort  are  the  Motliola  plicatula,  the  Modiola  modiolw,  the  Mot) Ma  hamaiu*, 
and  Modiola  capax;  the  first  two  are  of  the  northern  Atlantic,  the  third  is  more  southern,  and 
the  fourth  a  native  of  California.  These  are  sometimes  eaten,  but  are  not  considered  so  good  as 
the  M.  edulis.  On  the  coasts  of  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island,  however,  incredible  quantities  are 
gathered  from  the  banks  at  the  inlets  through  the  outer  teaches  where  they  grow,  and  are  spread 
upon  sea-shore  farms  as  manure.  In  gathering  this  fertilizer  a  large  number  of  vessels  and  men 
find  irregular  employment  at  times  when  they  would  otherwise  be  idle. 

Another  important  bivalve  in  a  commercial  way  is  the  Scallop,  fisheries  for  which  flourish  in 
Long  Island  Sound,  Nurragansett  Bay,  and  elsewhere.  Large  fleets  of  vessels  are  engaged  in 
summer  in  dredging  for  these  shell-fish.  The  powerful  central  muscle  by  which  the  animal  opens 
and  closes  its  shells  forms  the  edible  portion,  the  rest  being  discarded.  These  white  fragments  are 
to  be  seen  piled  upon  platters  or  strung  in  strings  as  a  constant  delicacy  in  all  our  markets.  The 
common  Scallop  of  commerce  is  the  Pecten  irradians.  Years  ago  the  very  large  species,  Pecten 
ixlandicii*,  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Maine  and  the  Bay  of  Fuudy,  used  to  be  obtained,  and  was 
highly  prized  for  its  flavor,  but  it  has  long  been  too  rare  to  serve  any  purpose  other  than  as  a 
curiosity  to  conchologists.  A  more  common  and  useful  species,  north  of  Cape  Cod,  is  Pciten  tenui- 
costatus,  which  supplied  the  Indians  with  a  culinary  instrument,  and  is  good  food. 

"  Scallop  shells  were  formerly  worn  by  pilgrims  on  their  hat  or  the  rape  of  their  coat,  as  a 
mark  of  their  having  crossed  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  paying  their  devotions  at  the  holy  shrine 
in  Palestine;  in  commemoration  of  which  they  are  still  preserved  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  many 
families  of  distinction  whose  ancestors  had  performed  that  ceremony.  From  its  use  by  cooks 
now,  this  shell  has  given  the  name  to  '  scalloiwd'  Oysters.  In  early  times,  when  plates  and  drink- 
ing-vessels  were  not  so  plentiful  as  they  are  now,  the  concave  or  hollow  valve  of  the  Scallop  served 
as  a  cup,  and  the  flat  valve  for  a  plate.  The  idea  has  even  been  carried  out  by  our  pottery  man 
ufat 'hirers,  and  plates  and  dishes  have  been  molded  after  the  forms  of  bivalve  shells.  Reticules, 
needle-books,  pincushions,  and  other  articles  are  made  by  shell-dealers  with  the  scallop  shell." 

Of  both  the  Scallop  and  the  Mussel  a  special  account  will  be  given  in  another  place,  con- 
sidering the  value  of  each  commercially. 

The  fresh-water  bivalves  belonging  to  the  large  family  of  the  Unionidas  ought  not  to  be 
omitted  in  this  review.  To  the  raccoon,  otter,  muskr.it,  and  many  other  mammals  and  birds,  as  well 
as  to  the  fishes,  they  are  a  steady  source  of  food.  Observing  this,  the  Indians  adopted  them  from 
the  earliest  prehistoric  times  as  edible,  and  enormous  heaps  of  shells  upon  the  banks  of  many 


710  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

of  our  interior  rivers,  especially  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  the  Southern  States,  show 
how  extensively  and  constantly  they  were  sought.  White  men  occasionally  eat  them,  and  in  case 
of  extreme  hunger  would  perhaps  pronounce  a  roasted  Unio  or  Anodonta  good.  Some  years  ago  a 
great  furore  was  created  by  the  discovery  of  a  fine  pearl  in  one  of  the  Uiiios  of  North  Carolina — a 
thing  likely  to  happen  in  the  case  of  any  of  them,  since  they  have  an  interior  which  is  often  as  finely 
nacreous  as  that  of  the  Mother-of-pearl  Oyster  of  the  Gulf  of  California.  Hundreds  of  persons 
immediately  began  searching  the  rivers  all  over  that  region,  and  total  extirpation  of  the  poor  Mus- 
sels was  prevented  only  by  the  discouragement  of  finding  few  pearls  and  these  of  insignificant 
size.  It  is  probable  that  from  the  heavier  species,  in  captivity,  good  pearls  might  be  obtained 
artificially  by  following  the  plan  pursued  by  the  Chinese  with  their  sea  Pearl-oyster.  The  experi- 
ment is  worth  trying. 

Shells  of  fresh-water  Mussels  are  frequently  worked  up  into  pocket-books  and  other  fancy  arti- 
cles, as  in  the  case  of  the  Mytilus.  When  the  brown  epidermis  is  removed  a  beautiful  iridescent 
polish  is  obtainable.  There  are  almost  innumerable  varieties  of  these  fresh-water  Mussels,  and 
full  cabinets  have  a  considerable  value. 

The  manufacture  of  jewelry  and  shell-flowers  consumes  large  quantities  of  small  shells  and 
and  the  polished  opercula  of  large  ones,  chiefly  derived  from  Florida.  It  is  said  that  in  London 
about  a  million  of  the  commoner  sorts  are  sold  to  street-sellers  and  country  peddlers,  who  retail 
them  to  be  made  into  fancy  work  and  as  objects  of  curiosity.  The  same  thing  is  frequently  seen 
in  the  United  States,  though  more  commonly  in  the  shape  of  the  traveling  dealer  who  brings 
a  large  and  varied  stock  to  a  country  town,  hires  a  shop  for  several  weeks,  and  sells  his  shells 
mainly  by  auction. 

The  spread  of  commerce  and  improved  facilities  for  dredging  have  made  species  once  rare  now 
common ;  but  astonishing  prices,  reaching  hundreds  of  dollars  for  a  single  specimen,  in  some  cases 
were  paid  by  owners  of  conchological  cabinets  for  rare  species  half  a  century  ago.  This  stimulated 
research  and  distributed  much  money  among  sea-side  collectors.  Even  now  dealers  in  objects  of 
of  natural  history  derive  a  large  profit  by  importing  shells  whose  only  value  is  their  scientific 
importance ;  while  the  institutions  devoted  to  their  study  and  the  books  to  which  an  interest  in 
conchology  have  given  rise  are  entitled  to  a  money  estimation  not  to  be  despised. 


X.— A  CONTRIBUTION  TO  THE  LIFE-HISTORY  OF  THE  OYSTER. 
(Ostrea  virginica,  Graelin,  and  0.  edulis,  Linn.) 

By  JOHN  A.  RYDER. 
210.  OUTLINE  SKETCH  OF  THE  COARSER  ANATOMY  OF  THE  OYSTER. 

"  The  general  structure  of  an  Oyster  may  be  roughly  represented  by  a  long,  narrow  memorandum 
book,  with  the  back  at  one  of  the  narrow  ends  instead  of  at  one  of  the  long  ones.  The  covers  of 
such  a  book  represent  the  two  shells  of  the  Oyster,  and  the  back  represents  the  hinge,  or  the 
area  where  the  two  valves  of  the  shell  are  fastened  together  by  the  hinge  ligament.  This  ligament 
is  an  elastic,  dark-brown  structure,  which  is  placed  in  such  a  relation  to  the  valves  of  the  shell 
that  it  tends  to  throw  their  free  ends  a  little  apart.  In  order  to  understand  its  manner  of  working, 
opeu  the  memorandum  book  and  place  between  its  leaves,  close  to  the  back,  a  small  piece  of 
rubber  to  represent  the  ligament.  If  the  free  ends  of  the  cover  are  pulled  together  the  rubber 
will  be  compressed  and  will  throw  the  covers  apart  as  soon  as  they  are  loosened.  The  ligament 
of  the  oyster-shell  tends,  by  its  elasticity,  to  keep  the  shell  o]>en  at  all  times,  and  while  the 
Oyster  is  lying  undisturbed  upon  the  bottom,  or  when  its  muscle  is  cut,  or  when  the  animal  is 
dying  or  dead,  the  edges  of  the  shell  are  separated  a  little. 

"The  shell  is  lined  by  a  thin  membrane,  the  mantle,  which  folds  down  on  each  side,  and  may 
be  compared  to  the  leaf  next  the  cover  ou  each  side  of  the  book.  The  next  two  leaves  of  each 
side  roughly  represent  the  four  gills,  the  so-called  'beard'  of  the  Oyster,  which  hang  down  like 
leaves  into  the  space  inside  the  two  lobes  of  the  mantle.  The  remaining  leaves  may  be  compared 
to  the  body  or  visceral  mans  of  the  Oyster. 

"Although  the  Oyster  lies  upon  the  bottom,  with  one  shell  above  and  one  below,  the  shells 
are  not  upon  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  body,  but  upon  the  right  and  left  sides.  The  two  shells 
are  symmetrical  in  the  young  Oyster,  but  after  it  becomes  attached  the  lower  or  attached  side 
grows  faster  than  the  other,  and  becomes  deep  and  spoon-shaped,  while  the  free  valve  remains 
nearly  flat.  In  nearly  every  case  the  lower  or  deep  valve  is  the  left.  As  the  hinge  marks  the 
anterior  end  of  the  body,  an  Oyster  which  is  held  on  edge,  with  the  hinge  away  from  the  observer 
and  the  flat  valve  on  the  right  side,  will  be  placed  with  its  dorsal  surface  uppermost,  its  ventral 
surface  below,  its  anterior  end  away  from' the  observer,  and  its  posterior  end  toward  him,  and  its 
right  and  left  sides  on  his  right  and  left  hands,  respectively. 

"  In  order  to  examine  the  soft  parts,  the  Oyster  should  be  opened  by  gently  working  a  thin,  flat 
knife-blade  under  the  posterior  end  of  the  right  valve  of  the  shell,  and  pushing  the  blade  forward 
until  it  strikes  and  cuts  the  strong  adductor  muscle,  which  passes  from  one  shell  to  another  and 
pulls  them  together.  As  soon  as  this  muscle  is  cut  the  valves  separate  a  little,  and  the  right 
valve  may  be  raised  up  and  broken  off  from  the  left,  thus  exposing  the  right  side  of  the  body. 
The  surface  of  the  body  is  covered  by  the  mantle,  a  thin  membrane  which  is  attached  to  the  body 
over  a  great  part  of  its  surface,  but  hangs  free  like  a  curtain  around  nearly  the  whole  circum- 
ference. By  raising  its  edge,  or  gently  tearing  the  whole  right  half  away  from  the  body,  the  gills 

711 


712  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

will  be  exposed.  These  are  four  parallel  plates  which  occupy  the  ventral  half  of  the  mantle  cavity 
and  extend  from  the  posterior  nearly  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  body.  Their  ventral  edges  are 
free,  but  their  dorsal  edges  are  united  to  each  other,  to  the  mantle,  and  to  the  body.  The  space 
above,  or  dorsal  to  the  posterior  ends  of  the  gills,  is  occupied  by  ihe  oval,  firm  adductor  muscle, 
the  so-called  'heart.'  For  some  time  I  was  at  a  loss  to  know  how  the  muscle  came  to  be  called 
the  'heart,'  but  a  friend  told  me  that  he  had  always  supposed  that  this  was  the  heart,  since  the 
Oyster  dies  when  it  is  injured.  The  supposed  'death'  is  simply  the  opening  of  the  shell  when  the 
animal  loses  the  power  to  keep  it  shut,  Between  this  muscle  and  the  hinge  the  space  above  the 
gills  is  occupied  by  the  body,  or  visceral  mass,  which  is  made  up  mainly  of  the  light-colored  repro- 
ductive organs  and  the  dark-colored  digestive  organs,  packed  together  in  one  continuous  mass. 

"  If  the  Oyster  has  been  opened  very  carefully,  a  transparent,  crescent-shaped  space  will  be 
seen  between  the  muscle  and  the  visceral  mass.  This  space  is  the  pericardium,  and  if  the  delicate 
membrane  which  forms  its  sides  be  carefully  cut  away,  the  heart  may  be  found  without  any 
difficulty,  lying  in  this  cavity,  and  pulsating  slowly.  If  the  Oyster  has  been  opened  roughly,  or 
if  it  has  been  out  of  water  for  some  time,  the  rate  of  beating  may  be  as  low  as  one  a  minute, 
or  even  less,  so  the  heart  must  be  watched  attentively  for  some  time  in  order  to  see  one  of 
the  contractions."1 

The  dark-purple  scars  near  the  centers  of  both  valves  are  simply  the  areas  covered  by  the 
attachments  of  the  adductor,  which  is  composed  of  a  vast  number  of  extremely  fine  muscular 
fibers,  which  collectively  pass  straight  across  the  space  between  the  inside  of  the  valves,  being 
firmly  fixed  at  either  end  of  the  latter.  The  tendency  to  separate  the  valves  at  their  free  borders, 
inherent  in  the  1  igament,  is  balanced  or  counteracted  by  the  muscle.  The  head  end  of  the  animal 
lies  close  against  the  hinge,  the  point  where,  as  previously  described,  the  two  valves  are  firmly 
fixed  to  each  other  by  a  dark-brown,  crescent-shaped  body,  the  ligament,  which,  while  it  serves  to 
attach,  also  tends,  by  reason  of  its  elastic  properties,  to  cause  the  valves  to  separate  at  their  free 
borders  in  order  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  water  inward  to  the  gills,  and  of  food  to  the  mouth, 
while  it  also  allows  the  water  which  has  passed  through  the  gills  to  escape  by  way  of  the  cavity 
above  the  gills  which  is  prolonged  into  the  cloaca,  carrying  along  with  it,  in  its  outward  passage, 
the  faeces  from  the  vent.  The  foregoing  lines  fairly  describe  the  mechanism  of  the  shell  and  in 
part  the  physiological  significance  of  the  same. 

The  structure  of  the  shell  is  laminar,  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  composed  of  numerous  layers  of 
a  material  identical  in  composition  with  chalk,  deposited  one  on  the  other  by  the  mantle,  the  organ 
which  builds  the  whole  shell  in  this  way,  the  chalky  substance  being  derived  from  the  fluids  of  the 
animal,  which  in  turn  derives  it  from  its  food.  These  layers,  deposited  as  they  are  internally,  in 
a  horny  organic  matrix,  as  growth  proceeds  project  in  succession  pa  st  each  other  at  the  free  edges 
of  the  valves  and  external  surface  of  the  shell,  so  that  the  successive  deposits  may  readily  be 
distinguished  on  its  external  surface,  giving  rise  to  a  very  rough  imbricated  appearance  of  the 
edges  of  the  layers  on  the  outside.  Attempts  which  I  have  made  to  determine  the  age  of  Oysters 
from  a  supposed  periodic  deposition  of  the  shelly  material,  corresponding  to  the  years  of  its  age,  I 
find  to  be  impracticable. 

The  structure  in  the  layers  of  the  shell  of  the  chalk  or  calcic  carbonate  is  minutely  prismatic( 
Nathusius-Konig.sborii  lias  found  that  certain  portions  of  the  shell  of  the  European  Oyster  contain 
very  minute  air-spaces.  Both  native  and  foreign  species  are  found  to  have  hollow  cavities  in  the 
valves,  usually  containing  water. 

1  W.  K.  BROOKS  :  Development  of  the  American  Oyster.  Studies  from  the  Biological  Laboratory  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  No.  IV,  1880,  pp.  5-7. 


TBE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  OYSTER,  713 

••  In  front  of  the  gills,  that  is,  between  i  linn  and  the  hinge,  there  ore  four  fleahy  Haps — the 
li|i- — two  on  each  side  of  the  body.  They  are  much  like  the  gills  in  appearance,  and  they  are 
connected  with  each  other  l>y  two  ridges  which  run  across  the  middle  of  the  body  clow*  to  the 
anterior  end,  and  between  these  folds  is  the  large  oval  mouth,  which  is  thus  seen  to  In-  situated, 
not  at  the  open  end  of  the  shell,  but  as  far  away  from  it  as  possible.  As  the  Oyster  is  immovably 
fixed  upon  the  bottom,  and  has  no  arms  or  other  structures  for  seizing  food  and  carrying  it  to  the 
mouth,  the  question  how  it  obtains  its  food  at  once  suggests  itself.  If  a  fragment  of  one  of  the  gills 
is  examined  with  a  microscope  it  will  be  found  to  be  covered  with  very  small  hairs,  or  cilia, 
arranged  in  rows.  Each  of  these  cilia  is  constantly  swinging  back  and  forth,  with  a  motion 
something  like  that  of  an  oar  in  rowing.  The  motion  is  quick  and  strong  in  one  direction  and 
slower  in  the  other.  As  all  the  cilia  of  a  row  swing  together,  they  act  like  a  line  of  oars,  only  they 
are  fastened  to  the  gill,  and  as  this  is  immovable,  they  do  not  move  forward  through  the  water,  but 
produce  a  current  of  water  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  action  is  not  directed  by  the  animal, 
for  it  can  be  observed  for  hours  in  a  fragment  cut  out  of  the  gill,  and  if  such  a  fragment  be  supplied 
with  fresh  sea-water,  the  motion  will  continue  until  it  begins  to  decay.  While  the  Oyster  lies 
undisturbed  on  the  bottom,  with  its  muscle  relaxed  and  its  shell  open,  the  sea-water  is  drawn  ou 
to  the  gills  by  the  action  of  the  cilia,  for  although  each  cilium  is  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a 
microscope,  they  cover  the  gills  in  such  great  numbers  that  their  united  action  produces  quite  a 
vigorous  stream  of  water,  which  is  drawn  through  the  shell  and  is  then  forced  through  very  small 
openings  on  the  surfaces  of  the  gills  into  the  water-tubes,  inside  the  gills,  and  through  these  tul>es 
into  the  cavity  above  them,  and  so  out  of  the  shell  again.  As  the  stream  of  water  passes  through 
the  gills  the  blood  is  aerated  by  contact  with  it.  The  food  of  the  Oyster  consists  entirely  of  minute 
animal  and  vegetable  organisms  and  small  particles  of  organized  matter.  Ordinary  sea-water 
contains  an  abundance  of  this  sort  of  food,  which  is  drawn  into  the  gills  with  the  water,  but  as  the 
water  strains  through  the  pores  into  the  water-tubes,  the  food  particles  nre  caught  on  the  surface 
of  the  gills  by  a  layer  of  adhesive  slime  which  covers  all  the  soft  parts  of  the  body.  As  soon  as 
they  are  entangled  the  cilia  strike  against  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  roll  or  slide  them  along  the 
gills  toward  the  mouth.  When  they  reach  the  anterior  ends  of  the  gills  they  are  pushed  off  and 
fall  between  the  lips,  and  these  again  are  covered  with  cilia,  which  carry  the  particles  forward 
until  they  slide  into  the  mouth,  which  is  always  wide  open  and  ciliated,  so  as  to  draw  the  food 
through  the  oesophagus  into  the  stomach.  Whenever  the  shell  is  open  these  cilia  are  in  action, 
and  as  long  as  the  Oyster  is  breathing  a  current  of  food  is  sliding  into  its  mouth. 

"The  cilia  and  particles  of  food  are  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a  microscoi>e,  but  if  finely 
powdered  carmine  be  sprinkled  over  the  gills  of  a  fresh  Oyster,  which  IMS  been  carefully  opened 
and  placed  in  a  shallow  dish  of  sea- water,  careful  observation  will  show  that  as  soon  as  the  colored 
particles  touch  the  gills  they  begin  to  slide  along  with  a  motion  which  is  quite  uniform,  but  not 
much  faster  than  that  of  the  minute-hand  of  a  watch.  This  slow,  steady,  gliding  motion,  without 
any  visible  cause,  is  a  very  striking  sight,  and  with  a  little  care  the  particles  may  be  followed  up 
to  and  into  the  mouth. 

"In  order  to  trace  the  course  of  the  digestive  organs,  the  visceral  mass  may  be  split  with  a 
sharp  knife  or  razor.  If  the  split  is  pretty  near  the  middle  of  the  body,  each  half  will  show 
sections  of  the  short,  folded  oasophagus,  running  upward  from  the  month,  and  the  irregular 
stomach,  with  thick,  semi-transparent  walls,  surrounded  by  the  compact,  dark-greenish  liver. 
Back  of  the  liver  and  stomach  the  convoluted  intestine  will  be  seen,  cut  irregularly  at  several 
points  by  the  section. 

"There  are  no  accessory  organs  of  reproduction,  and  the  position,  form,  and  general  appew- 


714  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ance  of  the  reproductive  organ  is  the  same  in  both  sexes.  There  is  no  characteristic  by  which  a 
male  Oyster  can  be  distinguished  from  a  female,  without  microscopic  examination.  As  the  repro- 
ductive organ  has  an  opening  on  each  side  of  the  body,  it  is  usually  spoken  of  as  double,  but  in 
the  adult  Oyster  it  forms  one  continuous  mass,  with  no  trace  of  a  division  into  halves,  and  extends 
entirely  across  the  body  and  [against]  the  bends  and  folds  of  the  digestive  tract."  J 

(The  last  of  the  foregoing  statements  as  to  the  impossibility  of  discriminating  the  sexes  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  microscope  is  no  longer  true,  though  it  was  true  at  the  time  the  above  was 
written.  The  method  of  discriminating  the  sexes  discovered  by  the  writer  is  discussed  in  another 
portion  of  this  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  Oyster.) 

The  stomach  is  pretty  definitely  marked  off  from  the  other  portions  of  the  digestive  tract.  It 
may  be  said  to  be  that  portion  of  the  latter  which  is  surrounded  by  the  liver.  The  portion  of  the 
intestine  immediately  following  the  short  widened  region  which  we  regarded  as  the  stomach  is  the 
most  spacious  portion  of  the  gut,  and  in  it  is  lodged  a  very  singular  organ  which  has  been  called 
the  "crystalline  style."  This  is  an  opalescent  rod  of  a  glass-like  transparency  and  gelatinous 
consistence  which  measures,  according  to  the  size  of  the  Oyster,  from  half  an  inch  up  to  one  and 
a  half  inches  in  length.  Its  anterior  end  is  the  largest,  and  in  a  large  specimen  measures  nearly 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  at  its  posterior  end  is  scarcely  half  as  thick;  both  ends  are 
bluntly  rounded.  I  fell  into  an  error  in  supposing  that  this  style  was  lodged  in  a  special  pouch 
or  sac  as  described  in  my  report  to  the  Maryland  commissioner  in  1880.  The  "crystalline  style" 
really  lies  in  the  first  portion  of  the  intestine  and  extends  from  the  pyloric  end  of  the  stomach  to 
the  first  bend  of  the  intestine,  where  there  is  a  marked  constriction  of  the  alimentary  canal.  It 
appears  therefore  to  be  a  sort  of  loose  valve  in  the  cavity  of  the  gut;  its  function  may  be  to 
prevent  coarse  particles  of  food  from  passing,  or  it  may  in  some  way  assist  digestion.  In  speci- 
mens hardened  in  acid  or  alcohol  this  rod  is  destroyed,  or  at  least  disappears,  so  that  I  have  been 
unable  to  find  it.  The  greater  portion  of  its  substance  is  apparently  made  up  of  water. 

The  peculiar  d  ouble  induplication  of  the  wall  of  the  intestine  is  described  in  another  place. 
The  faecal  matters  are  e'xtru  ded  in  the  form  of  a  demi-cylinder,  with  one  side  excavated  in  a  groove- 
like  manner.  This  shape  of  the  fa?cal  matters  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  double  fold.  The  faces 
themselves  are  composed  of  extremely  fine  particles  of  quartz  or  sand  grains,  the  tests  of  diatoms, 
organic  matters,  humus,  cellulose,  fragments  of  the  chitiuous  coverings  of  some  of  the  minute 
worms  and  articulates,  etc.,  which  have  been  swallowed  and  digested  by  the  animal.  The  anus 
is  situated  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  great  adductor  muscle  where  the  intestine  ends. 

The  organs  of  sensation  of  the  Oyster,  though  not  very  highly  developed,  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  merit  attention.  The  auditory  sense,  although  I  have  never  been  able  to  dissect  out 
the  auditory  vesicles,  I  am  satisfied  exists,  because  one  cannot  noisily  approach  an  Oyster  bank 
where  the  Oysters  are  feeding  without  their  hearing  so  that  instantly  every  shell  is  closed.  The 
tentacles  of  the  mantle  are  often  extended  until  their  tips  reach  beyond  the  edges  of  the  valves.  • 
If  the  animal  in  this  condition  is  exposed  to  a  strong  light  the  shadow  of  the  hand  passing  over  it 
is  a  sufficient  stimulus  to  cause  it  to  retract  the  mantle  and  tentacles  and  to  close  its  parted  valves. 
The  mantle  incloses,  like  a  curtain,  the  internal  organs  of  the  creature  on  either  side,  and  lies  next 
the  shell,  and,  as  already  stated,  secretes  and  deposits  the  layers  of  calcic  carbonate  composing 
the  latter.  The  free  edges  of  the  mantle,  which  are  purplish,  are  garnished  with  small,  highly 
sensitive  tentacles  of  the  same  color.  These  tentacles  are  ciliated  and  serve  as  organs  of  touch, 
and  also  appear  to  be  to  some  extent  sensitive  to  light. 

1  W.  K.  BROOKS:  Op.  ci«.,pp.  8-10. 


TIIK   INTKKNAI.  STIMTTI   UK  OF  Till:  (>VSIi:i;.  715 

The  nervous  system  of  the  Oyster  is  very  simple,  and,  as  elsewhere  stated,  is  to  some  extent 
degenerate  in  character.  It  is  composed  of  a  pair  of  ganglia  or  knots  of  nervous  matter,  which  lie 
just  over  the  gullet,  and  from  these  a  pair  of  nervous  cords  pass  backward,  one  on  each  side,  to 
join  the  hinder  pair  which  lie  just  beneath  the  adductor  muscle.  The  mantle  receives  nerve 
branches  from  the  hindmost  ganglia  or  knots  of  nervous  matter;  these,  as  their  centers,  control  the 
contraction  and  elongation  of  the  radiating  bundles  of  muscular  fibers,  as  well  as  those  which  lie 
lengthwise  along  the  margin ;  the  former  contract  and  withdraw  the  edges  of  the  mantle  from  the 
margin  of  the  shell,  while  the  latter  in  contracting  tend  to  crimp  or  fold  its  edges.  The  tentacles 
are  mainly  innervated  by  fibers  emanating  from  the  hindmost  ganglia,  while  the  internal  organs 
are  innervated  from  the  head  or  cephalic  ganglia.  The  hind  ganglia  also  preside  over  the 
contractions  of  the  great  adductor  muscle.  The  nerve  threads  which  radiate  outward  from  it  to 
the  tentacles  dispatch  the  warnings  when  intruders  are  at  hand  that  it  must  contract  and  close 
the  shells. 

211.  THE  MINUTE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  OYSTER. 

There  is  a  spacious  segmentation  cavity  developed  in  the  embryo  which  becomes  the 
subdivided  body-cavity — schizocffil  of  later  stages.  Between  the  ectoderm  and  endoderm  the 
mesoblastio  tissue  is  developed  apparently  by  proliferation,  so  that  the  segmentation  or  body 
cavity  becomes  in  part  obliterated.  The  mesoblast  of  the  embryo  formed  as  above  stated  is  the 
tissue  from  which  the  mesenchyme  or  connective  tissue  of  the  adult  is  developed.  The  blood 
channels  or  canals  are  developed  in  the  mesenchyme  of  the  adult — mesoblast  of  the  embryo. 
The  large,  coarse  vesicular  connective  tissue  cells  form  a  sort  of  trabecular  network  of  pillars  and 
transverse  supports  between  and  around  which  the  sanguineous  fluids  circulate.  The  blood 
channels  or  canals  are  developed  directly  from  the  spaces  between  the  columns  and  their 
conjoining  masses  of  connective  tissue  cells;  an  exception  to  this  is  found  only  in  the  structure 
of  the  anterior  and  posterior  aortse,  the  heart,  and  branchiocardiac  vessels,  which  have  pro|>er 
walls  lined  with  endothelial  cells.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  the  mesenchymal  or 
connective  tissue  is  spongy,  its  cells  being  built  around  complex  anastomosing  spaces  for  the 
blood.  There  is,  therefore,  a  true  schizocoel  developed  in  the  Oyster ;  it  has  been  formed  as  the 
mesoblastic  tissue  has  grown  into  the  segmentation  cavity  and  subdivided  the  latter  into  haemal 
canals  and  spaces.  The  blood  cells  originate  in  all  probability  in  the  same  way.  These  are 
amoeboid,  colorless,  and  measure  about  one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  vascular 
channels  have  no  specialized  endothelial  walls  in  the  mesenchymal  parts  of  the  body. 

The  adductor  muscle  of  the  shell  and  the  radiating  muscular  bundles  running  from  the 
insertion  of  the  former  to  the  edge  of  the  mantle  are  derived  from  the  mesoblastic  cells  of  the 
embryo,  the  observations  of  Dr.  Horst  on  this  point  having,  I  think,  completely  set  at  rest  what 
was  formerly  a  matter  of  theory.  The  radiating  muscular  bundles — pallial  muscles — of  the  adult 
lie  just  beneath  the  epiblast  or  epithelium  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  mantle  leaves.  These  pallial 
muscles  in  the  embryo  are  represented  by  two  sets  of  dorsal  and  ventral  muscular  bundles,  the 
functions  of  which  are  to  retract  the  velum  into  which  they  are  inserted.  The  muscular  fibers  of 
the  walls  of  the  heart  are  not  striated  and  decussate  in  every  direction.  The  inner  walls  of  the 
heart  are  crossed  in  various  directions  by  muscular  bauds  or  trabeculae,  and  a  more  or  less 
complete  muscular  septum  divides  the  ventricle  in  the  median  liue;  the  heart  is,  therefore, 
approximately  four-chambered. 

The  mesenchymal  or  mesoblastic  tissues  comprise  the  great  bulk  of  the  body  of  the  animal, 
and  extend  out  into  and  form  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  thickness  of  the  mantle,  and  also 


716  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

down  into  the  branchial  sacs  between  their  epiblastic  or  epithelial,  ciliated,  external  walls.  It 
also  forms  the  principal  bulk  of  the  thick  vertical,  transverse  septa  which  subdivide  the  branchial 
pouches  internally,  and  forms  likewise  the  bulk  of  the  branchial  filaments  themselves.  These 
latter  are  numerous  and  give  the  surface  of  the  gills  their- furrowed  or  plaited  appearance.  The 
individual  plaits  or  ridges  seen  in  section  are  found  to  be  quite  complex  and  to  be  themselves 
eompoundly  ribbed  and  to  have  chitinous  rods  embedded  in  their  substance  just  beneath  the 
external  epithelium.  These  rods  run  lengthwise  through  the  substance  of  the  branchial  riblets. 
The  branchial  capillaries  are  excavated  in  the  mesenchymal  or  connective  tissue  of  the  branchial 
filaments  or  tentacles,  between  which  there  are  numerous  openings  or  ostia  for  the  passage  of  the 
water  from  the  inferior  portion  of  the  pallial  chamber  into  the  gill  cavities  in  order  to  effect 
respiration.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  make  this  arrangement  understood  without  the  aid  of 
figures. 

The  mesenchyme  also  gives  support  to  all  of  the  visceral  structures,  the  ultimate  secretory 
follicles  or  saccules  of  the  liver  being  imbedded  and  supported  by  it.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
generative  structures  and  the  intestine.  No  portion  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  oesophagus,  or 
hepatic  ducts  can  be  found  the  walls  of  which  do  not  lie  directly  in  contact  with  this  mesenchymal 
or  mesoblastic  tissue.  It  also  extends  out  into  and  forms  the  greater  proportion  of  the  substance 
of  the  palps  or  lips  of  the  Oyster,  and  is  very  spongy  and  highly  vascular  in  this  region.  The 
internal  or  oral  surface  only  of  the  palps  or  lips  are  closely  plaited  with  numerous  folds  of  ciliated 
epithelium.  These  folds  may  number  from  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  or  more.  The  surface  of 
the  palps  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  mouth  is  not  plaited  or  folded. 

The  mesenchymal  cells  are  much  larger  than  either  the  epithelial  or  endothelial  cells,  and  will 
average  one  five-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  inclose  in  all  cases,  both  in  winter  and 
summer,  a  large,  irregular  nucleus  from  which  a  complex  network  of  intracellular  granular  fibrils 
radiate  in  all  directions  through  the  enveloping  cellular  substance.  At  one  side  of  the  nucleus 
there  are  always  one  or  more  accessory  bodies,  perfectly  globular,  which  complicate  the  character 
of  the  nucleus  in  a  singular  manner.  These  vesicular,  very  hygroscopic,  meseuchymal  or  connective 
tissue  elements  are  not  fat-cells,  as  has  been  erroneously  supposed  by  Brooks.  Their  nuclei  are 
invariably  central  and  not  parietal  in  position,  as  in  fat-cells.  These  cells  are  probably  very 
hygroscopic,  as  would  appear  judging  from  their  singular  appearance  under  the  microscope.  They 
appear  to  be  widely  distributed  in  the  molluscous  invertebrates;  they  were  originally  named 
"vesicular  connective  tissue  cells  "by  the  histologist  Schaefer.  An  Oyster  may  in  the  summer 
season  absorb  water  and  swell  up  so  as  to  fill  up  almost  the  whole  cavity  of  the  shell,  and  when 
opened  it  may  lose  so  much  blood  and  water  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour  that  it  will  have  shrunk 
to  one-tenth  of  its  original  bulk.  This  is  a  common  occurrence,  and  is  explained  by  the  prob- 
able hygroscopic  character  of  the  connective  tissue  cells  and  the  spongy  nature  of  the  whole 
mesenchyme  which  consists  of  these  elements.  This  also  explains  why  it  is  that  Oysters  may  be 
much  swollen  in  a  short  time  by  osmotic  action,  when  immersed  in  water  of  a  less  specific  gravity 
than  the  sea-water  from  which  they  were  first  taken.  The  process  has  nothing  in  common  with 
what  might  be  called  fattening,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter. 

There  is  an  apparent  atrophy  or  wasting  away  of  the  mesenchyme  of  the  body-mass  and 
mantle  during  the  spawning  season,  with  a  great  concomitant  development  of  the  reproductive 
follicles  or  tubules.  In  winter  the  reproductive  follicles  atrophy,  when  the  mesenchyme  again 
increases  in  bulk  in  the  body-mass  and  mantle.  It  also  undergoes  another  remarkable  series 
of  changes  corresponding  to  summer  and  winter.  In  summer  it  acquires  an  almost  glass-like 
transparency,  so  that  the  mantle,  palps,  and  superficial  portions  overlying  the  viscera  become 


TOE  INTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  OYSTER.  717 

translucent.  In  this  condition,  if  the  reproductive  glands  are  undeveloped,  the  dark  mass  of 
the  liver  may  be  seen  through  the  body  walls.  Towards  the  autumn,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
connective  tissue  cells  acquire  a  milky  opacity  and  great  solidity  as  compared  with  their  watery, 
transparent  condition  in  summer.  This  last  condition,  which  involves  the  whole  mantle,  the  palps 
and  superficial  portions  of  the  visceral  mass,  indicates  to  the  oysterman  the  condition  of  fatness. 
The  Oysters  in  this  state  are  plump ;  do  not  so  readily  diminish  in  bulk  when  removed  from  the 
shell  as  in  summer;  but  that  this  change  is  due  to  storage  of  fatty  matters  I  have  not  yet  seen  any 
evidence  of  any  sort  which  would  amount  to  proof.  There  is  some  oily  matter  in  the  Oyster,  but 
not  enough  to  account  for  the  changes  which  we  have  described. 

The  atrophy  of  the  connective  tissue  during  the  summer  season  would  appear  to  indicate  that 
the  material  for  the  genesis  of  the  reproductive  elements  was  derived  from  the  mesenchyme,  by  a 
direct  transformation  of  its  substance  in  which  the  generative  follicles  are  imbedded.  It  is,  in 
fact,  the  great  development  of  the  mesenchymal  substance  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  when  the 
reproductive  function  is  in  abeyance,  that  constitutes  the  condition  of  the  animal  known  to  oyster- 
men  as  fatness.  These  relations  illustrate  very  beautifully  a  well  known  physiological  principle, 
viz,  that  nutritive  processes  are  very  intimately  related  to  the  reproductive;  they  are  in  fact  inter- 
dependent. 

In  summer,  when  the  reproductive  organs  are  gorged  with  their  products,  their  follicles  are 
crowded  together  into  contact;  in  winter,  in  their  atrophied  condition,  they  lie  imbedded  in  the 
superficial  portion  of  the  mesenchyme  of  the  body-mass,  the  same  as  in  summer,  but  are  much 
less  developed,  so  as  to  appear  in  sections  like  a  very  open  network  of  strands  of  very  small, 
nucleated,  incipient  embryo  cells,  the  connection  of  which  may  be  traced  into  the  now  collapsed 
and  internally  ciliated  branches  of  the  oviducts.  All  the  parts  of  the  reproductive  apparatus  are 
therefore  present  in  winter,  but  in  an  undeveloped  condition.  The  oviducts  branch  and  spread 
over  each  side  of  the  body-mass  just  outside  of  the  stratum  of  reproductive  follicles  and  imme- 
diately beneath  the  mantle.  They  do  not  ramify  through  the  substance  of  the  reproductive  organ, 
but  traverse  its  surface,  the  follicles  emptying  their  contents  into  the  ducts  by  way  of  openings 
upon  the  inner  faces  of  the  latter.  The  main  openings  of  the  oviducts  of  either  side  open  into  the 
upper  branchial  cavity  on  either  side  of  the  hinder  and  ventral  portion  of  the  body-mass  just 
below  the  muscle.  There  is  but  one  opening  on  either  side,  notwithstanding  the  various  state- 
ments to  the  contrary. 

Embryologically  considered,  the  liver  is  an  endodermal  structure,  a  diverticnlnm  of  the 
stomach.  The  great  bile  ducts  pass  outward  from  the  cavity  of  the  stomach  and  subdivide  again 
and  again  and  end  blindly  in  spacious  ovoidal  hepatic  follicles,  the  simple  plicated  walls  of  which 
consist  of  hepatic  cells.  The  function  of  the  liver  is  in  all  probability  both  excretory  and  secretory, 
and  takes  an  all-important  share  in  the  processes  of  digestion.  That  the  function  of  the  liver  is 
partially  excretory  is  rendered  all  the  more  probable  from  the  fact  that  there  is  little  or  no 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  renal  apparatus  or  organ  of  Bojanns  in  the  Oyster  such  as  is  found 
in  other  mollusks.  Dr.  Horst  looked  in  vain  for  a  rudiment  of  this  last  structure  in  the  embryos 
of  Ostrea  edulis.  Transverse  sections  through  those  portions  of  the  body  where  it  would  most 
likely  be  found,  made  from  both  native  and  foreign  examples,  exhibit  no  structure  in  the  least 
degree  resembling  what  is  regarded  as  the  organ  of  Bojanus  in  Unio  and  Anodonta. 

The  wall  of  the  intestine,  like  that  of  the  stomach,  is  ciliated  throughout,  and  is  also  of  endo- 
dermal  or  hypoblastic  origin.  Its  wall  is  folded  inward  along  one  side  in  a  peculiar  way,  so  that  it* 
lumen  is  more  or  less  crescentic  in  cross-section.  This  arrangement,  together  with  the  very  minute 
minor  folds  on  its  inner  surface  composed  of  long,  columnar,  ciliated  epithelial  cells,  increases  the 


718  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

amount  of  absorbing  surface  very  materially.  The  internal  surface  of  the  stomach  is  also  very 
much  plicated;  but  here  the  folds  are  both  large  and  conspicuous,  with  small  folds  often  inter- 
vening. There  are  neither  annular  nor  longitudinal  muscular  fibers  in  the  wall  of  the  intestiue; 
the  sole  motive  force  used  in  the  propulsion  of  the  ingested  food  appears  to  be  exerted  by  the 
ciliary  covering  which  everywhere  clothes  the  internal  surface  of  the  alimentary  tract  from  the 
mouth  to  the  anus. 

It  would  appear  that  the  intestine  makes  two  complete  bends  upon  itself  at  a  very  early  stage 
of  embryonic  life,  according  to  the  observations  of  Horst,  long  before  it  measures  a  ninetieth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  development  of  the  liver  seems  to  be  at  first  lateral  and  somewhat 
ventral;  an  arrangement  traces  of  which  may  still  be  noticed  in  cross-sections  of  the  adult. 

The  course  of  the  intestine  in  the  adult  may  be  described  as  follows: 

The  mouth  is  a  wide  opening  between  the  upper  median  angles  of  the  palpi;  so  wide,  indeed, 
that  the  animal  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  an  ossophagus;  immediately  follows  the  stomach, 
which  is  seen  to  have  very  pronounced  folds  internally,  with  a  generally  transverse  direction,  but 
two  of  these,  which  lie  in  a  somewhat  ventral  position,  are  a  pair  of  inward-projecting  folds  which 
are  themselves  plicated.  The  intestine  then  follows  an  oblique  course,  downward  and  backward, 
when  it  makes  a  sharp  bend  returning  beneath  the  floor  of  the  pericardial  space,  passing  obliquely 
upward  and  forward,  somewhat  to  the  right  and  dorsal  of  the  stomach,  when  it  crosses  exactly 
over  the  mouth  or  very  short  gullet,  passing  downward  to  the  left  side  of  the  animal,  alongside 
and  a  little  to  the  lower  side  of  the  stomach,  when  it  again  turns  upward  and  passes  over  the 
pericardial  space  to  end  in  the  rectum  just  over  the  middle  of  the  adductor  muscle.  The  clusters  of 
hepatic  lobules  or  follicles  dip  down  into  the  folds  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  but  the  liver  does  not 
follow  the  course  of  the  intestine  proper,  which  is  provided  internally  with  a  curious  pair  of  longi- 
tudinal and  parallel  folds,  which  project  into  the  intestinal  cavity  and  extend  from  the  pyloric  end 
to  very  near  the  anus.  The  presence  of  these  folds  gives  to  the  laecal  matters  their  singular  appear- 
ance, which  are  not  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  as  they  leave  the  vent,  but  in  the  form  of  a  tube  with  a 
part  of  one  side  removed.  Tracing  the  course  of  the  intestine  by  sections  is  not  the  proper  way; 
they  can  be  very  easily  dissected  out  for  their  entire  length  by  means  of  the  scissors  and  forceps. ' 

The  systemic  heart  of  the  Oyster  is  that  organ  which  serves  to  propel  and  redistribute  the 
colorless  blood  of  the  animal  through  the  body  for  its  nourishment,  and  through  the  gills  that  the 
blood  itself  may  discharge  into  the  water  the  poisonous  gases  with  which  it  is  loaded  in  passing 
through  the  body,  and  receive  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  as  fresh  supplies  of  water  pass  through 
the  gills.  The  heart  consists  of  three  principal  chambers;  the  upper,  largest,  whitish  and  partially 
divided  by  a  median  septum  or  partition,  is  the  ventricle,  and  the  two  lowermost  and  smaller, 
brownish  paired  chambers  are  known  as  the  auricles.  These  three  chambers  which  comprise  the 
heart  of  the  Oyster  lie  in  a  crescent-shaped  space,  the  pericardial  space,  just  forward  of  the 
adductor  muscle.  The  ventricle  is  almost  globular;  its  walls  are  made  up  of  a  delicate  meshwork 
of  unstriped  muscular  fibers,  which  are  so  interlaced  as  to  be  altogether  untraceable.  From  the 
ventricle  a  great  posterior  and  an  anterior  aortic  vessel  arises.  These  two  vessels  distribute  the 
blood  to  the  posterior  and  anterior  portions  of  the  body  of  the  animal,  but  soon  divide  into  paired 
vessels  which  traverse  the  mantle  on  either  side  both  anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  while  one  great 
median  branch  passes  forward  over  the  stomach.  The  blood  is  really  distributed  soon  after 
leaving  the  main  vessels,  especially  in  the  body  through  the  spongy  connective  tissue  spaces,  as 
already  described,  and  is  collected  into  a  great  ventral  canal  from  which  a  large  part  of  it  passes 
into  the  gills.  From  the  four  gills  or  branchial  pouches  the  blood  flows  back  to  the  veutricle» 


SEX  OF  THE  AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  OYSTERS.  719 

through  Nix  great  brauchioeardiac  vessels,  three  of  which  are  arranged  on  each  side;  two  pairs  of 
these  :m-  anterior  in  position  and  one  pair  posterior. 

The  circulation  of  the  Oyster  is  quite  different  in  character  from  that  observed  in  a  vertebrated 
animal.  In  the  latter  the  heart  pumps  the  purified  blood  to  und  through  the  gills  before  it  passes 
to  all  parts  of  the  body;  in  the  Oyster,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fresh,  pure  blood  is  pumped  by  the 
heart  from  the  gills  before  it  passes  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

A  curious  and  interesting  point  which  I  think  it  desirable  to  mention,  because  I  have  not 
noticed  that  attention  has  hitherto  been  especially  called  to  it,  is  the  metamorphosis  of  the  larval 
Oyster  into  the  adult.  A.  de  Quatrefages1  has  alluded  to  it,  but  not  in  explicit  terms.  I  have 
shown  in  my  sketch  on  the  growth  of  the  animal  that  the  larval  shell  was  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  adult,  in  fact,  more  like  a  very  diminutive  pisidium  than  anything  else.  The  metamorphosis 
of  the  larval  shell,  or  rather  its  passage  into  that  of  the  spat,  is  abrupt.  Not  so  with  the  soft  parts ; 
the  oldest  larva?  yet  studied  by  any  competent  biologist  show  that  the  mouth  of  the  larva  is 
placed  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  embryo,  and  that  the  hinge  is  situated  on  almost  exactly  the 
dorsal  or  opposite  side.  The  ventral  position  of  the  month  of  the  larva?  and  its  anterior  or  cephalic 
position  in  the  adult  show  that  a  very  important  series  of  changes  in  the  position  of  the  viscera 
must  take  place  between  the  time  when  the  larva  loses  its  principal  embryonic  features  and 
acquires  the  adult  arrangement  and  relations  of  its  hard  and  soft  parts.  In  other  words,  we  are 
made  aware,  after  instituting  the  foregoing  comparison,  that  the  Oyster  actually  undergoes  a 
metamorphosis. 

If  an  Oyster  be  carefully  opened  it  will  be  found  that  the  animal  adheres  to  the  shell  at  four 
points,  or  at  two  points  on  either  valve.  The  principal  points  of  attachment  are  of  course  the 
insertions  of  the  great  compound  adductor  muscle,  made  np  of  two  portions  which  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  color  of  the  cut  ends  of  the  component  fibers.  The  great  shield-shaped 
purple  areas  on  either  valve  mark  the  points  of  insertion  of  the  great  adductor  in  the  American 
Oyster,  and  also  in  the  Portuguese  form,  which  resembles  it  considerably.  In  Ontrea  eduli*,  or  the 
European  species,  the  insertion  of  the  adductor  muscle  is  very  rarely  colored,  so  rarely  indeed  that 
*we  may  regard  this  feature  as  one  of  the  specific  marks  of  this  form.  But  in  both  the  American 
and  the  European  species  there  is  a  second  muscular  attachment,  as  implied  above,  which  appears 
to  have  been  very  generally  overlooked.  It  is  situated  nearer  to  the  hinge  than  to  the  great 
adductor,  and  is  sometimes  marked  by  a  slight  depression  not  over  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  its 
greatest  transverse  diameter.  It  gives  attachment  to  a  feeble  muscular  bundle  which  springs  out 
of  the  mantle  on  either  side  of  the  visceral  mass,  and  when  the  animal  is  torn  loose  a  slight 
whitish  scar  on  the  soft  part  marks  its  posit  inn  on  the  surface  of  the  mantle.  I  have  been 
informed  that  Mr.  W.  H.  Dall,  who  has  investigated  the  matter,  has  identified  this  muscle  with 
the  pedal  muscle  of  some  other  acephalous  mollusks. 

212.    SEX,   SEXUAL    PRODUCTS,    AND     DIFFERENCE    OF    THE    SEXUAL    HABITS    OF    THE 

AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  OYSTERS. 

"The  number  of  male  cells  which  a  single  male  will  yield  is  great  beyond  all  power  of 
expression,  but  the  number  of  eggs  which  an  average  female  will  furnish  may  be  estimated  with 
sufficient  exactness.  A  single  ripe  egg  measures  about  one  five-hundredth  of  an  iiu-h  in  diameter, 
or  five  hundred  laid  in  a  row,  touching  each  other,  would  make  one  inch;  and  a  square  imli  would 
contain  five  hundred  such  rows,  or  500  x  500=250,000  eggs.  Nearly  all  the  eggs  of  a  perfectly 

1  Metamorphoses  of  Man  and  the  Lower  Animals.     Translated  by  H.  Lawson,  M.  D.,  pp.  104-109.     London,  1864. 


720  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

ripe  female  may  be  washed  out  of  the  ovary  into  a  beaker  of  sea-water,  and,  as  they  are  heavier 
than  the  sea-water,  they  soon  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  the  eggs  of  a  medium-sized  female  will 
cover  the  bottom  of  a  beaker  two  inches  in  diameter  with  a  layer  of  eggs  one-twentieth  of  an  inch 
deep.  The  area  of  the  bottom  of  a  beaker  two  inches  in  diameter  is  little  more  than  three  square 
inches,  and  a  layer  of  eggs  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  deep,  covering  three  square  inches,  is  equal  to 
one  three  twentieths  of  an  inch  deep  and  two  square,  and  as  a  single  layer  of  eggs  is  one  five- 
hundredth  of  an  inch  thick,  a  layer  three-twentieths  of  an  inch  thick  will  contain  seventy-five 
layers  of  eggs,  with  250,000  eggs  in  each  layer,  or  18,750,000  eggs.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  eggs 
perfectly  pure,  and  if  we  allow  one-half  for  foreign  matter  and  errors  of  measurement,  and  for 
imperfect  contact  between  the  eggs,  we  shall  have  more  than  nine  millions  as  the  number  of  eggs 
laid  by  an  Oyster  of  average  size,  a  number  which  is  probably  less  than  the  true  number. 

"  Mobius  estimates  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  an  average  European  Oyster  at  1,012,925,  or  only 
one-ninth  the  number  laid  by  an  ordinary  American  Oyster;  but  the  American  Oyster  is  very  much 
larger  than  the  European,  while  its  eggs  are  less  than  one-third  as  large;  so  the  want  of  agreement 
between  these  estimates  does  not  indicate  that  either  of  them  is  correct.'  Another  estimate  of 
the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  European  Oyster  is  given  by  Eyton  ('  History  of  the  Oyster  and 
Oyster  Fisheries,'  by  T.  0.  Eyton,  London,  1858).  He  says,  p.  24,  that  there  are  about.  1,800,000, 
and  therefore  agrees  pretty  closely  with  Mobius. 

"An  unusually  large  American  Oyster  will  yield  nearly  a  cubic  inch  of  eggs,  and  if  these  were 
all  in  absolute  contact  with  each  other,  and  there  were  no  portions  of  the  ovaries  or  other  organs 
mixed  with  them,  the  cubic  inch  would  contain  5003,  or  125,000,000.  Dividing  this,  as  before,  by 
two,  to  allow  for  foreign  matter,  interspaces,  and  errors  of  measurement,  we  have  about  60,000,000 
as  the  possible  number  of  eggs  from  a  single  Oyster. 

"  Although  each  male  contains  enough  fluid  to  fertilize  the  eggs  of  several  females,  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  much  difference  in  the  number  of  individuals  of  the  two  sexes.  When  a  dozen 
Oysters  are  opened  and  examined,  there  may  be  five  or  six  ripe  females  and  no  males,  but  in 
another  case  a  dozen  Oysters  may  furnish  several  ripe  males  but  no  females,  and  in  the  long  run 
the  sexes  seem  to  be  about  equally  numerous.  Oystermeu  believe  that  the  male  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  female  by  certain  characteristics,  such  as  the  presence  of  black  pigment 
in  the  mantle,  but  microscopic  examination  shows  that  these  marks  have  no  such  meaning,  and 
that  there  are  no  differences  between  the  sexes  except  the  microscopic  ones.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  use  the  microscope  in  every  case,  however,  for  a  little  experience  will  enable  a  sharp  observer 
to  recognize  a  ripe  female  without  the  microscope.  If  a  little  of  the  milky  fluid  from  the  ovary  of 
a  female  with  ripe  or  nearly  ripe  eggs  be  taken  upon  the  point  of  a  clean,  bright  knife-blade  and 
allowed  to  flow  over  it  in  a  thin  film,  a  sharp  eye  can  barely  detect  the  eggs  as  white  dots,  while 
the  male  fluid  appears  perfectly  homogeneous  under  the  same  circumstances,  as  do  the  contents  of 
the  ovary  of  an  immature  female,  or  one  which  has  finished  spawning.  When  the  eggs  are  mixed 
with  a  drop  of  water  they  can  be  diffused  through  it  without  difficulty,  while  the  male  fluid  is 
more  adhesive  and  difficult  to  mix  with  the  water.  By  these  indications  I  was  able  in  nearly 
every  case  to  judge  of  the  sex  of  the  Oyster  before  I  had  made  use  of  the  microscope.2 

"During  my  investigations  I  submitted  more  than  a  thousand  Oysters  to  microscopic 
examination.  My  studies  were  carried  on  during  the  breeding  season,  and  I  did  not  find  a  single 

'Miibios'  measurement,  from  .15  to  .18  millimeter,  is  given  (Austern  und  Austernwirthschaft,  1877)  as  the  diameter, 
not  of  the  egg,  but  of  the  embryo,  but  his  figures  show  that  the  European  Oyster,  like  the  American,  does  not  grow  much 
during  the  early  stages  of  development,  but  remains  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  egg. 

1W.  K.  BROOKS:  op.  cit.,  pp.  13-15. 


THE  CELL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  OYSTER.  721 

hermaphrodite.  The  m;ile  cells  are  so  small  compared  with  the  eggs  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  state  that  a  mass  of  egjjs  taken  from  the  ovary  contained  no  spermatozoa,  although  they  could 
not  escape  detection  it  tliey  were  at  all  abundant. 

"On  the  other  hand,  a  single  egg  in  the  field  of  the  microscope,  in  a  drop  of  male  fluid,  would 
be  very  conspicuous  and  could  not  escape  detection ;  and  the  fact  that  not  a  single  case  of  this 
kind  occurred  is  sufficient  to  establish  the  distinctness  of  the  sexes  at  the  breeding  season."1 

Writing  about  this  matter  in  1880,  I  said:  "No  evidence  to  show  that  our  Oyster  is  her- 
maphrodite was  found  during  the  entire  season ;  nor  were  my  searches  for  embryo  or  eggs  in 
the  mantle  or  in  the  gills  more  successful  than  those  carried  on  two  years  before  by  Professor 
Brooks.  There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  Oyster  of  Europe  nurses  its  young  in  its  mantle 
or  gills  for  some  time ;  nor  can  we  well  question  the  very  high  authority  of  Mobius  for  saying 
that  in  most  cases  the  sexes  are  separate,  and  that  only  one  kind  of  products,  viz,  either  eggs  or 
spermatozoa,  are  at  any  time  found  in  the  generative  organs.  Lacaze-Duthier's  observations  seem 
to  confirm  the  conclusions  of  Mobius." 

In  reference  to  the  structure  of  the  cells  which  make  up  the  body  of  the  Oyster,  as  well  as 
regarding  the  eggs,  Dr.  Brooks,  on  page  19  of  his  essay,  writes  as  follows: 

"  Each  of  these  consists  of  a  layer  of  protoplasm  around  a  central  nucleus,  which,  in  the  egg, 
is  a  large,  circular,  transparent  body  known  as  the  germinative  vesicle.  Each  cell  of  the  body  is 
able  to  absorb  food,  to  grow  and  to  multiply  by  division,  and  thus  to  contribute  to  the  growth  of 
the  organ  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  The  ovarian  eggs  are  simply  the  cells  of  an  organ  of  the  body, 
the  ovary,  and  they  differ  from  the  ordinary  cells  only  in  being  much  larger  and  more  distinct 
from  each  other ;  and  they  have  the  power,  when  detached  from  the  body,  of  growing  and  dividing 
up  into  cells,  which  shall  shape  themselves  into  a  new  organism  like  that  from  whose  body  the 
egg  came.  Most  of  the  steps  in  this  wonderful  process  may  be  watched  under  the  microscope, 
and  owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the  eggs  of  the  Oyster  may  be  obtained,  this  is  a  very  good  egg 
to  study." 

Brooks  has  represented  the  freshly  laid  ova  of  the  Oyster  with  a  spherical  nucleus  and 
nncleolus ;  the  former  is  large  and  clear,  and  is  imbedded  near  the  center  of  the  egg,  and  inside  of 
it  the  nucleolus  is  lodged  somewhat  to  one  side.  I  do  not  find  the  latter  spherical,  as  described, 
but  formed  as  if  composed  of  a  larger  and  smaller  highly  refringent  pair  of  spheres,  partly  fused 
with  each  other,  or  of  the  same  form  as  the  nncleoli  of  the  eggs  of  Anodonta  as  described  by 
Flemming. 

Some  investigations  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Dutch  Government  indicate  that  the 
structure  of  the  generative  organs  of  the  European  Oyster  is  not,  as  has  been  supposed,  strictly 
follicular,  but  that  they  may  rather  be  regarded  as  a  mass  of  anastomosing  tubes  of  irregular  caliber. 
The  complete  proof  of  this  has  been  developed  by  the  writer  in  the  course  of  investigations  carried 
out  upon  oar  native  Oysters,  in  which  the  generative  organs  were  very  immature  during  the 
winter  season.  Both  Brooks  and  myself  have  spoken  of  the  generative  follicles  as  though  they 
had  been  clearly  made  out ;  it  now  appears  that  we  will  be  compelled  to  modify  our  terminology 
somewhat,  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that  I  have  sections  of  the  immature  generative  organ  which 
exhibit  it  as  a  network  of  germinal  cells,  as  well  as  sections  of  the  mature  organs  which  show  a 
more  or  less  distinct  tubular  structure  opening  toward  the  surface  into  the  superficial  or  surface 
outgoing  canals.  At  the  same  time  the  tubes  show  more  or  less  extensive  junction  or  anastomosis 
with  each  other  at  certain  points  along  their  length,  with  a  general  tendency  to  be  disposed 
vertically  to  the  surface  of  the  visceral  mass.  This  arrangement  reminds  one  somewhat  of  the 

>w.  K.  BBOOKS:  op.  fit.,  p.  35. 
46  F 


722  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

more  or  less  parallel  disposition  of  the  seminal  tubules  of  the  testicles  or  milt  of  fishes  and  higher 
animals. 

In  microscopical  cross-sections  of  the  adult  Oyster,  whether  it  be  male  or  female,  the  repro- 
ductive glands  are  found  to  be  composed  of  a  great  number  of  minute  pouches  or  follicles.  In  the 
gross  arrangement  of  the  follicles  no  difference  between  the  sexes  is  discernible  when  thin  sections 
are  scrutinized  with  the  microscope.  Upon  making  an  examination  of  the  contents  of  the  follicles 
with  the  microscope  a  great  difference  at  once  becomes  manifest;  in  the  male  the  spermatic 
particles  in  the  follicles  appear  very  finely  granular,  and  if  mature  the  tails  or  flagella  of  the 
spermatic  particles  tend  to  be  directed  toward  the  outlet  of  the  follicle;  in  the  female,  sections  of 
the  follicles  show  the  eggs  in  various  stages  of  development  attached  by  their  narrow  extremity 
to  the  walls  of  the  reproductive  saccules.  The  egg  is  pyriform  in  shape  while  still  in  the  ovary, 
but  the  stalk  is  not  as  long  as  in  the  eggs  of  Scrobicularia,  as  described  by  von  Jhering.  As 
elsewhere  stated,  the  oyster-egg  is  not  globular  when  first  extruded.  It  will  be  readily  understood 
that  the  sexes  may  be  very  readily  distinguished  by  these  and  other  marks  observed  in  sections. 
The  immature  ova  are  vastly  larger  than  the  spermatozoa,  which  measure  under  the  ten-thousandth 
of  an  inch  at  their  largest  end.  The  head  of  the  spermatozoon  of  both  the  American  and  European 
Oyster  is  globular;  that  of  the  spermatozoon  of  the  Soft  Clam  (Mya)  is  ovoidal  in  form.  The  tail 
or  nagellum  of  the  spermatic  particle  is  the  locomotive  organ  which  lashes  back  and  forth  very 
rapidly  and  propels  it  through  the  water  and  finally  brings  it  into  contact  with  the  egg. 

213.     NEW  METHODS  OF  DISTINGUISHING  THE   SEXES  AND  OF  TAKING  THE  EGGS  OF 

THE   OYSTER.1 

DISCRIMINATION  OF  THE  SEXES. — One  of  the  first  requisites  of  a  practical  system  of  arti- 
ficial fertilization  of  the  eggs  of  the  Oyster  is  a  means  which,  in  the  hands  of  unskilled  persons, 
will  enable  them,  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  to  infallibly  distinguish  the  sexes  apart.  Such 
a  means  we  now  propose  to  describe.  Having  tested  it  practically,  and  found  it  possible  to 
instruct  persons  of  ordinary  intelligence  in  a  few  minutes,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  offering  an 
account  of  the  method  so  as  to  make  it  more  generally  available  in  the  hands  of  those  who  may 
be  interested  in  this  subject. 

It  is  premised  that  the  spawn  is  squeezed  from  the  reproductive  glands  by  the  method  to  be 
described  further  on.  As  soon  as  the  spawn  is  emitted  from  the  generative  opening  in  consequence 
of  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  gland  and  the  ramifications  of  its  ducts,  it  is  drawn  up  by  means 
of  a  small  pipette  or  medicine  dropper,  provided  with  a  small  collapsible  bulb  at  the  upper  end 
which  is  held  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger.  Pressing  the  bulb  between  the  fingers,  then 
immersing  the  open  end  of  the  pipette  into  the  extruded  spawn,  and  then  allowing  the  bulb  to 
expand  by  its  own  elasticity,  it  will  draw  or  suck  up  the  spawn  which  has  been  pressed  out  very 
neatly;  and  if  one  is  careful,  absolutely  nothing  but  the  spawn  is  picked  up.  One  soon  becomes 
very  expert  in  the  use  of  the  pipette. 

The  next  requisite  is  a  shallow  glass  dish,  or  even  a  plain  tumbler  will  answer,  into  which 
say  a  half  gill  of  clean  sea-water  has  been  poured.  Taking  up  the  extruded  spawn  from  the 
oi»ening  of  the  duct  it  is  dropped  from  the  pipette  into  the  clear  water.  This  last  simple  operation 
enables  us  to  tell  without  fail  to  which  sex  the  products  belong.  If  the  creamy  white  mass  consists 
of  eggs  which  have  been  pressed  from  the  generative  openings  and  is  dropped  into  the  water,  it  will 
at  once  break  up  into  a  granular  cloud  as  the  spawn  strikes  the  latter,  the  granules  themselves 

'The  observations  and  experiments  discussed  in  this  article  were  conducted  at  Saint  Jerome's  Creek  during  the 
months  of  July  and  August,  1882. 


AKTIFH'IAL   I.KT  I.D!  NC  OK  OYSTERS.  723 

being  very  distinctly  visible,  especially  if  tin-  glass  vessel  be  resting  upon  a  dark  ground  so  as  to 
bring  tlic  \\liitisli  granules  into  relief.  Tin-  granules  art-  nothing  more  than  the  ova  or  eggs  of  the 
Oyster,  and  at  once  indicate  that  the  individual  from  which  they  were  obtained  is  a  female.  In 
case  the  products  are  male,  they  break  u|t  as  they  mingle  with  the  water  into  a  milky  white  cloud 
in  which  no  granules  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  It  is  also  very  iiii|M>rtaiit  to  observe  that  as  the 
milt  is  stirred  in  the  water  it  breaks  up  at  lirst  into  long,  fleecy  white  clouds  which  resemble  very 
strikingly  in  miniature  what  are  known  to  meteorologists  as  cirrus  clouds,  or,  vulgarly,  "mare's 
tails."  reminding  one  of  these  in  the  way  in  which  the  flue  particles  of  milt  give  rise  to  streaks, 
\\  isps.  and  libers  as  it  breaks  up  in  the  water,  without  giving  rise  to  any  visible  granular  appear- 
ance a>  o.-eur>  in  the  ease  of  the  female  products,  but  to  an  opalescent  or  milky  asj>ect.  These 
distinctions,  once  learned,  are  so  palpable  that  the  novice  may  as  infallibly  discriminate  the  sexes 
of  the  O\stcr  apart  by  their  aid  as  can  be  done  by  the  most  skilled  biologist  with  a  powerful 
microscope. 

Tin:  iMi'KKGNATiON  OF  THE  EGOS. — The  method  formerly  used  was  to  first  learn  the  sex  of 
a  number  >f  adult  Oysters  with  the  microscope,  then  cut  out  the  generative  glands  with  their 
products  and  cuop  up  those  of  different  sexes  separately  in  small  dishes  with  sea-water.  This 
system  we  may  now  say  is  barbarous,  because  it  is  crude;  large  numbers  of  eggs  are  destroyed 
by  crushing,  or  are  injured  by  the  rough  usage  to  which  they  are  subjected,  and,  besides,  there  is 
no  assurance  that  the  eggs  or  milt  operated  with  are  quite  mature.  It  is  also  troublesome  to  free 
the  generative  gland  from  fragments  of  the  liver  which  help  to  pollute  the  water  in  the  incubating 
vessels  with  putrescible  organic  matter,  and  thus  interfere  greatly  with  the  life  and  healthy  devel- 
opment of  the  embryos. 

By  our  method  the  objectionable  features  of  the  old  plan,  as  stated  above,  are  overcome.  If 
possible,  select  good-sized  Oysters ;  open  them  with  the  greatest  possible  care  so  as  not  to  mutilate 
the  mantle  and  soft  parts.  Carefully  insert  an  oyster-knife  between  the  edges  of  the  valves  and 
cut  the  great  adductor  muscle  as  close  as  possible  to  the  valve  which  you  intend  to  remove, 
leaving  the  animal  attached  to  the  other  valve,  which,  if  possible,  should  be  the  left  or  deepest  one. 
The  soft  parts  being  firmly  fixed  or  held  fast  by  the  great  adductor  muscle  to  the  left  valve 
jirevents  the  animal  from  slipping  under  the  end  of  the  pipette,  held  flatwise,  as  it  is  gently  and 
tirmly  stroked  over  the  generative  gland  and  ducts  to  force  out  the  generative  products. 

To  prepare  the  animals  to  take  the  spawn  from  them,  after  opening,  the  following  precautions 
arc  to  be  observed:  Note  that  the  reproductive  gland  in  great  part  envelopes  the  visceral  mass, 
and  extends  from  the  heart  space,  just  in  front  of  the  great  adductor,  to  within  a  half  inch  or  so  of 
the  bead  01  mouth  end  of  the  animal,  which  lies  next  to  the  hinge.  Note  also  that  both  sides  of 
the  visceral  mass  which  incloses  the  stomach,  liver,  and  intestine  are  enveloped  on  either  side  by 
a  membrane  which  also  lies  just  next  the  shell  and  is  garnished  by  a  fringe  of  purplish,  sensitive 
tentacles  along  its  entire  border  except  at  the  head  end  where  the  mantle  of  the  left  side  passes 
into  and  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  right  side  of  the  animal.  The  ventral  or  lowermost  side  of 
the  animal,  anatomically  speaking,  is  marked  by  the  four  closely  corrugated  gill  plates  or  pouches, 
which  are  preceded  in  front  by  the  four  palps  or  lips,  but  both  the  gills  and  palps  depend 
downward  between  the  lower  borders  of  the  mantle  of  the  right  and  left  sides.  Note,  too,  that 
if  the  mantle  is  carefully  cut  and  thrown  back  on  the  exposed  side  of  the  animal  between  the 
upper  edges  of  the  gills  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  cut  or  exposed  end  of  the  great  adductor 
muscle,  the  lower  and  hinder  blunted  end  of  the  visceral  mass  will  be  exposed  to  view.  It  is  on 

either  side  of  this  blunted  end  of  the  visceral  mass  between  the  np|H-r  edi: the  gills  and  lower 

side  of  the  great  muscle  that  the  reproductive  glands  opeu almost  evi.-.ly  below  tin-  -..-.it  adductor. 


724  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

From  these  openings  we  will  afterwards  find,  if  the  animal  is  sexually  mature  and  the  operation  is 
properly  conducted,  that  the  spawn  will  be  forced  out  in  a  vermicular,  creamy  white  stream.  But 
in  order  to  fully  expose  the  reproductive  organ  we  should  carefully  continue  to  sever  the  mantle 
of  one  side  with  a  sharp  penknife  or  small  scissors,  some  distance  forward  of  the  great  muscle 
towards  the  head,  cutting  through  the  mantle  just  above  the  upper  borders  of  the  gills  and  following 
a  cavity  which  lies  between  the  latter  and  the  lower  border  of  the  visceral  mass.  A  little 
experience  will  teach  one  how  far  it  is  necessary  to  carry  this  incision  of  the  mantle.  For  some 
distance  in  front  of  the  heart  space  the  mantle  is  free  or  detached  from  the  visceral  mass  and 
reproductive  organ  which  lies  immediately  beneath,  and  this  enables  one,  if  the  last  described 
incision  has  been  properly  made,  to  almost  completely  expose  the  one  side  of  the  visceral  mass 
and  the  richly  tinted,  yellowish-white  reproductive  gland  which  constitutes  its  superficial  portion. 
The  opening  of  the  gland  and  its  superficial  ramifying  ducts  being  laid  bare  on  the  exposed  side 
of  the  animal  we  are  ready  to  press  out  the  spawn  on  that  side.  Before  beginning  this,  however, 
it  is  important  to  observe  that  the  principal  duct  passes  down  just  along  the  edge  of  the  visceral 
mass  where  the  latter  bounds  the  heart  space,  in  which  the  heart  may  be  observed  to  slowly 
pulsate,  and  that  this  great  duct  ends  somewhere  on  the  surface  of  the  ventral  blunted  end  of  the 
visceral  mass.  To  expose  the  great  or  main  generative  duct  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  through 
or  remove  the  pericardial  membrane  which  incloses  or  covers  the  heart  space  on  the  exposed  side. 
If  the  Oyster  is  sexually  mature,  the  main  duct  will  be  observed  to  be  distended  with  spawn,  and 
that,  originating  from  it  and  branching  out  over  almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  visceral  mass, 
there  are  minor  ducts  given  off,  which  again  and  again  subdivide.  If  these  are  noted,  and  it  is 
observed  that  they  are  engorged,  giving  them  the  appearance  of  a  simple  series  of  much  branched 
great  veins  filled  with  creamy  white  contents,  it  may  be  certainly  presumed  that  your  specimen  is 
mature  and  that  spawn  may  be  readily  pressed  from  it. 

The  operation  of  pressing  the  spawn  out  of  the  ducts  requires  care.  The  side  of  the  end  of  the 
pipette  may  be  used,  being  careful  not  to  crush  or  break  open  the  ducts  as  you  gently  and  firmly 
stroke  the  pipette  flatwise  over  the  side  of  the  visceral  mass  backward  from  the  hinge  towards 
the  heart  space  and  over  the  great  duct  at  the  border  of  the  latter  diagonally  downward  and 
backward  to  the  opening  of  the  reproductive  organ.  If  this  has  been  properly  done  it  will  be 
found  that  the  generative  products  are  being  pushed  forward  by  the  pipette  through  the  ducts, 
as  the  pressure  will  be  seen  to  distend  the  latter,  the  contents  of  the  branches  flowing  into  the 
larger  and  larger  trunks  until  they  are  forced  outward  through  the  main  duct  and  opening  below 
the  great  adductor,  where  they  will  pour  out  in  a  stream  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter 
if  the  products  are  perfectly  ripe.  The  sexes  may  be  discriminated  as  described  at  the  outset,  and 
it  is  well  to  first  find  a  male  by  the  method  already  given  and  proceed  to  express  the  milt  as 
described  above  into  say  a  gUl  of  sea-water,  adding  pipetteful  after  pipetteful  until  it  acquires  a 
milky  or  opalescent  white  color.  As  the  milt  or  eggs  are  pressed  out  of  the  opening  of  the  ducts 
they  are  to  be  sucked  up  by  the  pipette  and  dropped  into  the  water,  the  mixture  of  milt  being  first 
prepared,  to  which  the  eggs  may  be  added  as  they  are  expressed  from  the  females.  The  judgment 
of  the  operator  is  to  be  used  in  mixing  the  liquids;  in  practice  I  find  that  one  male  will  supply 
enough  milt  to  fertilize  the  eggs  obtained  from  three  or  four  females,  and  it  does  not  matter  if  the 
operation  takes  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes'  time,  as  the  male  fluid,  which  it  is  best  to  prepare 
first,  will  retain  its  vitality  for  that  period. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  be  as  careful  as  possible  not  to  get  fragments  of  other  tissues  mixed 
with  the  eggs  and  milt,  and  the  admixture  of  dirt  of  any  kind  is  to  be  avoided.  To  separate 


BATE  OF  GROWTH  OF  OSTREA  VIROINIOA.  725 

any  such  1  raiments  nicely,  I  find  n  small  strainer  of  coarse  bolting  or  cheese  cloth  to  be  very 

Convenient. 

In  the  foregoing  description  wo  have  described  the  method  of  obtaining  the  spawn  only  from 
the  side  of  the  animal  exposed  in  opening  the  shell.  A  little  exi>erience  will  enable  one  to  lift  up 
the  head  end  of  the  animal  and  throw  it  back  over  the  great  adductor  muscle,  expose  the  opening 
of  the  reproductive  organ  on  the  left  side,  or  whatever  the  case  may  be,  and  also  express  the 
spawn  from  that  side,  thus  as  effectually  obtaining  all  of  the  ripe  eggs  or  milt  as  is  possible  in  the 
process  <>t  taking  the  same  from  fishes. 

It  is  remarkable  to  note  the  success  attending  this  method,  since  almost  every  egg  is  perfect 
and  uninjured,  the  percentage  of  ova  which  are  impregnated  is  much  larger  than  by  the  old 
method,  reaching,  I  should  say,  quite  ninety  per  cent,  of  all  that  are  takeii  when  the  products  are 
perfectly  ripe.  It  is  also  found  that  the  products  are  not  so  readily  removed  by  my  process  if  they 
are  not  perfectly  mature,  which  is  also  to  a  certain  extent  a  safeguard  against  getting  poor  or 
immature  spawn.  In  the  course  of  an  hour  after  the  products  of  the  two  sexes  have  beeu  mingled 
together  it  will  be  found  that  nearly  every  egg  has  assumed  a  globular  form,  has  extruded  a  polar 
cell,  lost  the  distinct  germinative  vesicle  and  spot  in  the  center,  and  begun  to  develop. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  our  practice  as  herein  described  has  completely  vindicated  the  state- 
ment made  by  the  distinguished  French  anatomist  and  embryologist,  M.  Lacaze-Duthiers,  that 
there  is  but  a  single  generative  opening  on  each  side  of  the  visceral  mass  of  the  Oyster,  and  that, 
as  we  have  stated,  it  is  found  to  open  just  below  the  great  adductor  muscle. 

We  have  also  discovered,  since  the  foregoing  was  written,  that  the  use  of  an  excessive  amount 
of  milt  is  of  no  advantage.  The  water  in  which  the  eggs  are  to  be  impregnated  only  requires  to 
be  rendered  slightly  milky :  a  very  few  drops  of  good  milt  is  sufficient  to  make  the  impregnation 
a  success.  Too  much  milt  causes  the  eggs  to  be  covered  by  too  large  a  number  of  spermatozoa ; 
thousands  more  than  are  required  if  too  much  is  used.  These  superfluous  spermatozoa  simply 
become  the  cause  of  a  putrescent  action  which  is  injurious  to  the  healthy  development  of  the  eggs. 
A  drop  of  milt  to  twenty  drops  of  eggs  is  quite  sufficient. 

Immediately  after  the  ova  have  been  fertilized  it  is  best  to  put  them  into  clean  sea-water  at 
once,  using  water  of  the  same  density  as  that  in  which  the  adults  grew.  If  the  attempt  is  made 
to  impregnate  the  eggs  in  water  much  denser  than  that  in  which  the  adults  lived,  it  is  probablo 
that  the  milt  will  be  killed  at  once.  This  singular  fact,  which  was  accidentally  discovered  by 
Colonel  McDonald  and  myself,  shows  how  very  careful  we  should  be  to  take  into  consideration 
every  variation  in  the  conditions  affecting  a  biological  experiment.  If  sufficient  water  is  used  no 
trouble  will  be  experienced  from  the  pollution  of  the  water  by  dangerous  micro-organisms  which 
are  able  to  destroy  the  oyster  embryos.  From  fifty  to  two  hundred  volumes  of  fresh,  clean  water 
may  be  added  to  the  volume  in  which  the  eggs  were  first  fertilized.  This  may  be  added  gradually 
during  the  first  twenty- four  hours,  so  as  to  assist  aeration  and  prevent  the  suffocation  of  the 
embryos. 

214.  RATE  OF  GROWTH  OF  OSTREA  VIRGHflCA. 

SIZE  OP  THE  EGG. — The  egg  of  the  American  Oyster,  according  to  Brooks,  is  approximately 
3^  inch,  being  very  nearly  perfectly  spherical  after  the  extrusion  of  the  polar  or  direction  cells 
(RichtungsbUischen  of  the  German  embrvologist*).  This  accords  with  what  the  writer  has  observed 
in  our  species,  and  in  the  Portuguese  Oy-ter,  probably  0.  angulata  Lain.,  the  size  of  the  egg 
appears  to  be  about  the  same,  judging  from  specimens  of  the  latter  examined  by  me  in  March 
last.  Judging  from  the  figures  and  the  stated  amplifications  given  in  the  papers  of  M.  Davainc, 


726  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  egg  of  Ostrea  edulis  is  ^^  inch  in  diameter.  Estimates  based  on  the  figures  of  M.  Lacaze- 
Dnthiers  give  dimensions  of  -2-}^  inch.  These  discrepancies  I  think  are  probably  too  great,  and 
may  be  due  to  imperfect  micrometric  methods.  If  they  are  real  it  would  indicate  a  specific 
difference  of  some  importance  between  0.  edulia  and  O.  virginica. 

The  actual  volume  of  the  egg  of  the  American  Oyster  would  accordingly  be  a  little  more 
than  ^^iroioAot  cubic  inch,  a  solid  so  minute  that  we  are  unable  to  frame  any  adequate  con- 
ception of  its  diminutiveness.  Under  the  best  conditions,  as  seen  against  a  dark  back-ground, 
it  is  visible  as  a  grayish-white  speck ;  almost  an  optical  point.  It  is  from  this  diminutive  spherical 
mass  of  living  matter  that  the  young  Oyster  is  developed.  The  development  of  the  embryo 
proceeds,  as  far  as  I  can  make  out,  according  to  the  accounts  given  by  Uavaiue,  Brooks,  Horst, 
and  others,  similarly  to  that  of  other  lamellibrauchs.  To  Hatschek1  we  are  indebted  for  the  most 
secure  foundation  for  our  future  embryological  investigations  upon  this  difficult  group  of  mollusks; 
and  we  must  not  forget  to  mention  the  very  important  researches  of  Ray  Lankester  (Phil.  Trans., 
1875),  principally  upon  Pisidium.  I  have  not  been  able  to  observe  the  development  of  the  larval 
Oyster  beyond  the  size  attained  by  it  after  the  complete  segmentation  of  the  egg,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  shell,  the  velum,  and  alimentary  tract.  In  fact,  no  embryos  which  I  have  attempted 
to  rear  from  artificially  impregnated  eggs  have  ever  lived  long  after  the  time  when  they  began 
to  take  food,  which  is  immediately  after  they  acquire  the  velum,  permanent  mouth,  and  vent, 
and  are  almost  or  altogether  covered  on  either  side  by  the  very  symmetrical  larval  shells,  which 
consist  of  carbonate  of  lime  laid  down  in  a  matrix  of  conchioline.  The  isolation  of  the  conchioline 
is  readily  effected  by  the  use  of  acetic  acid,  the  acid  dissolving  out  the  lime  entirely.  I  find 
that  Brooks  and  Dr.  Horst"  have  tried  a  similar  experiment  with  similar  results.  The  latter 
writer  has  also  been  able  to  watch  the  development  of  the  naturally  impregnated  ova  of  Ostrea 
edulia  until  a  pretty  advanced  stage  was  reached.  He  disagrees  with  Brooks  in  his  interpretation 
of  the  gastrula  stage,  and  thinks  that  the  invagination  regarded  by  the  American  investigator 
as  the  blastopore  must  be  considered  to  represent  simply  the  first  rudiment  of  the  shell-gland. 
In  assuming  this  position,  from  what  I  have  been  able  to  gather  in  the  course  of  my  own  investi- 
gation of  the  development  of  the  American  species,  I  think  we  are  bound  to  accept  Dr.  Horst's 
determination  of  the  homology  of  the  shell-gland  of  the  Oyster  with  that  of  other  lamellibrau- 
chiate  and  cephalophorpus  mollusks. 

EARLY  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT. — The  oral  invagination,  according  to  Dr.  Horst,  originates 
on  the  opposite  or  ventral  side  of  the  embryo  and  has  no  connection  with  the  dorsal  pallial 
invagination  or  shell-gland.  The  early  stages  of  the  American  and  European  species,  like  the 
later  ones,  appear  to  present  no  marked  differences,  except  that  the  latter  appears,  on  the  evidence 
of  Dr.  Horst,  Mobius,  and  others,  to  carry  the  ova  and  embryo  in  the  mantle  cavity,  from  which 
the  first-named  author  obtained  his  material  for  study,  by  breaking  a  hole  through  the  shell  near 
the  margin,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  introduce  a  pipette  into  the  pallial  chamber.  This  method  of 
getting  embryos  is  impossible  in  our  native  species,  which  has  wholly  different  breeding  habits,  as 
is  proved  by  the  investigations  of  Brooks,  Winslow,  Rice,  and  myself.  How  much  further  than 
heretofore  Messrs.  Brooks  and  Wiuslow  have  been  enabled  to  carry  the  development  of  our  native 
Oyster  during  the  past  season  at  Beaufort,  North  Carolina,  I  have  not  been  able  to  learn,  nor  do  I 
know  anything  more  definitely  as  to  how  much  success  has  been  attained  in  the  artificial  produc- 
tion of  Ostrea  edulis  from  artificially-impregnated  eggs  at  the  hands  of  Mr.  Littlewood,  of  England, 

'Ueber  EntwickelungsResohichte  von  Teredo.     Arbeiten  aus  dem  Zool.  Inst.  Wien.,  Bd.  iil. 

'BijdragetotdeKennisvandeOntwikkelingsgeschiedcnis  vau  do  (Jester  (Ostrea edulis L.).  door  Dr.  It.  Hoist.    Tiidschr. 
d.  Ned.  Dierk.  Vereen,  Deel,  vi,  1882. 


LARVAL  0\>TLUS.  727 

who  h;is  d limed   that    lie  li.nl  succeeded  in  rearing  them  to  the  age  of  five  months,  .specimens  uf 
which  it  is  said  were  shown  at  the  Fi.sheiv   i:\liibition  recently  held  in  Kdinhurgh. 

Kxi'i:i:iMi:vis  \r  SUM  .1  I.UOMK'S  CUKKK.— Our  experiments  m:ide  at  Saint  Jerome's  Creek 
d  u  rin  t:  the  pa>t  siiiumer  gave  the  most  contradictory  results,  and  the  interval  of  development 
lietweeii  that  of  our  oldest  embryo  with  itw  diminutive  Pisidium  like  valves  measuring  al>out  tfoj 
inch  in  diameter,  and  that  of  the  embryo  when  its  valves  first  begin  to  lose  their  embryonic  form, 
still  remains  unbridled.  The  dimensions  of  the  embryo  or  "fry,"  as  we  may  more  properly  call  it 
when  it  becomes  tixcd,  are  between  vV  and  -fa  inch  according  as  the  measurement  is  made  longi- 
tudinally or  transversely.  The  difference  in  magnitude  between  the  oldest  artificially  incubated 
fry  seen  by  me  and  that  of  the  youngest  fixed  embryos  which  I  collected  is  very  small,  amounting 
only  to  1^,'1,1  inch,  or  a  little  more  than  Tfo  inch.  To  determine  the  relative  volumes  of  these 
stages,  and  consequently  the  amount  of  food  which  has  been  taken  in  and  converted  into  the 
structure  of  the  more  advanced  stage  in  addition  to  the  original  bulk  of  the  egg,  we  need  only 
take  the  cubes  of  their  respective  diameters  and  compare  them.  Taking  the  diameter  of  the  egg, 
or  .,,',„  inch,  as  the  diameter  of  the  most  advanced  embryo  seen  by  me,  which  we  will  consider 
unity,  and  comparing  it  with  ^  inch,  or  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  newly  fixed  fry,  we  find, 
alter  having  reduced  the  last  quantity  to  its  simplest  form  as  compared  with  1,  or  the  diameter  of 
the  egg,  that  we  have  5.1+.  The  diameters  then  of  the  first  and  last  embryonic  or  truly  larval 
slaves  are  to  each  other  as  1  is  to  5.1-f,  and  consequently  their  volumes  will  be  to  each  other  as 
the  cubes  of  these  numbers,  or  as  1  is  to  132.651 +  .  The  difference  between  these  two  quantities, 
or  131.051+  times  1,  will  give  us  approximately  the  amount  of  food  material  which  has  been  taken 
up  by  the  embryo  in  passing  from  the  condition  when  it  was  first  able  to  feed  until  it  fixed  itself, 
showing  that  the  process  of  growth  has  been  going  on  vigorously  in  order  to  augment  the  volume 
of  the  young  creature  at  the  enormous  rate  indicated  by  our  figures.  We  have,  however,  been 
Mealing  not  with  absolute  but  with  relative  or  compared  volumes  only;  if  the  egg  contains 
rsotioooo  cubic  inch  of  protoplasmic  matter  approximately,  the  newly-fixed  fry,  which  we  will 
assume  to  be  globular,  and  contains,  as  shown  above,  over  132  times  as  much  material,  the 
absolute  bulk  of  the  latter  will  be  a»i)oi<nnre  cubic  inch  multiplied  by  132,  or  jjjjMJbiro  cubic 
inch,  which,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  therefore  -uriivrs  cubic  inch,  or  the  absolute  volume  of  the 
newly  fixed  fry.  Ninety  cubed,  or  729,000  young  Oysters  could  therefore  be  contained  in  a  cubic 
inch  of  space,  if  taken  at  the  stage  at  which  they  begin  to  be  transformed  into  spat.  This  large 
number  is,  of  course,  small  when  compared  with  125,000,000,  the  number  of  eggs  which  might  be 
contained  by  the  same  extent  of  space. 

THE  LARVAL,  CHARACTER  OF  THE  YOUNG  OYSTER. — The  proof  of  the  larval  character  of 
the  youngest  fixed  stage  of  the  Oyster  rests  upon  the  three  following  well-ascertained  facts: 
1st.  The  perfect  symmetry  and  great  convexity  of  the  valves;  2d.  The  entirely  different  shajM- 
of  the  shell  as  compared  with  those  of  the  spat  and  adult;  3d.  Its  wholly  different  micro- 
scopic structure  when  compared  with  the  later  and  full-grown  stages.  The  form  of  the  shell,  at 
the  time  the  animal  is  about  to  begin  to  develop  the  spat  shell,  is  suborbicular,  very  thin,  ven- 
tricose,  resembling  in  many  respects  the  shell  of  Cyclas  or  Puidium,  having  the  symmetry  of 
those  genera,  with  umbones  of  about  the  same  form  and  prominence.  These  features  mark  the 
larval  shell  of  the  Oyster  so  unmistakably  that  its  valves  may  always  be  very  readily  recogni/ed 
at  the  tips  of  the  valves  of  spat  under  a  year  old.  The  larval  \alves  lie  on  the  tips  of  the  vah.-s 
of  the  spat  like  small  hemispherical  caps,  but  cau  usually  not  be  found  after  the  young  Oyster 
enters  upon  its  second  year,  as  its  umbones,  together  with  the  larval  shells  which  surmount  them. 


728  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

have  been  eroded  by  the  action  of  the  carbonic  dioxide  in  solution  in  the  sea-water.  The 
presence  of  the  larval  shells  in  an  unimpaired  condition  on  the  umboues  of  the  valves  of  Oysters 
is  therefore  an  indication  that  such  specimens  are  young,  probably  under  a  year  old. 

The  third  character,  alluded  to  above,  which  distinguishes  the  larval  shell  of  the  Oyster  is 
the  perfect  homogeneity  of  the  calcareous  matter.  Unlike  the  valves  of  the  spat  or  translucid 
flakes  from  the  shell  of  the  adult,  they  exhibit  no  prismatic  arrangement  of  the  calcic  carbonate 
in  a  matrix  of  conchioline.  In  the  valves  of  the  adult  and  spat,  on  the  other  hand,  the  calcic 
carbonate  tends  to  assume  a  prismatic  arrangement  vertical  or  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  shell.  This  distinction  is  so  marked  that  in  very  young  individuals 
which  have  only  lately  become  fixed  one  may  very  readily  determine  with  the  aid  of  the  micro- 
scope the  line  of  demarkation  along  which  the  formation  of  the  larval  shell  ceased  and  where  the 
prismatic  calcareous  structure  of  the  valves  of  the  spat  began  to  be  developed. 

CHAEACTEES  OF  THE  LARVAL  SHELL. — The  only  characters  of  structure  which  the  larval 
shell  has  in  common  with  that  of  the  spat  and  adult  are  the  lines  of  growth  visible  in  all  three. 
This  shows  that  the  valves  grow  in  extent  at  all  stages  by  the  addition  of  lime  to  the  edges  of 
the  valves,  each  layer  of  mineral  matter  and  organic  matrix  extending  over  successively  greater 
and  greater  areas,  as  in  the  growth  of  the  shells  of  mollusks  in  general,  the  umbones  being 
the  points  from  which  the  valves  grow  in  an  eccentric  manner  in  consequence  of  the  gradually 
increasing  extent  of  the  mantle — the  shell-secreting  organ — as  the  growth  of  the  animal 
proceeds.  Having  clearly  denned  the  nature  of  the  larval  shell  of  the  Oyster,  up  to  the  time 
when  it  is  ready  to  begin  to  build  or  secrete  the  shell  of  the  spat,  we  may  next  discuss  the 
character  of  the  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

The  transition  is  apparently  an  abrupt  one.  The  excessive  convexity  of  the  valves  of  the  fry 
contrast  strongly  with  the  almost  flat  lower  valve  and  feebly  convex  upper  one  of  the  spat.  At 
the  free  edges  of  the  larval  shells  where  they  pass  directly  into  the  structure  of  the  valves  of  the 
spat  there  is  a  marked  offset  or  angle  marking  very  distinctly  the  difference  of  convexity  between 
the  two  stages  of  shell  development. 

FOOD  OF  THE  YOUNG  OYSTER. — As  already  remarked,  I  have  seen  food  in  the  intestine 
of  the  young  Oyster  on  the  second  day  of  development,  but  how  long  it  may  take  before  the 
young  embryo  of  this  stage  of  growth  shall  have  taken  and  appropriated  one  hundred  and 
thirty-two  times  its  own  volume  of  food  material,  I  am  not  able  to  say.  This  it  must  do 
before  it  can  have  attained  to  the  size  of  the  larva  which  is  transformed  into  spat.  The  food 
is  propelled  through  the  alimentary  canal  by  the  action  of  innumerable  vibratory  filaments 
which  clothe  the  inside  of  the  throat,  stomach,  and  intestine  as  in  the  adult ;  the  intestine, 
stomach,  and  liver  are  not,  however,  as  complex  as  in  the  full-grown  animal. 

Of  the  method  of  fixation  1  have  as  yet  learned  nothing  of  value.  That  this  is  accomplished 
by  some  sort  of  byssus  I  have  no  doubt.  The  fact  that  it  is  the  left  valve  which  is  always  the 
lowermost  and  attached  one  would  indicate  that  the  method  of  fixation  was  not  capricious  or 
haphazard  in  its  nature. 

I  would  infer  from  what  we  learn  from  the  study  of  other  animals  that  it  may  require  quite  a 
week  before  an  embryo  reaches  the  dimensions  of  one-eightieth  of  an  inch,  but  we  have  no  data 
upon  which  to  base  any  conclusions  of  value.  Of  the  later  stage  of  development  we  know  some- 
thing definitely.  The  main  fact  which  we  have  so  far  decided  is  the  size  of  the  larval  shell. 

RATE  OF  GROWTH. — After  fixation  the  growth  of  spat  is  very  rapid,  as  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  I  have  found  spat  upon  collectors  which  had  not  been  placed  in  position 


FOOD  OF  TOE  OYSTER.  729 

more  than  a  week  to  ten  days,  upon  which  I  detected  spat  one-fourth  of  an  inch  across.  In 
other  cases  the  following  were  the  observed  dimensions:  On  a  collector  which  had  been  placed 
near  a  bed  of  spawning  Oysters  for  twenty  days  I  obtained  a  specimen  of  spat  seven-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  across;  from  another  collector  immersed  for  forty-four  days  I  obtained  specimens 
tliii icon-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  from  another  out  forty-eight  days  a  specimen 
measuring  about  one  inch.  Another  set  of  collectors  which  had  been  out  for  seventy-nine  days 
had  spat  attached  which  measured  one  and  three-fourths  inches  across.  Some  still  larger  spat 
oillri-trd  l>y  me  was  not  over  eighty-two  days  old,  and  measured  nearly  two  inches  in  length 
from  the  hinge  to  the  distal  margin  of  the  valves.  Still  larger  specimens  have  been  observed 
by  the  writer,  which  bore  every  evidence  of  having  affixed  themselves  during  the  same 
season. 

If  we  contrast  the  above  measurements  with  those  given  by  Mobius  of  the  spat  of  0.  ,<liiti* 
of  known  age,  I  conclude  that  the  American  Oyster  prows  three  or  four  times  as  rapidly  as  the 
former.  For  instance,  Mobius  figures  a  European  Oyster  twelve  to  fifteen  months  old,  which 
measures  only  one  and  one-fourth  inches  in  diameter.  Contrasting  this  with  the  size  of  the 
American  at  seventy-nine  to  eighty-two  days  old,  and  measuring,  from  one  and  three-fourths  to 
nearly  two  inches  in  diameter,  we  see  how  greatly  our  species  surpasses  that  of  Europe  in  vigor 
and  rapidity  of  growth. 

Of  the  rate  of  growth  beyond  the  ages  given  above  I  have  only  a  few  data,  based  on  the  spat 
which  was  caught  on  collectors  put  out  in  Saint  Jerome's  Creek  in  July  and  August,  1880.  In  the 
following  autumn  the  collectors  which  had  been  put  out  into  the  creek  were  taken  up  and  the  spat 
removed  from  them.  This  was  then  put  into  a  box,  through  wh;oh  the  water  could  circulate 
freely,  and  put  back  into  the  creek,  in  order  that  we  might  be  enabled  to  learn  how  much  growth 
these  young  Oysters  would  make  during  the  winter  and  next  season.  I  did  not  have  an  opportu- 
nity to  examine  them,  howerar,  until  the  10th  of  July,  1882.  From  the  time  of  their  fixation  in 
July  and  August,  1880,  to  the  time  when  I  made  my  last  examination  of  these  specimens,  a 
period  of  about  twenty-three  months  had  accordingly  elapsed.  One  of  the  largest  specimens 
examined  by  me  measured  three  and  three  eighths  inches  in  length  and  two  and  five-eighths 
inches  in  width.  Another  smaller  specimen  measured  two  and  a  half  inches  long  and  two 
and  a  quarter  inches  in  width.  They  were  about  the  size  of  Oysters  available  for  planting,  and  I 
have  no  doubt  that  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years  more,  if  placed  under  favorable  conditions, 
they  would  reach  a  marketable  size.  The  inference,  therefore,  is  that  it  takes  at  least  four  to  five 
years  for  an  Oyster  to  grow  large  enough,  starting  from  the  egg,  to  be  available  for  market. 

In  order  that  an  Oyster  may  grow  to  attain  the  great  size  of  certain  single  individuals  which 
I  have  seen,  it  may  take  even  ten  years.  I  should  think  it  would  take  at  least  that  length  of  time 
for  an  Oyster  to  grow  until  Us  valves  would  measure  nine  inches  in  length,  a  few  of  which  I  have 
seen  of  this  enormous  size.  These,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  not  "  Raccoon  Oysters"  or  "Cat's- 
tongues,"  as  the  narrow,  elongate  individuals  are  called  which  grow  so  densely  crowded  together 
upon  the  banks  as  to  be  abnormally  lengthened.  Under  favorable  conditions,  I  do  not  think 
it  improbable  that  an  Oyster  may  live  to  the  age  of  twenty  years,  attaining  corresponding 
dimensions. 

215.  THE  FOOD  OF  THE  OYSTER. 

OBSERVATIONS  AT  SAINT  JEROME'S  CREEK.— The  following  extracts,  taken  mainly  from 
my  report  for  1880  to  the  Fish  Commissioner  of  Maryland,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  kinds  of 
organisms  usually  encountered  on  oyster  banks  and  beds.  Theae  observations  were  made  at 


730  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Saint  Jerome's  Creek,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac,  during  the  months  of  July, 
August,  September,  and  October: 

"The  food  of  this  mollusk,  as  is  well  known,  consists  entirely  of  microscopic  beings  and 
fragments  of  organic  matter,  which  are  carried  by  currents  from  the  palps  and  gills,  which  have 
been  already  described,  to  the  large  mouth  of  the  animal  at  the  hinge  end  of  the  shell.  The  inside 
of  the  gullet  and  stomach,  like  some  other  parts  of  the  body,  are  covered  with  cilia,  so  that  food 
once  fairly  in  the  mouth  will  be  carried  by  their  action  down  to  the  cavity  of  the  stomach,  where 
it  is  carried  into  the  folds  and  deep  pouches  in  its  walls,  and  even  into  the  openings  of  the  bile 
ducts,  to  undergo  digestion  or  solution,  so  as  to  be  fitted  in  its  passage  through  the  intestine  to 
be  taken  into  the  circulation,  and  finally  disposed  of  in  building  up  the  structures  of  the  body. 

"Along  with  the  food  which  is  taken,  a  very  large  amount  of  indigestible  dirt,  or  inorganic 
matter,  is  carried  in,  which,  in  a  great  measure,  fills  up  the  intestine,  together  with  the  refuse  or 
waste  from  the  body.  This  material,  when  examined,  reveals  the  fact  that  the  Oyster  subsists 
largely  on  diatoms,  a  low  type  of  moving  plants  which  swim  about  in  the  water,  incased  in  minute 
sandstone  cases,  or  boxes,  of  the  most  delicate  beauty  of  workmanship.  These,  when  found  in 
the  intestine,  have  usually  had  their  living  contents  dissolved  out  by  the  action  of  the  digestive 
juices  of  the  stomach.  I  have  found  in  our  own  species  of  Oyster  the  shells  of  three  different 
genera  of  diatoms,  viz:  Campylodiscus,  Coscinodiscm,  and  Navicula.  The  first  is  a  singularly  bent 
form;  the  second  is  discoidal;  and  the  last  boat-shaped,  and  all  are  beautifully  marked.  Of 
these  three  types,  I  saw  a  number  of  species,  especially  of  the  latter,  but  as  I  was  not  an  authority 
upon  the  systematic  history  of  any  of  them  I  had  to  neglect  the  determination  of  the  species.  No 
doubt  many  more  forms  are  taken  as  food  by  the  Oyster,  since  I  saw  other  forms  in  which  the 
living  matter  inside  the  siliceous  cases  was  brown,  the  same  as  in  most  of  the  preceding  forms 
which  I  have  indicated.  Some  of  these  brown  forms  were  so  plentiful  as  to  color  a  considerable 
surface  whereon  they  grew  of  the  same  tint  as  themselves. 

"Besides  the  diatoms  and  the  spores  of  algse,  the  larvae  or  young  of  many  animals,  such  as 
sponges,  bryozoa,  bydroids,  worms,  mollusks,  are  small  enough  to  be  taken  in  as  aliment  by 
the  Oyster,  though  their  bodies  in  most  cases  being  soft  and  without  a  skeleton,  it  is  impossible 
to  find  any  traces,  either  in  the  stomach  or  intestine,  of  their  remains,  to  indicate  that  they  have 
formed  a  part  of  the  bill  of  fare  of  the  animal.  What,  however,  demonstrates  that  such  small 
larval  organisms  do  help  to  feed  the  Oyster  is  the  fact  that  at  the  heads  of  the  small  inlets  or 
creeks  along  the  Chesapeake,  where  the  water  is  but  little  affected  by  the  tides  and  is  somewhat 
brackish  and  inclined  to  be  stagnant,  there  always  appears  to  be  a  relatively  greater  development 
of  a  somewhat  characteristic  surface  or  shallow  water  fauna  of  minute  forms. 

"In  Saint  Jerome's  Creek  the  microscopic  fauna  of  its  headwaters  is  entirely  different  from 
that  of  the  body  of  the  creek;  two  minute  forms  inhabit  in  vast  numbers  the  former,  while  I 
sought  in  vain  for  them  in  the  more  open  and  changeable  waters  of  the  main  body  of  the  inlet, 
which  are  brought  into  active  movement  twice  a  day  by  the  action  of  the  tides.  One  of  these 
forms,  an  infusorian,1  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  was  found  covering  every  available, 
surface  of  attachment,  so  that  countless  multitudes  of  the  naked  young  would  be  swimming  about 
in  the  water  previous  to  building  the  curious  spiral  tubes  which  they  inhabit — admirably  fitted  in 
this  state  as  food  for  the  Oyster.  Besides  the  type  referred  to,  there  were  a  number  of  other 
infusorians,  which  in  their  HO  called  swarming  stages  of  development  would  become  available 
as  Oyster  food.  Of  such  types  I  noticed  four  diftV-rent  species,  either  belonging  or  very  nearly 


'  On  the  occurrence  of  JVcio produda,  Wright,  in  the  Chesapeake  Buy.— Am.  A'aluratist,  1880,  pp.  810,  811. 


LOCATION  OF  OYSTKK  BEDS.  731 


related  to  tin-  genus  Cotlinniia  ;  all  of  the  forms  built  tubes  tor  themselves.     I  also  nuiK-ed 

forms  <>f  bell  animalcules,  the  swarmers  of  which  would  become  available  as  foo<l  I'm  the  Oysters 

lying  in  tin-  vk'itiity. 

"The  iliatonis  did  not  seem  to  mo.  to  be  more  abundant  in  the  headwaters  than  in  t  he  open  creek. 
Thru  \\a>  inn-  moss  animal  of  remarkable  character,  which  I  found  in  the  headwaters  only.  This 
creature  was  \»M\  abundant,  and  no  doubt  its  embryos,  like  those  of  the  infusoria  referred  to,  were 
a\  ailable  as  food. 

"Of  free-swimming  infusoriaus,  I  noticed  a  number  of  genera;  one  especially  attracted  my 
at  tent  ion  I  nun  its  snake  like  appearance  and  singularly  rapid  contortions;  it  had  a  tuft  of  vibrating 
hairs  or  eilia  at  the  head  end  in  close  relation  with  the  mouth.  Another  more  abundant  \y\te  was 
the  em  ions  genus  Huplotex,  with  a  thick  shell  inclosing  the  soft  protoplasm  of  the  body;  the  latter 
was  of  an  oval  form,  flat  beneath  and  rounded  on  the  back,  so  that  the  resemblance  when  the 
hir-r  toot  like  cilia  were  in  motion,  carrying  the  animal  about,  was  strikingly  like  a  very  minute 
tortoise,  the  resemblance  being  heightened  when  the  animal  was  viewed  fiom  the  side. 

"  Kod-like  alga?  of  minute  size,  the  larva;  of  Crustacea,  especially  the  vast  numbers  of  extremely 
small  larval  Copepoda,  must  enter  as  a  perceptible  factor  into  the  food  supply  of  the  Oyster. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  comparatively  quiescent  condition  of  the  headwaters  of  these 
inlets  and  creeks,  available  as  oyster-planting  grounds,  are  more  favorable  to  the  propagation  of 
minute  life  than  the  open  bay  or  creeks,  where  the  temperature  is  lower  and  less  constant.  Prac- 
tieally,  this  is  found  to  be  true,  for  oystermen  seem  to  be  generally  agreed  that  Oysters  '  fatten' 
more  rapidly,  that  is,  feed  more  liberally  in  the  headwaters  —  blind  extremities  of  the  creeks  —  than 
elsewhere.  This  notion  of  the  oystermen  is  in  agreement  with  my  own  observations  during  the  past 
year.  Oystermen  also  assert  that  Oysters  'fatten'  more  rapidly  in  shallow  waters  than  in  deep 
ones,  a  point  n\wi\  which  I  made  but  few  observations;  but  such  as  I  did  make  tended  to  confirm 
sueh  an  opinion.  In  illustration  I  may  contrast  the  condition  of  the  Oysters  in  the  pond  leased  by 
the  commission  at  Saint  Jerome's  and  those  dredged  off  Point  Lookout,  in  twenty  or  thirty  feet  of 
water,  on  the  3d  day  of  October,  1880.  The  Oysters  in  the  pond,  by  the  middle  or  end  of  September, 
were  in  good  condition  as  to  flesh,  and  marketable,  while  those  from  deeper  water  off  Point  Lookout, 
and  but  little  later  in  the  season,  were  still  extremely  poor,  thin,  and  watery,  and  utterly  unfit  for 
market.  These  differences  in  condition,  it  seems  to  me,  are  to  be  attributed  in  a  great  measure  to 
differences  of  temperature  and  the  abundance  of  fowl,  but  mainly  to  the  latter." 

These  observations  give  us  some  hints  regarding  the  advantages  arising  from  the  cultiva- 
tion of  Oysters  in  more  or  less  stagnant  water,  in  which,  as  in  the  French  parks  or  claires,  an 
abundance  of  microscopic  life  would  be  generated  in  consequence  of  a  nearly  uniform  temperature, 
higher  in  the  early  autumn  months  at  least  than  the  waters  of  the  open  sea,  where  cold  currents 
also  would  tend  to  make  it  still  less  uniform  and  thus  interfere  with  the  generation  of  the  minute 
food  of  the  Oyster.  In  other  words,  it  would  appear  that  the  effect  of  the  French  method  is  to 
furnish  the  best  conditions  for  the  rapid  and  constant  propagation  of  an  immense  amount  of 
microscopic  food  well  adapted  to  nourish  the  Oyster.  That  unlike  Oysters  expos-ed  to  a  rapid  flow 
of  \\  ater  on  a  bottom  barren  of  life  they  grow  and  quickly  come  into  a  salable  condition. 

Sin  \  i  IONS  BEST  ADAPTED  FOB  OYSTER  CULTURE.  —  In  this  country  narrow  coves  and 
inlets  with  comparatively  shallow  water  appear  to  furnish  the  best  conditions  for  the  nutrition 
and  growth  of  Oysters;  and  according  to  my  own  experience  these  are  the  places  where  we  act- 
ually find  minute  animal  and  vegetable  life  in  the  greates:  abundance,  and,  as  might  have 
been  exited,  the  Oysters  planted  in  such  situations  appear  to  lie  in  good  condition  early  in 
the  autumn,  long  before  those  which  arc  found  in  deeper  and  more  active  water,  where  their 


732  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

food  has  less  chance  to  multiply.  If  the  French  mode  applies  successfully  to  an  inferior  species, 
ours,  which  grows  so  much  more  rapidly,  ought  to  derive  a  proportionally  greater  benefit  from 
being  treated  in  tbe  same  manner.  However,  before  we  are  ready  to  deal  with  the  material 
on  which  the  Oyster  feeds,  we  desire  a  more  perfect  acquaintance  with  the  microscopic  life 
which  grows  upon  oyster-beds  and  swims  about  in  the  adjacent  waters.  From  the  fact  that 
the  lower  forms  of  life  in  fresh  water  often  appear  in  great  abundance  one  year,  while  in  the 
next,  from  some  unexplained  cause,  none  of  the  same  species  will  be  found  in  the  same  situation, 
we  may  conclude  that  similar  seasonal  variations  occur  in  the  phases  of  the  microscopic  life  of 
a  given  oyster-bed  and  its  vicinity. 

INFLUENCES  OP  ENVIRONMENT. — Such  yearly  variations  in  the  abundance  of  microscopic 
life  are  probably  the  causes  of  the  variable  condition  of  1  he  Oysters  taken  from  the  same  beds 
during  the  same  season  of  different  years.  Violent  or  sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  prob- 
ably often  the  cause  of  the  destruction  of  a  great  amount  of  the  minute  life  upon  which  the  Oyster 
feeds.  Backward  and  stormy  seasons  doubtless  also  affect  the  abundance  of  the  microscopic  life 
of  the  sea.  All  of  these  questions  have,  however,  as  yet  been  scarcely  touched,  and,  judging  from 
the  disposition  of  many  of  our  students  of  zoology  to  be  content  merely  with  a  description  of  new 
species  and  the  compilation  of  lists,  instead  of  also  entering  into  investigations  of  the  life-histories, 
the  relative  abundance  of  individuals,  and  the  influence  of  surrounding  conditions  upon  the 
forms  they  study,  it  will  take  some  time  yet  before  we  get  the  information  so  much  desired. 
When  we  arrive  at  this  knowledge  we  will  know  why  it  is  that  Oysters  taken  from  a  certain  bed 
are  in  good  condition  for  a  season  or  two  and  then  for  one  or  more  years  are  found  to  be  watery  and 
of  poor  quality,  as  well  as  why  it  is  that  the  Oysters  of  certain  beds,  which  for  years  have  had  a 
high  reputation  for  their  fine  qualities,  are  suddenly  found  to  be  more  or  less  green  in  the  beard, 
as  I  have  been  informed  is  now  the  case  with  the  Oysters  of  Lynn  Haven  Bay,  Virginia. 

As  to  the  influence  of  brackish  water  in  improving  the  condition  of  Oysters,  let  me  observe 
here  that  those  who  hold  to  that  opinion  appear  to  forget  to  bear  in  mind  that  brackish- water  beds 
are  often  in  the  case  just  described ;  that  lying  in  shallow,  relatively  quiet  water,  an  abundance 
of  food  is  generated  which  is  rapidly  consumed  by  the  animal?,  quickly  bringing  the  latter  into 
condition,  the  brackish  state  of  the  water  getting  the  credit  of  the  result. 

"  In  a  paper  published  in  the  report  to  the  British  Government  on  oyster-culture  in  Ireland, 
in  1870,  Prof.  W.  K.  Sullivan,  of  Dublin,  remarked  that  independently  of  the  mechanical  constitu- 
tion of  the  shore  and  littoral  sea-bottom,  i.  e.,  deposition  of  sediment,  the  currents,  the  temperature, 
etc.,  the  nature  of  the  soil  produces  a  marked  influence  upon  the  food  of  the  plants  and  sedentary 
animals  that  inhabit  the  locality,  as  well  as  upon  the  association  of  species.  Especially  is  it  the 
case  with  Oysters,  that  the  soil  exerts  so  much  influence  on  the  shape,  size,  color,  brittleness  of 
shell,  and  flavor  of  the  meat,  that  an  experienced  person  can  tell  with  great  certainty  where  any 
particular  specimen  was  grown.1  .  .  .  Were  we  able  to  determine  the  specific  qualities  of 
the  soil  which  produce  those  differences  in  the  qualities  of  Oysters,  it  would  be  an  important  step 
in  their  cultivation.  Again,  soils  favorable  for  the  reproduction  of  the  Oyster  are  not  always 
equally  favorable  for  their  subsequent  development;  and,  again,  there  are  many  places  where 
Oysters  thrive  but  where  they  cannot  breed.  This  problem  of  the  specific  influence  of  the  soil  is, 
however,  a  very  difficult  and  complicated  one.  First,  because  it  is  almost  impossible  to  separate 
the  specific  action  of  the  soil  from  that  of  the  other  causes  enumerated ;  and  next,  because,  though 
much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  Oysters,  1  do  not  know  of  any  systematic  series  of  experi- 

'E.  INOKBSOLL:  Report  on  Oyster  Industry,  Tenth  Census. 


PROTOZOANS  OF  SAINT  JEROME'S  CREEK.  733 

incuts  carried  out  upon  different  soils,  and  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  enable  accidental 
causes  to  be  eliminated,  which  could  afford  a  clue  to  the  determination  of  the  relative  importance 
of  the  action  of  the  several  causes  above  enumerated  at  the  different  stages  of  development  of  the 
(hster.  .  .  .  I  believe  the  character  and  abundance  of  Diatomaeea  and  Rhisopoda,  and  other 
microscopic  animals,  in  Oyster  grounds,  is  of  primary  importance  in  connection  with  Oyster 
cultivation.  The  green  color  of  the  Colchester  and  Marennes  Oyster  shows  how  much  the  quality 
may  lie  all'eetcd  liv  such  organisms.  1 1  is  pioliaMc  that  tlic  action  or  inllnenec  of  t  lie  >ml  of  <>\MCI 
grounds  upon  the  Oyster,  at  the  various  stages  of  its  growth,  depends  mainly  upon  the  nature  and 
comparative  abundance  of  the  Diatomaeea,  Rhizopoda,  Infusoria,  and  other  microscopical  organisms 
which  inhabit  the  ground.  I  have  accordingly  always  noted  where  the  mud  appeared  to  be  rich  in 
Diatonittcrtt,  Foraminifera,  and  other  microscopic  organisms.  A  thorough  a  study  of  a  lew  differently- 
situated  Oyster-grounds,  exhibiting  well-marked  differences  in  the  character  of  the  Oyster  from 
this  point  of  view,  by  a  competent  microscopist,  acquainted  with  the  classes  of  plants  and  animals 
just  mentioned,  would  be  of  great  scientific  interest  and  practical  importance." 

PROTOZOANS  OP  SAINT  JEROME'S  CREEK.— The  Protozoan  fauna  of  Saint  Jerome's  Creek 
presents  considerable  variety;  several  species  of  test-building  Cothurnia  were  noticed,  one 
Vaginicola,  three  species  of  Vorticella  or  bell-animalcules,  free-swimming  Euplotes,  A'a«*«te;  of 
the  latter  type  an  exceedingly  elongate  form  was  noticed,  with  a  body  almost  as  slender  as  a 
thread-worm.  Monads  were  noted  sometimes  in  profusion,  though  some  of  these  may  have  been 
the  spores  of  algae.  Amreboid  forms  were  very  few,  and  the  only  one  which  was  frequently 
noticed  was  a  form  so  nearly  like  Actinophry*  sol  that  I  would  pronounce  it  the  same. 

The  Freia  producta  Wright  was  most  common ;  this  creature  is  related  to  the  fresh-water 
trumpet  animalcules,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Protozoans  I  have  ever  seen.  I  reproduce 
here,  with  some  changes,  my  description  of  the  Chesapeake  form  from  the  "American  Naturalist* 
for  November,  1880 : 

"  The  tubes  in  which  the  animalcule  resides  are  formed  of  a  narrow  transparent  ribbon  of 
horny  consistency,  wound  into  a  spiral  and  terminating  in  a  trumpet-shaped  extremity,  from  which 
the  odd  peristome  of  the  inhabitant  protrudes.  The  basal  or  attached  end  is  usually  tent  at  an 
angle  to  the  tube  and  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  foot  end  of  a  stocking  resting  upon  the 
sole.  This  portion  is  not  composed,  like  the  tube,  of  a  spiral  ribbon,  but  is  simply  a  thin-walled 
sac,  from  the  open  end  of  which  the  ribbon  takes  its  rise,  but  it  is  composed  of  the  same  kind  of 
material.  Many  of  the  tubes  show  a  trumpet-like  rim  projecting  from  the  sides  of  the  former,  a 
little  above  the  middle,  and  of  the  same  form  as  the  terminal  rim,  showing  that  this,  like  the  form 
described  by  Mr.  Wright  from  British  waters,  may  stop  building  its  tube  for  a  time  and  then 
recommence. 

"The  adult  animal,  tube  and  all,  when  fully  extended,  will  measure  one  twenty-fifth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  It  is  of  the  same  color  as  Stentor  ceeruleus,  or  bottle-green,  but  has  the  power  of 
elongating  and  twisting  itself  as  greatly  as  S.  rceaeli.  The  peristome  is  quite  unlike  that  of  Freia 
ampulla  and  bears  a  strong  likeness  to  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  obstetrical  forceps.  The  blades  are 
deeply  grooved,  forming  a  deep  ciliated  demi-caual  with  parallel  sides,  and  at  the  junction  of  their 
bases  lies  the  spacious,  twisted,  and  spirally  ciliated  pharynx,  which  is  bounded  dorsally  and 
ventrally  by  the  prominent  folds  which  unite  on  either  side  with  the  long,  curved  lobes  of  the 
peristome.  There  is  a  small  basal  disc  as  in  Stentor,  and  the  ectosarc  is  traversed  as  in  that  genus 
by  parallel  granular  bands,  regarded  as  muscular  fibers  by  some  writers.  The  usual  food-balls 
and  vacuoles  are  present,  and  I  was  enabled  to  define  sharply  the  endosarc  from  the  ectosarc, 


734  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

and  clearly  see  the  nucleus.  The  tube  or  ribbon-secreting  organ  described  by  Wright  I  was  unable 
to  discover. 

"  When  fully  extended  the  basal  portion  of  the  animal  becomes  attenuated  to  a  thin  bluish 
lilaineut,  which  widens  towards  the  peristome,  where  the  body  is  over  half  as  thick  as  the  inside 
diameter  of  the  tube.  When  fully  retracted  and  resting,  the  animal  resembles  in  its  oblong  shape 
a  retracted  and  resting  •Stentor,  and  measures  about  ^  as  long  as  when  fully  extended.  The 
ribbon  which  forms  the  tube  makes  from  four  to  twenty-four  turns  in  specimens  of  different  ages." 

This  organism  I  since  find  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  bay  also,  but  is  not  so  abundant  as  in 
the  creek.  Small  mica  collectors  fixed  to  floating  corks  in  the  hatching  jars  and  aquaria  used 
during  the  past  season  were  found  to  afford  a  nidus  for  Freia  as  well  as  Zoothamnium,  the  latter 
multiplying  at  a  most  astonishing  rate  in  a  very  few  days.  Under  similar  conditions,  amoebae, 
apparently  A.proteus,  multiplied  at  a  suprising  rate;  this  was  the  case,  too,  with  a  small  brown 
diatom  which  would  coat  in  three  or  four  days  the  sides  of  the  glass  vessels  with  a  thin  brownish 
film  composed  of  countless  myriads  of  individuals  of  the  one  species.  The  temperature  of  the 
bay-water  used  in  the  aquaria  at  this  time  would  range  from  76°  F.  to  89°  F.  The  Vorticellidw 
also  soon  attach  themselves,  and  next  to  the  hypotrichous  iufusoriaus  found  in  the  locality  are  the 
most  important  animalcular  forms  found  in  the  Chesapeake.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Cherrystone 
River  I  last  year  found  Licnophora  cohnii  in  great  abundance  eutoparasitic  upon  an  unidentified 
hydroid.  The  ]\e\iozoi)u,Actinophrys  sol,  is  found  in  the  bay  and  Saint  Jerome's  Creek,  and  I  think 
it  capable  of  swallowing  dead  or  enfeebled  Oyster  eggs  and  embryos. 

MUTUAL  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  OYSTER  AND  ITS  PREY. — Mobius  calls  an  Oyster- 
bank  a  Bioccenosis  or  interdependent  community  of  life.  The  many  species  of  animals  found 
on  the  banks  and  beds  are  no  doubt  more  or  less  mutually  dependent  upon  each  other  for 
subsistence,  but  this  is  perhaps  not  any  more  true  of  Oyster-banks  than  it  is  of  terrestrial 
fauna;.  There  are  no  doubt  vast  numbers  of  floating  embryos  of  Oysters  .eaten  by  other 
animals  growing  on  the  beds  which  bring  their  food  supply  to  themselves  by  means  of 
currents  produced  by  ciliary  motion.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  no  doubt  vast  numbers  of  the 
minute  swimming  embryos  of  these,  drawn  in  and  swallowed  by  the  Oyster,  which  may,  indeed, 
for  aught  we  know,  in  this  way  swallow  many  of  its  own  young,  for  the  current  produced  by  the 
Oyster  by  means  of  the  cilia  clothing  its  gills  is  by  no  means  a  feeble  one,  though  it  is  exceeded 
in  power  by  the  current  flowing  into  and  out  of  the  siphons  of  Mya.  In  the  latter  I  have  frequently, 
upon  opening  the  animal,  found  several  Copepoda  plainly  visible  to  the  naked  eye  swimming 
about  in  the  water  in  the  inferior  mantle  cavity,  which  had  evidently  been  drawn  in  by  the  inward 
current.  It  is  plain  in  this  case  that  very  mild  means  may  become  effective  as  prehensile  and 
destructive  agents,  so  as  to  bring  remotely  related  types  into  intimate  vital  relations. 

Though  an  animal  may  be  apparently  invulnerable  on  account  of  the  effectiveness  of  its 
covering,  it  cannot  emancipate  itself  from  the  abiding  struggle  it  has  to  make  to  obtain  food,  no 
matter  how  passively  it  may  appear  to  conduct  itself.  The  Oyster  has  sucb  a  character,  yet  it  has 
been  apparent  from  what  has  been  observed  before,  that  it  is  entirely  dependent  for  a  vigorous 
existence  upon  the  favorableness  of  surrounding  conditions.  The  beds  and  banks  in  a  true  sense 
are  interdependent  communities,  whose  vigor  may  no  doubt  be  impaired  by  the  removal  of  a  single 
one  of  its  members.  Suppose  we  should  take  away  the  algae,  diatoms,  Oyster-crabs,  vibrioi^, 
bacteria,  infusoria,  in  fact  all  the  minute  life;  we  should  greatly  impair  if  not  destroy  the  vitality 
of  the  beds.  While  it  is  true  that  many  of  even  the  smallest  forms  may  destroy  food  which 
should  properly  be  consumed  by  the  Oyster,  that  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  these  same  small 
forms  some  destructive  element  might  attain  such  a  development  as  to  be  more  injurious  still. 


CAUSE  OF  THE  CIM.KN  COLOR  OF  THE  OYSTER.  7:;;. 

There  is  therefore  no  doubt  hut  that  a  delicate  balance  of  power  is  maintained  by  these  rivals 
which  is  best  fur  tin-  health  of  tin-  community.  The  stabilitx  of  permanent  o\  sicr  l.c.K,  it  must 
lie  remembered,  t'lirnislics  ilic  right  conditions  for  the  survival  of  many  types.  It  is  a  place  where 
tli.  \  tind  lioth  a  home  and  pleat}"  of  food.  It  is  the  very  fa vonibleness  offered  by  tlu.se  places 
which  tends  to  induce  them  to  congregate  and  multiply,  and  it  becomes  a  serious  question  whether 
the  artilicial  establishment  of  banks  will  not  in  time  cause  the  proper. types  to  congregate  and 
multiply  so  as  to  Milord  the  needed  food  supply  for  the  Oysters.  That  destructive  members  of  the 
community  may  also  he  attracted  is  admitted,  but  if  the  beds  are  established  in  shallow  waters,  as 
I  have  pieviously  suggested,  the  destruction  of  such  unwelcome  intruders  may  be  very  readily 
c  Heeled.  ••  Drills"  and  boring-sponges  are  naturally  to  be  thought  of  a«  types  which  should  be 
destroyed,  while  diatoms,  infusoria,  small  polyps,  bryozoa,  minute  alga?,  etc.,  are  to  be  favored  in 
CM -:-\  wa\.  Those  forms  again  which  the  oyster-culturist  knows  are  only  there  for  the  purpose 
of  -jetting  a  good  living  with  little  trouble  to  themselves  ought  to  be  destroyed. 

It  might  be  an  advantage  to  introduce  certain  desirable  forms  onto  a  bank,  which  might  be 
supposed  to  be  useful  as  a  food  supply.  Infusoria  and  diatoms  not  previously  existing  might  be 
introduced  in  this  way;  this,  I  think,  would  be  especially  easy  in  the  case  of  the  former  where 
the  tyi>e  was  one  which  is  fixed  during  its  adult  life. 


216.  ON  THE  CAUSE  OF  THE  GREEN  COLOR  OF  THE  OYSTER. 

EXPERIMENTS  AT  WASHINGTON  AND  PHILADELPHIA.— I  have  frequently  read  accounts  of 
Oysters  which  had  become  green-fleshed  in  certain  localities,  and  it  has  also  been  asserted  that 
competent  chemists  had  discovered  poisonous  green  substances  of  metallic  origin  in  such  s|tuci- 
moils.  Tests  made  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  Professor  Endlich  in  1879  failed  to  disclose 
anything  poisonous  in  some  green  Oysters  which  had  excited  the  suspicion  of  the  Board  of  Health 
of  the  city  of  Washington.  This  investigator,  it  is  desirable  to  state,  resorted  to  every  test  known 
to  him  in  order  to  discover  if  anything  poisonous  was  present,  and  failing  to  discover  any  harmful 
substance  concluded  that  the  color  must  be  due  to  some  inert  material.  In  order  to  set;  if  tin-  color 
was  due  to  the  presence  of  some  green  compound  of  copper,  Prof.  H.  C.  Lewis,  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  kindly  made  some  delicate  tests  for  me,  using  small  dried  frag- 
ments of  an  Oyster  very  deeply  tinged  with  green  in  various  regions,  especially  in  the  liver,  con- 
nective tissue,  and  mantle.  The  fragments  were  burned  in  a  bead  of  microcosmic  salt  and  chloride 
of  sodium  on  a  clean  platinum  wire  in  a  gas  dame;  this  test  did  not  give  the  characteristic  sky- 
blue  flame  which  should  have  been  developed  had  there  been  the  minutest  trace  of  copper  present. 

It  is  therefore  clear  that  the  substance,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  not  a  corrosive  metallic  poison 
derived  from  copper,  which  if  present  would  almost  undoubtedly  be  detected  by  a  peculiar  acrid 
metallic  taste,  which  would  be  experienced  when  one  ate  eucu  Oysters.  In  making  some  practic.il 
tests  as  to  the  relative  qualities  of  such  Oysters  as  compared  with  white  Meshed  ones.  op|M>r 
tunities  for  which  were  kindly  furnished  me  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Carley,  of  Fulton  Market,  I  faded  to 
detect  the  slightest  difference  of  flavor.  Such  also  is  Professor  Leidy's  verdict,  who  informs 
me  that  he  made  a  similar  experiment,  and  a  restaurateur,  with  whom  I  discussed  the  matter, 
declared  that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  selecting  them  for  his  own  eating,  preferring  their  flavor  to 
that  of  the  white  O..  store. 

VARIATIONS  IN  COLOR.— If  it  be  objected  that  the  green  color  indicates  an  unhealthful 
condition  of  the  animal,  it  may  be  stated  that  other  color  variations  of  the  flesh  have  fallen 


736  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

under  my  observation  recently.  What  is  now  alluded  to  is  the  yellowish,  verging  toward 
a  reddish  cast,  which  is  sometimes  noticed  in  the  gills  and  mantle  of  both  the  American  and 
European  species.  This,  in  all  probability,  like  the  green  color,  is  due  to  the  reddish-brown 
matter  which  is  contained  in  much  of  the  diatomaceous  food  of  the  animal. 

Mr.  J.  M.  Carley  has  also  called  my  attention  to  these  variations,  and  was  inclined  to  attribute 
them  to  the  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  the  beds.  But  if  the  classical  writers  are  to  be  trusted,  to  the 
green,  yellow,  and  white  fleshed  sorts  we  must  add  red,  tawny,  and  black  fleshed  ones.  Pliny 
tells  us  of  red  Oysters  found  in  Spain,  of  others  of  a  tawny  hue  in  Illyricum,  and  of  black 
ones  at  Circeii,  the  latter  being,  he  says,  black  both  in  meat  and  shell.  Horace  and  other  writers 
awarded  these  the  palm  of  excellence. — (O'Shaughnessy.)  However,  the  black  appearance  may 
only  have  been  due  to  an  abundance  of  the  natural  purple  pigment  in  the  mantles  of  the  animal, 
which  varies  very  much  in  different  forms;  some,  judging  from  the  dark  purple  color  of  the  whole 
inside  of  the  shell,  must  have  the  whole  of  the  mantle  of  the  same  tint.  The  amount  of  color  in 
the  mantle,  especially  at  its  border,  varies  in  local  varieties  of  both  the  American  and  European 
species,  as  may  often  be  noticed. 

Sometimes  almost  the  whole  of  the  outside  surface  of  the  mantle  is  charged  with  dark  purple 
pigment  cells.  That  copper  is  not  usually  the  cause  of  the  green  color  of  Oysters  I  also  have  the 
additional  testimony  of  Prof.  W.  K.  Sullivan,  of  Dublin,  who  says : 

"As  the  green  color  of  the  mantle  of  Oysters  from  certain  localities  just  referred  to  is 
commonly  attributed  to  copper,  and  as  such  Oysters  are  consequently  believed  very  generally  to 
be  poisonous,  and  their  value  therefore  greatly  depreciated,  I  made  the  most  careful  search  for 
traces  of  that  metal  in  the  muds  which  I  had  received  from  grounds  known  to  produce  green- 
bearded  Oysters.  Oysters  and  other  mollusca  placed  in  solutions  containing  copper  and  other 
metals  absorb  them  and  retain  them  in  their  tissues.  I  have  had  two  or  three  opportunities  of 
examining  Oysters  which  had  assimilated  copper,  owing  to  mine-water  containing  it  being  allowed 
to  flow  into  estuaries  at  places  close  to  oyster-beds.  In  every  case  the  copper  was  found  in  the 
body  only  of  the  Oyster,  which  it  colored  bluishg-reen,  and  not  in  the  mantle  or  beard,  which  was 
not  green.  In  the  green-bearded  Oysters  which  I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  examining,  the  body 
was  not  green,  and  no  trace  of  copper  could  be  detected  in  any  part  of  the  animal.  The  color, 
too,  was  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  true  copper  Oysters,  but  rather  that  which  would  result  from 
the  deposition  of  chlorophyl  or  other  similar  chloroid  vegetable  body  in  the  cells." 

The  American  consumer,  however,  need  not  be  alarmed  about  the  presence  of  copper  in  our 
species,  as  there  are  no  beds  on  our  eastern  coast  into  which  the  washings  from  mines  ever  flow, 
as  we  have  no  workable  deposits  of  copper  near  any  of  our  beds,  as  in  Cornwall,  England.  Besides, 
I  am  inclined  to  doubt  the  statement  of  Professor  Sullivan  that  Oysters  or  other  mollusks  can 
absorb  copper  salts  until  their  tissues  are  "  colored  bluish-green."  Every  competent  histologist 
knows  how  very  readily  organisms  are  killed  by  the  action  of  inorganic  acids  and  salts,  several  of 
which  are  constantly  used  by  biologists  in  fixing  histological  characters.  Liebig,  in  his  "Animal 
Chemistry,"  long  ago  pointed  out  that  the  oxides  and  metallic  compounds  of  antimony,  arsenic, 
copper,  and  lead  had  a  very  remarkable  affinity  for  protoplasm,  producing  its  immediate  death. 
In  consequence,  he  suggested  a  very  high  chemical  equivalency  for  living  matter.  This  has  since 
been  confirmed  by  the  studies  of  Loew  and  Pokoruy,  who  found  that  silver  nitrate  would  produce 
a  reaction  with  protoplasm  if  diluted  to  the  extent  of  one  part  to  a  million  of  water. 

PROBABLE  CAUSE  OF  THE  GREEN  COLOR. — It  is  highly  probable  that  the  green  color  of  the 
Oyster  is  due  to  the  absorption  from  its  food  of  a  harmless  vegetable  pigment.  In  this  country 
green-bearded  Oysters  occur  at  Lynn  Haven  Bay,  Hongers  and  York  itivers,  Virginia,  on  the 


OBSKIIVATIONS  or  <;.\IU.ON  AND  JOHNSTON.  737 

«:oast  of  New  Jersey,  in  New  York  Bay.  ami  Long  Island  Sound.  1  have  Been  specimens  (tarn  a 
number  of  these  localities,  and  also  tasted  thcin  both  raw  and  cooked  without  being  able  to  detect 
any  disagreeable  or  apparently  harmful  flavor. 

I Matoins  and  -reen  algre  occur  in  great  abundance  in  the  stomach  of  the  Oyster,  especially  the 
former.  The  intestine  is  sometimes  packed  with  countless  numbers  of  the  empty  frustulesor  test* 
of  diatoms,  mixed  with  dark,  muddy  ooze  or  sediment  and  very  line  particles  of  saud  or  quurtz. 
It  has  been  objected  that  the  green  color  could  not  be  derive*!  from  diatoms,  because  these  organ 
ism-  are.  as  a  rule,  apparently  brown  rather  than  green.  This  objection  I  find  to  bo  based  II|MHI 
a  misapiirehfusiou  of  the  structure  of  the  Mntomaceof,  m  maybe  galhered  from  the  following 
general  statement  taken  from  Sachs'  "Text  Book  of  Botany,"  one  of  the  latest  and  highest 
authorities.  On  page  2li2  he  says:  "The  diatoms  are  the  only  algaj  except  the  Conjugate  in  which 
ihe  ehlorophyl  occurs  in  the  form  of  disks  and  bands,  but  in  some  forms  it  is  also  found  in  grains. 
and  the  green  coloring  matter  is  concealed,  like  the  cblorophyl  grains  in  Fucacea;  by  a  buff-colored 
substance,  diatomine  or  phycoxanthine."  It  appears,  then,  according  to  the  foregoing  quotation, 
that  it  is  not  impossible  for  diatoms  to  be  the  cause  of  the  green  tint  in  Oysters,  which,  let  me 
remark,  is  very  nearly  that  of  some  pale  green  forms  of  those  organisms  which  I  have  observed  in 
water  from  oyster  coves  where  I  have  conducted  microscopic  studies.  Both  green  and  brown 
diatoms  may  frequently  be  found  in  the  stomach,  and  in  making  examinations  to  discover  them  1 
find  it  best  to  thrust  the  nozzle  of  a  pipette  directly  into  the  stomach  through  the  mouth  and 
(esophagus.  The  pipette  should  have  a  compressible  bulb,  so  as  to  enable  one  to  draw  up  the 
contents  of  the  gastric  cavity  into  the  tube  without  injuring  the  animal  or  taking  up  any  fragments 
of  it  to  vitiate  the  experiment. 

OBSERVATIONS  OF  GAILLON  AND  JOHNSTON. — Speaking  of  the  abundance  of  the  Naricula 
o»treari«  of  Kiitzing,  M.  Benjamin  Gaillon,  in  1820,  said  that  they  inhabit  the  water  of  the 
tanks  or  "  parks"  in  which  the  Oysters  are  grown  in  such  immense  abundance,  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  that  they  can  only  be  compared  to  the  grains  of  dust  which  rise  in  clouds  and 
obscure  the  air  in  dusty  weather.  Dr.  Johnston,  speaking  of  the  French  Oysters,  says  that  in 
order  to  communicate  to  them  a  green  color,  which,  as  with  us  (in  England),  enhances  their 
value  in  the  market  and  in  the  estimation  oe  the  epicure,  they  are  placed  for  a  time  in  tanks 
or  "parks,"  formed  in  particular  places  near  high-water  mark,  and  into  which  the  sea  can  lie 
admitted  at  pleasure  by  means  of  sluices;  the  water  being  kept  shallow  and  left  at  rest  is 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  green  Conferva;  and  Ulvce;  and  with  these  there  are  generated 
at  the  same  time  innumerable  crustaceous  animalcules  which  serve  the  Oysters  for  foot!  and 
tincture  their  flesh  with  the  desirable  hue. 

This  last  remark  of  Dr  Johnston's  at  first  struck  me  as  improbable,  but  I  have  met  with  great 
numbers  of  small  crustaceans,  Copepoda  mainly,  in  the  branchial  cavity  of  the  common  Clam  (Mya 
arenaria).  Certain  peculiar  species  have  also  been  described  by  Allman  from  the  branchial 
cavities  of  ascidians.  More  recently,  while  investigating  the  contents  of  the  stomach  of  the 
Oyster,  by  the  method  already  described,  I  find  that  it  also  swallows  crustaceans,  which  are  digested 
and  absorbed  as  food.  The  tests  of  nauplii  or  very  minute  larval  crustaceans  with  the  contents 
digested  out  were  frequently  met  with.  Doubtless  many  very  small  Copepoda  are  also  swallowed 
and  digested,  but  these  are  not  green.  Besides  the  foregoing,  I  sometimes  met  with  the.  very  young 
.-hells  of  larval  gasteropoda  and  laniellibrauchs:  indeed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  adult  Oyster 
may  consume  its  own  larva?.  The  remains  of  bryozoa  were  also  observed,  such  a-s  Pedicellina 
inni'i-ii-tiiin.  The  test  of  a  peculiar  elongate  rhizopod  and  the  cephalula  stage  of  several  worms 
were  also  noticed.  Of  the  smaller  organisms  usually  associated  with  more  or  less  clearly  marked 
47  F 


738  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

putrefactive  changes,  one  which  I  find  almost  uniformly  present  is  a  filiform  or  thread-like  organ- 
ism allied  to  Spirillum.  It,  however,  was  always  found  in  the  stomach  in  great  abundance,  and 
especially  in  the  pyloric  portion  of  the  intestine  in  which  the  crystalline  style  is  lodged.  This 
organism  is  probably  harmless;  a  similar  one  is  frequently  found  in  both  fresh  and  salt  water, 
and  has  at  times  been  developed  in  prodigious  numbers  in  the  reservoirs  from  which  the  supplies 
of  water  were  drawn  for  a  large  city,  without  any  evidence  of  its  having  produced  a  harmful 
effect  upon  those  who  drank  of  the  water. 

VIEWS  OF  LEIDY,  PUYSEGUR,  AND  DECAISNE.— Professor  Leidy,  at  a  recent  meeting  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  stated  it  as  his  belief  that  Oysters  feed  at 
times  on  the  zoospores  of  certain  algae,  as  those  of  Ulna  latissima  (sea  cabbage),  which  he  knew 
from  personal  observation  to  be  green,  and  which  he  thought  might  possibly  be  the  cause  of 
the  green  coloration  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal  as  sometimes  observed  in  certain  localities. 
Very  possibly  this  may  be  the  case,  but  judging  from  what  I  have  seen  and  heard  from  oyster- 
men,  as  well  as  from  what  I  have  read  in  various  publications  relating  to  this  matter,  I  am  not 
inclined  to  regard  this  as  the  only  source  of  the  unusual  green  tint  of  the  flesh  of  the  Oyster. 
I  hope  to  be  able  to  show  that  it  is  probably  of  vegetable  origin,  and  therefore  quite  harmless. 
That  it  is  not  copper  we  may  be  equally  certain,  as  Professor  Lewis'  tests  have  shown,  for 
any  such  quantity  of  a  copper  salt  as  would  produce  the  green  gills,  heart,  and  cysts  in  the 
mantle,  such  as  are  often  observed,  would,  without  doubt,  be  as  fatally  poisonous  to  the  Oyster 
as  to  a  human  being.  The  source  of  the  green  has  recently  been  investigated  by  two  French 
savants,  MM.  Puysegur  and  Decaisne,  who  found  that  when  perfectly  white-fleshed  Oysters 
were  supplied  with  water  containing  an  abundance  of  a  green  microscopic  plant,  the  Navicula 
ostrearia  of  Kiitzing,  their  flesh  acquired  a  corresponding  green  tint.  These  investigators  also 
found  that  if  the  Oysters  which  they  had  caused  to  become  imbued  with  this  vegetable  green 
were  placed  in  sea- water  deprived  of  the  microscopic  vegetable  food  the  characteristic  color  would 
also  disappear.  Whether  this  will  finally  be  found  to  be  the  explanation  in  all  cases  remains  to 
be  seen,  as  some  recent  investigations  appear  to  indicate  that  it  is  possible  that  a  green  coloration 
of  animal  organisms  may  be  due  to  one  of  three  other  causes  besides  the  one  described  above  as 
the  source  of  the  green  color  of  the  Oyster. 

GEDDES  UPON  CHLOBOPHYL-CONTAINING  ANIMALS.— Patrick  Geddes,  in  a  recent  number 
of  "Nature,"  has  pointed  out  that  the  "list  of  supposed  chlorophyl-containing  animals  .  .  ^ 
breaks  up  into  three  categories:  first,  those  which  do  not  contain  chlorophyl  at  all,  but  green 
pigments  of  unknown  function  (Bonellia,  Idotea,  etc.);  secondly,  those  vegetating  by  their  own 
intrinsic  chlorophyl  (Convoluta,  Spongilla,  Hydra);  thirdly,  those  vegetating  by  proxy,  if  one  may 
so  speak,  rearing  copious  algae  in  their  own  tissues,  and  profiting  in  every  way  by  the  vital 
activities  of  these."  This  latter  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  of  modern  biological 
discoveries,  that  living  animal  bodies  may  actually  afford  a  nidus  for  the  propagation  of  green 
microscopic  plants  and  not  be  injured  but  rather  be  benefited  thereby.  The  oxygen  thrown 
off  by  the  parasitic  vegetable  organism  appears  to  be  absorbed  by  the  tissues  of  the  animal  host, 
while  the  carbonic  acid  gas  thrown  off  by  the  latter  is  absorbed  by  the  vegetable  parasite,  thus 
affording  each  other  mutual  help  in  the  processes  of  nutrition  and  excretion.  This  singular 
association  and  interdependence  of  the  animal  host  and  vegetable  guest  has  received  the  some- 
what cumbrous  name  of  Symbiosis,  which  may  be  translated  pretty  nearly  by  the  phrase  "asso- 
ciated existence."  This  is  not  the  place  for  the  discussion  of  the  purely  scientific  aspect  of  this 
question  as  already  ably  dealt  with  by  Dr.  Brandt,  Patrick  Geddes,  Geza  Entz,  and  others,  and 


mi:  <;KI:I:N  MATTKK  IN  ANIMALS.  739 

we  will  therefore  only  notice  their  researches  in  so  far  as  they  appear  to  have  a  bearing  IIJMMI 
the  origin  of  tlie  given  color  of  the  Oyster. 

KM/'  DISCOVERIES. — Entz  has  discovered  that  he  could  cause  colorless  infusoria  to  become 
•iieen  liy  feeiling  with  green  palmcllaccon.s  cells,  which,  moreover,  did  not  die  after  the  death  of 
their  hosts,  but  continued  to  live,  growing  and  developing  within  the  latter  until  their  total  evolu- 
tion proved  them  to  be  forms  of  very  simple  microscopic  green  algie,  such  as  Palmella,  Qlirocy»ti*, 
etc.  My  own  observations  on  some  green-colored  infusorial  animals  have  been  of  so  interesting  a 
character  that  I  will  here  describe  what  I  observed  in  a  green  bell  animalcule  (Vorticella  rhloro- 
Klliimn).  UIK>U  investigating  their  structure,  I  found  that  next  the  cuticle  or  skin  in  the  outer  soft 
layer  of  their  bodies,  known  as  the  "ectosarc,"  at  all  stages  there  was  a  single  stratum  of  green 
corpuscles  very  evenly  or  uniformly  imbedded.  In  another  form  (Stentor),  as  already  noticed  by 
Stein,  the  same  superficial  layer  of  green  corpuscles  was  observed,  reminding  one  very  forcibly  of 
the  superficial  layer  of  chlorophyl  grains  observed  in  the  cells  of  some  plants,  as,  for  instance, 
Amichari*.  Now,  it  is  well  known  that  certain  animalcules  are  at  times  quite  colorless  and  at 
others  quite  green;  this  appears  to  1)6  the  case  with  Ophrydium.  In  this  last  case  I  have  a 
suspicion  that  vegetable  parasites  may  be  the  cause  of  the  green  variety,  but  as  for  the  others, 
Sh-ntor  and  Vorticella,  I  am  not  so  sure  that  their  green  forms  are  so  caused.  In  them  the 
superficial  positions  of  the  green  corpuscles  and  their  behavior  toward  reagents  lead  me  to 
think  that  they  must  be  regarded  as  integral  parts  of  the  creatures  in  which  they  are  found. 

NATURE  OF  THE  GREEN  MATTER  IN  ANIMALS.— A  grass-green  planariau  worm  (Conroluia 
Schultzii),  found  at  RoscofF  by  Mr.  Geddes,  was  observed  by  him  to  evolve  oxygen  in  largo 
amounts,  like  a  plant,  and  "both  chemical  and  histological  observations  showed  the  abundant 
presence  of  starch  in  the  green  cells;  and  thus  these  planarians,  and  presumably,  also,  llt/ilm, 
Hf)onyilla,  etc.,  were  proved  to  be  truly  vegetating  animals."  While  some  organisms,  like  the 
foregoing,  appear  to  have  true  chlorophyl  grains  imbedded  superficially  in  their  own  substance, 
others,  like  the  radiolariaus,  some  siphonophores,  sea  anemones,  and  jelly-fishes,  harbor  true 
vegetable  parasites,  or,  preferably,  vegetable  guests. 

That  the  green  observed  in  a  number  of  animal  organisms  is  of  the  nature  of  chlorophyl, 
or  leaf  green,  has  been  proved  by  Lankester  by  means  of  the  spectroscope.  A.  W.  Bennett,  in 
alluding  to  Lankester's  observations,  says:  "In  all  cases  the  chlorophylloid  substance  agrees  in 
having  a  strong  absorption  band  in  the  red — a  little  to  the  right  or  left — and,  except  in  Idotea,  in 
being  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  having  strong  red  fluorescence,  and  in  finally  losing  it«  color  when 
dissolved." 

The  vegetable  organisms  which  have  been  found  to  inhabit  the  lower  forms  of  life  alluded  to 
in  the  foregoing  paper  have  been  regarded  as  belonging  to  two  genera,  which  Dr.  Brandt  has 
named  ZouchloreUa  and  ZooxantheUa,  and  which  are  probably  in  part  synonymous  with  the  genus. 
1'hilozoiin,  afterwards  proposed  by  Mr.  Geddes.  The  latter  gentleman,  however,  claims  to  have 
first  demonstrated  the  truth  of  the  view  that  the  yellow  cells  of  radiolarians  and  polyps  are  alga?; 
secondly,  the  foundation  of  the  hypothesis  of  the  lichenoid  nature  of  the  alliance  between  alga> 
and  animal  into  a  theory  of  mutual  dependence;  and,  thirdly,  the  transference  of  that  view  from 
the  region  of  probable  speculation  into  that  of  experimental  science. 

Hitherto  no  one  has  apparently  noticed  the  occurrence  of  green  vegetable  parasites  in 
bivalve  inollnsks  except  Professor  Leidy,  who  has  very  kindly  permitted  me  to  use  the  facts 
observed  by  him  relating  to  Aitodan,  one  of  our  common  fresh- water  Mussels.  In  this  animal  ho 
some  years  ago  observed  what  must  be  considered  to  be  algous  parasites.  He  found  them  in 
great  numbers  infesting  the  tissues  of  the  Mussel  and  of  a  larger  size  than  the  nuclei  of  the  cells  of 
the  host  in  which  they  were  imbedded.  They  were  also  provided  with  a  nucleus,  and  were,  there- 


740  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

fore,  not  a  part  of  the  animal  but  a  distinct  vegetable  organism.  These  facts,  observed  a  long 
time  since,  render  it  very  probable  that  Processor  Leidy  was  one  of  the  first  to  notice  the  intra- 
cellnlar  parasitism  of  a  plant  in  an  animal. 

The  green  color  of  the  Oyster,  as  far  as  my  experience  goes,  is  not  intense,  as  in  many  green 
animals,  snch  as  we  observe  in  Stentor,  Spent/ilia,  Hydra,  etc.,  but  is  a  pale  pea-green  tint.  This 
has  been  found  to  be  the  color  of  affected  natives  as  well  as  of  foreign  ones,  the  gills  and  mantle 
being  usually  most  distinctly  tinged.  Exceptionally  the  heart  is  affected,  its  color  sometimes 
being  quite  intense. 

EXPERIMENTS  UPON  EUROPEAN  OYSTERS. — In  studying  some  Oysters  which  were  obtained 
from  England  through  the  kind  offices  of  Messrs.  Shaffer  and  Blackford,  in  response  to  a  request 
coming  from  Professor  Baird,  certain  ones  were  found  which  were  decidedly  green.  Of  these  the 
French  specimens  of  Ostrea  edulis,  and  a  very  singular  form,  labeled  "Anglo-Portuguese,"  had  the 
gills  affected,  and  in  some  of  the  latter  the  liver,  heart,  and  mantle  were  very  deeply  tinged  in 
certain  parts,  so  much  so  that  I  decided  to  make  as  critical  an  examination  as  my  resources  could 
command. 

Spectroscopic  investigations  gave  only  negative  results,  as  it  was  found  impossible  to  discern 
any  positive  evidence  of  chlorophyl  from  the  spectrum  of  light  passed  through  thin  preparations 
made  from  specimens  of  green-tinted  Oyster,  some  of  which,  like  those  made  from  the  heart,  are 
decidedly  green  to  the  naked  eye.  There  was  no  absorption  noticed  at  the  red  and  blue  ends  of 
the  spectrum,  such  as  is  observed  when  the  light  which  enters  the  slit  of  the  spectroscope  first 
passes  through  an  alcoholic  solution  of  leaf  green  or  chlorophyl ;  indeed,  the  spectrum  did  not 
appear  to  be  sensibly  affected  by  the  green  substance  which  causes  the  coloration  of  the  Oyster. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  test  the  matter  with  the  use  of  alcoholic  green  solutions  obtained  from 
affected  Oysters,  as  the  former  are  not  easy  to  get  with  a  sufficient  depth  of  color,  because  of  the 
relatively  small  amount  of  coloring  matter  present  in  the  animals.  Unstained  (fresh)  preparations 
were  used  in  all  of  these  experiments. 

COLORS  IN  DIFFERENT  PARTS. — I  find  the  liver  to  be  normally  of  a  brownish-red  color  in 
both  the  American  and  European  Oyster,  sometimes  verging  toward  green.  When  the  flesh  or 
gills  of  the  animal  is  green,  the  liver  almost  invariably  partakes  of  this  color,  but  in  an  intensi- 
fied degree.  The  green  stain  or  tincture  appears  in  some  cases  to  have  affected  the  internal  ends 
of  the  cells  which  line  the  follicles  or  ultimate  saccules  of  the  liver.  This  color  is  able  to  survive 
prolonged  immersion  in  chromic  acid  and  alcohol,  and  does  not  allow  carmine  to  replace  it  in 
sections  which  have  been  stained  with  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  that  color,  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  produce  a  result  similar  to  double  staining  in  green  and  red.  The  singular  green  ele- 
ments scattered  through  the  connective  tissue  remain  equally  well  defined,  and  do  not  take  the 
carmine*  dye.  I  at  first  believed  these  to  be  parasitic  vegetable  organisms,  and  I  also  sup- 
posed I  saw  starch  granules  in  them,  which  physical  tests  with  an  iodine  solution  failed  to  con- 
firm. These  large  and  small  green  granular  bodies  in  the  connective  tissue,  and  those  close  to 
the  intestinal  wall,  as  well  as  those  in  the  heart  I,  find  present  in  fewer  numbers  in  white-fleshed 
Oysters,  but  simply  with  this  difference,  that  they  are  devoid  of  the  green  color.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  they  cannot  be  of  the  nature  of  parasites,  though  the  color  is  limited  to  them, 
only  the  surrounding  tissue,  except  in  the  region  of  the  heart,  appearing  of  the  normal  tint. 
This  condition  of  the  specimens  observed  by  me  does  not,  however,  disprove  the  possibility  of 
the  occurrence  of  vegetable  parasites  in  the  Oyster,  where  there  is  as  much,  or  perhaps  more 
likelihood  of  their  occurring  than  in  some  much  more  highly  organized  animals. 

It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  Oyster  is  singularly  free  from  true  parasites  of  all  kinds;  the 


COLORS  OF  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE  OYSTER.          741 

o\st«-i- crab  IHMIIJ:  perhaps  the  only  creature  which  is  ever  frequently  found  within  it*  valves, 
and  tlu-n  only  as  a  harmless  messmate.  More  recently  it  has  IM-CH  my  good  fortune  to  be  able  to 
study  a  second  lot  of  European  Oysters,  in  two  varieties  of  which  the  green  color  was  unusually 
developed,  especially  in  the  heart.  In  a  specimen  of  Falmouth  Oyster  1  found  a  large  cyst  or 
sac  in  the  mantle  near  the  edge  filled  with  green  cells,  which,  like  those  in  the  heart,  when  opened 
reaiiiK  x'parutcd  from  one  another,  being  quite  as  i1  dependent  of  each  other  as  the  ordinary 
discoidal  corpuscles  in  the  serum  of  red  blood.  The  hearts  of  affected  specimens  were  found  to 
ha\r  I  lie  wall  of  the  ventricle  abnormally  thick,  and  covered  inside  with  the  readily  detachable 
green  cells  in  a  thick  layer  and  measuring  one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  An  appli- 
cation of  the  test  for  starch  with  iodine  gave  a  negative  result.  If  iodine  was  first  applied  to 
these  cells  in  strong  solution,  and  they  were  then  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  characteristic 
blue  reaction  was  not  developed,  showing  that  there  was  no  cellulose  wall  covering  them,  and 
that  they  were  most  positively  not  parasitic,  algous  vegetable  organisms.  In  potassic  hydrate 
solution  they  were  completely  dissolved,  a  further  proof  of  the  absence  of  cellulose. 

Their  dimensions,  one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  blood  cell  of  the 
Oyster.  They  are  nucleated,  with  the  nucleus  in  an  eccentric  position  as  in  the  blood-cell  of  the 
animal.  Their  occurrence  in  the  heart  and  gills  so  as  to  tinge  those  organs  of  their  own  color  is 
almost  positive  proof  of  their  true  origin  and  character.  Furthermore,  I  find  in  sections  that  they 
sometimes  occlude  the  blood-channels.  In  the  cysts  in  the  mantle,  as  in  the  heart,  they  are  free, 
and  in  the  normal  untiiigcd  heart  they  are  not  abundant.  All  of  the  foregoing  facts  indicate  that 
these  green  bodies  are  in  reality  blood-cells  which  belong  to  the  animal.  How  they  become  green 
is  not  easy  to  determine.  The  fact  remains  that  no  evidence  of  the  presence  of  green  Micrococci 
or  Microbia,  as  independent  existences,  could  be  made  out.  The  fact  that  I  found  instances  in  green 
Oysters  where  an  unusual  greenish  material  was  found  in  the  follicles  .of  the  liver,  the  living  cells 
of  which  were  also  affected,  would  indicate  that  the  color  was  probably  absorlrcd  from  the  fowl  of 
the  animal,  which,  as  we  know,  consists  largely  of  living  vegetable  matter.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  tinged  nutritive  juices  transuded  through  the  walls  of  the  alimentary  canal  acquired  the 
color  of  the  fowl  which  hail  been  dissolved  by  the  digestive  juices. 

How  to  account  for  the  accumulation  of  the  green  cells  in  the  heart  and  in  cysts  in  the 
mantle  is  not,  however,  an  easy  matter,  unless  one  be  permitted  to  suppose  that  the  acquisition 
of  the  green  color  by  the  blood-cells  is  in  reality  a  more  or  less  decidedly  diseased  condition,  for 
which  we  have  no  ground  in  fact,  since  the  green  Oysters  are  in  apparently  as  good  health  as  the 
white  ones.  They  were  found 'fat' or 'poor,' just  as  it  may  have  happened  that  their  food  was 
abundant  or  the  reverse.  They  are  also  found  in  all  stages  of  the  '  greened'  condition.  Sometimes 
they  have  only  a  very  faint  tinge  of  the  gills,  or  they  may  be  so  deeply  tinged  as  to  appear 
unpalatable,  with  the  heart  of  a  deep  green,  or  with  green  cysts  developed  in  the  mantle,  or  with 
clouds  of  this  color  shading  the  latter  organ  in  certain  places.  A  vastly  greater  pro|>ortion  of 
green  Oysters  are  eaten  in  this  country,  at  all  events,  than  is  generally  supposed,  especially  of 
those  just  faintly  tinged  in  the  gills. 

The  most  important  glandular  appendage  of  the  alimentary  tract  of  the  Oyster  is  the  liver. 
It  communicates  by  means  of  a  number  of  wide  ducts  with  a  very  irregularly  formed  cavity,  which 
we  may  designate  as  the  stomach  proper,- in  which  the  food  of  the  animal  comes  into  contact  with 
the  digestive  juices  poured  out  by  the  ultimate  follicles  of  the  liver,  to  undergo  solution  preparatory 
to  its  absorption  during  its  passage  through  the  singularly  formed  intestine. 

If  thin  slices  of  the  animal  are  examined  under  the  microscope  we  find  the  walls  of  the 
stomach  continuous  with  the  walls  of  the  great  ducts  of  the  liver.  These  great  ducts  divide  and 


742  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

subdivide  until  they  break  up  into  a  great  number  of  blind  ovoidal  sacs,  into  which  the  biliary 
secretion  is  poured  from  the  cells  of  their  walls.  A  thick  stratum  of  these  follicles  surrounds  the 
stomach,  except  at  its  back  or  dorsal  side.  It  is  not  correct  to  speak  of  the  liver  of  the  Oyster  as 
we  speak  of  the  liver  of  a  higher  animal.  Its  function  in  the  Oyster  is  the  same  as  that  of  three 
different  glands  in  us,  viz,  the  gastric  follicles,  the  pancreas,  and  the  liver,  to  which  we  may  add  the 
salivary,  making  a  total  of  four  in  the  higher  animals  which  is  represented  by  a  single  organ  in 
the  Oyster.  In  fact,  experiment  has  shown  that  the  secretion  of  the  liver  of  mollusks  combines 
characters  of  at  least  two,  if  not  three,  of  the  glandular  appendages  of  the  intestine  of  vertebrated 
animals.  There  are  absolutely  no  triturating  organs  in  the  Oyster  for  the  comminution  of  its 
food ;  it  is  simply  macerated  in  the  glandular  secretion  of  the  liver  and  swept  along  through  the 
intestine  by  the  combined  vibratory  action  of  innumerable  fine  filaments  with  which  the  walls  of 
the  stomach,  hepatic  ducts,  and  intestine  are  clothed. 

In  this  way  the  nutritive  matters  of  the  food  are  acted  upon  in  two  ways :  first,  a  peculiar 
organic  ferment  derived  from  the  liver  reduces  them  to  a  condition  in  which  they  may  be  absorbed ; 
secondly,  in  order  that  the  latter  process  may  be  favored  it  is  propelled  through  an  intestinal 
canal  which  is  peculiarly  constructed  so  as  to  present  as  large  an  amount  of  absorbent  surface  as 
possible.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  double  iuduplication  or  fold  which  extends  for  the  whole 
length  of  the  intestine,  the  cavity  of  which  in  consequence  appears  almost  crescent  shaped  when 
cut  straight  across.  On  the  concave  side  the  intestinal  wall  is  thrown  into  numerous  very  narrow 
longitudinal  folds,  which  further  serve  to  increase  the  absorbing  surface.  Such  minor  folds  are 
also  noticed  in  the  stomach,  and  some  of  these  may  even  have  a  special  glandular  function.  There 
are  no  muscular  fibers  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine  as  in  vertebrates,  and  the  sole  motive  force 
which  propels  the  indigestible  as  well  as  digestible  portions  of  the  food  through  the  alimentary 
canal  is  exerted  by  the  innumerable  vibratory  cilia  with  which  its  inner  surface  is  clothed.  The 
intestinal  wall  is  wholly  made  up  of  columnar  cells  which  are  in  direct  contact  externally  with 
the  connective  tissue  which  is  traversed  by  numerous  large  and  small  bloodvessels  devoid  of 
specialized  walls. 

This  apparatus  is  admirably  suited  to  render  the  microscopic  life  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
animal  available  as  a  food  supply.  The  vortices  created  by  the  innumerable  vibratory  filaments 
•which  cover  the  mantle,  gills,  and  palps  of  the  Oyster  enables  it  to  draw  its  food  toward  itself, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  microscopic  host  is  hurled  into  the  capacious  throat  of  the  animal  to 
undergo  conversion  into  its  substance  as  described  above.  The  mode  in  which  the  tissues  may 
become  tinged  by  the  consumption  of  green  spores,  diatoms,  or  desmids  it  is  easy  to  infer  from 
the  foregoing  description  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  animal;  and  the  colorless  blood-cells, 
moving  in  a  thin,  watery  liquor  sanguinw,  would,  judging  from  their  amoabifonn  character,  readily 
absorb  any  tinge  acquired  by  the  latter  from  the  intestinal  juices. 

217.   LOCAL  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  FORM  AND  HABITS  OF  THE  OYSTER. 

Mr.  Darwin  ("Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants,"  vol.  ii,  2d  ed.,  p.  270)  writes:  "With 
respect  to  the  common  Oyster,  Mr.  F.  Buckland  informs  me  that  he  can  generally  distinguish  the 
shells  from  different  districts;  young  Oysters  brought  from  Wales  and  laid  down  in  beds  where 
*nn<j'res'  are  indigenous,  in  the  short  space  of  two  months  begin  to  assume  the  'native'  character. 
M.  Costa1  has  recorded  a  much  more  remarkable  case  of  the  same  nature,  namely,  that  young 


1  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Imp.  d'Accliraat.,  viii,  p.  351. 


EFFECT  OF  HEAT  UPON  OYSTERS.  7  I.", 

>lu-lls  taken  from  tin-  shores  of  England  and  placed  in  the  Mediterranean  at  once  altered  their 
manner  of  growth  and  formed  prominent  diverging  rays,  like  those  on  the  shells  of  the  projHsr 
Mediterranean  Ojster.  The  same  individual  shell,  showing  Itoth  forms  of  growth,  wan  exhibited 
before  ii  soeiety  in  Paris." 

VARIATIONS  IN  THE  SHELL. — The  statement  by  Mr.  lluckland  in  regard  to  the  local  forms  of 
Ontrva  tduli»  is-  undoubtedly  true,  as  I  know  from  personal  observation  of  speeiinens  obtained  for 
iin-  troin  various  parts  of  Europe  through  the  efforts  of  Professor  Baird.  In  some  cases  the  local 
differences  between  the  shells  from  different  places  were  so  marked  that  had  a  person  mixed  certain 
lot*  together  indiscriminately  without  my  knowledge  1  could  afterwards  certainly  have  sorted  out 
the  more  marked  varieties.  Local  influences  also  very  largely  determine  the  "  greening"  of  Oysters, 
as  I  can  assert  from  personal  observation  of  botli  the  American  and  Euro|>ean  species.  Practical 
oNstermen  affirm  that  they  can  readily  discriminate  the  local  varieties  of  Oysters  grown  in  various 
noted  localities  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States.  From  what  I  have  seen  it  is  very 
probable  that  this  may  be  the  case,  as  one  may  often  observe  well-marked  differences  of  form  as 
•well  as  color. 

Local  adaptation  undoubtedly  takes  place,  for  how  else  are  we  to  account  for  the  fact  that 
a  change  in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water  to  which  the  adult  has  lieen  accustomed  will  kill  the 
milt?  This  point  has  an  important  practical  bearing  in  relation  to  the  effect  of  heavy  rains  iu 
diluting  the  water  when  the  animals  are  spawning.  Might  not  a  marked  change  in  the  si>ecitic 
gravity  of  the  water  at  the  time  of  spawning  kill  all  the  spermatozoa  which  are  set  free,  and  thus 
also  prevent  the  impregnation  of  whatever  mature  ova  were  being  thrown  out  at  that  time  by 
the  ad  ults  f 

iNFU'ENCE  OF  TEMPERATURE. — Certain  it  is  that  temperature  has  an  influence  upon  the 
time  of  spawning.  A  lot  of  Oysters  marked  "Anglo-Portuguese,"  which  had  been  transplanted 
from  Portuguese  to  English  waters,  and  which  I  received  in  the  month  of  March  and  others 
in  January  last,  had  the  reproductive  organs  remarkably  advanced  in  development  as  compared 
•with  specimens  of  0.  edulix  from  different  parts  of  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  Holland,  and  France. 
So  great  was  this  difference  that,  although  planted  for  some  time  in  the  colder  waters  of  England, 
the  reproductive  organs  of  the  Portuguese  form  had  not  apparently  had  their  disposition  to 
become  functionally  active  at  this  early  season  influenced  to  any  great  extent.  In  fact,  I  obtained 
living  mature  eggs  and  milt  from  a  number  of  specimens  of  this  variety,  while  I  looked  in  vain 
for  ripe  spawn  in  any  of  the  others  of  the  true  O.  edvUtt.  This  would  indicate  that  the  influence  of 
temperature,  though  not  altogether  hereditary  in  this  case,  was  insistent,  and  had  so  impressed 
itself  that  the  reproductive  organs  of  these  Oysters,  coming  from  a  warmer  latitude,  had  begun 
to  mature  their  sexual  products  even  after  transplanting  into  more  northerly  and  wilder  waters 
much  sooner  than  the  natives  of  those  same  latitudes. 

Like  this  persistent  influence  of  a  climate  to  which  certain  forms  of  Oysters  have  been  long 
accustomed,  the  influence  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water  of  a  certain  locality  may  also  be 
persistent.  The  Oysters  of  Saint  Jerome's  Creek  seem  to  be  adapted  to  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  water  of  the  vicinity,  so  that  if  artificial  sea-water  is  prepared,  differing  much  in  this  re-. ml 
from  the  native  water,  we  find  that  the  spermatozoa  are  immediately  killed  if  put  into  it.  From 
this  it  follows  that  if  the  specific  gravity  to  which  the  adults  become  accustomed  is  normal  to 
their  sexual  products,  may  it  not  be  well  to  look  into  the  effect  of  such  changes  upon  the  health 
of  the  ad  ults  f 

I  have  met  with  spawning  Oysters  in  December,  such  at  least  in  which  the  spawn  was  nearly 
mature,  but  this  was  an  exceptional  case.  I  find  them  in  April  and  May  in  considerable  abun- 


744  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

dance;  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  their  principal  spawning 
months.  Ripe  spawn  may  be  sparingly  obtained  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  even  np  to 
the  first  of  October,  but  the  three  months  mentioned  are  the  periods  during  which  the  experi- 
mentalist ought  to  be  in  the  field  prepared  for  work  in  this,  the  latitude  of  Washington.  What 
amount  of  variation  from  this  period  may  be  made  manifest  as  we  go  north  or  south  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  I  am  unable  to  state;  and  what  amount  of  local  variation  may 
also  be  due  to  causes  of  a  purely  local  character  I  am  also  unable  to  say,  not  having  examined 
the  Oysters  at  a  sufficient  number  of  localities  to  make  such  facts  as  I  may  possess  of  any 
value. 

218.   THE  OYSTER-CRAB  AS  A  MESSMATE  AND  PURVEYOR. 

It  is  many  years  since  Mr.  Say  named  the  little  Oyster-crab  Pinnotheres  ostreum,  and  its  habits 
since  that  time  seem  to  have  excited  but  little  interest.  Professor  Verrill,  in  his  observations  pub- 
lished in  the  "Report  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commissioner  for  1871-'72,"  records  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  female  which  lives  in  the  Oyster,  and  that  the  male,  which  is  smaller  and  unlike  the 
female,  especially  in  the  form  of  the  abdominal  segments  of  the  body,  is  rarely  if  ever  seen  to 
occur  as  a  messmate  of  the  Oyster,  but  that  he  has  seen  it  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  middle  of  Vineyard  Sound.  He  also  says  that  they  occur  wherever  Oysters  are  found. 
This  singular  little  crab  has  quite  a  number  of  allies  which  inhabit  various  living  mollusks,  holo- 
thurians,  etc.,  of  which  admirable  accounts  are  given  by  Van  Beneden  in  his  work  on  "Animal 
Parasites  and  Messmates,"  and  also  by  Semper  in  his  treatise  entitled  "Animal  Life." 

QUADRUPLE  COMMENSALISM. — The  Oyster-crab  is  a  true  messmate,  and  it  is  in  the  highest 
degree  probable  that  the  presence  of  these  animals  in  the  mantle  cavity  of  the  Oyster  is  to  be 
regarded  as  advantageous  rather  than  otherwise.  The  animal  usually  lives  between  the  ventral 
lobes  of  the  mantle  of  its  host,  into  which  the  four  lobes  of  the  gills  and  palps  also  depend, 
and,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  observations,  may  be  the  means  of  indirectly  supplying 
its  passive  protector  with  a  portion  of  food.  During  a  trip  down  the  Chesapeake  in  July,  1880, 
while  I  was  with  the  Fish  Commission  vessel,  some  Oysters  were  dredged  up  by  the  crew  which 
contained  some  Oyster-crabs.  In  the  case  I  am  about  to  describe  the  included  crab  was  a  female 
with  the  curiously  expanded,  bowl-like  abdomen  folded  forward  under  the  thorax,  partially 
covering  a  huge  mass  of  brownish  eggs.  Upon  examining  these  eggs,  what  was  my  astonish- 
ment to  find  that  they  afforded  attachment  to  a  great  number  of  compound  colonies  of  the 
singular  bell  animalcule,  Zoiithamnium  arbusculum.  Upon  further  examination  it  was  found  that 
the  legs  and  back  of  the  animal  also  afforded  points  of  attachment  for  similar  colonies,  and 
that  here  and  there,  where  some  of  the  individuals  of  a  colony  of  Zoiithamnium  had  been  sepa- 
rated from  their  stalks,  numerous  rod-like  ribriones  had  affixed  themselves  by  one  end.  In  this 
way  it  happens  that  there  is  a  quadruple  commensalisin  established,  since  we  have  the  vibriones 
fixed  and  probably  nourished  from  the  stalks  of  the  bell  animalcule,  while  the  latter  is  benefited 
by  the  stream  of  water  drawn  in  by  the  cilia  of  the  Oyster,  and  the  last  feeds  itself  and  its  protege, 
the  crab,  from  the  same  food-laden  current.  Possibly  the  crab  inside  the  shell  of  its  host  catches 
and  swallows  food  which  in  its  entire  state  could  not  be  taken  by  the  Oyster,  but  in  any  event 
the  small  crumbs  which  would  fall  from  the  mouth  and  claws  of  the  crab  would  be  carried  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Oyster,  so  that  nothing  would  be  wasted. 

We  must  consider  the  crab  with  its  forest  of  bell  animalcules  in  still  another  light.  Since 
the  animalcules  are  well  fed  in  their  strange  position,  it  is  but  natural  to  suppose  that  they  would 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OYSTER-CRAB.  745 

propagate  r:ij)i(lly,  and  that  tin-  branches  of  the  curious  tree-like  colonies  would  also  increase  in 
numbers.  The  individuals  of  the  colonies  multiply  in  at>out  three  ways:  drat,  by  liranrliin^  ; 
secondly,  by  splitting  lengthwise;  thirdly,  certain  much  enlarged  and  overfed  /of.ids  divide  cn.ss 
wise.  My  the  two  last  modes  one-half  of  the  product  is  often  set  free,  the  free  animalcules 
s<>  originated  being  known  as  "swarmers."  These  cast-oft'  or  free  zooids  which  drop  from  the 
colonies  are  no  doubt  carried  along  by  the  vortex  created  by  the  cilia  of  the  gill  and  palps,  and 
hurled  into  the  mouth  and  swallowed  as  part  of  the  daily  allowance  of  the  food  of  the  Oyster. 
\Ve  may  therefore  regard  I'innothrrrM,  in  such  instances,  as  a  veritable  nursery,  upon  the  body  and 
legs  of  which  animalcules  are  continually  propagated  and  set  free  as  part  of  the  food  supply  of 
the  Oyster,  acting  as  host  to  the  crab.  I  do  not  suppose,  however,  that  such  a  condition  will 
always  be  found  to  obtain,  and  it  must  also  be  remembered  that  myriads  of  Zoiithnniniiim  colonies 
were  dredged  up  attached  to  the  fronds  of  the  handsome  (trinneliu,  a  red  alga  commonly  found 
in  certain  parts  of  Chesapeake  Hay.  Where  this  plant  grows  in  abundance  on  the  bottom  I  have 
estimated  that  one  might  find  upwards  of  a  hundred  animalcules  attached  to  a  square  inch  of 
frond  surface,  which  would  indicate  an  animalcular  population  of  upwards  of  four  millions  of 
individuals  to  the  square  rod,  a  number  as  great  as  that  of  the  human  inhabitants  of  the  city  of 
London. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OYSTER  CRAB. — The  Oyster-crab  undergoes  a  development  and 
metamorphosis  similar  to  that  of  our  edible  crab,  Callinectes,  but  the  body  in  the  Zotea  stage 
is  blotched  with  dark,  branched  pigment  cells.  The  eyes  also  are  vastly  more  developed  than 
in  the  adult,  where  they  are  partly  suppressed  from  disuse.  There  is  no  dorsal  spine,  nor  are 
the  antcnuary  and  rostral  appendages  so  well  developed  as  in  the  Zowa  of  Callinecte*.  After  the 
young  are  hatched  they  probably  leave  the  abdominal  covering  of  the  parent,  swim  out  of  the 
Oyster  for  a  season,  and,  if  female,  seek  a  permanent  abode  in  some  Oyster  near  by,  behaving 
somewhat  like  the  species  described  by  Semper  as  inhabiting  the  water-lungs  of  certain  holothu- 
rians.  After  undergoing  further  development,  the  young  Pinnotheres  reaches  the  megalops  stage 
of  its  development,  when  it  is  probable  that  the  choice  of  its  home  takes  place.  After  it  has 
entered  the  mantle  cavity  of  its  host  as  a  diminutive  larva,  and  has  grown  to  be  adult,  when 
it  measures  a  half  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  it  is  probably  ever  after  a  prisoner  within  the 
shell  of  its  mollusc-mi  protector.  It  undergoes  a  retrogressive  metamorphosis  as  it  grows  adult, 
its  eyes  become  relatively  less  conspicuous  than  in  youth,  and  it  never  has  a  thick,  hard  shell 
like  its  allies  which  live  in  the  open  water,  but  the  external  skeleton  remains  almost  entirely  sott 
and  chitinous,  or  in  the  state  in  which  we  commonly  find  the  outer  covering  of  an  edible  crab 
which  h;is  just  molted.  This  arises  apparently  from  the  conditions  by  which  the  animal  is  sur- 
rounded; the  protection  afforded  it  by  its  host  does  away  with  the  need  of  a  thick,  hard  covering 
such  as  we  find  inclosing  the  bodies  of  its  free-swimming  allies.  Unlike  the  latter,  too,  the  limbs 
of  the  Oyster-crab  are  to  some  extent  degenerate  and  weakened;  its  chelre  or  claws  are  feeble, 
and,  when  removed  from  its  home,  seems  a  very  sluggish,  helpless  sort  of  creature,  without  a 
particle  of  the  pugnacity  of  its  allies,  and  if  placed  on  its  back  will  sometimes  remain  in  that 
position  helplessly  heating  the  air  with  its  weak  limbs.  This  is  a  remarkable  instance,  which  also 
sei\es  very  admirably  to  illustrate  the  principle  of  degeneration  in  organic  evolution,  so  ably 
dealt  with  by  Prof.  E.  Ray  Laukester. 

The  Oyster  itself  is  also  an  example  of  the  effect  of  disuse  in  producing  retrograde  develop- 
ment, and  even  shows  signs  of  gradual  adaptation  when  removed  from  one  locality  i»>  another. 
Unlike  most  other  bivalves,  the  Oyster  has  no  soft  muscular  foot  which  it  may  protrude  outward 
from  between  the  edges  of  its  valves.  No  visible  rudiment  of  such  a  prominence  can  be  found 


746  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

iu  the  adult,  though  something  of  the  sort,  it  is  asserted  by  embryologists,  appears  to  be  devel- 
oped in  the  larvas.  As  the  Oyster  lost  its  power  of  locomotion  IVom  the  noa-development  of 
the  foot,  due  doubtless  to  a  gradually  acquired  sedentary  habit  which  has  become  permanent. 
the  pedal  structures  have  been  almost  entirely  aborted,  leaving  nothing  excepting  the  poorly 
developed  pedal  muscles  described  by  Dall.  There  is  accordingly  little  or  no  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  a  pedal  or  foot  ganglion  in  the  Oyster,  because  there  is  no  need  for  one,  as  in  other 
forms;  it,  too,  has  disappeared  with  the  structure  which  required  its  presence. 

Returning  to  the  consideration  of  the  Oyster-crab,  it  is  well  known  that.it  is  much  relished 
by  many  persons.  The  animal  may  be  eaten  alive,  and  has  a  peculiar,  agreeable  sweetish  taste. 
Recently  an  enterprising  New  York  party  has  taken  to  canning  them,  the  supplies  for  this  purpose 
being  obtained  from  some  of  the  large  oyster-canning  establishments.  The  ecor.omic  value  of  the 
animal  as  food,  although  not  great,  is  sufficiently  important  to  demand  a  passing  notice. 

219.  PHYSICAL  AND  VITAL  AGENCIES  DESTEUCTIVE  TO  OYSTERS. 

Most  of  the  observations  which  follow  were  made  at  Saint  Jerome's  Creek,  Maryland,  but 
inasmuch  as  the  physical  and  vital  enemies  of  Oysters  appear  to  be  similar  the  world  over,  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  reproducing  what  I  have  previously  published  elsewhere.  And  of  physically 
injurious  agents  the  black  ooze  or  mud  found  in  the  vicinity  or  on  the  bottom  of  many  of  our 
most  valuable  beds  and  planting  grounds  is  probably  the  most  to  be  dreaded  if  it  accumulates 
in  too  great  quantity. 

The  origin  of  the  black  ooze  at  the  bottom  can  be  traced  directly  to  the  sediment  held  iu 
(suspension  in  the  water  which  slowly  ebbs  and  flows  in  and  out  of  the  inclosure,  carrying  with  it 
in  its  going  and  coming  a  great  deal  of  light  organic  and  inorganic  debris,  the  former  part  of  which 
is  mainly  derived  from  the  comminuted  fragments  of  plants  growing  in  the  creek.  This  seemed  to 
be  the  true  history  indicated  by  what  was  noticed  in  studying  the  box-collector.  The  same  opinion 
is  held  as  to  the  origin  of  this  mud  by  both  Coste  and  Fraiche  in  their  works  on  oyster-culture. 

There  is  probably  no  worse  enemy  of  the  oyster-culturist  than  this  very  mud  or  sediment. 
It  accumulates  on  the  bottom  of  the  oyster-grounds,  where  iu  course  of  time  it  may  become  dee]) 
•enough  to  cause,  serious  trouble.  Especially  is  this  true  of  ponds  from  which  the  sea  ebbs,  and  to 
which  it  flows  through  a  narrow  channel.  The  Jailing  leaves  from  neighboring  trees  in  autumn 
also  contribute  to  this  pollution,  as  well  as  heavy  rains  which  wash  deleterious  materials  into  it. 

Adult  Oysters  which  are  immersed  in  part  in  this  mud  struggle  hard  to  shut  it  out  from 
their  shells.  If  one  will  notice  the  inside  of  the  shells  of  Oysters  which  have  grown  in  a  muddy 
bottom,  it  will  often  be  seen  that  there  are  blister-like  cavities  around  the  edges  of  the  valves 
filled  with  mud,  or  a  black  material  of  a  similar  character.  There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt 
in  my  mind  that  in  these  cases  the  animal,  in  order  to  keep  out  the  intruding  mud,  has  had 
recourse  to  the  only  available  means  at  its  command.  A  great  many  of  the  Oysters  in  the  pond 
are  affected  in  this  manner,  but  it  is  extremely  uncommon  to  find  shells  of  this  kind  in  opening 
Oysters  coining  from  a  hard  bottom.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  such  efforts  at  keeping  out 
the  mud  from  the  shell  will  not  only  waste  the  life  forces  of  the  animal,  but  also  tend  to  greatly 
interfere  with  its  growth.  The  importance,  therefore,  of  artificial  preparation  is  apparent,  where 
it  is  desirable  to  establish  ponds  for  the  successful  culture  of  this  mollusk. 

Only  in  one  case  have  I  observed  that  the  mud  tended  to  impair  the  flavor  and  color  of 
the  Oyster.  In  this  instance  the  animal  was  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  black  ooze,  the  very 
tissues  seeming  to  be  impregnated  with  the  color,  the  stomach  and  intestine  loaded  to  engorge- 
ment with  the  mud,  the  animal  manifesting  every  sign  of  being  in  a  decidedly  sickened  condition. 


EFFECT  OF  SEDIMENT  UPON  YOUNU  OYSTERS.  747 

Tin-  cause  of  this  was  probably  that  the  shell  with  its  tenant  had  sunken  too  deeply  Into  the 
mud  when  tin-  ingest  ion  of  the  black  ooze  commenced,  giving  rise  to  the  remarkable  change* 
which  1  lia\e  leconled.  No  doubt  had  this  condition  of  things  jK'rsisted  for  long  the-  animal 
would  ha\e  been  smothered  by  the  mud. 

Mtru  AND  THE  YOUNG  FRY. — The  accumulation  of  the  slightest  quantity  of  sediment  around 
a  young  Oyster  would  tend  to  impede  its  respiration,  mid  in  that  way  destroy  it,  yet  in  the  natural 
beds  there  are  so  few  naturally  clean  places  which  remain  so  that  it  is  really  surprising  that  so 
many  young  Oysters  pass  safely  through  the  critical  periods  of  their  lives  without  succumbing  to 
tln>  smothering  effects  of  mud  and  sediment.  When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  at  the  time  the  infant 
Oyster  settles  down  and  lixes  itself  once  and  for  all  time  to  one  place,  from  which  it  has  no  power 
to  move  itself,  it  measures  at  the  utmost  one-eightieth  of  an  inch,  it  will  not  be  hard  to  under- 
stand how  easily  the  little  creature  can  be  smothered  even  by  a  very  small  pinch  of  dirt.  The 
animal,  small  as  it  is.  must  already  begin  to  breathe  just  in  the  same  way  as  its  patents  diil  before 
it.  Like  them  its  gills  soon  grow  as  little  filaments  covered  with  cilia,  which  cause  a  tiny  current 
of  water  to  pass  in  and  out  of  the  shell.  The  reader's  imagination  may  In-  here  allowed  to  esti- 
mate the  feeble  strength  of  that  little  current,  which  is  of  such  vital  im|M>rtance  to  the  tiny  Oyster, 
ami  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  stopped  by  a  very  slight  accumulation  of  dirt.  Mobiiis  esti- 
mates that  each  Oyster  which  is  born  has  1 14^ooo  °'  a  chance  to  survive  and  reach  adult  age.  So 
numerous  and  effective  are  the  adverse  conditions  which  surround  the  millions  of  eggs  matured  by 
a  single  female  that  only  the  most  trifling  fraction  ever  develop,  as  illustrated  by  the  above  calcu- 
lation. The  egg  of  the  Oyster,  being  exceedingly  small  and  heavier  than  water,  immediately  falls 
to  the  bottom  on  being  set  free  by  the  parent.  Should  the  bottom  be  oozy  or  comi»osed  of 
sediment  its  chalices  of  development  are  meager  indeed.  Irrecoverably  buried,  the  eggs  do  not 
in  all  probability  have  the  chance  to  begin  to  develop  at  all.  The  chances  of  impregnation  ure 
also  reduced,  because  the  male  and  female  Oysters  empty  their  generative  products  directly  into 
the  surrounding  water,  whereby  the  likelihood  of  the  eggs  meeting  with  the  male  cells  becomes 
diminished.  What  with  falling  into  the  mud  and  what  with  a  lessened  chance  of  becoming 
impregnated,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  Mobius'  estimate  is  very  nearly  correct ;  but  the  American 
Oyster,  whose  yield  of  eggs  is  much  greater,  not  only  on  account  of  its  larger  size,  but  also 
because  the  eggs  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Knro|>eaii,  has  probably  still  fewer  chances  of 
survival.  The  vigorous  growth  of  small  organisms  on  surfaces  fitted  for  the  attachment  of  young 
Oysters  also  tends  to  cause  sediment  to  gather  in  such  places  in  the  interstices  of  the  little 
organic  forest,  where  the  eggs  of  the  Oyster  no  doubt  often  become  entombed  or  smothered  by  the 
crowded  growth  surrounding  them. 

"  In  addition  to  the  active,  animate  enemies  of  the  Oyster,  the  beds  suffer  seriously,  at  certain 
times,  from  the  elements.  .  .  .  Great  storms  will  sweep  the  Oysters  all  off  the  beds,  bury 
them  under  shifting  sand  or  mud,  or  heap  upon  them  the  drifting  wrack  torn  from  the  shores. 
Beds  which  lie  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  floods  also,  which  keep  the 
water  wholly  fresh,  or  bring  down  enormous  quantities  of  silt  and  floating  matter,  which  settle* 
on  the  beds  and  smothers  the  Oysters.  . 

"  A  few  years  ago  a  large  tract  of  peat  was  drained  at  Grangemoutb,  Scotland.  The  loose 
mud  and  moss  was  carried  down  the  drains  tqiou  an  oyster-bed  in  the  estuary;  the  consequence 
was  that  the  Oysters  were  covered  over  with  mud  and  entirely  destroyed.  Nothing  is  so  fatal  to 
Oysters  as  a  mud  storm,  except  it  be  a  sand  storm.  The  mud  and  the  sand  accumulate  in  the 
Oyster's  delicate  breathing  organs  and  suffocate  him. 

••  North  of  Long  Island  an  enemy  is  found  which  does  not  exist  in  the  milder  south,  in  the 


748  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

shape  of  'ground-ice'  or  'anchor-frost.'  It  is  little  understood,  though  often  experienced,  and  I 
was  able  to  collect  only  vague  data  in  regard  to  it.  It  appears  that  in  hard  winters  the  bottom  of 
the  bays  freezes  solid  in  great  patches,  even  at  a  depth  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  The  mud  freezes 
so  hard  that  rakes  cannot  be  pressed  into  it;  and  if  a  stronger  implement,  like  a  ship's  anchor,  is 
able  to  penetrate  it.  the  crust  comes  up  in  great  chunks.  These  frozen  patches  are  sometimes 
forty  feet  square  and  continue  unthawed  for  long  periods.  When  such  'anchor-frost'  takes  place 
at  an  Oyster-bed,  of  course  the  mollusks  are  frozen  solidly  into  the  mass,  and  few  of  them  ever 
survive  the  treatment.  To  the  Cape  Cod  planters  this  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  success."1 

INTERFERENCE  OF  OTHER  ANIMAL  LIFE. — We  have  called  attention  to  the  probable  inter- 
ference of  small  organic  growths  to  the  fixation  of  the  young  fry;  in  practice  it  is  found  that  the 
larger  organic  growths  which  establish  themselves  on  the  collectors  also  become  injurious.  The 
two  most  conspicuous  types  are  the  sessile  ascidians  or  tunicates  and  the  barnacles.  1  have 
frequently  found  Inlly  one-half  of  the  surface  of  a  slate  covered  with  a  dense  colony  of  ascidians; 
in  this  condition  a  great  percentage  of  available  surface  is  lost  which  ougUt  to  serve  for  the 
attachment  of  spat.  The  surfaces  so  occupied  would  also  be  comparatively  clean  were  it  not  for 
these  organisms,  which  actually  become  a  serious  annoyance.  They,  like  the  Oyster,  affix 
themselves  to  the  slates  while  still  in  the  free-swimming  larval  stage,  since  the  surfaces  designed 
for  the  Oyster  are  equally  well  adapted  to  them.  The  barnacles,  which  also  affix  themselves  in 
great  numbers,  become  a  nuisance  for  the  same  reason.  The  larval  barnacle  is  an  extremely 
active  little  creature,  and  dashes  about  in  the  water  with  great  rapidity.  As  soon  as  it  has 
completed  this  stage  of  its  growth  it  betakes  itself  to  some  object,  to  the  surface  of  which  it 
attaches  itself  by  the  head  end,  when  a  singular  change  takes  place,  at  the  end  of  which  it  is 
found  that  it  has  begun  the  construction  of  the  curious  conical  shell  which  it  inhabits.  They 
grow  very  rapidly,  so  that  in  a  couple  of  months  the  shell  will  already  measure  over  half  an  inch 
in  diameter.  In  this  way  further  inroads  are  made  upon  the  room  which  should  be  taken  up  by 
Oysters. 

Of  course  the  larger  types  are  not  alone  in  taking  up  space,  since  infusorians,  bryozoans, 
polyps,  etc.,  are  also  culpable,  as  well  as  algae,  such  as  diatoms  and  the  higher  torms.  The  only 
remedy  for  this  accumulation  of  animal  growths  on  the  surfaces  of  the  shites  and  other  collecting 
apparatus  will  be  to  have  the  frames  which  hold  the  slate  in  position  so  arranged  that  each  tile, 
shingle,  or  slate  can  be  removed,  in  order  that  It  may  be  readily  overhauled  and  these  organisms 
removed  from  the  surfaces  which  it  is  desired  shall  remain  clean.  This  work  would  have  to  be 
done  at  intervals  of  every  two  or  three  weeks,  and  (•hould  be  conducted  with  great  caie,  so  as  uot 
to  remove  the  Oysters  which  have  affixed  themselves  along  with  the  other  things  which  it  is  the 
intention  to  destroy.  The  removal  of  the  smaller  forms  from  the  surfaces  of  the  slate  would  be 
more  difficult,  and  attended  with  danger  to  the  fry  already  attached.  With  this  object  in  view, 
I  would  suggest  the  use  of  wooden  racks  or  frames  lying  horizontally,  which  would  receive  the 
slates  into  deep  notches  made  with  a  saw,  so  as  to  hold  them  vertically  or  edgewise,  rendering 
their  removal,  for  the  purposes  of  cleansing,  and  their  replacement  an  easy  matter.  Other 
devices  would  no  doubt  answer  the  same  purpose  and  be  more  convenient  even  than  the  last. 
If  posts  were  securely  fixed  in  the  bottom  eight  or  ten  feet  apart,  so  as  to  project  a  foot  or  so 
above  the  water  at  the  highest  tide,  a  single  board  six  inches  wide,  nailed  against  the  tops  of  the 
posts  edgewise,  and  extending  from  one  to  the  other,  would  provide  a  simple  arrangement  from 
which  to  hang  the  slates  singly  by  means  of  galvanized  wire  fastened  or  hooked  to  nails  partly 
driven  into  the  board.  By  the  help  of  this  plan  one  man  with  a  boat  could  overhaul  inauy 


'E.  IXOKKSOLL,  Report  on  Oyster  Industry,  Tenth  Census. 


I:\KMIKS  m  TIII:  OYSTKKS. 

humlrrils  of  slates  in  a  single  day,  and  ottertually  ran-  for  them  for  a  \vln>l«-  seu.-on.  Tin-  l.»t 
contrivance  would  not  answer  well  perhaps  whore  there  was  a  swift  current,  but  would  be  a  meet 
admirable  arrangement  in  still  ponds  or  'elaires.'  In  such  places  the  whole  area  might  be 
I>K>\  ideil  witli  posts  grouped  or  placed  iu  rows,  so  thut  when  the  attendant  was  at  work  he  could 
p.i^  in  order  from  one  row  to  the  other  in  a  narrow  boat,  or  two  attendants  in  one  boat  could  take 
e.u  e  of  two  rows,  the  ones  on  either  hand,  at  the  same  time. 

Star-fishes  are  notorious  for  the  havoc  they  are  capable  of  making  among  Oysters.  They 
have  the  power  apparently  of  everting  their  saccular  stomachs  and  extracting  the  soft  parts  of 
their  prey  from  the  shell.  Whole  beds  have  been  seriously  injured  by  the  inroads  of  these 
creatures.  They  do  not  seem  to  be  dreaded  much  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  however,  and  appear 
to  annoy  the  oyster- planters  of  New  England  most  seriously; 

•  •  The  oyster-catcher,  and  some  other  birds,  steal  not  a  few  at  low  tide.  Barnacles,  annelids, 
and  masses  of  hydroid  growth  sometimes  form  about  the  shells  and  intercept  the  nutriment  of  the 
poor  mollusk,  until  he  is  nearly  or  quite  starved;  this  is  particularly  true  in  Southern  waters.  At 
Staten  Island  the  planters  are  always  apprehensive  of  trouble  from  the  colonization  of  mussels  on 
tin  ir  oyster-beds.  The  mussels,  having  established  themselves,  grow  rapidly,  knit  the  Oysters 
together  by  their  tough  threads,  making  culling  very  difficult,  and  take  much  of  the  food  which 
otherwise  would  help  fatten  the  more  valuable  shell-fish.  In  the  Delaware  Bay  the  spawn  of 
squids,  in  the  shape  of  clusters  of  egg-cases,  appropriately  called  'sea-grapes,'  often  grows  on  the 
Oysters  so  thickly,  during  the  inaction  of  summer,  that  when  the  fall  winds  come,  or  the  beds  ure 
disturlxnl  by  a  dredge,  great  quantities  of  Oysters  rise  to  the  surface,  bnoyed  up  by  the  light 
parasitic  'grapes,' and  are  floated  away.  This  is  a  very  curious  danger.  Lastly,  certain  crabs 
are  to  be  feared — chiefly  the  Callinecte*  ha#tatu«,  our  common  'soft  crab,'  and  the  Cancer  irrorattu. 
Probably  the  latter  is  the  more  hurtful  of  the  two.  I  have  heard  more  complaint  on  this  score  at 
the  western  end  of  the  Great  South  Bay,  Long  Island,  than  anywhere  else.  Mr.  Edward  Udall 
told  me  that  the  crab  was  the  greatest  of  all  enemies  to  Oysters  on  the  Oak  Island  beds.  They  eat 
the  small  Oysters  up  to  the  size  of  a  quarter-dollar,  chewing  them  all  to  bits.  These  are  on  the 
the  artificial  beds,  for  they  do  not  seem  to  trouble  the  natural  growth.  But  tolled  by  broken 
Oysters,  when  the  planter  is  working,  they  come  in  crowds  to  that  point.  Mr.  Udall  stated  that 
once  he  put  down  five  hundred  bushels  of  seed  brought  from  Brookhaven,  and  that  it  was  utterly 
destroyed  by  these  crabs  within  a  week  and  while  he  was  still  planting.  He  could  see  the  crabs, 
and  they  numbered  one  to  every  fifty  Oysters.  It  is  well  known  that  in  Europe  the  crabs  are 
very  destructive  to  planted  beds,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  many  mysterious  losses  may  be 
charged  to  these  rapacious  and  insidious  robbers.  By  the  way,  Aldrovandus  and  other  of  the 
naturalists  of  the  Middle  Ages  entertained  a  singular  notion  relative  to  the  crab  and  the  Oyster. 
They  state  that  the  crab,  in  order  to  obtain  the  animal  of  the  Oyster,  without  danger  to  their 
own  claws,  watch  their  opportunity  when  the  shell  is  open  to  advance  without  noise  and  ca-t  .1 
pebble  between  their  shells,  to  prevent  their  closiug,  and  then  extract  the  animal  in  safety. 
'What  craft!'  exclaims  the  credulous  author,  'in  animals  that  are  destitute  of  reason  and 
voice."" 

In  a  specimen  of  the  common  Ostrea  rirginica,  recently  handed  me  for  examination  by  my 
friend.  Mr.  John  Ford,  the  substance  of  the  shell  was  thoroughly  cavernated  so  as  to  render  it 
extremely  brittle  and  readily  crushed;  in  fact,  the  inner  table  of  the  shell  left  standing  showed  a 
great  number  of  elevations  within,  which  indicated  points  where  the  intruding  parasite  had  been 
kept  out  by  the  Oyster,  which  had  deposited  new  layers  of  calcareous  matter  at  these  places  so 

1 E.  IxoraaoLL :  Report  on  the  Oyster  Industry,    Tenth  Cen»u». 


750  NATURAL  HISTORY   JF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

as  to  give  rise  to  the  elevations  simken  of.  Besides  this,  the  inner  table  had  become  so  weakened 
at  the  insertion  of  the  adductor  muscles  that  the  animal  in  closing  had  torn  a  part  of  it  loose, 
which  had  been  repaired  by  the  deposition  of  a  brown,  horny  substance.  Evidence  of  the  presence 
of  the  boring  sponge  may  very  frequently  be  noticed  in  shells  of  Oysters  brought  to  the  markets, 
though  it  often  appears  as  if  the  parasite  had  left  its  work  incomplete,  being  killed  on  its  host. 
I  find  that  Schmidt  has  also  noted  this,  and  that  the  boring  operations  of  the  sponge  usually  seem 
to  stop  in  the  case  of  living  mollusks  at  the  nacreous  layer. 

Upon  examining  some  Scotch  Oysters,  obtained  for  me  for  study  by  Professor  Baird,  I  was 
struck  with  the  fact  that  every  one  was  infested  with  this  organism.  The  effect  of  the  parasitism 
was  that  all  of  the  specimens  had  abnormally  thick  shells,  dne  evidently  lo  the  effort  made  by 
the  Oyster  to  deposit  more  and  more  calcareous  matter  in  order  to  exclude  its  persistent  tormentor. 
Internally  the  shell  showed  irregularities  due  to  the  intrusion  of  the  sponge.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  in  this  case  the  growth  of  the  Oysters  had  been  impeded  by  the  parasite,  in  consequence  of 
the  effort  made  by  the  animals  to  exclude  their  enemy  by  increasing  the  thickness  of  their  shells. 
This  same  tendency  to  increase  the  thickness  of  the  valves  I  have  noticed  in  specimens  of  our 
native  Oyster,  the  shells  of  which  were  infested  with  this  parasite.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the 
Oyster  should  make  an  effort  to  exclude  its  enemy  by  such  a  means ;  and  it  is  not  less  remarkable 
to  observe  that  the  lime  carbonate  secreting  function  of  the  mantle  is  often  stimulated  to  extra 
exertion  long  before  the  parasite  has  actually  intruded  into  the  cavity  of  the  shell. 

Dr.'Leidy  gives  a  lucid  account  of  the  living  sponge  as  found  in  Ostrea  rirginiana  and  Venux 
merceiMria.  He  says:  "This  boring  sponge  forms  an  extensive  system  of  galleries  between  the 
outer  and  inner  layers  of  the  shells,  protrudes  through  the  perforations  of  the  latter  tubular 
processes,  from  one  to  two  lines  long  and  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a  line  wide.  The  tubes  are 
of  two  kinds,  the  most  numerous  being  cylindrical  and  expanded  at  the  orifice  in  a  corolla  form, 
with  their  margin  thin,  translucent,  entire,  veined  with  more  opaque  lines,  and  with  the  throat 
bristling  with  siliceous  spicuhe.  The  second  kind  of  tubes  are  comparatively  lew,  about  as  one  is 
to  thirty  of  the  other,  and  are  shorter,  wider,  not  expanded  at  the  oriflce,  and  the  throat  unob- 
structed with  s|iicul;c.  Some  of  the  second  variety  of  tubes  are  constituted  of  a  confluent  pair, 
the  throat  of  which  bifurcates  at  bottom.  Both  kinds  of  the  tubes  are  very  slightly  contractile, 
and  under  irritation  may  gradually  assume  the  appearance  of  superficial,  wart  like  eminences 
within  the  perforations  of  the  shell  occupied  by  the  sponge.  Water  obtains  access  to  the  interior 
of  the  latter  through  the  more  numerous  tubes,  and  is  expelled  in  quite  active  currents  from  the 
wider  tubes." 

The  boring  process  seems  to  be  effected  by  the  action  of  the  living  soft  material  of  the  sponge, 
according  to  observations  which  have  recently  been  made  by  a  Russian  naturalist,  according  to 
whom  it  appears  that  the  calcareous  matter  is  dissolved  away  by  the  parasite,  I  am  told  by  a 
practical  oysterman  that  a  bed  once  planted  with  Oysters  which  are  badly  infested  by  the  boring 
sponge  is  apt  to  remain  so  for  some  time,  and  that  the  beds  adjoining  become  infested,  for  the 
reason  that  the  embryo  sponges,  which  are  thrown  off  in  large  numbers  from  the  infested  "plants," 
swim  about  in  the  water,  attach  themselves  to  other  Oysters,  to  begin  their  injurious  growth  and 
excavations  in  sound  shells. 

220.  NATUEAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  OYSTER-BANKS. 

CHARACTERISTICS  op  NATURAL  OYSTER-BANKS.— I  have  examined  a  number  of  oyster- 
banks,  which  were  readily  accessible  in  shallow  water,  with  gratifying  results  as  to  the  habits 
of  the  animal  under  virtually  undisturbed  conditions.  These  banks,  like  those  formed  by  the 


POSITION'S  OF  THE  SPAT.  751 

European  Oyster,  always  appear  to  be  much  longer  than  wide,  but  many  of  them  are  almost 
entirely  exposed  to  the  air  during  low  tide,  a  rare  occurrence,  according  to  Mohius.  with  the 
hanks  on  the  Selilesu  ii;  I  lolstein  coast  of  the  North  Sea.  I  learned  from  the  owiiera  of 
.tome  of  these  hanks  that,  althonirh  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  Oysters  on  them  were 
at  times  Iro/.en  to  death  during  the  severe  winters,  the  fecundity  of  those  which  remained  was 
Mich,  eiuiiliiiied  \\ith  the  naturally  favorable  conditions  found  on  the  banks  for  the  growth 
of  old  and  young,  as  to  restore  the  beds  to  their  wonted  productiveness  in  one  or  two  seasons. 
Whether  this  description  of  the  fecundity  of  the  beds  found  in  shallow  water  is  overdrawn 
or  not  matters  little,  since  there  was  the  plainest  evidence  that  we  had  here  before  our  eyes 
the  lies)  natural  conditions  for  the  propagation  and  feeding  of  the  individuals.  The  beds  are, 
in  a  word,  natural  spat-collecting  grounds;  places  where  such  conditions  obtain  as  will  allow  a 
large  proportion  of  the  swarming  brood  of  the  spawning  season  to  affix  itself  securely  and  survive 
in  positions  where,  an  abundance  of  food  may  be  got.  The  tide  ebbing  and  flowing  over  the  beds 
not  only  carries  with  it  in  suspension  the  microscopic  food  best  adapted  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
Oysters,  but  also  tends,  owing  to  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  shells  on  the  banks,  to  keep  tlio 
surface  of  the  latter  clean,  so  as  to  be  well  adapted  as  favorable  points  of  attachment  for  the  young. 

In  all  of  the  natural  banks  which  I  have  had  the  pleasure  of  examining  in  the  Chesapeake, 
the  individual  Oysters  assume  an  approximately  vertical  position.  The  assumption  of  this  position 
seems  perfectly  natural ;  with  the  hinge  end  downwards  and  the  free  edges  of  the  valves  directed 
upward  the  animals  are  in  an  excellent  position  to  feed,  while  the  outside  vertical  surfaces  of  the 
valves  are  well  adapted  to  afford  places  of  attachment  for  the  spat.  The  latter,  however,  appears 
to  attach  itself  in  the  greatest  abundance  to  the  old  Oysters  at  the  surface  of  the  bank.  The  result 
is  that  when  one  removes  the  Oysters  from  the  bed  they  are  found  to  adhere  together  in  clusters, 
generation  alter  generation  being  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other  in  succession.  As  many  as  four 
generations  may  be  made  out  in  most  cases ;  the  oldest  being  buried  in  the  mud  and  sand  below 
and  is  often  found  to  be  smothered  by  those  which  have  followed.  Even  below  the  last  stratum 
of  living  Oysters,  if  one  keeps  digging,  it  is  discovered  that  the  shells  of  numerous  still  more 
remote  ancestors  of  the  living  ones  now  occupying  the  bed  are  disposed  vertically  in  the  sand  and 
earth  beneath.  Attached  to  the  upper  edges  of  these  dead  shells  follows,  we  will  say,  the  first 
living  generation  and  so  on  to  the  fourth,  composed  mainly  of  young  individuals  or  spat  only  a 
few  days  or  mouths  old.  Whether  it  is  proper  to  regard  the  superimposed  series  of  individuals  as 
generations  may  be  questioned,  but  as  no  more  expressive  word  (x:curs  to  me,  I  wish,  to  be  under- 
stood as  using  it  here  with  qualifications. 

POSITIONS  OF  THE  SPAT. — The  spat  does  not  fix  itself  in  any  constant  position  ;  the  young 
may  have  the  hinge  of  the  shell  directed  downward,  upward,  or  to  the  right  or  left  hand. 
Singularly  enough  the  shells  do  not  grow  in  the  directions  which  the  free  edges  of  the  valves 
are  made  to  assume  in  the  young.  Should  the  young  happen  to  be  fixed  hinge  downward 
the  free  edges  of  the  valves  grow  in  length  directly  upward;  in  case  the  hinge  is  directed 
either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  the  layers  of  calcic  carbonate  will  be  deposited  in 
such  a  way  upon  one  side  as  to  cause  the  free  edges  of  the  valves  to  be  eventually 
directed  upwards,  causing  the  umbonal  portion  of  the  valves  to  describe  an  arc  of  90°. 
In  case  the  hinge  is  at  first  directed  upward,  the  layers  of  carbonate  of  lime  will  be  deposited 
in  such  a  way  by  the  mantle  as  to  bring  the  mouth  of  the  shell  upward.  The  attempt  to  «>'' 
into  a  vertical  position  will,  however,  not  always  be  successful  in  cases  like  the  last;  the  arc  of 
180°,  which  it  is  necessary  for  the  animal  to  traverse  from  its  starting  point  in  order  to  build 
its  shell  with  the  free  edges  opening  upward,  seem  to  be  a  feat  a  little  too  difficult  of  accom- 
plishment, in  spite  of  the  wonderful  persistence  of  effort  manifested  by  the  inhabitant. 


752  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  habit  of  growing  in  the  erect  position,  where  the  banks  are  prolific  and  undisturbed, 
causes  the  individuals  to  be  very  much  crowded  together,  so  that  they  do  not  have  a  chance  to 
expand  and  grow  into  their  normal  shape.  From  this  cause,  overcrowding,  the  shells  of  the 
individual  Oysters  become  very  narrow  and  greatly  elongated;  the  peculiar  forms  which  result 
arc  known  to  oysterineu  as  "Raccoon  Oysters," or  "Cat's-tongues,"  the  latter  name  being  probably 
derived  from  a  suggestive  resemblance  to  the  tongue  of  a  cat.  Fossil  Oysters  appear  to  have  had 
the  same  habit.  In  some  banks  their  crowded  condition  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  I 
counted  as  many  as  forty  Oysters  in  an  area  included  by  a  quadrangle  of  wire  including  exactly 
one  square  foot;  thirty  individuals  to  the  square  foot  was  a  fair  average  on  one  bank 
examined. 

All  of  the  observant  writers  upon  the  Oyster  agree  that  it  is  essential  that  the  bottom  upon 
which  oyster-banks  are  to  be  permanent  should  not  be  liable  to  shift  or  be  covered  by  mud  or 
sediment.  The  experience  of  the  writer  strongly  enforces  such  a  conclusion.  The  permanent 
banks,  owing  to  the  great  number  of  dead  shells  scattered  through  the  bottom  soil  upon  which 
they  have  been  established,  acquire  a  peculiar  solidity  or  fixedness  which  the  currents  of  tide  water 
cannot  sensibly  affect.  When  these  banks  are  once  covered  by  the  clusters  of  Oysters  more  or 
less  securely  held  together  by  the  lower  portions  becoming  imbedded  in  the  soil  below,  and 
mutually  wedged  and  fitted  together  by  the  any  msurfaces  of  contiguous  clusters  which  have 
become  neatly  adapted  to  each  other  by  pressure,  it  is  a  very  hard  matter  for  the  tides  to  smother 
the  bank  unless  sufficient  soil  in  suspension  is  carried  by  the  waters  to  completely  cover  the 
animals. 

ESTABLISHMENT  OF  ARTIFICIAL  BEDS. — The  Inferences  to  be  drawn  from  the  foregoing 
observations  are  very  important.  They  naturally  lead  to  the  inquiry  whether  artificial  Oyster- 
beds  cannot  at  least  be  established  in  shallow  water,  where  the  difficulties  in  altering  the 
character  of  the  bottom  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  wants  of  the  Oyster  are  not  practically 
insurmountable.  I  believe  that  the  establishment  of  artificial  beds,  which,  would  in  time  become 
similar  in  every  respect  to  the  natural  ones,  is  possible  in  a  moderately  rapid  tideway.  The 
localities,  I  apprehend,  are  abundant  along  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake,  and  I  certainly 
know  of  few  places  where  the  existing  natural  conditions  for  such  a  project  are  any  better 
than  those  found  in  Saint  Jerome's  Creek.  The  bottom  would,  of  course,  have  to  undergo  such 
preparation  as  would  insure  to  it  solidity,  and  it  might  be  well  to  imitate  the  flat,  ridge  like 
character  of.  the  natural  banks  in  constructing  artificial  ones.  The  long  axis  of  the  beds  should 
probably  lie  transversely  to  the  direction  in  which  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows  in  and  out  of  the 
creeks,  as  appears  to  be  the  case  with  many  banks  examined.  The  next  thing  to  do  would  be 
to  colonize  these  artificial  banks  with  Oysters  stuck  thickly  into  the  bottom,  hinge  downward, 
imitating  the  position  of  the  animals  in  the  natural  banks.  The  cost  of  such  an  experimental 
bank  would  be  comparatively  insignificant. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  substance  of  the  foregoing  suggestion  I  have  seen  the  idea 
practically  realized  in  the  Cherrystone  River,  Virginia.  A  heap  of  Oyster-shells  had  been 
scattered  so  as  to  form  a  low,  solid  elevation,  which  was  submerged  twice  a  day  by  the  tide. 
Upon  this  spat  had  caught  and  grown  until  the  whole  in  two  years  was  as  completely  and 
solidly  covered  by  living  natural-growth  Oysters  as  any  good  natural  bank.  The  desirability 
of  using  the  jxwrly  grown  stock  from  natural  and  artificial  banks  as  "seed"  for  planting 
appears  reasonable,  and  could  no  doubt  be  made  profitable  where  banks  of  a  sufficient  extent 
could  be  established,  from  which  a  supply  of  seed  could  be  obtained. 


SPAT  COLLECTORS.  753 


I  have  liceii  informed  by  an  old  oystcrinan  that  pine  bushes  stuck  securely  into  the 
bottom  so  as  to  be  submerged  in  shallow  areas  have  been  found  very  effectual  a.s  collectors. 
In  tact,  lie  told  me  that  in  one  case  \vliich  had  fallen  under  his  observation  an  oyster-planter 
\vlin  fiillmved  this  plan  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  submerged  bushes  load  with  spat, 
much  of  which  afterwards  grew  to  marketable  size.  Afterwards  a  productive  ridge  or  bank 
was  the  result  where  the  brush  palisade  had  originally  acted  as  a  collector.  Thick  palisades 
of  brush  might  be  stuck  into  the  bottom  near  permanent  oyster-banks  with  good  results. 
Doubtless  it  would  be  possible  to  establish  banks  by  this  method  if,  in  addition,  oyster-shells 
or  stones  were  strewn  on  the  bottom  along  either  side  of  the  brush  palisade,  in  order  to  afford 
a  foundation  for  the  fixation  of  the  first  generations  of  oysters. 

SPAT-COLLECTORS. — Lieutenant  Winslow,  in  1879,  used  hurdles  or  nests  of  half-round  tiles, 
eight  to  sixteen  in  number;  the  results  from  one  placed  in  the  Big  Annemessex  were  very  flatter- 
ing. After  it  had  been  immersed  twenty-four  days  1,506  Oysters  had  attached  themselves.  After 
forty  live  days  had  elapsed  1,334  still  remained,  and  after  ninety-three  days  were  past  the  number 
still  adherent  was  539.  I  have  had  no  such  success,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  bay,  as  at  Tangier 
Sound  for  instance,  spat  falls  in  great  abundance.  I  have  seen  the  inner  face  of  one  valve  of  a  dead 
Oyster  furnish  attachment  for  over  forty  spat  from  one-eighth  to  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Sponges,  pieces  of  wreck,  old  shoes,  pebbles,  iron  ore,  leather,  the  external  surface  of 
the  shell  of  MoJiolaria,  branches  of  trees  and  logs  which  have  fallen  into  the  water  act  as  collectors. 
(hsters  are  sometimes  found  inside  of  bottles  which  have  been  thrown  upon  the  bottom,  the  fry 
having  wandered  through  the  neck  and  attached  itself  to  the  inner  surface,  growing  to  the  size  of 
two  inches  in  diameter  and  over.  The  spat  is  shaped  much  like  the  scallop  or  Pectcn,  a  form  which 
it  often  retains  until  it  measures  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter.  The  primary  requisite  in 
collectors  is  that  they  shall  present  clean  surfaces  while  the  spawning  season  is  in  progress. 
Small  inequalities  are  probably  an  advantage,  as  the  very  youngest  spat  is  often  found  in  chinks 
and  angles  on  the  shells  of  the  adults.  No  other  organisms  should  be  Allowed  to  grow  and  cover 
up  or  smother  the  oyster  spat.  Barnacles,  infusoria,  moss  animals,  polyps,  and  many  other 
organisms  are  liable  to  accumulate  on  the  surface  of  the  collectors  to  the  detriment  of  the  young 
Oysters  which  have  established  themselves.  Many  of  these  animals,  polyps  especially,  eat  the 
young  fry  in  the  free-swimming  stage,  as  shown  by  Dr.  Horst. 

The  use  of  the  methods  employed  abroad  for  collecting  spat  has  not  been  tested  in  the  United 
States  upon  a  scale  large  enough  to  enable  us  to  arrive  as  yet  at  any  very  important  conclusions. 
Roofing  slate  coated  with  mortar  promises  good  results;  the  valves  of  oyster  shells  strung  upon 
wire,  pine  cones,  and  brush  have  been  used,  but  in  unfavorable  places,  so  as  to  vitiate  to  some 
extent  the  results  which  were  expected.  A  coating  of  cement  will  not  answer;  it  gets  too  hard, 
so  that  the  spat  when  it  is  to  be  removed  from  the  collectors  cannot  be  loosened  without  injuring 
its  delicate,  thin  valves.  The  coating  of  lime  and  sand  should  be  thick  enough  so  as  to  make  a 
layer  of  at  least  an  eighth  of  an  inch  over  the  surface  of  the  collector.  It  should  also  be  allowed 
to  thoroughly  "set,"  as  a  stone  mason  would  say,  after  it  has  been  applied  so  as  not  to  wash  off 
readily.  A  strong  mortar  should  be  mixed  for  the  coating,  composed  of  sharp  sand  and  good 
lime,  in  the  proportions  of  about  equal  parts,  and  thin  enough  to  dip  the  slates  or  tiles  iuto  the 
mixture  bodily.  If  the  first  coat  is  not  found  to  be  thick  enough  a  second  and  third  may  be 
applied.  The  tiles  or  slates  after  coating  should  be  allowed  to  dry  for  two  or  three  days  so  as  to 
allow  the  coating  to  "  set "  firmly. 
48  F 


754  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Various  ways  of  supporting  the  tiles  and  slates  have  been  devised,  cbeap  forms  of  which  are 
described  in  the  treatises  of  Coste  and  Fraiche.  The  primary  requisite  in  putting  down  collectors 
is  that  they  shall  be  so  placed  as  not  to  be  covered  by  mnd,  especially  where  the  bottom  is  overlaid 
with  ooze.  In  such  cases  they  must  be  supported  so  as  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  nind,  the 
effect  of  which  would  be  to  make  them  useless.  In  practice,  I  suspect,  that  it  would  be  well  to 
look  after  the  collectors  occasionally  and  to  brush  off  the  mud,  because  in  some  places  I  have 
noticed  that  thick  deposits  of  sediment  soon  collect  upon  the  upper  surfaces.  This  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  several  observers  have  noticed  that  the  spat  is  disposed  to  attach  itself  and  survive 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  collectors. 

I  am  informed  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Hull  that  the  practice  of  strewing  oyster-shells  as  spat-collectors 
on  hard  sea-bottom  two  or  three  fathoms  deep  is  becoming  quite  common  on  .the  Connecticut 
shores  of  Long  Island  Sound.  Here,  the  practice  is  to  scatter  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  bushels  of  shells  over  an  acre  of  bottom.  The  method  there  has  also  been  so  successful 
and  profitable  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  area  of  the  oyster  fishery  that  the  price  of  the  dead 
shells  has  increased  and  is  likely  to  continue  to  do  so,  since  the  demand  is  greater  than  the  supply. 
Mr.  Hull,  himself  a  practical  oyster-culturist,  proposes  to  introduce  this  system  into  praclice  on 
his  projected  plantations  on  the  Chesapeake,  where  a  beginning  has  already  been  made  by  this 
method  under  the  direction  of  Captain  Hine,  at  Cherrystone,  the  superintendent  of  the  firm  of 
Maltby  &  Co.,  of  Norfolk,  now  largely  interested  as  planters  in  the  Cherrystone  Eiver.  This 
method  is  the  same  as  that  extensively  practiced  in  Europe. 

How  AN  OYSTEE  TAKES  ON  FLESH. — Among  oystermen  the  business  of  fattening  or  feeding 
the  Oyster  is  one  of  the  most  important,  from  the  fact  that  upon  the  condition  of  the  market. 
able  product  Largely  depends  its  value.  Fatness,  so  called,  in  the  Oyster  is  a  condition  wholly 
different  in  nature  from  the  state  known  under  that  name  in  stall-fed  domestic  animals.  The 
turgidity  of  the  reproductive  organs  is  not  usually  indicative  of  fatness,  as  it  appears  some  authors 
have  supposed,  Mobius  being  the  only  one  who  has  apprehended  its  true  nature.  The  word  "  fat," 
as  applied  to  indicate  the  condition  of  the  Oyster  when  in  flesh,  is  a  misnomer,  since  it  is  not  fat 
at  all  which  is  the  immediate  cause  of  the  condition  of  plumpness  which  betokens  a  fitness  for 
market,  but  a  very  extensive  deposit  of  protoplasmic  matter  which  has  been  assimilated  and  laid 
down  mainly  in  the  substance  of  the  mantle.  It  is  this  relatively  large  amount  of  delicate,  easily- 
digested  protoplasm,  stored  up  in  the  palps  and  mantle,  which  renders  the  Oyster  so  wholesome 
and  nutritious. 

The  deposition  of  this  protoplasmic  material  in  the  mantle,  palps,  and  body  stands  in  intimate 
relation  to  the  activity  of  the  reproductive  organs.  During  the  spawning  season  Oysters  are  said 
to  be  "  poor,"  that  is  to  say  poor  in  condition,  for  at  this  time  the  mantle,  especially  where  it  lies 
next  the  body  on  each  side,  is  very  thin  and  quite  transparent ;  the  radiating  pallia!  muscles  along 
the  border  of  the  mantle,  as  well  as  Us  vessels  and  nerves,  may  now  be  readily  studied  under  the 
microscope,  owing  to  its  transparency  and  the  absence  of  opaque  granular  protoplasm.  If  we 
examine  the  reproductive  organs  at  this  time,  as  a  rule,  we  will  find  them  greatly  developed  and 
pouring  out  their  products  through  two  large  ducts,  the  combined  caliber  of  which  is  not  far  short 
of  that  of  the  intestine.  It  will  be  evident  to  any  thinking  mind  that  if  the  major  part  of  the  food 
material  elaborated  by  the  digestive  and  nutritive  systems  goes  to  the  ovaries  or  testes  to  be 
transformed  into  sex  products,  which  are  continually  thrown  off  during  the  breeding  season,  little 
of  such  Material  can  be  stored  up  in  the  tissues  of  the  body.  We  have  described  exactly  what 
happens.  In  the  month  of  September,  when  the  Oysters  in  this  latitude  are  for  the  most  part 
done  spawning,  the  drain  of  elaborated  material  having  ceased  to  flow  from  the  openings  of  the 


FATTKNIXG  OF  OYSTERS.  755 

reproductive  organs,  it  is  diverted  in  another  direction,  but  is  retained  in  the  system  and  has  to  be 
deposited  somewhere  in  the  hotly.  The  most  extensive  deposits  of  this  elaborated  living  matter 
occur  in  the  mantle,  body,  and  palps,  the  color  of  which  rapidly  changes  from  the  watery,  trans 
parent  condition  prevalent  during  the  spawning  season  to  a  creamy  white.  The  whole  animal  also 
acquires  a  solidity  which  it  did  not  possess  before;  it  loses  its  watery,  impoverished  appearance, 
together  with  its  disposition  to  shrink  to  a  fraction  of  its  original  bulk  from  an  extensive  loss  of 
fluids  when  opened.  The  mantle  and  palps  become  opaque  and  thicker  than  before,  and  their 
substance  is  softer  and  more  easily  lacerated.  The  change  here  described  undoubtedly  affects  the 
connective  tissue  principally,  as  elsewhere  stoted.  The  material  of  the  latter  has  the  milky 
apjMMirance  of  the  reproductive  organ  when  mutilated,  and  may  readily  be  mistaken  for  the  latter 
by  the  inexperienced.  It  appears  that  the  generative  and  nutritive  functions  are  opposed  to  each 
other  in  the  Oyster  as  in  other  animals;  all  of  which  indicates,  too,  the  amount  of  energy  which 
must  be  expended  during  the  breeding  season  in  the  production  of  germs.  Whatever  surplus 
nutriment  is  stored  up  in  the  winter  appears  to  be  immediately  devoted  to  the  formation  of  germs 
upon  the  arrival  of  the  warm  months,  when  food  is  also  probably  most  plentiful  and  when  the 
external  conditions  are  right  for  the  development  of  the  embryos.  The  eftbrt  which  the  Oyster 
makes,  at  the  expense  of  so  much  material,  to  reproduce  its  kind  ought  to  be  respected.  In  the 
protection  of  the  Oyster  during  the  close  season  we  are  simply  following  the  dictates  of  experience 
and  common  sense. 

The  account  which  we  have  given  above  of  the  physiology  and  interdependence  of  the 
fattening  and  reproductive  processes  of  the  Oyster,  it  seems  to  me,  affords  an  opportunity  to 
point  out  how  little  philosophy  there  is  in  the  doctrine  that  Oysters  may  be  fattened  by  putting 
them  for  a  day  or  two  in  water  less  salt  than  that  from  which  they  were  first  taken,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  water-swollen  by  the  action  of  osmose,  so  as  to  give  to  them  a  plump  appearance. 
It  is  surprising  how  little  dependence  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  statements  of  oystennen  and 
fishermen  in  regard  to  the  habits  of  the  objects  with  which  they  are  supposed  to  be  most  familiar. 
And  this  statement,  like  many  others  of  a  similar  kind,  has  no  basis  of  fact  and  experimental 
evidence  to  rest  upon.  I  may  sum  np  the  utter  absurdity  of  the  widespread  belief  in  the  possi- 
bility of  fattening  Oysters  by  removing  them  from  salt  to  less  salt  water  for  a  few  days,  by 
saying  that  it  amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  to  assert  that  water  is  a  fatty  or  oleaginous  substance! 

The  results  of  my  most  recent  investigations  upon  the  minute  anatomy  of  Ostrea  virginica  may 
be  fitly  described  in  this  place,  since  they  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  process  of  fattening. 
The  subject  of  this  investigation  was  one  of  the  most  impoverished-looking  Oysters  which  it  has 
ever  been  my  fortune  to  find.  It  was  collected  on  the  20th  of  July  this  present  year  (1882)  and 
placed  in  a  chromic  acid  solution  of  one  per  cent  for  forty-eight  hours,  when  it  was  washed  and 
finally  transferred  to  alcohol,  to  be  cut  into  sections  when  convenient.  This  I  have  recently  done* 
When  the  specimen  in  question  was  fresh  it  was  characterized  by  the  almost  perfect  transpar- 
ency of  the  mantle,  and,  as  it  afterwards  turned  out.  the  total  atrophy  of  the  generative  organ. 
Before  the  hardening  process  had  been  undergone,  the  mantle  was  greatly  distended  by  watery 
fluid,  so  much  so  that,  after  hardening,  it  had  shrunken  to  about  one-tenth  of  its  bulk  while  m 
the  fresh  and  living  state.  The  hardened  specimen  was  cut  into  thin  sections  after  imbedding  in 
paraffine,  by  means  of  a  modification  of  the  Taylor  freezing  microtome;  the  sections  for  thinness 
left  nothing  to  be  desired,  and  revealed  a  condition  of  things  different  from  any  previously 
observed  by  the  writer  in  sections  of  either  native  or  foreign  Oysters.  A  careful  microscopic 
scrutiny  showed  that  nowhere  in  the  section  was  there  a  trace  of  even  a  rudiment  of  the  genera- 
tive network  described  as  the  atrophied  condition  in  a  previous  portion  of  this  paper.  Not  even 


75G  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

a  trace  of  the  connective  tissue  in  which  the  rudiments  of  the  latter  are  usually  imbedded 
remained,  but  the  hepatic  follicles  or  ultimate  saccules  of  the  liver  were  lying  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  mantle,  with  no  tissue  whatever  intervening.  1  have  hitherto  found  the  liver 
surrounded  by  a  thick  stratum  of  connective  tissue  in  all  of  the  specimens  examined.  The  state- 
ments in  a  previous  portion  of  this  essay  in  regard  to  the  existence  of  vessels  which  traverse  this 
connective  tissue  mass  will  therefore  have  to  be  modified  so  far  as  to  say  that  not  only  does  the 
connective  tissue  of  the  body  mass  completely  disappear,  but  also  the  vessels  themselves  which 
are  excavated  through  its  substance. 

Turning  now  to  the  condition  of  the  mantle,  I  find  this  in  a  no  less  remarkable  state  than  the 
parts  already  described.  The  "  vesicular  connective  tissue  cell*,"  as  they  have  appeared  to  me 
hitherto,  have  given  place  to  an  entirely  different  structure,  apparently  much  less  solid  and 
substantial.  Instead  of  the  clearly  defined  coarsely  cellular  structure  usually  noticed  in  sections 
made  from  less  impoverished  individuals,  the  tissue  has  now  become  very  coarsely  areolar,  all  trace 
of  the  peculiar  nuclear  bodies  having  vanished,  together  with  the  internal  protoplasmic  network 
which  they  so  clearly  exhibit.  The  areolae  inclosed  by  the  fibers  of  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
mantle  are  very  coarse  and  may  measure  as  much  as  half  a  millimeter  across  in  sections  of  the 
hardened  and  shrunken  specimen.  When  the  mant'e  was  gorged  in  life,  with  blood  probably,  some 
idea  of  the  coarseness  of  these  meshes  may  be  formed.  The  meshes  may  then  have  measured  four 
or  five  millimeters  in  diameter,  the  resulting  cavernous  state  of  this  highly  elastic  tissue  enabling 
the  mantle  to  become  gorged  or  swollen  by  endosmosis  to  a  remarkable  degree,  so  much  so  as  to 
cause  the  animal  to  be  apparently  bulky,  yet  in  reality  distended  with  sanious  fluids  merely.  The 
question  now  arises,  What  has  become  of  this  connective  tissue  which  has  so  completely  disap- 
peared f  The  only  interpretation  which  I  can  offer  is  that  the  connective  tissue  substance  has 
been  transformed  into  sexual  products  which  have  been  poured  out  by  way  of  the  efferent  sexual 
ducts,  and  ihat  our  specimen  represents  the  extreme  of  exhaustion  consequent  upon  the  completed 
exercise  of  the  reproductive  function  for  the  season.  The  animal,  in  other  words,  has  now  exhausted 
ite  germ-producing  resources,  and  must  begin  to  feed  and  store  up  material  for  the  next  season's 
generative  products.  It  therefore  becomes  highly  probable  that  the  reproductive  organs  develop 
anew  each  season.  My  reason  for  thinking  so  is,  that  in  this  specimen  the  atrophy  or  wasting 
away  of  the  reproductive  organ  has  gone  so  far  that  no  trace  even  of  the  efferent  ducts  of  that  body 
remains.  The  specimen,  taken  as  it  was  in  July,  also  shows  that  the  spawning  season  may  be 
completed  before  the  end  of  summer. 

The  connective  tissue  of  the  Oyster  is,  therefore,  in  reality  transformed  into  ova  and  sperma- 
tosoa,  depending  simply  upon  the  sex  of  the  individual  whether  it  shall  be  the  former  or  the  latter. 
This  also  raises  the  question  whether  the  same  individual  may  not  be  of  a  different  sex  during 
different  seasons,  since  it  appears  that  the  whole  reproductive  organ  disappears  and  develops  anew 
•every  year.  This  it  is  however  to  be  noted  is  arguing  from  a  very  different  basis  from  that  of 
some  foreign  writers  who  have  been  absurdly  illogical  enough  to  say  that  the  Oyster  was  of  a 
-different  sex  in  different  years,  apparently  forgetting  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  open  the  same 
individual  twice  in  succession;  since  opening  it  kills  the  animal  and  puts  the  second  examination 
totally  out  of  the  question. 

The  function  of  the  mesenchymal  or  connective  tissue  in  the  Oyster  is,  therefore,  of  the  nature 
of  a  store  of  reserved  material — protoplasm  laid  up  for  the  purpose  of  conversion  into  germs  as  the 
reproductive  organ  develops  anew.  It  is  then  in  the  highest  degree  improbable  that  it  is  of  the 
nature  of  an  oily  or  fatty  substance,  out  of  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  form  such  highly  vitalized 
bodies  as  the  ova  and  spermatozoa  of  the  Oyster.  While  it  is  true  that  we  find  the  mesenchymo 


rroN  TIIK  i-\i H:\INI;  OF  OYSTERS.  757 

developed  to  tin1  greatest  extent  during  the  winter  when  it  may  l>e  said  the  Oyster  is  in  the 
lies!  eondition  as  regards  tlesli,  it  does  not  follow  that  this  plumpness  is  due  to  fatty  matters,  but 
father  to  a  larger  amount  of  protoplasm  tilling  up  the  mantle,  palps,  and  body  mass. 

Our  sections  of  the  specimen  described  above  show  some  other  singular  features  which  cannot 
be  passed  over  in  silence.  The  principal  of  these  is  the  presence  of  thick-walled  vessels  in  thu 
ventral  lobes  ot  the  mantle.  In  life  we  lind  branching  vessels  visible  in  the  transparent  mantle  in 
\  cry  impoverished  specimens,  such  as  the  one  under  discussion.  These  vessels  may  be  followed  to 
what  are  apparently  their  ultimate  ramifications  and  seem  to  end  abruptly.  It  is  these  vessels 
which  become  obscured  when  the  animal  acquires  tlesh;  they  are,  in  fact,  hidden  in  the  thick 
deposit  of  connective  tissue  laid  down  in  the  mantle.  They  are  grayish  or  whitish  in  color  as  they 
shimmer  through  the  transparent  external  epithelial  and  connective  tissue  layers  of  the  mantle 
organ.  They  are  also  different  in  character  from  other  vessels  excavated  in  the  connective  tissue 
of  the  mantle,  and  which  disappear  with  the  atrophy  of  the  hitter's  substance,  just  as  we  noticed 
was  the  case  with  the  vessels  of  the  body  mass.  In  a  specimen  as  greatly  impoverished  us  the  one 
under  discussion,  the  thick-walled  pallial  vessels  become  very  conspicuous  in  transverse  sections. 
They  may  not  have  the  same  function  as  the  bloodvessels  of  the  ordinary  wall-less  form  found  in 
the  connective  tissue,  from  which  type  they  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  their  thick,  finely 
cellular  walls. 

The  almost  total  atrophy  of  the  mesenchyrac  or  jnesoblast  during  the  spawning  season  is  a 
very  remarkable  fact,  no  less  so  than  its  regeneration.  It  appears,  however,  as  far  as  I  have  been 
able  to  learn  from  transverse  sections  of  very  small  spat,  one-eighth  to  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  that  the  absence  of  a  well -developed  connective  tissue  deposit  also  characterizes  the 
soft  parts  of  the  young  animal.  Indeed,  the  liver  follicles  here  are  relatively  few  in  number, 
whereas  they  are  very  numerous  in  the  adult.  The  follicles  in  the  young  also  lie  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  mantle,  resembling  in  this  respect  the  spawn  spent  adults.  This,  for  einbryolo- 
gical  reasons,  ought  to  be  so.  We  find,  in  fact,  according  to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  observers, 
that  the  mesoblast  in  the  Oyster  develops  by  the  proliferation  of  cells  from  the  outer  and  inner 
layers  into  the  segmentation  or  body  cavity.  Why,  then,  should  it  not  be  absorbed  and  regener- 
ated in  the  same  way  in  the  adult  f  There  seems  to  be  no  valid  reason  assignable  why  this  should 
not  be  so,  if  we  look  upon  the  mesenchyme  with  its  vessels  and  areolar  tissue  and  cavernous 
spaces  as  having  been  primarily  derived  from  the  embryonic  body  cavity. 

The  arrangement  of  the  intestine  as  shown  in  sections  of  spat  as  small  as  that  described 
above  is  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  adult.  The  second  bend  of  the  intestine  crosses  the 
gullet  in  the  same  way,  but  the  double  lateral  longitudinal  fold  or  tnduplicatiou  is  not  so  well 
marked  as  in  the  intestine  of  the  adult.  The  stomach  is  more  nearly  cylindrical  and  not  so 
ii -regular  as  in  the  adult.  The  contents  of  both  the  stomach  and  intestine  show  that  diatoms 
have  formed  a  large  proportion  of  the  food  of  the  young  animal,  in  the  sections  of  which,  these 
contents,  in  a  number  of  my  preparations,  have  been  kept  in  situ. 

The  sections  of  the  soft  parts  may  be  very  readily  double  stained  so  as  to  bring  out  the 
tissues  of  the  reproductive  organs  very  distinctly.  To  effect  this,  1  throw  the  section  into  a 
solution  of  methyl  green  for  a  few  minutes,  then  into  magenta,  when  it  will  be  found  that 
the  green  will  dye  only  the  reproductive  tissues,  leaving  the  others  scarcely  tinged,  while  the  red 
will  stain  the  mantle,  liver,  and  connective  tissues,  mapping  out  these  parts  so  distinctly  as  to 
make  a  really  useful  as  well  as  beautiful  preparation. 

Considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  preparation  of  the  color  solutions,  so  as  not  to 
have  them  too  intense.  The  sections  should  also  be  at  once  and  quickly  dehydrated  or  else  the 


758  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

alcohol  will  abstract  the  green  and  spoil  in  part  the  effect  of  the  double  stain.  In  making 
sections,  the  best  ones  which  I  have  ever  made  have  been  prepared  from  portions  of  whole 
Oysters  which  had  been  imbedded  iu  paraffine,  the  latter  substance  having  in  the  molten  state 
interpenetrated  all  the  cavities  and  spaces  in  the  hardened  specimen,  which  had  been  previously 
dehydrated  and  saturated  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

Note  on  the  organ  of  Bojanus  of  the  Oyster. — In  the  first  part  of  this  paper  it  is  stated  that  the  organ  of  Bojanus  is 
rudimentary  or  wanting  in  the  Oyster.  This  statement  must  now  be  modified.  Within  the  past  year,  M.  Hoek,  of 
Leyden,  has  demonstrated  the  existence  of  the  organ,  of  Bojanus  in  0-ttrea  edulis,  and  the  writer  has  shown  it  to  be  present 
in  the  American  species  as  a  crescent-shaped  glandular  or  canaliculated  structure  lying  just  below  the  adductor  and  close 
against  it,  as  a  paired  organ  which  also  extends  slightly  into  the  substance  of  the  mantle  on  either  side.  JI.  Hoek  has 
shown  that,  as  in  other  acephalous  mollusks,  this  organ  communicates  with  the  pericardiac  cavity  and  the  genital 
openings.  Its  function  is  excretory. 

Voices  of  the  heart. — A  pair  of  very  distinct  valvular  folds  separates  each  of  the  auricles  of  the  heart  of  the  Oyster 
from  the  ventricle,  opening  upward  into  the  latter.  They  prevent  the  blood  from  regurgitating  into  the  auricles,  and 
•cause  the  blood-current  to  assume  one  constant  direction,  viz,  from  the  auricles  to  the  ventricles,  and  from  the  latter 
through  the  anterior  and  posterior  aortic  vessels  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Fixation  of  the  spat. — Recent  studies  have  led  me  .to  the  conclusion  that  the  existence  of  a  byssus  in  the  fry  of  the 
Oyster  is  very  doubtful,  and  that  fixation  is  accomplished  at  a  very  early  stage,  possibly  twenty-four  hours  after  the 
embryos  commence  to  swim,  by  the  border  of  the  mantle,  as  I  have  endeavored  to  show  in  my  paper  "On  the  Fixation  of 
the  Fry  of  the  Oyster,"  illustrated  with  figures,  and  recently  prepared  for  the  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission, where  I  also  show  that  the  beaks  of  the  larval  valves  are  constantly  directed  one  way,  and  that  the  hinge  end 
of  the  larval  shell  is  inclined  upward,  the  free  margin  of  the  left  larval  valve  being  brought  into  close  contact  with  the 
surface  to  which  attachment  occurs  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  margin  of  the  mantle.  The  attachment  itself  is  a 
very  firm  one,  and  consists  of  the  horny  matrix  of  the  calcareous  material  which  serves  as  a  cement  to  glue  the  free 
margin  of  the  lower  valve  of  the  fry  and  spat  to  the  surface  which  has  been  chosen  as  a  permanent  abode. 


SECTION    I. 


PART  V-CRUSTACEANS,  WORMS,  RADIATES,  AND  SPONGES. 


By    RICHARD    RATHBUN. 


759 


ANALYSIS. 


T.— CRUSTACEANS  : 

221.  The  Crabs 763 

222.  The  Common  Edible  or  Blue  Crab 775 

->•-':!.  The  Lobsters 780 

224.  The  American  Lobster 781 

225.  The  Cray  Fishes,  Astucus  and  Cambarus 812 

'226.  The  Shrimps  and  Prawns 816 

227.  The  Mantis  Shrimps:  Squillidffl 823 

228.  The  Amphipods  824 

229.  The  laopods : 826 

230.  The  Entomostracans 827 

231.  The  Cirripedia  828 

232.  TheXiphosura 829 

Z.— WORMS  : 

233.  The  Annelids 831 

234.  The  Leeches 833 

Z.  A.— THE  RADIATES  : 

235.  The  Echinoderms 838 

236.  The  Coelenterates 841 

Z.  B. — THE  POHIFEKS  : 

237.  The  Sponges 843 

238.  The  Genus  Spongia,  and  the  American  Commercial  Sponges 846 

239.  Injurious  Sponges 860 

(761) 


Y.— CRUSTACEANS. 

221.   THE  CRABS. 

Tin:  Fmni.Kit  CRABS— GEL ASIMUS  PUGNAX,  Smith;  GELABIMUS  PUGILATOR,  Latreille;  GELASI- 

MUS  MINAX,  Le  Contc. 

Three  species  of  Fiddler  Crabs  occur  upon  the  Atlantic  const  of  the  United  States,  and  nre 
frequently  ut Mixed  as  liait.  Congregating  together  in  immense  numbers,  as  they  often  do,  and 
excavating  their  holes  generally  in  convenient  localities,  above  the  reach  of  the  tides,  they  might 
In-  easily  collected  in  large  quantities,  were  they  better  appreciated  by  the  fishermen.  Most 
dwellers  upon  the  sea-shore  are  acquainted  with  that  peculiarity  of  the  Fiddler  Crabs  which  has 
given  to  them  their  common  name,  and  by  which  they  are  readily  distinguished  from  our  other 
Crabs.  The  males  are  provided  with  two  very  unequal  claws,  one  being  of  large,  the  other  of 
quite  small  sixe.  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  animal.  Of  these,  the  larger  claw  has  been 
likened  to  a  fiddle  and  the  smaller  one  to  a  bow;  hence  the  derivation  of  the  name.  The  claws  of 
the  females  are,  however,  of  equal  ami  small  size. 

The  three  species  mentioned  as  living  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  are  Geltuimus  minax,  Q. 
ptigniu;  and  G.piti/ihitnr.  The  former  species,  which  is  the  largest,  ranges  from  the  southern  coast 
of  New  Kii^land  to  Florida,  and  lives  upon  salt  marshes,  usually  farther  from  the  sea  than  the 
others,  and  frequently  where  the  water  is  nearly  fresh.  G.  piiynajr  ranges  from  Cape  Cod  to 
Florida,  and  also  occurs  in  the  (lull  of  Mexico  and  ninong  the  West  Indies.  "It  makes  its 
burrows  only  upon  salt  marshes,  I  ut  is  often  seen  in  great  companies  wandering  out  upon  muddy 
or  sandy  flats,  or  even  upon  the  benches  of  the  bays  and  sounds."  G.  puyilator  ranges  from  Cape 
Cod  to  Florida,  upon  muddy  and  sandy  flats  and  beaches.  Professor  Verrill  describes  the  habits 
and  characteristics  of  these  species  as  follows: ' 

"We  find  several  species  of  Crabs  burrowing  in  muddy  banks  along  the  shores  of  the 
estuaries,  as  well  as  along  banks  of  the  streams  and  ditches  of  the  salt  marshes.  The  most 
abundant  of  these  is  the  marsh  Fiddler  Crab,  Gtlaaimus  jrugnax,  which  is  often  so  abundant  that 
the  banks  are  completely  honeycombed  and  undermined  by  them.  These  holes  are  of  various 
sizes  up  to  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  descend  more  or  less  (>erpendicularly, 
often  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  or  more.  Occasionally  in  summer  these  Crabs  will  leave  their  holes 
and  scatter  over  the  surface  of  the  marshes,  which  at  times  seem  to  be  perfectly  alive  with  them, 
but  when  disturbed  they  will  scamper  away  in  every  direction  and  speedily  retreat  to  their  holes; 
but  occasionally,  at  least,  they  do  not  find  their  own,  for  sometimes  the  rightful  owner  will  be  seen 
forcibly  ejecting  several  intruders.  It  is  probable  that  at  such  times  of  general  retreat  each  one 
gets  into  the  first  hole  that  he  can  find.  Associated  with  this  '  Fiddler,'  another  related  Crab,  the 
Semrma  reticulata,  is  occasionally  found  in  considerable  numbers.  This  is  a  stout-looking,  reddish- 
brown  crab,  with  a  squarish  carapax  ;  its  large  claws  are  stout  and  nearly  equal  in  both  sexes, 
instead  of  being  very  unequal,  as  in  the  male  '  Fiddlers.'  It  lives  in  holes  like  the  « Fiddlers,' 

'Heport  upon  the  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyard  Sound,  etc.,  in  Keport  United  States  Fish  Commissioner  for 
1P71-'T2,  pp.  336,  466. 

7«3 


7(54  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

but  its  holes  are  usually  much  larger,  often  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  It  is  much 
less  active  than  the  '  Fiddlers,'  but  can  pinch  very  powerfully  with  its  large  claws,  which  are 
always  promptly  used  when  an  opportunity  occurs. 

"On  the  marshes  farther  up  the  estuaries,  and  along  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  brooks,  and 
extending  up  even  to  places  where  the  water  is  quite  fresh,  another  and  much  larger  species  of 
'Fiddler  Crab'  occurs,  often  in  abundance;  this  is  the  Gelasimus  mincuc.  It  can  be  easily 
distinguished  by  its  much  larger  size  and  by  having  a  patch  of  red  at  the  joints  of  the  legs.  Its 
habits  have  been  carefully  studied  by  Mr.  T.  M.  P-raddeu,  of  New  Haven,  who  has  also  investigated 
its  anatomy.  According  to  Mr.  Prudden,  this  species,  like  Gelasimus  puyilator,  is  a  vegetarian. 
He  often  saw  it  engaged  in  scraping  up  and  eating  a  minute  green  algoid  plant  which  covers  the 
surface  of  the  mud.  The  male  uses  its  small  claw  exclusively  in  obtaining  its  food  and  conveying 
it  to  the  month.  The  female  uses  either  of  her  small  ones  indifferently.  In  enlarging  its  burrows, 
Mr.  Prudden  observed  that  these  Crabs  scraped  off  the  mud  from  the  inside  of  the  burrow  by 
means  of  the  claws  of  the  ambulatory  legs,  and,  having  formed  the  mud  into  a  pellet,  pushed  it  up 
out  of  the  hole  by  means  of  the  elbow-like  joint  at  the  base  of  the  great  claw,  when  this  is  folded 
down.  He  also  ascertained  that  this  Crab  often  constructs  a  regular  oven-like  arch  of  mud  over 
the  month  of  its  burrow.  This  archway  is  horizontal,  and  large  and  long  enough  to  contain  the 
Crab,  who  quietly  sits  in  this  curious  doorway  on  the  -lookout  for  his  enemies  of  all  kinds. 

"  This  species  can  live  out  of  water  and  without  food  for  many  days.  It  can  also  live  in 
perfectly  fresh  water.  One  large  male  was  kept  in  my  laboratory  in  a  glass  jar,  containing  nothing 
but  a  little  siliceous  sand  moistened  with  pure,  fresh  water,  for  over  six  months.  During  this 
whole  period  he  seemed  to  be  constantly  in  motion,  walking  round  and  round  the  jar  and  trying 
to  climb  out.  He  was  never  observed  to  rest  or  appear  tired,  and  after  months  of  confinement  and 
starvation  was  just  as  pugnacious  as  ever. 

"Although  some  of  the  colonies  of  this  species  live  nearly  or  quite  up  to  fresh  water,  others 
are  found  farther  down  on  the  marshes,  where  the  water  is  quite  brackish,  and  thus  there  is  a 
middle  ground  where  this  and  G.  pugnax  occur  together.  This  was  found  by  Mr.  Prudden  to  be 
the  case  both  on  the  marshes  bordering  West  River  and  on  those  of  Mill  River,  near  New  Haven. 
They  are  abundant  along  both  these  streams.  The  holes  made  by  this  species  are  much  larger 
than  those  of  G.  pugnax.  Some  of  them  are  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 

"  On  sandy  beaches  near  high-water  mark,  especially  where  the  sand  is  rather  compact  and 
somewhat  sheltered,  one  of  the  '  Fiddler  Crabs,'  Gelasimus  pugilator,  is  frequently  found  in  great 
numbers,  either  running  actively  about  over  the  sand,  or  peering  cautiously  from  their  holes, 
which  are  often  thickly  scattered  over  considerable  areas.  These  holes  are  mostly  from  half  an 
inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  foot  or  more  in  depth,  the  upper  part  nearly  perpendicular, 
becoming  horizontal  below,  with  a  chamber  at  the  end.  Mr.  Smith,  by  lying  perfectly  still  for 
some  time  on  the  sand,  succeeded  in  witnessing  their  mode  of  digging.  In  doing  this  they  drag 
up  pellets  of  moist  sand,  which  they  carry  under  the  three  anterior  ambulatory  legs  that  are  on 
the  rear  side,  climbing  out  of  their  burrows  by  means  of  the  legs  of  the  side  in  front,  aided  by  the 
posterior  leg  of  the  other  side.  After  arriving  at  the  mouth  of  their  burrows  and  taking  a  cautious 
survey  of  the  landscape,  they  run  quickly  to  the  distance  often  of  four  or  five  feet  from  the  burrow 
before  dropping  their  load,  using  the  same  legs  as  before  and  carrying  the  dirt  in  the  same 
manner.  They  then  take  another  careful  survey  of  the  surroundings,  run  nimbly  back  to  the 
hole,  and  after  again  turning  their  pedunculated  eyes  in  every  direction  suddenly  disappear,  soon 
to  reappear  with  another  load.  They  work  in  this  way  both  in  the  night  and  in  the  brightest 
sunshine,  whenever  the  tide  is  out  and  the  weather  is  suitable.  In  coming  out  or  going  into  their 


Tin:  OVSTKI;  c\i\\\.  765 

liurrtiws  either  side  may  go  in  :nlv;iiirr.  Imt  tin-  male  more  coininonly  comes  out  with  the  large 
Haw  torwanl.  According  to  Mr.  Smith's  oliscrvat ions  tliis  species  is  a  vegetarian,  feeding  uj>on 
the  minute  alga-  which  grows  ii]Min  the  moist  sand.  In  feeding,  the  males  use  only  the  small 
Haw,  with  which  they  pick  up  the  hits  ot  al^c  very  daintily;  the  females  use  indifferently  either 
of  their  small  Haws  tor  this  purpose.  They  always  swallow  more  or  less  sand  with  their  food. 
Mr.  Smith  also  saw  these  Crabs  engaged  in  scraping  up  the  surface  of  the  sand  where  covered 
with  their  favorite  alga-,  which  they  loraicd  into  pellets  and  carried  into  their  holes,  in  the  same 
way  that  they  liriug  sand  out,  doubtless  storing  it  until  needed  for  food,  for  he  often  found  large 
quantities  stored  in  the  terminal  chamber." 

As  above  stated,  the  Fiddler  Crabs  are  sometimes  used  as  bait;  and  at  the  month  of  the 
Mississippi  River  (I.  jmi/naj-  has  been  observed,  in  connection  with  the  river  Cray-fish  (Cambarug), 
burrowing  into  and  greatly  damaging  the  levees. 

YELLOW  SHORE-CRAB  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST — HETEROGRAPSUS  OREGONENSIS,  Stm. 
PURPLE  SHORE-CRAB  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST— HETEROGRAPSUS  NUDUS,  Stm. 

According  to  \V.  X.  Lockington,  these  two  species  are  by  far  the  most  abundant  of  all  the 
California  coast  Crabs;  but  they  are  only  eaten  by  the  Chinese.  The  body  of  these  Crabs  is 
nearly  square,  and  the  claws  large  in  proportion.  In  H.  oregonenais  the  anterior  half  of  the 
lateral  margins  on  each  side  has  two  rather  deep  indentations,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  two 
large  spine  like  projections,  which  bend  strongly  forward;  in  H.  nudus  these  characters  are  less 
pronounced.  The  four  posterior  pairs  of  limbs  in  H.  oregontnsis  are  also  more  or  less  hairy, 
while  in  H.  nvdvs  they  are  naked.  The  general  color  of  the  former  species  is  yellow,  of  the 
latter  purple;  H.  ntidu*  also  has  marbled  hands  and  attains  a  somewhat  larger  size  than  H. 
oreffonensis,  measuring  at  times  two  inches  broad.  Hundreds  of  one  or  other  of  these  species  of 
both  sexes  and  of  all  sizes  may  frequently  be  found  together,  congregated  under  a  single  stone. 
H.  oregonensis  is  especially  abundant  in  muddy  sloughs  of  salt  or  brackish  water,  where  it 
literally  swarms.  Hundreds  of  uplifted  threatening  claws  welcome  the  intruder  who  ventures 
near  these  mud  flats  when  the  tide  is  out.  Both  species  occur  at  Pnget  Sound,  and  range  thence 
southward  to  the  southern  limit  of  California.  H.  nvdvs  also  occurs  at  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
Both  species  are  eaten  to  some  extent  by  the  Chinese,  who  spit  them  on  wires  and  cook  them 
over  their  fires. 

THE  OYSTER  CRAB — PINNOTHERES  OSTREUM,  Say. 

"The  'Oyster-crab,'  Pinnotheres  ostreum,  is  found  wherever  oysters  occur.  The  female  lives, 
at  least  when  mature,  within  the  shell  of  the  oyster,  in  the  gill  cavity,  and  is  well  known  to  most 
consumers  of  oysters.  The  males  are  seldom  seen,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  occur  in  the  oyster.  We 
found  them,  on  several  occasions,  swimming  actively  at  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  middle  of 
Vineyard  Sound.  They  are  quite  unlike  the  females  in  appearance,  being  smaller,  with  a  firmer 
shell,  and  they  differ  widely  in  color,  for  the  carapax  is  dark  brown  above,  with  a  central  dorsal 
stripe  and  two  conspicuous  spots  of  whitish  ;  the  lower  side  and  legs  are  whitish.  The  female  has 
the  carapax  thin  and  translucent,  whitish,  tinged  with  pink."1 

This  Crab  has  been  recorded  from  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Massachusetts  to  South  Carolina. 
The  females  measure,  when  adult,  about  half  an  inch  broad  and  a  little  less  in  length.  From  the 
European  Oyster-crab  (Pinnothere*  pisum)  our  species  diners  in  having  a  thinner  and  more 
membranaceous  shell  and  a  larger  size.  The  colors  are  also  different  in  the  two  species. 

1  VERRILL:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  367,  1871-'72. 


766  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Pinnotheres  ostrevm  is  eaten  both  raw  and  cooked,  either  along  with  the  oysters  with  which  it 
is  associated,  or  as  a  separate  dish.  It  is  also  pickled  for  domestic  use  and  for  the  trade. 

Another  species  of  Pinnotheres  (P.  mactilatitm)  frequently  occurs  in  the  shells  of  the  common 
sea-mussel  (Mytilus  edulis)  and  the  smooth  scallop  (Pecten  tenuicostatux),  between  the  gills  of  the 
animal.  It  attains  a  larger  size  than  the  Oyster-crab,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  females 
alone  are  parasitic,  the  males  having  only  been  found  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  sea.  We 
have  never  heard  of  this  species  being  eaten,  probably  because  neither  the  mussel  nor  the  smooth 
scallop  has  ever  been  used  much  as  food  in  this  country.  In  the  summer  of  1880,  while  dredging 
off  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  steamer  Fish  Hawk  came  upon 
extensive  beds  of  the  smooth  scallop,  from  a  bushel  of  which  nearly  a  pint  of  these  Crabs  were 
obtained.  Again,  in  1881,  the  same  species  was  encountered  in  great  abundance  by  the  same 
party,  in  Vineyard  Sound,  in  Mytilus  edulis.  As  an  experiment,  they  were  cooked  along  with  the 
mussels  and  found  to  be  very  palatable,  although  their  shell  is,  perhaps,  somewhat  harder  than 
that  of  Pinnotheres  ostreum. 

A  third  species  of  Pinnotheres  occurs  upon  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States,  in  the  shells  of 
Pachydesma  and  Kfytilus  californianus. 

THE  ROCK  CRAB — CANCER  IRRORATUS,  Say. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  HABITS. — This  is  the  common  Crab  of  the  New  England  coast,  where 
adult  specimens  occur  in  all  depths  of  water  from  low-tide  level  to  about  twelve  fathoms 
Smaller  specimens  have,  however,  been  obtained  in  from  thirty  to  fifty  fathoms,  both  near 
the  coast  and  on  George's  Bank,  Stellwagen's  Bank,  and  elsewhere.  Its  entire  range,  so  far 
as  determined,  is  from  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  Labrador,  to  South  Carolina.  In  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence  it  is  exceedingly  abundant,  but  south  of  New  Jersey  it  is  rare.  According  to 
Prof.  S.  I.  Smith,1  this  species  is  not  common  in  the  muddy  bays  of  the  New  Jersey  coast,  but 
is  thrown  up  in  large  numbers  upon  the  sandy  outer  beaches;  it  is  abundant  on  the  sandy  shores 
of  the  southern  side  of  Long  Island,  and  on  the  sanfly  and  rocky  shores  of  Long  Island  Sound ; 
it  is  equally  abundant,  in  similar  situations,  along  all  the  rest  of  the  south  coast  of  New 
England  and  in  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts,  and  Casco  Bays,  but  is  apparently  less  common  in 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  "When  found  living  between  tides  it  is  usually 
concealed  among  rocks  or  buried  beneath  the  sand.  It  is  usually  much  more  abundant  at  or  just 
below  low-water  mark,  however,  than  between  tides.*1 

"The  common  'Rock  Crab,'  Cancer  irroratus,is  generally  common  under  the  large  rocks  near 
low-water  mark,  and  often  lies  nearly  buried  in  the  sand  and  gravel  beneath  them.  It  can  be 
easily  distinguished  by  having  nine  blunt  teeth  along  each  side  of  the  front  edge  of  its  shell  or 
carapax,  and  by  its  reddish  color  sprinkled  over  with  darker  brownish  dots.  This  crab  also  occurs 
in  the  pools,  where  the  comical  combats  of  the  males  may  sometimes  be  witnessed.  It  is  not 
confined  to  rocky  shores,  but  is  common  also  on  sandy  shores,  as  well  as  on  rocky  and  gravelly 
bottoms  off  shore.  It  is  widely  diffused  along  our  coast,  extending  both  north  and  south,  and  is 
common  even  on  the  const  of  Labrador.  Like  all  the  other  species  of  crabs,  this  is  greedily 
devoured  by  many  of  the  larger  fishes,  such  as  cod,  haddock,  tautog,  black  bass,  and  especially 
by  sharks  and  sting-rays. wa 

EXTERNAL  CHARACTERS. — The  carapax  of  the  Rock  Crab  is  transversely  suboval  in  outline, 
and  about  two-thirds  as  long  as  broad;  the  upper  surface  is  moderately  convex,  with  unequal 

"Trans.  Conn.  Acad.,  v,  p.  38,  1879.  'VEEBILL:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  312,  1871-"72. 


m.VKI.OI'MKNT  OF  THE  ROCK  CRAB.  707 

but  symmetrically  arranged  mamiiiillatious,  some  of  which  arc  scarcely  defined.  The  surface 
appears  nearly  smooth,  but  is  really  covered  with  closely-placed,  minute  1:1  animations.  The  eyes 
.  stand  on  short,  stout  peduncles,  which  lie  in  deep  circular  holes  on  cither  side  of  the  middle  of 
the  front  margin.  Between  the  eyes  there  are  three  small  teeth,  ami  on  each  side,  between  the 
eyes  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  shell,  the  margin  is  indented  to  form  nine  broad  and  stout  teeth. 
The  claws  are  rather  short  ami  stout,  the  inner  margins  of  the  fingers  bearing  each  a  row  of 
few,  large,  blunt,  and  sometimes  double  tubercles.  The  four  posterior  pairs  of  legs  are  similar 
to  one  another,  long  and  slender,  with  pointed  tips.  The  ground  color  of  the  carapax  is  yellowish, 
closely  dotted  with  dark  purplish-brown,  which  becomes  a  reddish-brown  after  death. 

The  only  species  of  Crab  upon  our  Atlantic  coast  which  could  possibly  be  confounded  with 
the  present  one  is  Cancer  borealis,  of  which  a  description  is  given  following  this.  The  differences 
between  the  two  species  being  once  pointed  out,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between 
them. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — The  Rock  Crab  is  not  much  in  demand  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  sold 
to  some  extent  in  the  markets  at  Boston,  New  Bedford,  Newport,  New  York,  and  perhaps 
elsewhere  within  the  limits  of  its  range,  generally,  if  not  always,  in  a  hard-shell  condition. 
But  even  in  Boston,  where  it  could  be  easily  supplied,  its  place  is  mainly  taken  by  the  common 
edible  Blue  Crab  (Callinectes  hagtatuti),  which  is  sent  there  fresh  from  New  York  and  other 
localities.  The  two  species  of  Cancer  are,  however,  more  nearly  related  to  the  English  edible 
Crab  (Cancer  pagurus)  than  is  our  own  common  edible  Crab,  and,  were  this  kind  of  food  more 
appreciated  by  the  American  seacoast  inhabitants,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  Rock  Crab,  as 
well  as  the  "Jonah,"  should  not  be  utilized  to  a  very  great  extent.  In  some  places,  Newport 
for  instance,  the  two  species  of  Cancer,  but  especially  the  Cancer  boreali*,  aie  preferred  to  the 
Callinectes  hastatus,  but  this  is  not  the  rule  elsewhere. 

DEVELOPMENT. — The  following  account  of  the  growth  and  development  of  this  Crab,  by 
Prof.  S.  I.  Smith,  will  suffice,  in  a  general  way,  for  nearly  all  the  American  species  of  Crabs,  and 
will  serve  to  indicate  the  curious  changes  which  take  place  before  the  simple  crab  egg  becomes  a 
well-developed  Crab.  Such  an  account  as  this  becomes  very  valuable  in  many  cases  as  «v  means  of 
pointing  out  the  essential  details  to  be  followed  in  the  artificial  breeding  of  marine  animals. 

"All,  or  at  least  nearly  all,  the  species  of  Crabs  living  on  the  coast  of  New  England  pass 
through  very  complete  and  remarkable  metamorphoses.  The  most  distinct  stages  through  which 
they  pass  were  long  ago  described  as  two  groups  of  crustaceans,  far  removed  from  the  adult  forms 
of  which  they  were  the  young.  The  names  Zoea  and  Megalops,  originally  applied  to  these  groups, 
are  conveniently  retained  for  the  two  best  marked  stages  in  the  development  of  the  Crabs. 

"The  young  of  the  common  Crab  (Cancer  in-oratus),  in  the  earlier  or  zoea  stage,  when  first 
hatched  from  the  egg,  are  somewhat  like  the  form  figured  [reproduced  on  one  of  the  plates  at  the 
end  of  this  volume],  but  the  spines  upon  the  carapax  are  all  much  longer  in  proportion,  and  there 
are  no  signs  of  the  abdominal  legs  or  of  any  of  the  future  legs  of  the  Megalops  and  Crab. 
In  this  stage  they  are  very  small,  much  smaller  than  in  the  stage  figured.  After  they 
have  increased  very  much  in  si/e,  and  have  molted  probably  several  times,  they  appear  as  in 
the  figure  just  referred  to.  The  terminal  segment  of  the  abdomen,  seen  only  in  a  side  view  in  tin 
figure,  is  very  broad  and  divided  nearly  to  the  base  by  a  broad  sinus;  each  side  the  margins 
project  in  long,  spiuiform,  diverging  processes,  at  the  base  of  which  the  margin  of  the  sinus  is 
armed  with  six  to  eight  spines  on  each  side.  When  alive  they  are  translucent,  with  deposits  of 
dark  pigment  forming  spots  at  the  articulations  of  the  abdomen  and  a  few  upon  the  cephalothorax 
and  its  appendages.  In  this  stage  they  were  taken  at  the  surface  in  Vineyard  Sound,  in  immense 


768  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

numbers,  from  June  23  to  late  in  August.    They  were  most  abundant  in  the  early  part  of  July, 
and  appeared  in  the  greatest  numbers  on  calm,  sunny  days. 

"Several  Zoefe  of  this  stage  were  observed  to  change  directly  to  the  megalops  form.  Shortly 
before  the  change  took  place  they  were  not  quite  as  active  as  previously,  but  still  continued  to 
swim  about  until  they  appeared  to  be  seized  by  violent  convulsions,  and  after  a  moment  began  to 
wriggle  rapidly  out  of  the  old  zoea  skin,  and  at  once  appeared  in  the  full  megalops  form.  The 
new  integument  seems  to  stiffen  at  once,  for  in  a  very  few  moments  after  freeing  itself  from  the 
old  skin  the  new  Megalops  was  swimming  about  as  actively  as  the  oldest  individuals. 

"  In  this  megalops  stage  the  animal  begins  to  resemble  the  adult.  The  five  pairs  of  cepha- 
lothoracic  legs  are  much  like  those  of  the  adult,  and  the  mouth-organs  have  assumed  nearly  their 
final  form.  The  eyes,  however,  are  still  enormous  in  size,  the  carapax  is  elongated  and  has  a 
slender  rostrum  and  a  long  spine  projecting  from  the  cardiac  region  far  over  the  posterior  border, 
and  the  abdomen  is  carried  extended,  and  is  furnished  with  powerful  swimming-legs,  as  in  the 
Macroura.  In  color  and  habits  they  are  quite  similar  to  the  later  stage  of  the  Zoe»  from  which 
they  came;  their  motions  appear,  however,  to  be  more  regular  and  not  so  rapid,  although  they 
swim  with  great  facility.  In  this  Megalops  the  dactyli  of  the  posterior  cephalothoracic  legs  are 
styliform,  and  are  each  furnished  at  the  tip  with  three  peculiar  setae  of  different  lengths  and  with 
strongly  curved  extremities,  the  longest  one  simple  and  about  as  long  as  the  dactylus  itself,  while 
the  one  next  in  length  is  armed  along  the  inner  side  of  the  curved  extremity  with  what  appear  to 
be  minute  teeth,  and  the  shortest  one  is  again  simple. 

"According  to  the  observations  made  at  Wood's  Holl,  the  young  of  Cancer  irroratm  remain 
in  the  Megalops  stage  only  a  very  short  time,  and  at  the  first  molt  change  to  a  form  very  near 
that  of  the  adult.  Notwithstanding  this,  they  occurred  in  vast  numbers,  and  were  taken  in  the 
towing-nets  in  greater  quantities  even  than  in  the  zoea  stage.  Their  time  of  occurrence  seemed 
nearly  simultaneous  with  that  of  the  Zoeaj,  and  the  two  forms  were  almost  always  associated.  The 
exact  time  any  particular  individual  remained  in  this  stage  was  observed  only  a  few  times.  One 
full-grown  Zoea  obtained  June  23,  and  place  d  in  a  vessel  by  itself,  changed  to  a  Megalops  between 
0  and  11.30  a.  m.  of  June  24,  and  did  not  molt  again  till  the  forenoon  of  June  27,  when  it  became 
a  young  Crab  of  the  form  described  farther  on.  Of  the  two  other  Zoese  obtained  at  the  same  time, 
and  placed  together  in  a  dish,  one  changed  to  a  Megalops  between  9  and  11.30  a.  m.  of  June  24, 
the  other  during  the  following  night;  these  both  changed  to  Crabs  during  the  night  of  June  26 
and  27. 

"In  the  two  or  three  instances  in  which  the  change  from  the  Megalops  to  the  young  Crab  was 
actually  observed,  the  Megalops  sank  to  the  bottom  of  the  dish  and  remained  quiet  for  some  time 
before  the  molting  took  place.  The  muscular  movements  seemed  to  be  much  less  violent  than  in 
the  molting  at  the  close  of  the  zoea  stage,  and  the  little  Crab  worked  himself  out  of  the  megalops 
skin  quite  slowly.  For  a  short  time  after  their  appearance  the  young  Crabs  were  soft  and  inactive, 
but  the  integument  very  soon  stiffened,  and  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  hours  they  acquired  all 
the  pugnacity  of  the  adult.  They  swam  about  with  ease  and  were  constantly  attacking  each 
other  and  their  companions  in  the  earlier  stages.  Many  of  the  deaths  recorded  in  the  above 
memorandum  were  due  to  them,  and  on  this  account  they  were  removed  from  the  vessel  at  each 
observation.  In  this  early  stage  the  young  Crabs  are  quite  different  from  the  adult.  The  carapax 
is  about  three  millimeters  long  and  slightly  less  in  breadth.  The  front  is  much  more  prominent 
than  in  the  adult,  but  still  has  the  same  number  of  lobes  and  the  same  general  form.  The  antero- 
lateral  margin  ia  much  more  longitudinal  than  in  the  adult,  and  is  armed  with  the  five  normal 
teeth,  which  are  long  and  acute,  and  four  very  much  smaller  secondary  teeth  alternating  with  the 


HABITS  01'  Till:  .ION  All  CRAB.  769 

normal  ones.  The  antcnnte  and  ambulatory  logs  arc  proportionally  longer  than  in  the  adult.  The 
young  Crabs  in  this  stage  were  once  or  twice  taken  in  the  towing-net,  but  they  were  not  common 
at  the  surface,  although  a  large  number  were  found,  with  a  few  in  the  megalops  stage,  among 
hydrouls  upon  a  floating  barrel  in  Vineyard  Sound,  July  7.WI 

THE  JONAH  CRAB — CANCER  BORKALIS,  Stimpson. 

AFFINITIES. — The  "  Jonah  Crab  "  is  very  closely  related  to  the  common  Rock  Crab,  and  is 
also  to  some  extent  associated  with  it  in  its  distribution.  The  two  species  are  so  much  alike  in 
shape  and  general  characters  that  they  were  originally  regarded  as  the  male  and  female  respect- 
ively of  one  and  the  same  species.  They  are,  however,  quite  distinct,  and  after  the  differences 
have  been  once  noticed  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  them.  The  Jonah  Crab 
differs  from  the  Rock  Crab  in  the  much  larger  size  of  adult  specimens,  in  the  rougher  surface  of 
the  carapax  and  claws,  caused  by  the  larger  granules  covering  it,  which  are  of  irregular  size,  some 
being  much  larger  than  others,  and  by  the  serrations  of  the  antero  lateral  margins  being  crenate 
and  the  posterior  ones  armed  with  numerous  sharp  points,  instead  of  being  simple  as  in  the  Rock 
Crab.  The  legs  of  the  Jonah  Crab  are  also  proportionately  shorter  and  heavier  than  those  of 
the  Rock  Crab.  The  color  of  Cancer  borralis  is  yellowish  beneath  and  brick-red  above,  the  limbs 
corresponding  more  or  less  in  coloration  with  the  lower  surface,  but  of  a  light  reddish  tint  above. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  HABITS. — Besides  being  found  in  moderately  deep  water,  the  Jonah  Crab, 
in  certain  localities,  inhabits  the  rocks  near  low-tide  level,  in  the  clear  waters  of  the  ocean  shores, 
but  it  never  occurs  in  muddy  or  sandy  bays  and  harbors  where  the  Rock  Crab  abounds.  The 
range  of  Cancer  borealis  is  from  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Island  Sound  to  Nova  Scotia,  but  it  is 
not  found  everywhere  within  these  limits,  being  apparently  local  in  its  distribution  and  abundant 
only  within  certain  more  or  less  restricted  areas.  The  principal  localities  where  it  has  been 
observed  are  as  follows:  off  Noaiik,  Connecticut;  off  Watch  Hill  and  Newport,  and  in  Narra- 
gansett  Bay,  Rhode  Island;  Vineyard  Sound,  Neman's  Land,  and  Salem,  Massachusetts;  Casco 
Bay,  Maine ;  Bay  of  Fundy  and  Nova  Scotia.  In  1880,  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  found 
the  Jonah  Crab  abundant  everywhere  in  the  lower  part  of  Narragansett  Bay  from  about  low-tide 
level  down  to  the  greatest  depths  of  the  bay,  and  it  was  likewise  very  common  off  the  bay,  and 
off  the  north  end  of  Block  Island.  The  following  account  of  the  habits  and  distribution  of  this 
species  is  taken  from  Prof.  S.  I.  Smith's  account:* 

"In  habits  this  species  differs  very  greatly  from  irroratug.  The  best  opportunities  which  I 
have  had  for  observing  it  were  at  Peak's  Island,  in  Casco  Bay,  August  and  September,  1873. 
Empty  carapaces,  chelipeds,  etc.,  of  boreali*  were  at  first  found  in  abundance  scattered  along  the 
outer  shores,  far  above  the  action  of  the  waves,  where  they  had  evidently  been  carried  by  gulls 
and  crows,  and  were  also  found  in  considerable  numbers  half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  in  a  forest  of 
coniferous  trees  thickly  inhabited  by  crows.  For  several  weeks  no  living  specimens  of  borealii 
were  discovered,  although  the  irroratus  was  found  living  in  abundance  all  about  the  island, 
without,  however,  its  remains  scarcely  ever  being  found  scattered  about  with  those  of  borealia. 
The  borealis  was  finally  discovered  in  abundance  at  low  water  on  the  exposed  and  very  rocky 
shores  of  the  northern  end  of  the  island.  At  this  locality,  between  eighty  and  ninety  specimens, 
all  females  aud  many  of  them  carrying  eggs,  were  obtained  in  a  single  morning.  They  were  all 
found  in  situations  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  waves,  and  were  either  resting,  entirely  exposed, 
upon  the  bare  rocks  and  ledges,  or  clinging  to  the  seaweeds  in  the  edge  of  the  waves,  or  in  the 

1  8.  I.  Smith,  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  530-633,  1871-'72. 
'Trans.  Conn.  Acad.,  v,  p.  40,  1879. 
49  F 


770  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

tide-pools.  They  were  never  found  concealed  beneath  the  rocks,  where,  however,  irroratus 
abounded.  It  is  a  much  heavier  and  more  massive  species  than  the  irroratus,  and  is  consequently 
much  better  adapted  than  that  species  to  the  situations  in  which  it  is  found.  So  many  individuals 
falling  a  prey  to  birds  is  evidently  a  result  of  the  habit  of  remaining  exposed  between  tides, 
although  the  heavy  shell  must  afford  much  greater  protection  than  the  comparatively  fragile 
covering  of  irroratus  would  afford  to  that  species  if  similarly  exposed.  The  lorealis  was  also 
found  at  a  somewhat  similar  locality,  but  more  exposed  to  the  sea,  on  Ham  Island  Ledge,  a  low 
reef  open  to  the  full  force  of  the  ocean.  One  specimen  of  moderate  size  was  dredged  in  the  ship 
channel  between  Peak's  Island  and  Cape  Elizabeth,  in  ten  fathoms,  rocky  and  shelly  bottom,  and 
specimens  were  several  times  captured  in  lobster-traps,  set  at  a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  fathoms, 
among  rocks.  Specimens  were  also  several  times  found  in  stomachs  of  the  cod  taken  on  the  cod 
ledges. 

"In  the  vicinity  of  Vineyard  Sound,  this  species  was  not  infrequently  found  thrown  upon 
sandy  beaches,  but  never  upon  beaches  very  far  removed  from  rocky  reefs.  The  following  are 
the  localities  where  it  was  seen  in  greatest  numbers:  Along  the  sandy  beach  of  Martha's 
Vineyard,  from  Meuemsha  Bight  to  Gay  Head;  the  rocky  island  of  Cuttyhunk;  and  the  rocky 
outer  shores  of  Neman's  Land,  where  dead  specimens  were  found  in  considerable  abundance.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Noauk,  Connecticut,  it  was  occasionally  found  dead  upon  the  shores,  and  was 
several  times  obtained  from  lobster-traps. 

"The  largest  specimens  I  have  seen  are  two  males,  of  almost  exactly  the  same  size,  one  from 
Casco  Bay,  the  other  from  near  Noank,  Connecticut.  The  carapax  of  the  specimen  from  Casco 
Bay  is  three  and  one-half  inches  long  and  five  and  three-fourths  inches  broad." 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — Cancer  borealis  is  supplied  to  the  Newport  markets  in  small  quantities 
during  most  of  the  summer  months,  and  is  much  esteemed  there  as  food,  being  considered  by 
many  preferable  to  the  Blue  Crab  (Callinectes  hastatus).  It  is  taken  by  the  fishermen  on  the  shore 
and  in  shallow  water. 

NAME. — The  term  "  Jonah  Crab,"  which  we  have  adopted  here  for  this  species,  is  the  one  by 
which  it  is  commonly  known  in  and  about  Narragansett  Bay,  Rhode  Island,  and  to  some  extent 
also  about  Vineyard  Sound,  Massachusetts,  but  apparently  not  elsewhere.  The  origin  of  the 
name  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain.  In  most  localities  where  it  occurs  it  is  confounded  by 
the  fishermen  with  the  commoner  Rock  Crab. 

THE  COMMON  CRAB  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST — CANCER  MAGISTER,  Dana. 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  edible  species  of  Crabs  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  and 
likewise  the  most  important.  It  is  the  only  species  commonly  eaten  in  San  Francisco,  although 
two  other  species  inhabiting  the  same  region,  and  which  are  described  further  on  (Cancer producing 
and  Cancer  atitennarius),  are  also  edible  and  of  good  flavor.  The  carapax  of  adult  males  usually 
measures  from  seven  to  nine  inches  in  breadth  and  four  to  five  inches  in  length;  the  females 
average  much  smaller.  The  color  of  the  upper  surface  is  a  light  reddish-brown,  darkest  in  front; 
the  limbs  and  under  surface  are  yellowish.  The  anterior  margin  of  the  carapax  forms  a  nearly 
i.-ulai  HliptirMl  curve,  reaching  back  to  about  the  middle  of  the  sides  and  interrupted  by  nine 
slightly  prominent,  sharp  teeth  on  ea«h  side.  At  the  termination  of  this  curve  on  each  side,  there 
is  a  si  run-,  pointed  tooth,  projecting  directly  outward,  and  forming  the  commencement  of  the 
postero-lateral  margins,  which  are  long  and  slope  abruptly  backward  so  as  to  leave  but  a  narrow 
l"iMi-rior  margin.  The  surface  of  the  carapax  is  slightly  convex,  undulated,  and  covered  with 
;  the  claws  are  strongly  toothed  above  and  ribbed  at  the  sides. 


T1JK  HOCK  Cl.'AIJ  OF  Till:   I'ACIKIC.  771 

Tliis  sja'c-ies  has  quite  an  extended  range,  having  been  recorded  from  Sitka,  Alaska,  in  the 
north,  Mini  from  Magdalena  Hay,  Lower  California,  in  the  south;  but  whether  these  are  il<  eMieme 
iinrthfrn  and  southern  limits  or  not  is  unknown.  In  iln-  l'.;i\  ni  San  Francisco  it  is  very  abundant, 
and  large  quantities  are  constantly  captured  and  brought  to  the  markets  in  that  city;  it  is  also 
taken  lor  food  in  Monterey  Hay,  California. 

It  occurs  most  eoniinonly  on  the  sandy  bottoms,  below  low-tide  level,  and  is  seldom  found,  at 
least  to  any  extent,  between  tide-marks.  The  supplies  sent  to  the  San  Francisco  markets  come 
mainly  from  the  San  Francisco  side  of  the  bay,  especially  from  the  south  side  of  the  Golden  Gate, 
between  the  city  and  the  sea.  They  are  also  taken  in  abundance  from  about  thewharves  and  piers 
in  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  Crab-nets  baited  with  fish  and  ofl'al  are  used  for  catching  them. 
Nothing  is  known  regarding  the  spawning  season  and  habits  of  this  species.  The  fishermen  say 
they  spawn  in  March  or  April.  The  occurrence  of  a  female  with  spawn  in  the  San  Francisco 
market  has  not  yet  been  recorded  by  any  naturalist. 

THE  RED  CRAB— CANCER  PRODUCTUS,  Randall. 

This  is  a  very  common  species  in  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  although  less  abundant  than  the 
last  (Cancer  magister).  It  also  attains  a  large  size,  adult  individuals  measuring  from  five  to  seven 
or  more  inches  in  breadth  across  the  earn  pax,  and  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  inches  in  length. 
The  proportion  of  width  to  length  is  rather  greater  in  the  males  than  in  the  females.  The  antero- 
lateral  borders  of  the  carapax  form  an  ellipse,  broken  in  the  center  in  front  by  a  slight  projection, 
by  which  the  specific  name  was  suggested.  The  teeth  of  the  front  and  of  the  antero-lateral  bor- 
ders arc  distinctly  separate  in  the  adult,  but  in  the  very  young  exist  only  as  wrinklings  of  the 
edge  of  the  carapax.  The  postero-Iateral  margins  are  concave  and  short.  The  claws  are  of 
medium  size  compared  with  the  carapax,  and  the  posterior  limbs  are  slender  and  plain.  The  color 
of  adult  specimens  is  an  intense  dark  red  or  reddish-brown  above  and  yellowish-white  below ;  the 
young  differ  from  the  adults  in  their  more  variable  coloring,  some  being  of  a  dark  reddish- 
brown,  others  yellow  spotted  with  red,  and  still  others  banded  with  red  and  yellow.  The  shape  of 
the  carapax,  with  its  produced  front,  sufficiently  distinguishes  this  species  of  Cancer  from  all  the 
others  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Cancer  productu*  is  found  along  the  entire  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  haa  been 
recorded  from  Magdalena  Bay,  Lower  California,  and  the  Qneen  Charlotte's  Islands  and  other 
localities,  in  British  Columbia.  It  is  very  abundant  in  the  Bays  of  San  Francisco,  Monterey,  and 
Tomales,  and  also  occurs  at  Santa  Barbara  and  San  Diego.  Its  habitat  is  in  the  shallow  water 
along  the  shores,  principally  in  rocky  sections,  and  it  is  frequently  found  between  tide-marks, 
often  taking  refuge  in  pools  under  stones  near  low-tide  level. 

Stimpson,  in  1856,  recorded  seeing  this  species  in  the  San  Francisco  markets,  but  it  is  no 
longer  taken  there,  unless  by  accident  or  inadvertence,  the  larger  and  more  abundant  Cancer 
»mi/ixt<r  fully  supplying  the  demands.  In  case  of  the  latter  becoming  scarce,  however,  Cancer 
lirnil  iictus  would  become  an  important  article  of  capture. 

THE  ROCK  CRAB  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST — CANCER  ANTENNARIUS,  Stimpson. 

This  species  is  of  about  the  same  average  size  as  Cancer  prixlm-tn*.  and  is  tolerably  abundant 
along  the  Pacific  coast,  from  Queen  Charlotte's  Islands,  in  the  north,  to  Magdalena  Bay,  Lower 
California,  in  the  south.  Although  as  regards  edible  qualities  it  is  said  to  compare  favorably 
with  Cancer  mayttter,  it  has  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  brought  to  the  San  Francisco 
markets.  The  carapax  of  adult  specimens  measures  three  and  a  half  or  more  inches  in  length, 


772  NATURAL  H1STCKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

and  from  five  to  six  iuches  across.  The  carpus  and  hand  of  the  big  claws  are  smooth  or  nearly 
so,  and  the  external  antennae  are  very  large  and  hairy.  The  margins  of  the  abdomen  and  of 
other  parts  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  ambulatory  feet,  are  very  hairy,  and 
this  character,  together  with  the  great  length  and  hairiness  of  the  antenna?,  serves  as  the  best 
distinguishing  feature  of  the  species.  Young  individuals  are  more  hirsute  thau  adults.  The 
color  of  the  carapax  is  a  dark  purplish  brown ;  the  chelipeds  in  adults  are  marbled  with  purplish 
spots. 

The  Pacific  Rock  Grab  does  not  often  occur  on  the  shore  between  tides;  it  appears  to  frequent 
deeper  water  than  either  Cancer  magister  or  C.  productus,  being  abundant  in  from  two  to  three 
fathoms,  always,  however,  among  rocks. 

THE  MUD  GRABS — PANOPEUS  HEEBSTII,  Edwards;  PANOPEUS  DEPRESSES,  Smith;  PANOPEUS 

SAYI,  Smith ;  PANOPEUS  HARBISII,  Stimpson. 

Four  species  of  the  so-called  Mud  Crabs  occur  upon  our  Atlantic  coast:  Panopeus  Herbstii 
ranges  from  Long  Island  Sound  to  Brazil,  but  is  not  common  north  of  New  J  ersey ;  P.  depressus, 
from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida,  and  often  carried  much  farther  north  with  oysters;  P.  Sayi,  associated 
with  the  last  and  having  the  same  range;  P.  Harrisii,  from  Massachusetts  Bay  to  Florida. 
P.  Herbstii  is  rather  the  larger  species,  specimens  from  Florida  and  the  West  Indies  measuring 
fully  two  inches  across  the  back.  The  color  is  a  dark  olive  above,  the  fingers  of  the  claws  being 
black,  though  lighter  at  the  tips.  This  species  is  occasionally  sold  as  food  in  the  New  Orleans 
markets,  and  is  sometimes  used  as  bait.  The  other  three  species  are  more  or  less  abundant  in 
numerous  localities  where  they  could  also  be  obtained  as  bait.  Professor  Verrill  refers  to  them 
as  follows : 

"Two  small  kinds  of  Crabs  are  very  abundant  under  the  stones,  especially  where  there  is  some 
mud.  These  are  dark  olive-brown  and  have  the  large  claws  broadly  tipped  with  black.  They 
are  often  called  Mud  Crabs  on  account  of  their  fondness  for  muddy  places.  One  of  these,  the 
Panopeus  depressus,  is  decidedly  flattened  above,  and  is  usually  a  little  smaller  than  the  second, 
the  Panopeus  Sayi,  which  is  somewhat  convex  above.  They  are  usually  found  together  and  have 
similar  habits.  A  third  small  species  of  the  same  genus  is  occasionally  met  with  under  stones, 
but  lives  rather  higher  up  toward  high- water  mark,  and  is  comparatively  rare.  This  is  the 
Panopeus  Harrisii.  It  can  be  easily  distinguished,  for  it  lacks  the  black  on  the  ends  of  the  big 
claws  and  has  a  groove  along  the  edge  of  the  front  of  the  carapax,  between  the  eyes.  This  last 
species  is  also  found  in  the  salt  marshes,  and  was  originally  discovered  on  the  marshes  of  the 
Charles  River,  near  Boston.  All  the  species  of  Panopeus  are  southern  forms,  extending  to  Florida, 
or  to  the  Gulf  coast  of  the  Southern  States,  but  they  are  rare  north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  not  found 
at  all  on  the  coast  of  Maine.  They  contribute  largely  to  the  food  of  the  tautog  and  other 
fishes."1 

THE  STONE  CRAB— MENIPPE  MERCENARIUS,  Gibbes. 

This  is  one  of  the  two  edible  species  of  Crabs  occurring  upon  the  Southern  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States,  Oallinectes  hastatus  being  the  other  and  more  important  one,  on  account  of  its 
greater  abundance.  The  recorded  range  of  the  Stone  Crab  is  from  Charleston  Harbor,  South 
Carolina,  to  Key  West,  Florida,  but  the  so-called  Stone  Crabs  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  probably 
belong,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  same  species,  and  it  has  also  been  recently  collected  on  the  coast 
of  North  Carolina. 

'Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  312,  313,  1871-'72. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  TUB  STOM!  »  KAl:.  773 

The  Stone  Crab  is  much  stouter  and  heavier  thau  the  Blue  Crab,  of  more  solid  build,  and 
with  a  much  thicker  shell-covering  both  on  the  body  and  claws.  There  is,  moreover,  no  similarity 
between  the  two  species.  The  carapax  of  adult  individuals  measures  about  three  inches  in  length 
by  about  four  and  a  half  inches  in  width,  and  the  body  is  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  thick. 
The  large  claws,  when  folded  against  the  front  of  the  body,  measure  about  seven  inches  fiom 
elbow  to  elbow.  One  claw  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  other. 

Prof.  Lewis  R.  Gibbes  has  kindly  furnished  the  following  notes  on  the  habits  of  this  species 
as  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina: 

••  They  live  in  holes  in  the  mud  along  the  borders  of  the  creeks  and  estuaries  of  the  coast, 
and  are  taken  by  the  hand,  thrust  down  several  inches,  sometimes  fifteen  to  twenty,  to  reach  the 
inhabitant  at  the  bottom,  at  the  risk  of  a  severe  bite  from  one  or  both  of  its  claws.  They  can 
aKo  he  found  in  the  crevices  between  fragments  of  any  solid  material,  occurring  near  their  haunts, 
such  as  rejected  stone  ballast,  fragments  of  brick  thrown  out  as  waste  from  houses  or  other 
stiuetures  in  the  city  or  vicinity.  Again,  they  occur  in  similar  situations  along  the  breakwater, 
constructed  some  forty  years  ago  to  protect  a  part  of  the  front  beach  of  Sullivan's  Island,  at  the 
month  of  the  harbor,  from  the  destructive  action  of  the  waves.  They  offer  a  stout  resistance  to 
being  dragged  from  their  chosen  retreat,  by  firmly  pressing  their  powerful  claws  against  the  walls 
of  their  abode.  From  their  holes  in  the  mud  they  are  drawn  with  some  difficulty,  with  a  quantity 
of  the  mud  adhering  to  them ;  and  if  the  walls  of  their  retreat  are  solid,  and  cannot  be  removed 
from  around  them,  they  cling  to  them  with  such  tenacity  that  not  unfrequently  they  are  brought 
out  piecemeal,  first  one  claw,  then  the  other,  and  finally  the  body." 

Professor  Gibbes  further  states  that  the  Stone  Crabs  are  highly  esteemed  as  food,  and  preferred 
to  the  Blue  Crab,  as  the  meat  of  their  large  claws  is  more  lobster-like  in  texture  and  flavor. 
From  the  difficulty  of  capturing  them,  however,  they  are  much  less  common  in  the  markets  than 
the  Blue  Crab,  and  command  a  higher  price.  They  are  also  apparently  less  abundant.  Like  the 
Blue  Crab,  they  are  constant  dwellers  upon  our  coast,  and  could  doubtless  be  taken  at  all  times 
daring  the  year.  Soft-shelled  specimens  are  seldom  if  ever  brought  to  market. 

In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  according  to  Mr.  Silas  Stearns,  the  Stone  Crab  is  not  so  universally 
common  as  the  Blue  Crab,  although  it  is  found  along  the  entire  coast.  It  seems  to  be  most 
abundant  on  the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Florida  where  the  bottom,  being  more  rocky  than 
elsewhere,  is  best  suited  to  its  habits.  In  this  section  it  lives  in  cavities  in  the  rocks,  and  in  deep 
holes  which  it  excavates  in  the  sand.  It  attains  a  laYger  size  than  the  Blue  Crab,  measuring  in 
adult  species  one  or  two  inches  more  across  the  carapax  than  the  latter  species.  The  people 
living  upon  the  coast  where  the  Stone  Crab  is  so  abundant  and  so  large  esteem  it  highly,  and 
regard  it  as  an  important  food  supply.  Owing  to  the  persistent  way  in  which  it  keeps  on  the 
bottom,  and  in  its  hiding  places,  it  cannot  be  captured  as  easily  as  the  other  species.  The  most 
common  method  of  capture  is,  after  finding  its  hole  or  place  of  retreat,  to  run  the  hand  and  arm 
down  quickly  and  drag  it  out.  To  one  unversed  in  this  practice  it  seems  a  dangerous  operation, 
but  it  is  not  so.  The  crab  lies  in  its  hole  with  its  claws  uppermost  or  outermost,  and  considering 
its  well-known  slowness  and  clumsiness  of  action,  a  man's  strong  grip  finds  no  difficulty  in 
controlling  them.  In  other  parts  of  the  Gulf,  away  from  the  Florida  coast,  visited  by  Mr.  Stearns, 
he  did  not  find  the  Stone  Crabs  nearly  so  abundant.  They  were  mostly  confined  to  oyster  beds 
and  stone  heaps,  and  were  inferior  in  size  to  the  Florida  specimens. 

As  the  Stone  Crabs  generally  live  more  or  less  buried  beneath  the  bottom,  their  movements 
are  probably  less  affected  by  tides  and  changes  of  temperature  than  the  Blue  Crabs.  They  have 
never  appeared  for  sale  in  the  markets  of  any  of  the  larger  cities  and  towns  of  the  Gulf  coast,  on 


774  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

account  of  the  difficulty  of  procuring  them.    By  those  who  have  eaten  them  they  are  considered 
decidedly  superior  to  the  Blue  Crab  in  flavor. 

THE  GREEN  CRAB— CARCINTTS  M^ENAS,  Leach. 

This  Crab,  which  is  one  of  the  most  common  species  on  the  coast  of  Great  Britain,  also 
abounds  upon  our  Atlantic  coast,  from  Cape  Cod  to  New  Jersey  and  perhaps  farther  south.  It  is 
very  abundant  in  Vineyard  Sound,  Buzzard's  Bay,  and  Long  Island  Sound.  The  body  is  of  a 
bright-green  color,  varied  with  spots  and  blotches  of  yellow,  making  it  very  conspicuous;  adult 
specimens  measure  about  two  inches  in  width  and  one  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  The  surfaces 
of  the  carapax  and  limbs  are  more  or  less  granulated. 

"  The  Green  Crab,  Carcinus  manas,  occurs  quite  frequently  well  up  toward  high-water  mark, 
hiding  under  the  loose  stones,  and  nimbly  running  away  when  disturbed.  It  may  also  be  found, 
at  times,  in  the  larger  tidal  pools.  It  often  resorts  to  the  holes  and  cavernous  places  under  the 
peaty  banks  of  the  shores,  or  along  the  small  ditches  and  streams  cutting  through  the  peaty 
marshes  near  the  shore." l 

It  is  most  abundant  between  tide-marks,  or  near  low-water  mark,  and  is  seldom  found  below 
a  very  few  fathoms  in  depth. 

The  Green  Crab  is  an  article  of  food  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  occurs  abundantly.  In 
England  it  is  occasionally  used  as  bait,  especially  while  in  a  soft-shell  state.  It  is  said  to  be  often 
very  annoying  to  the  salmon  fishermen  in  that  country.  "  Trout  and  mackerel  are  reduced  to 
skeletons  in  a  very  short  time,  and  grilse  and  salmon  often  rendered  unfit  for  market  by  an 
unseemly  scar,  the  work  of  these  marauders."2 

In  this  country,  the  Green  Crab  is  frequently  used  as  bait  on  the  Southern  New  England 
coast,  especially  for  the  tautog.  In  Vineyard  Sound  and  Buzzard's  Bay  it  is  known  to  the 
fishermen  as  the  "  Joe  Rocker." 

THE  LADY  CRAB — PLATYONICHUS  OCELLATUS,  Latreille. 

The  "Lady  Crab,"  or  "  Sand  Crab,"  is  abundant  on  nearly  all  our  sandy  shores  from  Cape  Cod 
to  Florida,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  it  ranges  from  low-water  mark  to  a  depth  of  ten  fathoms. 
This  species  is  easily  distinguished  from  all  our  other  Crabs  by  the  shape  and  color  of  its  carapax, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  character  of  its  posterior  pair  of  limbs,  which  are  modified  into 
swimming  organs,  as  in  the  edible  Crab.  Its  body  is  nearly  as  long  as  broad,  the  margins  rudely 
indicating  a  six-sided  figure.  The  front  lateral  margins  bear  five  spines  each,  which  are  directed 
forward,  and  the  front  margin  is  deeply  indented  on  each  side  of  a  slightly  projecting  three- 
spined  rostrum,  to  form  cavities  for  the  eyes.  The  front  limbs,  those  bearing  the  claws,  are  long 
and  rather  slender,  and  the  succeeding  three  pairs  are  simple  in  their  structure.  "  The  color  of 
this  Crab  is  quite  bright  and  does  not  imitate  the  sand  on  which  it  lives,  probably  owing  to  its 
mode  of  concealment.  The  ground-color  is  white,  but  the  back  is  covered  with  annular  spots 
formed  by  specks  of  red  and  purple.  The  Lady  Crab  is  perfectly  at  home  among  the  loose  sands 
at  low-water  mark,  even  on  the  most  exposed  beaches.  It  is  also  abundant  on  sandy  bottoms  off 
shore,  and  as  it  is  furnished  with  swimming  organs  on  its  posterior  legs,  it  can  swim  rapidly  in 
the  water,  and  Ihis  been  taken  at  the  surface  in  several  instances,  and  some  of  the  specimens  thus 
taken  were  of  full  size.  When  living  at  low-water  mark  on  the  sand  beaches,  it  generally  buries 
itoelf  up  to  its  eyes  and  antennae  in  the  sand,  watching  for  prey,  or  on  the  lookout  for  enemies. 
If  disturbed,  it  quickly' glides  backward  and  downward  into  the  sand  and  disappears  instantly. 


I,  :  Vim-yard  Sound  Report,  p.  312,  1871-'72. 
*  WHITE:  Popular  History  of  the  British  Crustacea. 


TiiK   KIMlll.K  <  IIAK.  775 

Tills  power  of  quickly  burrowing  deeply  into  tlic  sand  it  possesses  in  eoiniiion  with  all  the  other 
marine  aiiini;ils  o!'  every  class  which  inhabit  the  exposed  beaches  of  loose  sand,  tor  upon  tin's 
habit  their  very  existence  depends  during  storms.  By  burying  I  heinselves  deep  they  arc  be\ond 
the  reach  of  breakeis. 

'•The  Lady  Crab  is  predaceous  in  its  habits,  feeding  n\mn  various  smaller  creatures,  but,  like 
moM  of  the  Crabs,  it  i.s  also  fond  of  dead  lishes  or  any  other  dead  animals.  In  some  localities 
the\  are  so  abundant  that  a  dead  fish  or  shark  will  iu  a  short  time  be  completely  covered  with 
them;  but  if  a  person  should  approach  they  will  all  suddenly  slip  off  backwards  and  quickly 
disappear  in  every  direction  beneath  the  sand.  After  a  short  time,  if  everything  be  quiet, 
immense  numbers  of  eyes  and  an  ten  me  will  be  gradually  and  cautiously  protruded  from  beneat  h 
the  sand,  and  after  their  owners  have  satisfied  themselves  that  all  is  well  the  army  of  Crabs  will 
soon  appear  above  the  sand  again  and  continue  their  operations." ' 

This  species  is  used  as  bait  on  many  parts  of  the  coast,  especially  about  Vineyard  Sound 
and  Buxxard's  May.  It  is  also  an  important  article  of  food  at  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  and  is 
occasionally  taken  to  the  New  York  markets. 

222.   THE  COMMON  EDIBLE  OK  BLUE  CRAB— CALLINECTES  HA8TATU8,  Ordway. 

DISTRIBUTION. — The  common  edible  Crab  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  generally 
termed  "Blue  Crab"  at  the  North  and  "Sea  Crab"  at  the  South,  ranges  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida, 
and  also  occurs  iu  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  occasionally  taken  in  Massachusetts  Bay.  Next  to 
the  Lobster,  it  is  the  most  important  crustacean  of  our  waters  in  a.  commercial  point  of  view. 
There  are  several  species  of  the  genns  Callinectes  living  upon  the  coast  of  the  Southern  States. 
CnlUni'i-ti-x  linxtiitn.1,  the  genuine  Blue  Crab,  is  positively  known  to  occur  as  far  south  as  Louis- 
iana, and  is  probably  the  only  species  brought  to  the  New  York  markets.  Callinectex  ornatu* 
inhabits  Charleston  Harbor,  South  Carolina,  and  extends  southward  from  there,  but  to  what 
extent  has  not  been  determined.  Two  other  species,  Callinectes  larratus  and  €.  tumidim,  have 
been  recorded  from  Southern  Florida  and  the  West  Indies.  Which  of  these  four  species  occurs 
in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  there  most  commonly  taken  for  food,  we 
are  unable  to  state,  as  no  careful  examination  of  market  supplies  from  that  region  ha«  ever  been 
made. 

EXTERNAL  CHARACTERS. — The  shell  of  the  Blue  Crab  is  about  twice  as  broad  as  long, 
including  the  stout,  sharp  spines  which  project  from  each  side.  Between  the  spine  of  each  side 
and  the  eye  of  that  side  the  margin  is  armed  with  about  eight  short  and  acute  spines,  which  are 
largest  at  the  side  and  gradually  decrease  in  size  toward  the  eye.  Between  the  eyes,  which  are 
placed  in  slight  recesses,  the  margin  forms  four  broad,  unequal-sided  teeth,  with  a  median  spiiie 
underneath.  The  front  limbs,  including  the  claws,  are  similar  in  shape  but  somewhat  unequal  in 
si/.e;  they  have  several  strong  sharp  spines  above.  The  three  succeeding  pairs  of  limbs  are 
slender,  similar  to  one  another,  and  terminate  in  sharp  points.  The  posterior  pair,  however,  end 
in  an  expanded  oval  joint,  especially  adapted  for  swimming.  The  entire  body  of  this  species  i.s 
considerably  compressed,  the  carapax  being  only  moderately  convex  above;  the  surface,  excepting 
near  the  posterior  margin,  is  covered  with  minute  granulations,  which  are  more  numerous  over 
some  portions  than  over  others.  The  entire  margin  of  the  carapax  and  abdomen  is  bordered  with 
flue  hairs,  and  most  of  the  joints  of  the  limbs  are  ornamented  iu  the  same  way. 

The  abdomen  of  the  female  is  very  broad,  and  when  not  charged  with  eggs  fills  in  the  entire 

•VERBII.L:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  338, 


776  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

space  between  the  bases  of  the  posterior  pairs  of  legs.  During  the  spawning  season,  however,  the 
eggs  are  so  numerous  and  form  such  a  large  mass  that  they  throw  the  abdomen  some  distance  out 
from  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  causing  it  to  project  almost  at  right  angles  with  the  upper 
surface  of  the  carapax.  The  upper  surface  of  the  shell  and  claws  is  of  a  dark-green  color,  and 
the  lower  surface  of  a  dingy  white ;  feet  blue;  tips  of  fingers  and  spines  reddish. 

HABITS,  USES,  ETC. — The  following  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Blue  Crab  is  by  Professor 
Verrill: 

"The  common  edible  Crab  or  'Blue  Crab'  is  a  common  inhabitant  of  muddy  shores,  especially 
in  sheltered  coves  and  bays.  It  is  a  very  active  species,  and  can  swim  rapidly.  It  is,  therefore, 
often  seen  swimming  at  or  near  the  surface.  The  full-grown  individuals  generally  keep  away  from 
the  shores,  in  shallow  water,  frequenting  muddy  bottoms,  especially  among  the  eel-grass,  and  are 
also  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  somewhat  brackish  waters  of  estuaries  and  the  mouths  of 
rivers.  The  young  specimens  of  all  sizes,  up  to  two  or  three  inches  in  breadth,  are,  however,  very 
frequent  along  the  muddy  shores,  hiding  in  the  grass  and  weeds  or  under  the  peaty  banks  at  high 
water  and  retreating  as  the  tide  goes  down.  When  disturbed  they  swim  away  quickly  into  deeper 
water.  They  also  have  the  habit  of  pushing  themselves  backward  into  and  beneath  the  mud  for 
concealment.  They  are  predaceous  in  their  habits,  feeding  upon  small  fishes  and  various  other 
animal  food.  They  are  very  pugnacious,  and  have  remarkable  strength  in  their  claws,  which  they 
use  with  great  dexterity.  When  they  have  recently  shed  their  shells  they  are  caught  in  great 
numbers  for  the  markets,  and  these  'soft-shelled  Crabs'  are  much  esteemed  by  many.  Those  with 
hard  shells  are  also  sold  in  our  markets,  but  are  not  valued  so  highly.  This  Crab  can  easily 
be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  found  in  this  region  by  the  sharp  spine  on  each  side  of 
the  carapax.  .  .  .  They  are  usually  brought  to  market  early  in  May,  but  the 'soft-shelled' 
ones,  which  are  more  highly  esteemed,  are  taken  later.  These  soft-shelled  individuals  are  merely 
those  that  have  recently  shed  their  old  shells,  while  the  new  shell  has  not  had  time  to  harden. 
The  period  of  shedding  seems  to  be  irregular  and  long  continued,  for  soft-shelled  Crabs  are  taken 
nearly  all  summer.  The  young  and  half-grown  specimens  of  this  Crab  may  often  be  found  in 
considerable  numbers  hiding  in  the  holes  and  hollows  beneath  the  banks  during  the  flood  tide. 
When  disturbed,  they  swim  away  quietly  into  deeper  water.  These  small  Crabs  are  devoured  by 
many  of  the  larger  fishes.  During  flood  tide  the  large  Crabs  swim  up  the  streams  like  many  fishes 
and  retreat  again  with  the  ebb.  They  feed  largely  on  fishes,  and  often  do  much  damage  by  eating 
fishes  caught  in  set-nets,  frequently  making  large  holes  in  the  nets  at  the  same  time."1 

Besides  devouring  living  animals,  the  Blue  Crab  "feeds  on  dead  animal  matter  in  its  various 
stages  of  putrescence,  and  is  one  of  the  many  depurators  of  the  ocean.  It  often  buries  itself  in 
the  sand,  so  that  no  part  is  visible  but  the  eyes  and  anterior  antennae ;  these  last  are  then  in 
continual  motion,  the  bifid  terminal  joint  acting  as  forceps  to  seize  and  convey  to  its  mouth  the 
small  molluscous  animals  for  food.  The  shell  is  cast  annually,  and  they  are  then  known  by  the 
name  of  'soft  shell  Crab,'  are  very  delicate,  and  in  particular  request  for  the  table.  In  this  state 
the  Crab  is  incapable  of  any  defense  from  its  enemies;  the  male  usually  retires  to  a  secluded 
situation  for  security,  but  the  adult  female  is  protected  by  a  male  whose  shell  is  hard.  They  are 
then  called  double  Crabs."* 

On  different  parts  of  the  coast,  Crabs  in  the  soft  state  are  known  respectively  as  "Soft  Crabs," 
" Sheddere,"  or  "Peelers."  The  terms  "Soft  Crab,"  "Paper-shell,"  and  "Buckler"  denote  the 
different  stages  of  consistency  of  the  shell,  from  the  time  of  shedding  until  it  has  become  nearly 

'Vineyard  Sonnd  Report,  pp.  307,  3G8,  4G8,  1871-'72. 
'SAY:  Jounu  Acad.  Nat  Sci.  1'hila.,  i,  p.  66,  1817. 


BREEDING  HABITS  OF  TOE  EDIBLE  CEAB.  777 

hard  again.  For  instance,  immediately  after  shedding  it  is  a  "  Soft  Crab";  as  the  shell  becomes 
slightly  hardened  it  is  called  "Paper-shell,"  and  just  before  reaching  its  normal  hardness  it  ia 
termed  "Buckler."  . 

Callincctcs  hastatus  does  not  appear  to  be  confined  to  salt  and  brackish  water  only,  for  it  has 
been  known  to  ascend  the  Saint  John's  River,  Florida,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  miles,  to  where 
the  water  is  sufficiently  fresh  for  drinking. 

According  to  Prof.  Lewis  R.  Gibbes,  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  the  Blue  Crab  is  abundant 
in  and  about  Charleston  Harbor,  and  is  largely  taken  for  food.  Average-sized  specimens  measure 
about  two  and  a  half  inches  long  and  five  to  five  and  a  half  broad,  including  the  lateral  spines. 
It  occurs,  feeding  and  swimming  on  the  bottom  and  between  the  bottom  and  the  surface,  in  the 
deeper  water  of  the  harbor,  and  in  the  shallower  waters  of  rivers  and  creeks.  It  is  also  found 
walking  on  the  muddy  borders  of  creeks  or  rivers,  and  on  the  marshes,  when  the  tide  is  out  For 
market,  these  Crabs  are  occasionally  taken  by  the  fishermen  in  cast-nets  while  seeking  fish,  but  the 
customary  crab-net  is  a  sort  of  dip-net  attached  to  a  pole.  In  the  deeper  water,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  entice  the  Craba  to  the  surface  by  means  of  bait  attached  to  cords.  Although  Blue 
Crabs  occur  in  this  region  more  or  less  throughout  the  entire  year,  they  are  chiefly  taken  for  the 
market  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  months,  as  they  are  then  in  the  best  condition  and  most 
highly  esteemed  for  their  flavor.  Both  hard  and  soft  shell  individuals  are  eaten.  They  seem  to  be 
as  common  now  as  formerly. 

Mr.  Silaa  Stearns,  of  Pensacola,  Florida,  writes  as  follows  concerning  the  habits,  etc.,  of 
Callinectes  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico : 

"  The  Blue  Crab  is  more  abundant  than  the  Stone  Crab,  and  is  distributed  along  the  entire 
Gulf  coast.  It  is  found  out  in  the  Gulf,  in  the  bays  and  estuaries,  and  very  often  in  fresh-water 
rivers  and  lakes  that  have  close  connection  with  some  body  of  salt  water.  It  lives  in  the  shoaler 
waters  during  the  summer  months,  from  about  .April  to  November,  and  retires  to  the  deeper  water 
on  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  to  remain  half  dormant  until  the  first  warm  day  or  settled  mild 
weather.  Its  first  move  in  the  spring  is  to  the  grass-covered  shoals,  where  various  kinds  of  fishes 
and  other  marine  animals  have  just  deposited  their  eggs,  upon  which  it  feeds  greedily.  All 
through  the  summer  it  is  found  in  such  places  as  these,  acting  both  as  a  scavenger  of  decomposing 
animal  matter  and  as  one  of  the  most  dreaded  enemies  of  small  fish  and  their  spawn.  At  high  tide 
the  Crabs  come  nearer  to  the  shore  than  at  low  tide,  and  at  all  times  the  young  are  more  venture- 
some than  the  old.  Hiding  under  patches  of  seaweed,  behind  and  under  logs  and  roots  of  trees 
and  in  the  sand,  the  young  spend  the  period  of  high  tide  at  the  very  water's  edge. 

"  The  period  of  spawning  and  shedding  extends  through  several  months,  probably  the  entire 
summer,  for  some  individuals  are  found  loaded  with  spawu  and  others  in  a  soft  slate  during  the 
whole  season.  This  summer  (1880),  while  at  Saint  Joseph's  Bay,  on  this  coast,  I  found  large 
quantities  of  females,  heavy  with  spawn,  lying  just  at  the  edge  of  the  surf  on  the  sea-beach. 
They  were  quite  inactive,  and  there  were  no  males  among  them.  While  shedding  its  shell,  and 
until  the  new  shell  has  become  sufficiently  hard  to  protect  it,  the  Blue  Crab  remains  hidden  in 
the  mud  or  among  seaweeds.  This  is  the  most  active  of  all  the  Gulf  species  of  Crabs.  It  swims 
easily  and  rapidly  at  the  surface  at  times,  and  its  movements  at  the  bottom  are  remarkably  swift. 
It  is  also  very  pugnacious,  and  not  only  fights  its  own  kind,  but  also  shows  a  bold  front  to  its 
enemies,  including  man.  The  average  size  of  the  Blue  Crab  is  about  six  inches  broad  across  the 
shell. 

"  Being  so  common  that  people  nearly  everywhere  along  the  coast  can  obtain  any  quantity 
for  the  mere  trouble  of  capturing  them,  they  have  given  rise  to  no  defined  industry  excepting  in 


778  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  larger  cities.  Outside  of  New  Orleans,  in  fact,  there  is  no  regular  trade  in  Blue  Crabs.  In 
the  early  spring  tbey  are  trolled  from  deep  water  to  within  reach  of  a  dip-net,  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  meat  attached  to  a  long  string.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  water  has  become  warmer,  they 
may  be  dipi>ed  up  with  a  dip-net  all  along  the  shore.  About  Pensacola,  the  catching  of  Crabs  is 
classed  among  the  sports.  During  warm  summer  evenings,  parties  of  men,  women,  and  children 
set  out  for  secluded  portions  of  the  bay  shore,  where  they  pursue  the  Crabs,  with  torches  and  jigs 
or  dip-nets,  until  they  are  tired.  A  midnight  supper,  made  up  mainly  of  the  Crabs  and  fish  they 
have  taken,  follows,  and  the  enjoyment  concludes  with  a  moonlight  sail  homeward." 

THE  SPIDER  CRABS — LIBINIA  EMARGINATA,  Leach ;  LIBINIA  DUBIA,  Edwards. 

The  Spider  Crabs  are  inhabitants  of  shallow  water  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  Western 
Maine  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  two  species  resemble  one  another  very  closely,  but  the 
emarginata  is  more  thickly  covered  with  spines  than  the  dubia,  which  is  also  further  distinguished 
by  being  narrower  across  the  front,  and  by  having  a  longer  rostrum.  As  a  rule,  the  latter  species 
is  found  more  commonly  than  the  former  in  the  very  shallow  water  near  shore,  and  its  range  is 
more  restricted  toward  the  north,  not  passing  beyond  Cape  Cod. 

Professor  Verrill  says  of  their  habits,  that  "  they  are  very  common  on  muddy  shores  and  flats. 
They  hide  beneath  the  surface  of  the  mud  and  decaying  weeds,  or  among  the  eel-grass,  and  are 
very  sluggish  in  their  motions.  The  whole  surface  of  the  body  is  covered  with  hairs,  which 
entangle  particles  of  mud  and  dirt  of  various  kinds;  and  sometimes  hydroids,  algae,  and  even 
barnacles  grow  upon  their  shells,  contributing  to  their  more  ready  concealment.  The  males  are 
much  larger  than  the  females,  and  have  long  and  stout  claws.  They  often  spread  a  foot  or  more 
across  the  extended  legs.  The  females  have  much  smaller  and  shorter  legs  and  comparatively 
weak  claws."1 

The  Spider  Crabs  are  used  as  bait  along  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  probably  elsewhere, 
withiij  their  range. 

THE  KELP  CRAB — EPIALTUS  PRODUCTTJS,  Randall. 

The  Kelp  Crab  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  "easily  recognized  by  its  smooth  quadrate  carapax,  with 
two  distinct  teeth  on  either  side.  It  is  the  most  common  inaioid  Crab  on  the  coast  of  California 
and  Oregon,  and  is  usually  found  among  seaweeds  on  rocks,  just  below  low-water  mark.  Its  color 
is  olivaceous  when  alive."* 

This  Crab  is  occasionally  taken  for  food  by  the  natives  along  the  coast,  but  apparently  has  not 
yet  found  ita  way  into  the  San  Francisco  markets.  It  has  been  especially  recorded  from  Ptiget 
Sound,  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  the  Farallone  Islands,  Toinales  Bay,  entrance  to  Sau 
Francisco  Bay,  and  Monterey. 

THE  RED  ROCK  CRAB— ECHIDNOCEROS  SETIMANUS,  Stimpson. 

This  is  quite  a  large  and  very  ornamental  red  Crab,  which  is  not  eaten,  but  is  occasionally 
sold  in  the  San  Francisco  markets  as  a  curiosity.  It  is  procured  in  moderately  deep  water  about 
the  F:ii-;illi>iif  Islands,  which  lie  a  short  distance  off  the  coast  at  San  Francisco,  California.  The 
Ixxly  of  adult  specimens  measures  about  ten  inches  both  in  length  and  breadth,  and  the  weight 
of  such  specimens  is  between  six  and  seven  pounds.  The  carapax  is  convex  and  exceedingly 
uneven,  being  covered  with  large  tubercles  and  granules.  The  front  and  lateral  margins  on  each 
side  bear  about  eight  principal  teeth,  and  the  beak  is  four  lobed.  The  right  claw  is  much  larger 
than  the  left,  and  both  are  covered  with  tufts  of  hair,  and  armed  with  teeth  and  tubercles.  The 

1  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  368,  1871-'72. 

'STIMPSON :  Journ.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  vi,  p.  457,  1857. 


Tin:  IIKKMIT  ciiAi-.s.  779 

ground  color  of  the  body  is  vermilion,  the  granules  and  spines  Ix-ing  ^eiieralh  of  ;i  deep  blue  or 
purple  ;  the  entire  carapax  is  covered  with  iniiiiite  lnMlcs.  According  to  Dr.  William  Stimpsoii. 
who  wrote  concerning  this  Trail  in  1*.">7.  specimens  of  this  species  then  readily  Mold  in  the  San 
Francisco  market  for  live  and  ten  dollars  each.  A  certain  demand  for  them  still  continue-,  l.nt 
they  arc  apparent Iv  brought  to  market  only  occasionally. 

THE  SAND  BUG— HIPPA  TALPOIDA,  Say. 

This  is  rather  an  odd  species  of  Crab,  related  to  the  Hermit  Crabs,  from  which,  however,  it 
differs  greatly  in  a]»pearance.  The  body  is  oval  in  outline  and  more  than  half  as  broad  as  long, 
the  sides  forming  a  ncarh  regular  curve.  The  upper  part  of  the  body,  formed  mostly  of  the. 
ecplialo-tliorax,  is  convex  and  rather  plain,  giving  a  decidedly  bug-like  appearance  to  the 
creature,  as  suggested  In  its  common  name.  The  tail,  which  is  long  and  broad,  is  pressed  up 
against  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  reaching  nearly  to  the  front.  The  eyes  are  minute  and 
placed  at  die  ends  of  long,  slender  peduncles;  the  principal  antenine  are  about  as  long  as  the 
carapax,  and  are  curved  and  strongly  plumose. 

"This  specie*  burrows  like  a  mole,  head  first,  instead  of  backward.  It  can  also  swim  quite 
actively,  and  is  sometimes  found  swimming  about  in  the  pools  left  on  the  flats  at  low  water.  It 
is  occasionally  dug  out  of  the  sand  at  low-water  mark,  and  is  often  thrown  up  by  the  waves  on 
sand-beaches,  but  it  seems  to  live  in  shallow  water  on  sandy  bottoms  in  great  numbers,  for  in 
seining  on  one  of  the  sand-beaches  near  Wood's  Holl  for  small  fishes,  a  large  quantity  of  this 
species  was  taken.  Its  color  is  yellowish-white,  tinged  with  purple  on  the  back.  It  is  one  of  the 
favorite  articles  of  food  of  many  fishes.  Mr.  Smith  found  the  young  abundant  at  Fire  Island, 
near  high  water,  burrowing  in  the  sand.  This  species  is  still  more  abundant  farther  south."1 

The  Sand  Bug  ranges  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida,  but  is  much  more  abundant  toward  the 
South  than  at  the  North.  On  the  Xew  Jersey  coast,  and  probably  at  other  places  farther  south,  it 
is  used  I iv  the  fishermen  as  bait.  It  is  frequently  called  by  them  the  "Bait  Bug." 

THE  HERMIT  GRABS — EUPAGURUS  POLLICARIS,  Stimpsoii;  EUPAGURUS  BBRMIARDVS,  Brandt; 

I'.l  PAGURUS  LONGIOARPUS,  StimpSOll ;    AND   ALLIED   SPECIES. 

There  are  numerous  species  of  Hermit  Crabs  living  upon  our  coast,  in  all  depths  from  the 
shore  down  to  several  hundred  fathoms.  Three  species  which  are  of  large  enough  size  to  be 
considered  as  desirable  for  bait  occur,  however,  in  localities  where  they  might  be  easily  taken  by 
the  fishermen.  One  of  the  species,  Eupaguriix  bernhardus,  is  frequently  used  f<Jr  that  purpose  in 
England,  and  could  as  well  be  utilized  here.  The  other  two  species,  living  in  shallow  water,  are 
A.',  /mllicaris  and  E.  longicarpun.  E.  bernhardus  ranges  from  Cape  Cod  northward,  and  from 
low-water  mark  to  depths  of  fifty  fathoms  and  more.  E.  pollicari*  ranges  from  Massachusetts  to 
Florida,  and  <x:cnrs  at  low-water  mark,  but  is  more  abundant  on  the  rocky  and  shelly  bottoms  of 
the  bays  and  sounds,  and  upon  oyster-beds.  E.  longicarpus  rauges  from  Massachusetts  Bay  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  between  tide  levels  to  a  depth  of  ten  fathoms. 

The  Hermit  Crabs  protect  the  hinder,  soft  portion  of  their  bodies  in  any  empty  Gasteropod 
shell  of  sufficient  size  which  is  obtainable,  carrying  this  shell  upon  their  hack.  They  move  about 
very  actively  and  are  very  pugnacious.  Their  savage  dispositions  toward  each  other  has  earned 
for  them,  in  England,  the  name  of  "Soldier  Crabs,"  but  both  in  Europe  and  this  country  they  are 
generally  termed  •'  Hermits." 

1  VKKKI  i.i. :  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  339,  1871-'72. 


780  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

E.  longicarpus  is  smaller  than  either  of  the  other  species,  but  is  more  of  a  littoral  species,  and 
therefore,  as  a  rale,  more  easily  obtainable. 

A  fourth  species,  E.  pubescens,  might  be  added  to  our  list  of  available  Hermit  Crabs,  but  it  is 
generally  limited  to  deeper  water  than  the  others.  It  ranges  from  New  Jersey  to  Greenland,  but 
south  of  Casco  Bay,  Maine,  has  not  been  found  as  high  up  as  the  level  of  low  tide.  In  Casco  Bay 
and  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  it  sometimes,  but  rarely,  occurs  upon  the  shore,  just  below  low- water  mark. 

"Active  and  interesting  little  '  Hermit  Crabs,'  Eupagurus  longicarpus,  are  generally  abundant 
in  the  pools  near  low  water,  and  concealed  in  wet  places  beneath  rocks.  In  the  pools  they  may 
be  seen  actively  running  about,  carrying  upon  their  backs  the  dead  shell  of  some  small  Gasteropod, 
most  commonly  Anachis  avara  or  Ilyanassa  obsoleta,  though  all  the  small  spiral  shells  are  used  in 
this  way.  They  are  very  pugnacious  and  nearly  always  ready  for  a  fight  when  two  happen  to 
meet,  but  they  are  also  great  cowards,  and  very  likely  each,  after  the  first  onset,  will  instantly 
retreat  into  his  shell,  closing  the  aperture  closely  with  the  large  claws.  They  use  their  long, 
slender  antenna)  very  efficiently  as  organs  of  feeling,  and  show  great  wariness  in  all  their  actions. 
The  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  soft,  with  a  thin  skin,  and  one-sided  in  structure,  so  as  to  fit  into 
the  borrowed  shells,  while  near  the  end  there  are  appendages  which  are  formed  into  hook-like 
organs,  by  which  they  hold  themselves  securely  in  their  houses,  for  these  spiral  shells  serve  them 
both  for  shields  and  dwellings.  This  species  also  occurs  in  vast  numbers  among  the  eel-grass,  both 
in  the  estuaries  and  in  the  sounds  and  bays,  and  is  also  frequent  on  nearly  all  other  kinds  of 
bottoms  in  the  sounds.  It  is  a  favorite  article  of  food  for  many  of  the  fishes,  for  they  swallow  it 
shell  and  all.  A  much  larger  species,  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  but  having  much  shorter  and 
thicker  claws  ( Eupagurus  pollicaris),  is  also  found  occasionally  under  the  rocks  at  low  water,  but 
it  ia  much  more  common  on  rocky  and  shelly  bottoms  in  the  sounds  and  bays.  Its  habits  are 
otherwise  similar  to  the  small  one,  but  it  occupies  much  larger  shells,  such  as  those  of  Ijunatia 
heros,  Fulgur  carica,  &c.  This  large  species  is  devoured  by  the  sharks  and  sting-rays." 

223.  THE  LOBSTERS. 
THE  SPINY  LOBSTER  OR  ROCK  LOBSTER — PANULIEUS  INTERRUPTUS,  Randall. 

The  well-known  Spiny  Lobster  of  the  European  coast,  Palinurm  vulgaris,  is  represented 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States  by  a  closely  allied  genus  and  species,  Panulirus 
interruptus.  The  Spiny  Lobster  differs  from  the  common  Lobster  in  wanting  the  large  anterior 
claws,  the  first  pair  of  feet  being  simple  and  without  pincers,  and  in  having  enormously  developed 
antennae  or  feelers,  which  are  very  large  around  at  the  base,  and  as  long  as,  or  longer  than,  the 
body.  The  gills  are  similar  in  structure  to  those  of  the  true  Lobster,  but  number  twenty-one  on 
each  side. 

The  California  Spiny  Lobster,  which,  in  the  region  where  it  occurs,  is  often  called  simply 
"Lobster"  or  "Cray-fish,"  attains  a  total  length  of  fourteen  inches,  the  carapax  in  adult 
individuals  measuring  as  much  as  five  inches.  Average-sized  individuals  weigh  from  three  and 
one-half  to  four  pounds.  One  specimen  weighing  eleven  and  one-half  pounds  has  been  recorded 
from  Santa  Barbara,  but  very  large  specimens  are  now  rarely  taken  in  that  locality.  It  ranges 
southward  from  Point  Conception,  California,  the  most  northern  point  from  which  it  has  been 
recorded  being  San  Luis  Obispo.  At  this  place  it  is  rare,  but  at  Santa  Barbara  and  to  the 
southward  from  there  it  is  very  common.  These  Lobsters  generally  inhabit  rocky  ledges.  In  the 
winter  they  remain  in  deep  water  among  the  kelp,  and  are  captured  in  lobster-pots;  in  the 

1  VKRBILL:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  313, 1871-'72. 


THE  AMERICAN  LOBSTER.  781 

summer  they  move  into  shallower  water,  and  are  taken  by  means  of  dip-nets.  The  best  bait  for 
the  traps  is  fresh  fish,  but  any  flesh  will  answer  for  this  purpose.  The  spawning  season  for  the 
spiny  Lobster  is  the  early  spring,  when  they  are  found  in  abundance  close  to  the  shore.  At  this 
time  they  arc  less  fat  than  at  others,  and  are  not  considered  as  good  eating;  some  even  regard 
them  as  unwholesome  at  the  spawning  time,  but  nevertheless  they  are  eaten  more  or  less 
continuously  through  the  entire  year.  When  abundant  near  the  shore,  catches  aggregating  five 
hundred  pounds  have  been  made  by  a  single  person  in  the  short  space  of  two  hours.  They  are 
not  as  abundant  now  as  formerly  in  the  places  where  they  are  most  extensively  taken  as  food, 
this  having  resulted  from  ovei  fishing,  especially  during  the  spawning  season.  There  is,  therefore, 
k'n-at  danger  of  the  species  becoming  exterminated,  unless  some  stringent  laws  are  framed  to 
protect  them. 

224.   THE  AMERICAN  LOBSTER— HOMARUS  AMERICANUS,  Milne-Edwards. 

INTRODUCTION. — Although  the  Lobster  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  our  food  inverte- 
brates, careful  observations  regarding  its  natural  history,  and  especially  its  breeding  habits, 
rate  of  growth,  etc.,  have  been  strangely  neglected.  This  fact  is  greatly  to  be  deplored, 
considering  that  the  Lobster  has  recently  become  the  subject  of  important  legislation  by  the 
several  States  which  it  inhabits,  and  that  its  cultivation  by  artificial  means  has  been  frequently 
attempted.  It  is  now  an  undisputed  fact  that  the  abundance,  as  well  as  the  average  size,  of 
Lobsters  has  greatly  decreased  in  our  shallow-water  areas  during  the  past  twenty  to  thirty  years, 
thereby  forcing  the  lobster  fishermen  to  resort  to  deeper  water,  and  increasing  the  hardships  of 
their  profession.  The  question  has,  therefore,  very  naturally  arisen  as  to  whether  this  continued 
decrease  can  in  any  way  be  checked  either  by  the  enactment  of  proper  protective  laws,  or  by  means 
of  artificial  propagation.  Laws  for  the  protection  of  the  Lobster  have  been  passed  by  all  the 
States  interested  in  this  fishery,  but  their  want  of  uniformity  and  the  difficulty  of  enforcing  them 
have  diminished  the  benefits  which  it  was  hoped  might  result.  The  success  attending  the  artificial 
breeding  of  several  of  our  food- fishes  has  inspired  the  hope  that  similar  methods  might  succeed 
with  regard  to  the  Lobster,  and  many  persons  are  now  awaiting  with  interest  the  results  of 
experiments  in  that  direction.  It  is  very  certain,  however,  that  the  breeding  of  Lobsters  can 
never  be  successfully  carried  on  until  we  have  become  acquainted  with  at  least  the  main  features 
of  their  natural  history.  The  artificial  cultivation  of  animals  can  only  progress  through  the 
fulfillment  of  natural  laws,  which  must  be  thoroughly  understood  before  they  can  be  properly 
applied.  As  it  is,  however,  the  would-be  experimenter  in  the  matter  of  lobster-breeding  must 
still  follow  a  very  uncertain  pathway,  meeting  with  numerous  failures  which  previous  studies 
might  have  averted. 

To  assist  in  a  small  way  toward  overcoming  this  difficulty,  and  as  a  preliminary  to  the 
industrial  report  which  will  appear  hereafter,  the  author  has  brought  together  the  following  few 
disconnected  popular  notes,  taken  in  part  from  published  works,  but  mainly  derived  from  the 
observations  of  intelligent  lobster  fishermen  and  dealers,  who  have  always  cheerfully  responded 
when  called  upon  for  information.  It  is  hoped  that  the  meagerness  of  these  notes  will  act  as  an 
incentive  to  observers  in  this  line  of  research. 

RELATIONS  AND  STRUCTURE  OP  THE  LOBSTER. — The  Lobster  belongs  to  the  highest  group 
of  the  Crustacea,  the  so-called  Decapoda,  or  ten-footed  crustaceans,  which  group  is  again  divided 
into  the  Brachyura,  or  short-tailed  Decapods  (true  Crabs),  the  Anomoura  (Hermit  Crabs,  etc.),  and 
(he  Macroura,  or  long-tailed  Decapods  (Lobsters  and  Shrimps).  The  members  of  the  first  group 


782  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

range  higher  in  organization  than  those  of  the  two  latter,  and  the  Lobster  must,  therefore,  be 
regarded  as  lower  in  the  scale  of  being  than  our  common  Crab. 

The  Lobsters  find  some  of  their  nearest  allies  among  the  common  fresh-water  Cray-fish  of  our 
rivers  and  small  streams,  with  which  they  agree  structurally  in  most  particulars.  The  principal 
differences  existing  between  them,  beyond  size  and  shape,  are  sucb  as  would  be  readily  overlooked 
by  the  casual  observer.  One  of  the  most  important  is  as  to  the  number  of  gills,  of  which  there  are 
twenty  perfect  ones  on  each  side  in  the  Lobster  and  only  seventeen  to  eighteen  on  each  side  in  the 
Cray  fish.  Some  of  the  gills  also  differ  in  structure  in  the  two  groups.  The  other  structural 
differences  need  not  be  discussed  here,  nor  do  we  propose  to  describe  the  anatomical  peculiarities 
of  the  Lobster  in  this  connection,  as  they  have  been  fully  treated  of  in  numerous  scientific  publica- 
tions which  are  easily  obtainable.  It  will  suffice  for  our  purpose  to  pass  over  in  review  the 
principal  external  characteristics. 

The  body  of  the  Lobster,  as  may  be  readily  observed,  is  made  up  of  two  general  divisions,  an 
anterior  one,  called  the  carapax  or  cephalo-thorax,  and  covered  by  a  single  shell  or  shield  above 
and  at  the  sides,  and  a  posterior  one,  termed  the  abdomen,  consisting  of  six  segments  and  a 
terminal  flap,  or  telson.  The  dividing  line  between  the  head  and  thorax  proper,  which  are  both 
contained  within  the  carapax,  is  indicated  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  carapax  by  a  trans- 
verse, curved  groove.  Underneath  the  thoracic  portion  of  the  carapax  there  are  five  transverse 
segments,  corresponding  to  the  pairs  of  legs,  of  which  the  four  posterior  pairs  are  subequal  in 
size  and  much  smaller  than  the  anterior  pair  or  claws.  All  of  the  legs  are  composed  of 
several  and  an  equal  number  of  joints;  the  two  posterior  ones  terminate  in  simple  points,  while 
the  two  in  advance  of  them  end  in  small  claws.  The  anterior  legs  are  very  much  enlarged,  the 
joints  very  unequal  in  size  and  very  unlike  in  shape,  the  terminal  joint,  forming  the  claw  proper, 
being  very  greatly  developed,  hard  and  rugged,  and  very  powerful.  Each  segment  of  the 
abdomen  or  tail  also  has  a  pair  of  appendages  on  the  lower  side.  In  the  female,  the  anterior  five 
pairs  are  small  and  slender,  and  constitute,  the  so-called  swimmerets,  to  which  the  eggs  are 
attached  after  extrusion  from  the  body  and  during  incubation.  The  appendages  of  the  posterior 
abdominal  segment  are  large,  and  each  terminates  in  two  broad  plates  which  lie  at  each  side  of  the 
telson.  In  the  male,  the  anterior  pair  of  abdominal  appendages  are  modified  into  the  stiffened 
styles,  by  means  of  which  the  sex  may  be  easily  distinguished.  The  functions  of  these  different 
appendages  correspond  with  the  same  in  the  Cray-fish,  which  are  described  as  follows  by 
Professor  Huxley: 

"  The  Cray-fish  swims  by  the  help  of  its  abdomen  and  the  hinder  pairs  of  abdominal  limbs ; 
walks  by  means  of  the  four  hinder  pairs  of  thoracic  limbs ;  lays  hold  of  anything  to  fix  itself,  or 
to  assist  in  climbing,  by  the  two  chelate  anterior  pairs  of  these  limbs,  which  are  also  employed  in 
tearing  the  food  seized  by  the  forceps  fbig  claws]  and  conveying  it  to  the  mouth  ;  while  it  seizes 
its  prey  and  defends  itself  with  the  forceps." 

On  the  lower  side  of  the  body,  in  front  of  the  claws,  are  several  pairs  of  variously  shaped 
small  organs,  which  surround  the  mouth  and  subserve  mastication.  Still  farther  in  front  are  two 
long  feelers  or  anteniiie,  and  two  smaller  feelers  or  antenules,  and  also  the  two  compound  eyes, 
situated  at  the  ends  of  two  short,  movable  stalks.  The  carapax  terminates  in  front  in  a  sharp, 
>piny,  and  prominent  projection  or  rostrum,  which  reaches  out  between  the  eyes.  The  gills  are 
siiii;it«]  on  each  side  of  the  body,  just  inside  of  the  carapax,  in  two  cavities,  called  the  branchial 
chambers,  which  open  behind,  below,  and  in  front,  so  that  the  water  has  free  entrance. 

Three  species  of  true  Lobsters,  constituting  the  genus  Homarus,  are  now  recognized  by 
naturalists.  They  live  exclusively  in  the  sea.  The  American  species,  Homarus  americanus,  in 


SIZK  OK  TIIK   1.0HSTKH.  783 

which  we  are  now  interested,  is  the  largest  of  llirm  all.  Next  in  si/.c,  and  of  equal  importance,  is 
tin-  European  species.  HomaruK  rulf/nrix,  which  differs  but  slightly  from  our  own,  the  rostrum 
being  narrower,  and  bearing  teeth  only  on  its  upper  margin,  while  in  the  former  species  the  lower 
margin  of  tlic  rostrum  is  also  armed  with  teeth.  The  third  species  belongs  to  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere .mil  attains  a  length  of  only  about  live  inches.  It  is  called  llomuniH  capensix,  and  inhabits 
the  region  of  the  Cape  of  (iood  Hope.  We  are  not  aware  of  its  being  used  as  food. 

NAM  I1.. — For  a  common  and  widely  distributed  marine  animal,  the  American  Lobster  is 
surprisingly  free  from  the  long  list  of  vernacular  and  local  names  which  encumber  some  of  our 
most  important  industrial  (isbes,  such  as  the  menhaden.  The  simple  term  "Lobster"  belongs  to  it 
«  herever  it  occurs,  and  in  only  a  few  rare  instances  have  the  fishermen  dared  to  assert  their  well- 
acknowledged  right  of  adding,  through  its  means,  a  new  word  to  their  already  somewhat  lengthy 
and  interesting  vocabulary.  On  the  coast  of  Rhode  Island,  Lobsters  are  sometimes  called  "Sea- 
craws,"  from  their  resemblance  to  the  fresh  water  Cray-fish;  and  at  Nantucket  the  young  Lobster 
is  termed  "Grass-hopper";  but  such  names  are  not  much  used,  nor  are  they  of  importance  to  our 
discussion. 

The  different  stages  during  the  process  of  shedding  and  subsequent  hardening  of  the  new 
shell  and  during  spawning  are  designated  by  descriptive  terms,  such  as  "Black  Lobster,"  "Soft- 
sliell."  "Berried  Lobster,"  etc.,  which  are  described  in  full  further  on. 

In  and  about  Vineyard  Sound,  Massachusetts,  two  varieties  of  Lobsters  are  recognized,  and 
these  arc  distinguished  as  "  School  Lobsters"  and  "Hock  Lobsters,"  or  "Groundholders." 

DECREASE  IN  SIZE. — Lobsters  occur  of  all  sizes  up  to  about  forty  pounds  weight,  but  the 
average  size  of  all  Lobsters  now  caught  for  market  is  probably  not  above  two  pounds  weight. 
It  is  a  well-attested  fact  that  the  average  size,  as  well  as  the  abundance  of  Lobsters,  has  steadily 
decreased  from  year  to  year  during  the  past  twenty  years,  and  the  markets  are  now  supplied  with 
a  much  smaller  breed,  so  to  speak,  than  formerly.  Not  that  Lobsters  grow  less  rapidly  at  the 
prevent  time  than  in  previous  years,  or  have  become  in  any  way  dwarfed  in  size,  but  the  avaricious 
lishing  which  has  been  constantly  carried  on  along  almost  the  entire  extent  of  their  range  has 
caught  up  nearly  all  the  larger  individuals  and  reduced  the  bulk  of  those  remaining,  suitable  for 
market,  to  near  the  minimum  prescribed  by  law,  and  there  they  will  probably  remain.  Were  the 
spawning  Lobsters  carefully  protected,  and  due  respect  paid  to  the  laws  limiting  the  size  of 
those  taken  for  food,  we  might  expect  to  find  about  as  many  Lobsters  now  as  in  any  past  time, 
though  they  might  average  smaller  in  size;  but  such,  unfortunately,  is  not  the  case. 

Just  what  the  decrease  in  average  size  has  been  we  have  not  sufficient  data  to  determine; 
but  it  has  occurred  so  recently  and  has  been  so  marked  that  no  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  facts 
can  refuse  to  acknowledge  it.  A  New  Haven  correspondent  states  that  the  average  length  of  the 
Lobsters  sold  in  the  markets  there  to-day  is  about  ten  and  one-half  inches  and  the  average 
weight  about  two  pounds,  against  an  average  length  of  about  thirteen  inches  and  an  average 
weight  of  about  three  and  one-half  pounds  twenty  years  ago.  A  Boston  correspondent,  who  has 
spent  much  time  in  studying  the  lobster  question  from  a  practical  standpoint,  writes  that 
••they  decreased  rapidly  until  the  law  was  enacted  regulating  the  size  of  those  brought  to 
market,  the  enforcement  of  which  arrested  the  apparent  decrease.  I  would  say  here  that  the 
effect  of  a  law  regulating  the  size  of  those  saved  for  food  is,  after  a  time,  to  bring  a  very  large 
majority  of  those  offered  for  sale  to  about  the  legal  limits,  and  an  improvement  can  only  be 
looked  for  by  increasing  the  limit  from  time  to  time." 

AVERAGE  SIZE  AT  PRESENT. — From  many  fishermen  and  lobster-dealers  along  the  entire 
Ne\\  England  coast  we  have  solicited  information  as  to  the  average  size  of  Lobsters  taken  by 


784  NATUKAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

them  in  their  traps  and  sold  as  food,  or  received  at  the  markets.  The  replies  were  numerous, 
and  in  many  cases  undoubtedly  reliable.  In  four  of  the  principal  larger  markets  the  average 
Bizes  were  stated  to  be  as  follows,  the  length  given  being  exclusive  of  the  claws : 

Inchel. 

Portland,  Maine ---        10J 

Boston,  Massachusetts 

New  Haven,  Connecticut 10} 

New  York  City - 10J-15 

The  larger  Lobsters  received  at  New  York  probably  came  from  Eastern  Maine,  and  the 
smaller  ones  from  Southern  New  England. 

According  to  the  fishermen,  the  average  size  of  Lobsters  taken  upon  certain  sections  of  the 
New  England  States  runs  about  as  follows,  the  wide  range  in  the  figures  given  in  some  cases 
resulting  from  the  combining  of  data  from  different  localities : 

Inches. 

Coast  of  Maine,  from  Eastport  to  Portland --  8-15 

New  Hampshire 

Vicinity  of  Boston - - - 10-13 

Vineyard  Sound  to  New  London,  Connecticut 8-12 

Western  Connecticut - - - 8-10} 

The  average  size  is  said  to  be  somewhat  greater  in  Eastern  than  in  Western  Maine,  but  even 
at  the  east  the  smaller  sizes  are  taken  to  sell  to  the  canneries.  On  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia 
Lobsters,  at  present,  run  larger  than  on  the  coast  of  Maine.  According  to  Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood, 
small  Lobsters  are  seldom  seen  at  Provincetown,  or  at  least  were  seldom  taken  there  when  the 
lobster  fishery  was  extensively  carried  on  at  that  place.  In  an  entire  smack  load  there  would 
not  be  half  a  dozen  individuals  weighing  under  two  pounds.  The  average  size  of  Lobsters 
taken  in  the  traps  does  not  appear  to  remain  the  same  at  any  one  place  throughout  the  year.  In 
many  places  they  are  said  to  run  largest  during  the  summer,  or  from  June  until  the  latter  part 
of  August.  This  may  not  hold  good,  however,  for  all  localities.  About  Vineyard  Sound,  Massa- 
chusetts, Lobsters  average  largest  in  June,  and  those  taken  at  that  time  are  called  "  June "  or 
"Sand"  Lobsters.  They  are  lighter  colored  and  have  thinner  shells  than  those  caught  the 
remainder  of  the  year.  School  Lobsters  average  about  the  same  in  size  in  the  same  school,  but 
the  different  schools  may  differ  more  or  less  from  one  another  in  the  average  size  of  the  Lobsters 
composing  them,  and  some  at  times  consist  mostly  of  one  sex  and  others  of  the  opposite  sex. 

LARGE  LOBSTERS. — The  male  Lobsters  are  said,  as  a  rule,  to  attain  the  largest  size,  and  in 
most  localities  they  average  larger  than  the  females.  In  some  few  places,  however,  we  are 
informed  that  the  females  average  largest,  and  where  this  occurs  it  may  possibly  result  from 
the  greater  protection  accorded  the  latter  sex.  A  correspondent  at  Provincetown,  Massachu- 
setts, estimates  that  the  larger  females  attain  there  a  length  of  about  fifteen  to  sixteen  inches, 
and  the  larger  males  about  eighteen  to  twenty -two  inches.  Although  large  Lobsters  have  been 
mostly  exterminated  from  our  coast,  we  still  occasionally  hear  of  the  capture  of  individuals  of 
unusual  size.  From  fishermen  we  have  obtained  information  regarding  three  monster  individuals, 
weighing  respectively  thirty-five,  thirty-eight,  and  forty  pounds  each,  but  no  notice  as  to  the 
year  when  they  were  taken.  Lobsters  of  over  forty  pounds  weight  have  been  recorded,  but  we 
are  inclined  to  look  upon  these  giants  with  some  distrust,  as  we  cannot  ascertain  that  any  of  them 
were  actually  weighed.  From  more  reliable  sources  we  learn  that  sixteen  to  twenty-five  pound 
Lobsters,  although  by  no  means  common,  have  been,  and  still  are,  occasionally  found.  They  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  confined  to  any  one  part  of  the  coast,  as  they  are  recorded  all  the  way 
fna  E  astp  ort,  Maine,  to  New  Jersey. 


COLOR  OF  THE  LOBSTER.  785 

Much  of  the  information  regarding  large  Lobsters  was  obtained  from  lobster-dealers,  who 
liaM-liad  tin-in  tor  sale  in  tlirir  tnaikHs.  A  dealer  lit  New  lla\i-n  -tate>  that  I  unit  \  \caisa-o 
twelve  to  sixteen  pound  Lobsters  were  common,  but  during  the  past  ten  years  a  Lobster  weighing 
ti-ti  pounds  has  been  mrely  seen.  A  Huston  dealer  writes  that  during  tin-  past  season  (KSSO)  he 
has  received  and  sold  several  Lobsters  weighing  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  each.  On  the 
Nova  Scotia  coast,  ten-pound  Lobsters  are  said  to  be  common  now.  The  dimensions  of  these 
ln-av\  individuals  are  seldom  given.  A  specimen  taken  at  Booth  bay,  Maine,  and  said  to  weigh 
l>etwcen  thirty  and  forty  pounds,  had  such  large  claws  that  the  meat  from  one  of  them  was  equal 
to  that  of  an  entire  ordinary-sized  Lobster.  Another  specimen,  weighing  thirty-five  pounds,  had 
a  length  of  four  feet.  Seventeen  to  twenty-four  pound  Lobsters  are  stated  to  measure  from  three 
to  three  and  one-half  feet  long,  and  ten-pounders  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches.  A  nineteen- 
pound  Lobster,  shipped  from  Eastport,  in  1875,  measured  three  feet  five  inches  in  length,  the 
claws  being  eighteen  inches  long  and  eight  inches  across. 

LARGE  LOBSTERS  ON  THE  COAST  OF  ENGLAND. — Although  the  European  Lobster  never 
attains  the  extreme  size  of  the  American,  still  large  individuals  are  occasionally  met  with.  Mr. 
Frank  Buckland  makes  the  following  records  of  large  Lobsters  observed  on  the  coast  of  the 
British  Islands:  "  The  deeper  the  water  and  the  farther  from  the  shore,  the  larger  are  the  Lobsters. 
The  Skye  and  the  Orkney  Lobsters  are  probably  the  largest  in  the  British  Islands.  At  St. 
Mawe's  we  heard  of  two  Lobsters,  one  ten  pounds  and  the  other  nine  and  three-fourths  pounds. 
and  at  Durgan  and  Sennen  of  one  of  thirteen  pounds.  A  large  Lobster  was  caught  in  a  large 
earthenware  pot  at  Gosport  in  1870;  he  weighed  eight  pounds  ten  ounces.  In  May,  1875,  a 
Lobster,  weight  twelve  pounds,  was  found  at  Saint's  Bay,  Guernsey."  Another  specimen  caught 
at  Hamble,  near  Southampton,  was  said  to  have  weighed  fourteen  pounds. 

COLOR. — The  color  of  the  Lobster  is  so  varied  as  to  almost  defy  accurate  description,  even 
in  single  individuals.  It  may  be  described  in  a  general  way  as  consisting  of  a  groundwork  of 
yellow  or  yellowish-red,  covered  with  spots  or  mottlings  of  green,  or  more  rarely  blue.  The 
niottlings  are  most  numerous  and  dense  upon  the  back,  while  on  the  sides  of  the  carapax  and 
lower  surfaces  of  the  claws  the  yellow  generally  predominates.  Along  the  lower  edge  of  the 
carapax,  on  each  side,  there  is  quite  a  broad  marginal  band  of  blue  or  bluish  coloration,  which 
also  extends  a  short  distance  up  the  posterior  margin  of  the  carapax.  Just  above  this  band, 
winch  has  a  distinctly  defined  edge,  the  yellow  (ranging  in  intensity  from  a  light  yellow  to  a  deep 
orange)  begins,  and  may  be  nearly  plain  for  quite  a  breadth,  or  become  at  once  covered  with 
roundish  spots  of  dark  green  or  greenish  or  brownish  olive,  which  increase  in  size  and  become 
more  closely  placed  toward  the  dorsal  surface,  where  they  overlap  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
yellow  seldom  shows  through.  This  combination  frequently  produces  a  very  dark  coloration  on 
the  back,  which  sometimes  appears  as  a  greenish-black.  Often  the  entire  carapax  and  abdomen 
assume  a  very  dark  shade  over  nearly  all  the  sides  as  well  as  back.  Sometimes  the  spots  are 
fewer  in  number  than  ordinary  and  stand  apart  from  one  another,  even  on  the  back,  producing 
the  so-called  "  Spotted  Lobsters."  The  green  color  is  often  replaced  by  different  shades  of  blue. 
Occasionally  a  reddish  coloration  will  predominate  over  the  entire  carapax.  The  rostrum  is  olive 
green,  the  spines  it  bears  being  of  a  deep,  rich  red.  The  abdomen  corresponds  in  markings  with 
the  carapax.  The  depressed  line  running  along  the  center  of  the  back  of  the  carapax  is  distinctly 
marked,  being  generally  dark  green.  The  tail-flaps  are  bordered  along  their  posterior  margins  by 
a  band  of  dark  olive  brown. 

The  npper  surface  of  the  big  claws  has  a  decidedly  reddish  or  orange  cast,  the  color  deep- 
ening towards  the  ends,  which  are  a  very  deep  red,  fading  out  to  a  whitish  color  just  at  the  tips. 
.50  F 


786  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Over  this  groundwork  the  outer  margin  of  the  claw  has  a  broad  banding  of  dark  olive  brown  or 
black,  and  numerous  large  spots  of  the  same  color  cover  more  or  less  of  the  remaining  surface. 
The  under  sides  of  the  large  claws  are  almost  always  an  orange  of  variable  intensity,  the  terminal 
joints  being  more  intense  than  the  inner  ones,  which  are  more  or  less  marked  with  green  or  blue. 
The  other  legs  are  much  lighter  below  than  the  claws,  with  green  or  blue  markings,  especially 
above  and  at  the  ends  of  the  joints.  The  tips  end  in  deep  orange  red,  while  the  bunches  of  hairs 
which  ornament  them  and  other  parts  of  the  body  are  almost  a  ruby  red,  when  the  specimen  has 
just  been  taken  from  the  water.  The  soft  skin  covering  the  under  surface  of  the  abdomen,  and 
the  swimmerets  are  of  a  faint  pinkish  color,  due  to  the  presence  of  multitudes  of  very  minute  red 
spots. 

These  color  variations  of  Lobsters  probably  depend,  to  a  certain  extent,  upon  the  character 
or  color  of  the  bottom  inhabited  by  them,  but  some  of  the  varieties  cannot  be  accounted  for  in 
that  manner.  The  character  of  their  food  may  also  have  some  influence  in  the  matter.  Lobsters 
obtained  from  rocky  bottoms  more  or  less  covered  with  sea  weeds,  and  from  dark  grassy  bottoms, 
are  said  to  be  generally  much  darker  in  color  than  those  from  sandy  bottoms,  and  also  to  average 
shorter  in  proportion  to  their  weight.  Lobsters  from  open  sandy  bottoms  are  not  only  lighter  in 
color,  but  also  appear  to  be,  usually,  brighter.  We  have  several  recorded  instances  of  red  Lobsters 
from  sandy  bottoms,  some  of  the  specimens  examined  having  been  nearly  as  red  as  Lobsters 
ordinarily  are  after  boiling.  Nearly  white  Lobsters  also  occur  occasionally  in  similar  situations. 
One  of  the  most  curious  color  varieties  we  ever  saw  had  numerous  round,  bright  yellow  spots, 
ranging  in  size  from  very  small  to  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  scattered  without  order  over 
the  entire  body.  It  is  well  known  to  all  consumers  of  Lobsters  that  the  shell  of  these  animals 
quickly  changes  to  a  nearly  uniform  bright-red  color  on  boiling. 

DISTRIBUTION— GEOGRAP.  ICAL  RANGE.— The  American  Lobster  ranges  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Delaware  to  Labrador,  and  has  even  been  found  as  far  south  as  the  northeastern  corner 
of  Virginia.  A  correspondent  at  Johusontown,  Virginia,  informs  us  that  he  has  seen  two  or  three 
stragglers  taken  in  that  neighborhood,  and  he  believes  them  to  have  wandered  naturally  to  that 
far  southern  limit,  as  he  cannot  account  for  their  being  carried  there  through  the  agency  of  man. 
The  vicinity  of  the  Delaware  breakwater  can  be  regarded  with  greater  certainty  as  their  southern 
limit,  for  there  they  occur  in  moderate  abundance,  and  are  occasionally  fished  for  with  lobster- 
pots.  They  are  also  sometimes  taken  on  the  fishing  banks  off  Cape  Henlopen  and  Cape  May. 
The  stonework  of  the  Delaware  breakwater  seems,  however,  to  form  quite  an  attractive  place  for 
them  at  present,  though  previous  to  its  construction  they  may  not  have  existed  there  at  all.  They 
may  be  caught  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  breakwater  in  lobster-pots,  and  are  also  incidentally 
taken  in  gill-nets  and  on  hand-lines,  but  the  fishery  is  not  carried  on  regularly,  mainly  on  account 
of  their  scarcity,  and  partly  from  the  fact  that  the  pots  are  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  the  anchors 
of  vessels  seeking  the  protection  of  the  breakwater.  Mr.  Burbage,  of  Ocean  View,  Delaware, 
states  that  he  has  occasionally  seen  small  Lobsters  in  the  surf  along  the  beack,  near  Indian  River 
Inlet. 

Along  the  New  Jersey  coast,  Lobsters  have  been  recorded  from  a  few  places,  but  are  no 
where  very  abundant.  A  fisherman  of  long  experience  about  Cape  May  writes  that  he  has  never 
seen  Lobsters  in  that  region.  Off  Monmouth  County  they  occur  near  to  and  south  of  Nave- 
sink.  At  Long  Branch  and  Atlantic  City  small  amounts  are  taken  annually  for  local  consump- 
tion and  for  shipment  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  Lobsters  are  more  plentiful  on  a  fishing 
ledge  of  rocks  lying  a  short  distance  off  Long  Branch,  and  those  found  near  the  shore  are 
supposed  to  be  summer  visitants  from  this  locality.  Several  instances  of  large  Lobsters  are 


IMSTKir.lTION  OK  Till:   UHISTKK. 

reeordod  from  this  region— two  in  particular  from  off  Atlantic  (Mty,  weighing  twenty  and  lwnit\ 
one  pounds  ouch. 

Alter  passing  tin-  Now  Jersey  coast,  we  soon  come  to  the  region  where  Lobsters  are  more 
continuously  abundant.  At  one  time  they  were  common  in  New  York  Bay,  but  the  establishment 
then-  of  large  factories,  which  jtollute  the  waters,  has  almost  exterminated  them  and  dwarfed  the 
si/o  of  those  remaining.  Throughout  Loiig  Island  Sound,  Lobsters  are  moderately  abundant, 
and  are  fished  for  at  several  localities.  They  become  much  more  plentiful  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Fisher's  Island,  Block  Island,  Montauk  Point,  the  Elizabeth  Islands,  Martha's  Vineyard, 
and  Neman's  Land,  all  of  which  regions  furnish  a  very  important  summer  fishery.  Nearly  all 
favorable  localities  on  the  Massachusetts  coast  abound  in  Lobsters,  though  overfishing  has 
nearly  depleted  some  sections,  as  at  Provincetown.  New  Hampshire  supports  a  limited  lobster 
fisher \ . 

The  Maine  coast  excels  all  others  of  the  States  in  the  abundance  of  Lobsters,  whicii  are  more 
or  less  uniformly  distributed  from  Portland  to  Eastport,  some  localities,  however,  being  more 
favorable  to  their  existence  than  others.  The  fishery  for  this  State  is  much  greater  than  for  all 
the  other  States  combined,  Massachusetts  ranking  next. 

The  Provincial  coast,  or  at  least  the  Nova  Scotian  part  of  it,  is  said  to  be  more  prolific  in 
Lobsters  than  Maine,  though  the  fishery  there  is  not  of  as  long  stauding.  We  have  little  data  as 
to  the  relative  abundance  of  Lobsters  on  the  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  coasts,  but  they  are 
apparently  less  common  than  to  the  south. 

BATHYMETRICAL  RANGE. — The  Lobster  ranges  in  depth  from  about  low-water  mark  to  at 
least  eighty  fathoms,  and  the  fishery  is  regularly  carried  on  in  some  localities  in  depths  of  fifty  to 
sixty  fathoms,  especially  during  the  winter.  At  Eastport  and  elsewhere  on  the  Maine  coast, 
in  the  summer,  they  are  occasionally  left  upon  the  shore  by  the  receding  tide,  either  concealed 
under  stones  and  seaweeds  or  partly  buried  in  the  sand.  During  the  same  season  they  may 
also  be  frequently  seen  about  the  wharves  of  some  of  the  Maine  sea-coast  towns,  attracted 
there  by  the  refuse  thrown  over  from  the  canneries.  Twenty  to  thirty  years  ago,  or  before 
the  fishery  had  made  much  advancement,  Lobsters  were  of  much  more  common  occurrence 
in  the  littoral  zone,  and  were  often  gaffed  from  the  shore  by  the  early  fishermen.  Even  to-day, 
in  some  places,  the  pots  are  set  in  such  shallow  water  that  they  are  exposed  at  low  tide. 
Several  accounts  of  this  shore  fishery  have  been  reserved  for  the  industrial  portion  of  the 
'present  report. 

As  explained  elsewhere,  Lobsters  move  towards  the  shore  in  summer,  and  away  from  it,  or 
into  deeper  water,  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  During  the  principal  fishing  season,  which 
includes  the  warmer  half  of  the  year,  they  are  most  abundant  in  depths  of  a  very  few  to  about 
fifteen  or  twenty  fathoms,  and  it  is  within  these  depths  that  the  pots  are  mainly  set. 

OFF-SHOEE  RANGE. — Lobsters  have  been  recorded  from  the  fishing  banks  off  Uova  Scotia, 
from  the  fishing  banks  and  ledges  of  the  Gulf  of  Maine,  such  as  Jeffrey's  Ledge  and  Gashe's 
Ledge,  and  from  other  more  southern  off-shore  banks.  They  have  also  been  taken  from  the 
stomachs  of  cod  caught  on  George's  Banks.  There  is,  however,  no  off-shore  lobster  fishery. 

FRESH  AND  BRACKISH  WATER. — Lobsters  will  not  live  in  fresh  or  brackish  water,  although 
it  is  an  unsettled  question  as  to  whether  a  slight  admixture  of  fresh  water  is  harmful  to  them  or 
not.  They  are  caught  at  the  mouths  of  large  rivers  where  the  water  is  decidedly  biaeki.sh  on  top, 
but  when  placed  in  surface  cars  at  the  same  localities  they  are  said  to  qniekh  perish,  indicating 
that  the  water  must  bo  much  more  salt  at  the  bottom. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  BOTTOM. — Lobsters  prefer  rocky,  gravelly,  and  sandy  bottoms,  and, 


788  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

in  shoal  waters,  especially  those  which  are  more  or  less  covered  with  growths  of  the  larger 
seaweeds.  Vegetation  is  not,  however,  essential  to  their  well-being,  for  they  live  on  the  barren 
sands,  as  at  Provincetown,  Cape  Cod,  and  on  rocky,  stony,  and  hard  bottoms,  wherever  they 
can  find  food.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  they  are  said  to  occasionally  occur  on  the 
mud,  and  this  fact  is  recorded  of  them  in  other  localities.  On  rocky  bottoms  they  remain 
more  or  less  concealed  under  and  among  the  rocks  and  stones,  watching  for  their  prey.  In 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  elsewhere  they  are  often  seen  lurking  under  stones  at  low  water, 
and  about  the  wharves.  The  lobster-pots  are  generally  set  upon  gravelly  and  sandy  bottoms. 
In  many  localities  the  young,  under  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  are  often  abundant  in  shallow 
coves  or  bays,  which  are  more  or  less  filled  up  with  kelp  and  other  large  seaweeds.  In  such 
places  as  these  they  have  been  commonly  taken  in  the  beam  trawl  used  by  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission  for  bottom  fish,  in  Long  Island  Sound,  Narragansett  Bay,  and  Vineyard 
Sound.  One  cause  assigned  for  the  great  decrease  in  the  abundance  of  Lobsters  in  Plymouth 
Bay,  Massachusetts,  is  the  raking  over  of  the  rocky  bottom  for  Irish  moss,  which  industry  is 
carried  on  to  a  very  great  extent,  thereby  uncovering  and  destroying  the  young  and  damaging 
their  grounds. 

MIGRATIONS. — The  Lobsters  inhabiting  the  shoaler  grounds  in  summer  move  into  deeper 
water,  as  a  rule,  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  and  return  again  in  the  spring.  In  some 
localities,  however,  a  few  Lobsters  are  said  to  remain  in  moderately  shoal  water  the  entire  year, 
especially  toward  the  south.  But  all  Lobsters  do  not  leave  their  deeper  abiding  places  in  summer, 
for  they  appear  to  occur  in  greater  or  less  abundance  in  all  depths  at  all  seasons.  The  extent  of 
the  fall  migrations  is  not  very  great,  but  the  Lobsters  move  off  beyond  the  influence  of  the  extreme 
cold  into  slightly  deeper  water,  generally  not  far  away,  where  the  temperature  remains  milder 
and  more  uniform.  Those  who  fish  for  Lobsters  in  the  winter  have,  therefore,  to  set  their  pots  at 
a  greater  distance  from  land  than  in  the  summer,  but  the  winter  fishery  is  of  slight  importance 
compared  with  the  summer. 

Lobsters  are  said  to  approach  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  in  May  and  to  recede  from  them  in 
November,  their  winter  quarters  being  in  depths  of  ten  to  forty-five  fathoms.  In  the  summer 
they  are  abundant  close  to  shore.  At  the  month  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  they  generally  come  into 
shoal  water  in  April,  and  move  off  again  in  October  or  November.  During  the  summer 
months  they  abound  under  the  shelter  of  overhanging  rocks  and  among  the  kelp  near  shore. 
About  five  or  six  weeks  are  taken  tip  by  these  migrations.  They  do  not  move  in  a  body,  but 
approach  and  recede  gradually,  as  the  temperature  of  the  water  changes.  Throughout  the  coast 
of  Maine  the  spring  and  fall  migrations  are  about  the  same,  but  vary  more  or  less  according  to 
the  character  and  temperature  of  the  different  seasons.  In  the  summer,  they  enter  the  numerous 
buys  and  indentations  of  the  coast  line,  which  they  leave  again  in  the  fall.  They  leave  the 
shallow  waters  of  the  coast  of  New  Hampshire  in  December  or  November,  and  can  be  caught 
during  the  entire  winter  in  depths  of  twenty  fathoms.  Boston  Harbor  has  always  been  famous 
as  a  fishing  ground  for  Lobsters,  but  in  the  fall  it  is  completely  deserted  by  these  crustaceans, 
which  repair  to  the  deeper  waters  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  where  a  winter  fishery  can  be  carried 
on.  A  sudden  cold  spell  is  said  to  send  them  off  rapidly,  and  they  have  been  known  to  entirely 
disappear  from  shoal  water  in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two.  Lobster  fishing  ceases  at  Province- 
town,  Cape  Cod,  the  latter  part  of  September,  as  the  Lobsters  become  scarce  after  that  time.  In 
Vineyard  Sound  the  fall  migrations  extend  into  the  deeper  holes  not  far  distant  from  the  summer 
grounds,  but  some  individuals  remain  in  comparatively  shallow  water  the  entire  year.  The  same 
is  true  of  Long  Island  Sound,  where  Lobsters  do  not  move  far  from  their  summer  haunts,  but 


MALE  AND  FEMALE  LOBSTERS.  789 


merely  seek  the  protection  of  deeper  water,  wliriwn-  they  ean  liml  it.     Tin-  season  generally  l 
lYom  April  to  October.    Off  New  Haven,  Coiincrtiriit,  Lobsters  are  occasionally  taken  in  winter, 
on  the  deeper  oyster  banks,  while  dredging  for  oysters. 

SCHOOLING.  —  Although  Lobsters  do  not  appear  to  school  in  the  same  manner  as  some 
lishes,  still  they  often  congregate  in  larger  or  smaller  moving  bodies,  which  travel  from  place 
to  place,  as  though  in  search  of  food.  On  the  central  and  southern  New  England  coasts, 
especially  about  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Neman's  Laud,  two  kinds  of  Lobsters  are  recognized 
by  most  fishermen  —  "School  Lobsters,"  and  "Rock  Lobsters"  or  "Ground  holders."  The  latter 
are  said  to  remain  more  or  less  continuously  in  one  place  during  the  entire  fishing  season,  while 
the  former  are  migratory  and  unceitain  in  their  movements.  These  two  kinds  of  Lobsters  are 
also  stated  to  differ  more  or  less  from  one  another  in  appearance,  especially  as  regards  color,  and 
the  Rock  Lobsters  are  supposed  to  average  heavier  than  the  School  Lobsters,  when  of  the  same 
lengths.  To  what  extent  this  habit  of  schooling  takes  place  we  have  had  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing, but  for  a  short  period  during  the  spring  and  fall  migrations  it  is  probably  more  common 
than  at  other  times.  During  the  regular  summer  movements,  the  larger  or  stronger  Lobsters 
aie  said  to  lead  the  schools,  and  the  maimed  or  crippled  ones  to  straggle  on  behind.  The 
schools  are  apparently  made  up  more  or  less  of  Lobsters  of  uniform  size,  as  the  fishermen  will 
often  catch  the  same  sized  Lobsters  in  their  traps  for  a  certain  period,  after  which  this  size  dis- 
appears and  another  takes  its  place.  These  changes  are  said  to  occur  suddenly,  and  during 
some  years  quite  frequently. 

The  strongest  proof  of  the  schooling  of  Lobsters  is  the  fact  that  they  will  suddenly  appear 
in  great  numbers  in  a  region  where  none  have  been  caught  for  several  days,  and  as  suddenly 
disappear  therefrom  without  apparent  cause.  It  is  possible  that  the  habit  of  schooling  arises 
solely  from  the  necessity  of  migrating,  and  that,  while  they  ordinarily  live  more  or  less  scattered 
over  good  feeding  bottoms,  yet  when  their  common  feeding  ground  becomes  exhausted,  or  the 
temperature  too  severe,  they  are  impelled  to  desert  it  in  a  body  for  some  other  more  favorable 
locality. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  MALES  AND  FEMALES.  —  The  male  and  female  Lobsters  generally  associate 
together  in  the  same  places,  in  about  equal  proportions  ;  but  some  curious  exceptions  to  this  rule 
have  been  recorded.  Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood,  of  Provincetowu,  Massachusetts,  writing  in  1866,  states 
that  at  that  time  about  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  Lobsters  taken  at  Cape  Cod  were  females,  while 
to  the  northward  of  Plymouth,  on  the  west  side  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 
all  those  captured  were  males.  In  and  about  Narragansett  Bay,  the  fishermen  claim  that,  during 
July  and  August,  about  seven-eighths  of  the  Lobsters  taken  are  females,  while  during  the  balance 
of  the  season  the  two  sexes  are  about  equally  abundant.  At  Eastport,  Maine,  it  is  said  that,  as 
a  rule,  more  male  Lobsters  are  taken  than  females.  The  above  statements  must  be  taken  with 
some  grains  of  allowance,  from  the  fact  that  the  fishermen  may  not  always  be  able  to  readily 
distinguish  between  the  two  sexes,  especially  in  the  case  of  females  not  bearing  eggs  externally. 
The  rude  and  hasty  manner  in  which  they  handle  Lobstvrs  would  also  preclude  their  discriminating 
between  the  sexes  with  certainty,  even  though  they  were  well  acquainted  with  their  anatomical 
differences.  Prof.  8.  I.  Smith  examined  quantities  of  Lobsters  in  the  Provincetown  market, 
on  two  occasions,  in  August  and  September,  1872,  without  finding  any  decided  differences  in 
the  number  of  males  and  females.  At  Eastport,  Maine,  his  examinations  were  made  with  even 
more  thoroughness,  and  with  the  same  result.  Professor  Verrill  also  states  that  he  has  found 
the  males  and  females  about  equally  abundant  in  market  supplies  received  from  New  Lon- 
don, Stouiugtoii,  and  Waterford,  Connecticut.  It  is  possible  that,  at  some  seasons,  or  under 


790  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

certain  conditions  the  males  and  females  may  live  more  or  less  apart  from  one  another,  but 
the  observations  of  scientific  men  indicate  that  this  separation  is  not  long  continued,  if  it 
occurs  at  all. 

Mr.  S.  M.  Johnson,  of  Boston,  has  recently  assured  us  that  the  great  preponderance  of 
females  still  holds  true  in  the  case  of  the  Cape  Cod  region.  Of  the  supplies  received  from  there 
at  Boston,  during  the  summer  months,  he  feels  certain,  from  long-continued  observations,  that 
nearly  if  not  quite  ninety  per  cent,  are  females,  and  about  seven-eighths  of  these  bear  spawn 
externally.  The  section  of  coast  from  which  these  Lobsters  are  obtained  extends  along  the  outer 
side  of  Cape  Cod,  from  off  Highland  Light  to  Wood  End  Light.  The  Lobsters  examined  at 
Provincetown,  by  Prof.  S.  I.  Smith,  in  1872,  may  have  come  from  the  bay  side  of  Cape  Cod,  whence 
Provincetown  is  supposed  to  receive  its  supplies  for  home  consumption.  The  females  may  resort 
to  the  shallow  waters  of  the  outer  side  of  the  cape  to  spawn  during  the  season  when  the  fishery 
is  carried  on  there,  and  this  fact,  if  true,  would  readily  account  for  their  great  abundance  in  that 
region,  as  has  been  noticed  for  so  long  a  time.  The  males  and  females  approach  and  recede  from 
the  shore  together  in  the  fall  and  spring. 

WINTER  HABITS.— Fishermen  generally  agree  that  Lobsters  do  not  trap  as  readily  in  the 
winter  as  in  the  summer,  even  though  the  pots  are  set  on  what  are  supposed  to  be  their  winter 
grounds.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  is  that  they  are  not  as  eager  for  food  nor  as  active  in 
their  movements  in  cold  weather  as  in  warm  weather.  This  may  be  true  to  a  great  extent,  but 
we  think  it  is  equally  probable  that  they  are  scattered  over  broader  areas  in  the  winter, 
and  their  haunts  are  not  as  easily  found.  Evidence  in  proof  of  this  idea  has  been  recently 
furnished  us  by  a  prominent  Eastern  dealer,  who  has  kept  large  quantities  of  Lobsters  in  confine- 
ment for  the  winter  trade.  The  bottom  of  the  area  given  up  to  their  keeping  is  very  muddy,  and 
the  surface  of  the  water  sometimes  freezes  over  to  a  depth  of  twenty -two  inches.  On  the 
approach  of  cold  weather  the  Lobsters  bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  leaving  only  the  long 
antenna,  the  eyes,  the  tips  of  the  claws,  and  perhaps  a  small  portion  of  the  front  of  the  carapax, 
projecting  above  it.  Over  some  parts  of  the  inclosure  the  water  is  so  shallow  that  the  exposed 
ap|>endages  can  be  readily  seen  from  the  surface.  In  these  positions  the  Lobsters  lie,  presumably 
all  winter,  unless  disturbed,  but  whether  or  not  they  feed  regularly  has  not  been  observed.  If, 
however,  a  hoop-net,  properly  baited,  is  lowered  in  front  of  them,  they  are  not  slow  to  enter  it, 
plainly  indicating  that  they  are  still  attracted  by  the  bait,  and  it  is  just  the  same  even  after  the 
surface  of  the  water  has  become  a  sheet  of  ice.  As  the  ice  breaks  up  toward  spring,  and  after- 
ward, while  the  drift  ice  still  remains  in  this  area,  the  Lobster.s  become  more  timid  and  cannot  be 
caught.  They  also  seem  to  re  easily  frightened  at  loud  noises,  and  perhaps  retire  deeper  into  the 
mud,  for  bait  appears  to  have  no  attraction  for  them  at  such  times.  It  is  not  possible,  however, 
that  they  could  be  influenced  in  this  manner  in  deeper  water. 

It  is  a  question  which  may  never  be  definitely  decided,  whether  Lobsters  bury  themselves  in 
the  same  manner  in  deep  water  as  near  shore.  The  temperature  there  would  undoubtedly  remain 
more  favorable  to  them  than  in  shallow  water,  but  many  of  those  caught  in  the  pots  in  winter  are 
core  or  less  covered  with  mud. 

MOVEMENTS. — Lobsters  hold  quite  closely  to  the  bottom  and  seldom  leave  it,  unless  it  may 
be  to  escape  an  enemy,  when  they  have  been  seen  to  execute  a  sort  of  swimming  movement 
backward,  by  means  of  their  tail,  darting  up  from  the  bottom,  but  quickly  settling  down  again. 
In  moving  about,  they  seem  to  skim  over  the  bottom,  using  their  four  posterior  pairs  of  feet, 
the  anterior  pair,  or  big  claws,  being  held  rigidly  out  in  front  of  them,  with  the  tips  pointing 
inward  and  not  far  apart.  The  tail  is  also  spread  out  and  well  expanded  at  the  same  time.  The 


<;HO\VTII  OF  THK  i.oiisiKi:.  791 

movements  of  Lobsters  can  be  easily  studied  in  the  shallow  cars  in  which  the)'  are  kept  for 
market.  pn>\  idi  iiu  there  are  not  too  many  of  them,  as  the  bottom  of  the  car  should  not  be  covered. 
Their  actions  appear  easy  ami  graceful,  and  their  swimming  powers  may  be  tested  by  dipping 
them  out  with  a  scoop-net  and  allowing  them  to  fall  back  again.  If  allowed  to  fall  in  tail  foremost, 
a  gentle  tlap  or  two  of  the  tail  is  sufficient  to  give  the  body  the  proper  slope  in  the  water  so  that 
in  .sinking  it  falls  obliquely  and  reaches  bottom  by  a  more  gradual  motion  than  would  be  the  case 
it'  it  t't-11  directlv  downward.  During  the  downward  movement  the  tail  may  or  may  not  be  kept  in 
mot  ion.  lint  in  case  the  specimen  is  thrown  in  head  first  or  sidewise,  if  it  be  in  good,  lively 
condition,  it  may  give  several  vigorous  flaps  of  the  tail  to  right  itself,  and  even  swim  off  in  one 
direction  or  another  for  a  distance  of  several  feet  before  settling  down  as  in  the  former  case.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  Lobster  must  be  regarded  as  a  bottom  animal,  exercising  its  power  of  swimming 
only  in  cases  of  emergency. 

We  have  made  the  above  remarks  to  correct  the  current  impression  among  many  people  that 
the  Lobster  is  a  free  swimmer  and  moves  about  in  schools  like  many  species  of  fish.  For  this 
belief  there  is  no  foundation  in  fact. 

GEOWTH,  SHEDDING,  ETC. — Soft-shelled  Lobsters  occur  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  appear 
to  he  miicli  le>s  common  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer.  The  period  of  their  greatest  abundance 
is  from  June  to  September  or  October.  There  is,  therefore,  no  strictly  defined  shedding  period, 
and  no  possibility  of  determining,  from  present  data,  how  often  Lobsters  shed.  The  shedding  is 
connected  with  the  growth  of  the  individual,  and  when  the  body  has  attained  such  an  increased 
volume  that  the  bard  covering  or  shell  can  no  longer  contain  it,  the  latter  breaks  open,  and  the 
Lobster  comes  forth  in  a  soft  state,  and  considerably  enlarged.  The  possibility,  therefore,  exists 
that  in  good  feeding  regions  Lobsters  may  shed  more  frequently  than  in  poor  ones,  for  in  the 
former  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  growth  would  be  more  rapid  than  in  the  latter.  Absolutely 
nothing  is  known,  however,  regarding  this  fact,  and  we  must  await  future  observations  before 
generalizing.  During  the  younger  stages,  shedding  goes  on  quite  rapidly,  but  as  the  Lobster 
increases  in  age  it  is  probable  that  the  shedding  periods  become  ranch  less  frequent,  and  in  very 
old  individuals  may  cease  altogether.  There  is,  however,  no  conclusive  evidence  to  prove  that 
Lobsters  ever  attain  a  limit  in  size  beyond  which  there  is  no  further  growth.  Large  individuals 
are  occasionally  taken  with  a  very  thick  and  heavy  shell  so  scarred  and  worn  as  to  indicate  a 
prolonged  and  severe  service.  At  times,  the  edges  and  angles  of  the  shell  and  the  exposed 
prominences  of  the  claws  are  completely  worn  away.  Large  Barnacles  are  often  found  upon  the 
shells  of  large  Lobsters,  and  this  fact  is  frequently  cited  as  evidence  that  the  Lobster  had  ceased 
shedding,  or  at  least  had  not  shed  for  several  seasons.  But  after  having  examined  the  slates 
used  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  as  collectors  for  oyster  spat,  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  in 
1880,  the  writer  can  no  longer  regard  this  proof  as  very  convincing.  In  the  course  of  a  month  or 
two  the  common  Barnacle  of  that  region,  a  species  of  Balanus,  which  had  attached  itself  to  the 
slates  in  much  greater  abundance  than  the  oysters,  had  attained  a  diameter  of  nearly  an  inch  and 
gave  promise  of  growing  much  larger  in  a  short  space  of  time. 

The  process  of  shedding  is  very  interesting,  and  has  been  frequently  witnessed,  although  it 
has  never  been  minutely  described  by  a  competent  observer.  The  following  account  has  been 
furnished  us  by  Mr.  S.  M.  Johnson,  of  Boston.  As  a  preliminary,  the  carapax  generally,  but  by 
no  means  always,  splits  lengthwise  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  often  with  a  clean  cut,  quite  to 
the  rostrum.  Otherwise,  the  carapax  merely  separates  widely  from  the  abdomen,  on  the  upper 
side.  The  abdominal  segments  are  the  first  to  be  withdrawn  from  their  hard  investment, '  and 


1  This  is  contrary  to  what  happens  in  the  fre»h-w»ter  Cray-fish. 


792  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

as  soon  as  they  are  free  they  are  used  in  extricating  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body.  The  entire 
process  requires  a  great  amount  of  violent  struggling  and  pulling,  the  claws  occasioning  the 
greatest  difficulty,  from  being  so  much  larger  near  the  tips  than  at  the  base.  Their  fleshy 
portion,  however,  becomes  somewhat  soft  and  flabby  so  as  to  be  easily  extensible,  and  capable  of 
being  compressed  down  to  a  smaller  diameter.  The  basal  joint,  called  the  thimble  by  fishermen, 
breaks  lengthwise  across  the  narrowest  side,  where  a  groove  naturally  exists,  and  the  base  of 
the  next  succeeding  joint  splits  in  the  same  way.  The  remainder  of  this  second  joint,  and  the 
following  larger  one,  are  compressed  and  flattened  upon  the  upper  or  inner  side,  where  the 
shell  is  thinner  than  elsewhere,  the  thin  area  being  oval  in  outline,  distinctly  marked  off  from 
the  surrounding  surface,  and  more  or  less  marked  with  irregular,  elongate,  depressed  lines. 
Preparatory  to  shedding,  this  area,  by  the  absorption  of  certain  of  its  elements,  becomes  a  thin, 
soft,  and  extensible  membrane,  or  may  be  entirely  absorbed  away.  No  other  hinderances  lie  in 
the  way  of  the  passage  of  the  claws  proper,  which  can  be  sufficiently  compressed  to  work  through 
the  next  joint  above  them,  although  the  latter  remains  hard  and  firm. 

The  layer  of  skin  which  is  to  form  the  new  shell  begins  to  take  on  its  distinctive  character 
before  the  old  one  is  cast,  but  does  not  harden  to  any  extent.  In  this  state  it  assumes  a  dark- 
green  color  and  gives  rise  to  the  common  fishermen's  term  of  "  Black  Lobster,"  which  is  used  to 
designate  the  Shedders.  As  the  hard  shell  is  cast,  the  soft  skin  exposed  presents  a  velvet-like 
surface.  The  process  of  shedding  goes  on  rapidly,  as  often  happens  in  lobster-cars  where  the 
animals  have  been  placed  awaiting  shipment  to  market.  Lobsters  which  have  had  no  marked 
indications  of  shedding,  when  placed  in  the  cars,  have  cast  their  coat  within  a  day  or  two 
afterwards.  The  hardening  of  the  new  shell  also  progresses  rapidly.  On  many  Lobsters  the 
newly  forming  shell  can  be  seen  inside  of  the  old  one,  and  more  or  less  closely  adhering  to  it. 
It  appears  like  a  thin,  semi-transparent,  gelatinous  lining  of  the  old  shell,  and  in  some  instances 
can  be  readily  peeled  ofl'  from  it.  Soft-shell  Lobsters  are  sometimes  called  "Cullings,"  and  those 
in  which  the  new  shell  has  become  slightly  hardened  are  named  "  Paper-shells." 

Just  before  and  after  shedding,  Lobsters  remain  quiet,  almost  dormant,  and  more  or  less 
concealed  under  stones  or  among  seaweeds.  Statements  differ  as  to  whether  Lobsters  seek 
food  while  in  the  soft  shell  state.  They  are  said  to  be  captured  in  the  traps  at  times,  often 
in  great  numbers;  but  as  the  food  ordinarily  preferred  by  them,  and  especially  the  baitings 
of  the  traps,  require  hard  surfaces  for  their  mastication,  we  do  not  know  how  to  account  for 
their  presence  in  such  situations.  It  is  well  known  that  hard  Lobsters  which  entered  the  traps 
in  thai  condition  have  shed  therein,  but  in  all  such  cases  the  cast  skin  should  be  present 
when  the  traps  are  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  possible  that  soft  Lobsters  are 
attracted  into  the  traps  by  the  smell  of  the  bait,  without  the  possibility  of  eating  it.  Most 
of  the  soft-shell  Lobsters  handled,  however,  are  captured  before  shedding.  Very  many  are  often 
obtained  in  this  way,  but  they  are  not  considered  good  eating,  as  their  flesh  is  described  as 
thin  and  watery.  They  are  mostly  used  as  bait,  although  it  is  stated  that  they  are  also  sold  to 
the  canneries. 

Soft-shell  Lobsters  are  more  subject  to  dangers  than  the  hard-shell,  being  helpless  to  protect 
themselves.  They  are  greedily  devoured  by  many  species  of  fish,  especially  the  cod,  and  are 
even  said  to  be  attacked  by  hard-shell  individuals  of  their  own  species.  When  caught  at  this 
time,  even  if  returned  at  once  to  the  water,  the  slight  handling  they  receive  is  said  to  generally 
kill  them.  Remaining,  as  they  are  supposed  to,  as  much  as  possible  out  of  harm's  way,  and 
probably  not  feeding  while  in  the  soft  state,  the  mortality  is  undoubtedly  much  less  than  as  though 
their  habits  continued  the  same. 


i'i;o(  i:ss  OK  siii:i)i)iN(i.  793 

The  length  of  time  required  for  the  hardening  of  the  new  shell  has  never  been  recorded  from 
observation.  The  fishermen's  statements  regarding  it  disagree,  but  the  hardening  goes  on 
probably  more  rapidly  in  warm  weather  than  in  eold,  as  in  the,  case  of  the  edible  Crab.  A  careful 
observer  at  Wood's  lloll,  Massachusetts,  says  that  the  shell  becomes  quite  firm  iu  the  course  of 
twenty-four  hours.  After  three  or  four  das s  it  is  supposed  to  be  hard  enough  to  enable  the 
Lobster  to  go  in  search  of  food,  but  the  hardening  probably  continues  aud  tho  shell  increases  in 
thickness,  even  though  it  be  very  gradually,  until  the  next  shedding  period. 

A  short  time  before  shedding,  tho  Lobster  is  said  to  be  very  full  of  meat  and  in  the  best 
possible  eonditiou  for  eating.  This  would  seem  to  result  naturally  from  the  increased  quantity  of 
tlesli  svliieli  must  urriimulate  within  the  shell  preparatory  to  the  Lobster's  assuming  a  larger  size. 
While  shedding,  but  more  especially  while  iu  the  soft  state,  after  the  Lobster  has  expanded  to 
its  new  size,  the  flesh  is  considered  by  most  people  as  unpalatable,  although  it  is  probably  as 
harmless  then  as  at  any  time.  The  fishermen  abhor  soft  Lobsters  as  a  rule,  aud  would  not  eat 
them  under  any  circumstances,  but  customers  are  occasionally  fouud.  One  fisherman  corresj>oud- 
eut  very  aptly  expressed  his  dislike  for  them  iu  the  following  terms:  "They  are  sometimes  eaten 
by  aristocrats,  but  never  by  ».-."  It  seems  very  strange  that  soft  Lobsters  should  be  so  unfavor- 
ably regarded,  when  we  consider  that  the  edible  Grab  is  iu  its  best  condition  just  after  shedding. 

The  female  Lobster  probably  casts  its  shell  soon  after  its  spawn  is  hatched.  The  eggs  are 
attached  so  firmly  to  the  swimmerets  that  they  remain  hanging  to  them  even  after  the  young  have 
gone  forth,  aud  there  is  no  other  way  of  getting  rid  of  this  great  encumbrance  to  the  abdomen 
than  by  shedding.  This  occurrence  has  been  frequently  observed  in  other  species  of  Crustacea, 
and  probably  happens  iu  the  case  of  the  Lobster.  In  fact,  we  have  numerous  recorded  instances 
of  female  Lobsters  bearing  spawn  nearly  ready  to  hatch,  aud  with  the  now  shell  in  process  of 
formation.  It  is  the  common  belief  of  lobstermen  that  Lobsters  which  have  lost  a  claw,  or  been 
seriously  maimed  in  any  way,  do  not  shed  until  after  the  injury  has  been  repaired. 

Prof.  G.  O.  Sars  describes  the  process  of  shedding  with  the  European  Lobster,  Homarus  ml- 
garin,  as  follows : 

"  The  process  of  changing  its  skin  is  very  tedious  and  dangerous  for  the  Lobster,  which  may 
be  imagined  when  it  is  known  that  not  only  the  outer  shell  is  changed,  but  even  some  of  tho 
inner  parts,  e.g.,  the  stomach-bag.  The  process  occupies  considerable  time,  and  while  it  is  going 
on  the  Lobster  is  sick  and  utterly  unable  to  escape  from  its  enemies  or  to  defend  it  self  against 
them.  It  is  therefore  but  natural  that  under  such  circumstances  it  very  easily  dies  iu  the  traps. 
Even  after  the  change  of  shell  is  over  the  Lobster  remains  weak  for  some  time.  It  therefore 
hides  among  the  stones  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  remains  there  until  the  new  shell  has  become 
sufficiently  hard  and  its  strength  has  returned. 

"The  earliest  changing  of  shell  which  I  observed  during  my  journey  was  in  the  first  part  of 
July,  near  Tananger.  I  here  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  a  Lobster  engaged  in  this  process. 
It  had  just  been  taken  out  of  a  lobster-box,  and  could  be  haudled  without  offering  the  least  resist- 
ance. The  shell  on  the  back  was  burst  in  the  middle,  and  the  tail  and  the  feet  were  nearly  all  out 
of  the  old  shell,  while  the  largest  claw  ouly  stuck  out  half  its  length.  This  latter  portion  of  the 
change  of  shell  is  evidently  very  dangerous,  aud,  although  I  observed  it  for  quite  a  while,  I  could 
see  little  or  no  progress.  It  is  certainly  a  painful  and  dangerous  process,  and  probably  many  a 
Lobster  loses  its  life  at  such  times.  Immediately  after  casting  its  shell  the  Lobster  is  lean  and 
miserable,  aud  only  obtains  its  proper  condition  after  the  lapse  of  considerable  time.  According 
to  my  observations,  the  change  of  shell  takes  place  chiefly  during  the  mouth  of  July.  It  certainly 
happens  that  some  change  later,  but  by  far  the  larger  number  appear  to  shed  duriug  that  mouth." 


794  NATUKAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  following  note  regarding  the  shedding  of  the  European  Lobster,  abstracted  from  a  report 
by  a  Danish  naturalist,'  goes  to  confirm  our  previous  statement,  that  the  females  shed  soon  after 
spawning : 

"  After  the  Lobster  has  emitted  its  roe,  and  the  young  have  left  the  mother,  she  begins  to 
shed.  She  therefore  goes  to  safe  places,  and  does  not  seem  to  care  much  for  food  while  the  old 
skin  is  being  loosened ;  the  shell  finally  opens  in  the  back,  and  the  animal  goes  into  the  water 
naked.  It  then  looks  as  if  it  were  covered  with  velvet,  on  account  of  the  considerable  formation 
of  cells  which  is  going  on  all  over  its  surface.  These  cells  afterward  grow  hard  through  small 
particles  of  lime  and  form  the  new  shell.  This  shedding  of  the  shell  goes  on  from  the  middle  of 
July  to  September,  but  not  at  the  same  time  all  along  the  coast,  being  earlier  in  the  southern  and 
later  in  the  northern  part.  The  Lobster  thus  gets  sick,  as  it  is  called,  toward  the  end  of  June 
near  Sogndal,  and  the  export  must  then  cease,  as  the  mortality  among  them  becomes  too  great, 
while  near  Karmo  it  is  still  in  a  healthy  condition  till  July  15.  Farther  north  the  shedding  of 
the  shell  begins  still  later,  and  Lobster  may  be  caught  all  through  July." 

KATE  OF  GROWTH. — Nothing  is  known  regarding  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  Lobster  for  any 
extended  period  of  time.  Just  how  many  years  must  elapse  before  it  reaches  a  length  of,  say,  ten 
inches  has  never  been  determined,  nor  can  we  expect  to  solve  this  problem  without  a  long  series 
of  careful  observations,  which  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  make.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
Lobster  increases  in  size  only  when  shedding.  As  the  old  shell  is  cast  away  the  soft  body  rapidly 
expands  to  a  certain  extent,  and  then  soon  becomes  invested  again  with  a  new  hard  covering. 
Knowing  the  frequency  of  the  shedding  periods,  and  the  amount  of  expansion  at  each,  we  could 
easily  determine  the  age  of  Lobsters  of  all  sizes;  but  these  are  the  very  data  which  are  lacking. 
It  is  probable  that  the  rate  of  growth  is  not  the  same  at  all  shedding  periods,  but  is  greater  in  the 
younger  stages  than  in  the  older.  The  early  transformation  from  the  embryo  to  the  first  perfect 
lobster  form  are  all  accomplished  during  a  single  season  by  several  meltings,  but  beyond  this 
period  we  know  nothing  accurately  concerning  the  intervals  between  moltings,  but  in  a  medium- 
sized  Lobster  they  probably  occur  only  once  or  twice  a  year. 

We  have  collected  from  several  sources  a  few  data  as  to  the  amount  of  expansion  at  certain 
stages  of  growth,  and  although  we  cannot  vouch  for  their  accuracy,  they  are  probably  not  far 
from  correct.  The  measurements  given  are  for  the  length  of  the  entire  body  without  the  claws. 
One  Lobster  eight  inches  long  before  shedding  measured  ten  inches  after  shedding;  another 
measured  ten  inches  before  and  twelve  inches  after  shedding;  a  third  ten  and  one-half  inches 
before  and  eleven  and  three-fourths  inches  after  shedding ;  and  a  fourth  ten  and  one-half  inches 
before  and  twelve  inches  after  shedding.  If  these  measurements  had  all  been  taken  with  care 
they  would  indicate  that  the  rate  of  growth  was  not  always  the  same  in  different  individuals  of 
about  the  same  size. 

The  lobster  fishermen  have  very  different  notions  regarding  the  ages  of  Lobsters,  and  while 
some  contend  that  they  attain  a  marketable  size  in  two  or  three  years,  others  extend  the  period  to 
eight  or  ten  years.  The  matter  is  one  of  considerable  importance,  bearing  as  it  does  upon  the 
framing  of  proper  protective  laws,  and  the  feasibility  of  lobster  culture  and  breeding. 

Mr.  Frank  Buckland,  in  his  report  for  1877,  gives  the  two  following  notes  on  the  frequency 
of  shedding  and  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  European  Lobster.  They  are  not,  however,  very 
satisfactory;  aud  we  cannot  believe  that  the  American  lobster  sheds  as  frequently  after  the 
first  year  or  two. 

"  According  to  some  careful  observations  made  at  the  marine  laboratory,  Concarneau,  it 
1  AXIL  BOBCK:  Om  det  noreke  Hummerfiskc  og  (lets  Historic.  Copenhagen,  18C8V69. 


i;i:ri;oi>r(TioN  OK  TIIK  mr.sn.i;. 


appears  that  the  th-t  \i-arthe  I.uhMer  sheds  his  shell  six  times,  the  second  year  six  times.  I  he 
third  year  four  times,  ami  tin-  fourth  \cai  three  times. 

"The  following  table  shows  the  rate  of  growth  iu  a  Lobster  after  each  shedding  of  its  shell: 


Shedding* 

1  •  DCtfc 

Wright. 

Eighth 

Incha. 
3 

OHM 

DracAnu. 
11 

H 

m 

H 

M 

10J 
4* 

Ninth        

H 
• 

3 

Tenth  

Eleventh  _  

Twelfth  

Si 

4 
41 

Thirteenth 

i 

BEPBODUCTION — GENERAL  REMARKS. — Comparatively  little  has  yet  been  made  known 
regarding  the  reproduction  of  the  American  Lobster  and  the  habits  of  the  female  during  the 
spawning  season.  This  is  very  unfortunate,  considering  the  important  bearing  of  all  such 
information  upon  the  question  of  the  artificial  breeding  of  Lobsters,  which,  if  it  is  feasible,  may 
ere  long  have  to  be  undertaken  iu  order  to  replenish  our  already  diminished  supplies.  Many 
obstacles  have  been  mentioned  as  standing  in  the  way  of  such  an  enterprise,  but  from  the 
favorable  beginnings  already  made  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in  this  country,  we  are  inclined  to 
believe  it  will  terminate  successfully. 

Most  of  our  larger  crustaceans,  including  the  Lobster  and  common  Crabs,  although  living 
mainly  upon  the  bottom  when  adult,  have  free-swimming  young,  which,  as  soon  as  they  leave  the 
egg,  and  for  a  more  or  less  prolonged  period,  lead  a  very  erratic  life.  Not  only,  however,  do  the 
habits  of  the  young  generally  differ  very  widely  from  those  of  the  adults,  but  the  appearance  and 
structure  of  the  two  are  as  widely  unlike.  As  described  under  "shedding,"  the  Lobster  grows 
by  a  series  of  molt s.  A  molting  or  shedding  of  the  skin  indicates  that  the  animal  has  grown 
too  large  for  its  inelastic  outer  coat.  Now,  the  very  young,  or  the  larva;,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  grow  in  the  same  manner  as  the  adults.  When  the  higher  crustaceans  first  leave  the  eggs 
they  are  very  unlike  the  parent,  having  a  very  much  simpler  structure  and  often  resembling  one 
of  the  lower  groups  of  crustaceans.  The  larva  of  the  Lobster,  for  instance,  is  somewhat  similar 
in  structure  and  appearance  to  one  of  the  simplest  groups  of  Shrimps,  the  so-called  SchizojKMls. 

The  free-swimming  habits  of  the  young  furnish  some  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  the 
breeding  of  Lobsters.  The  embryos,  after  hatching,  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  they 
spend  much  of  their  time,  and  are  borne  hither  and  thither  at  the  mercy  of  the  currents,  being 
often  carried  beyond  the  favorable  influences  necessary  to  their  development.  In  many  Lobster 
regions  along  our  coast,  in  calm  and  clear  weather,  large  quantities  of  the  young  may  be  dipped 
from  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  the  eddies  and  smooth  streaks  formed  by  the  meeting  of  tidal 
currents.  In  these  quiet  spots  the  varied  minute  animal  life  characterizing  the  upper  strata  of 
the  sea  are  collected  together  in  the  same  manner  as  bits  of  wood  and  clusters  of  seaweed,  which. 
from  their  larger  size,  are  more  familiar  to  the  dwellers  upon  our  coast.  In  stormy  weather  this 
surface  life  descends,  in  greater  part,  to  lower  levels.  This  vagrant  life  of  the  young  Lobsters 
exposes  them  to  the  attacks  of  all  kinds  of  predaceous  surface-feeding  animals,  which  consume 
them  iu  immense  numbers.  In  this  manner  a  great  mortality  occurs — a  much  greater  one, 
undoubtedly,  than  would  arise  did  the  young  remain  upon  the  bottom,  where  they  could  find  some 
shelter  and  protection  from  their  enemies.  The  means  of  caring  for  and  protecting  these  waj  \vaid 
young  should  be  the  first  consideration  of  the  would-be  Lobster-breeder,  and  iu  this  matter  he  will 
probably  encounter  his  greatest  difficulties.  The  length  of  time  required  for  the  yoong  to  attain 


796  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  adult  size  is  another  matter  of  prime  importance,  as  the  breeder's  success  must  also  depend  on 
his  producing  an  early  harvest.  The  age  of  what  may  be  considered  adult  Lobsters  (ten  to 
eleven  inches)  is  not  known,  estimates  by  different  observers  placing  it  all  the  way  from  three 
to  a  dozen  years.  If  the  latter  estimate  be  correct,  we  would  be  almost  forced  to  consider  lobster- 
breeding  as  an  industry  impracticable  from  the  start,  as  the  care,  during  ten  or  twelve  years,  of 
the  number  of  young  necessary  to  produce  salable  Lobsters  in  marketable  quantities  would  involve 
an  expense  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  prices  which  could  be  obtained  for  them.  We  very 
much  doubt,  however,  this  prolonged  extension  of  the  immature  stage  of  the  Lobster,  although 
we  have  no  direct  proof  to  the  contrary.  Lobstermen,  as  a  rule,  consider  that  Lobsters  grow  to 
be  ten  inches  long  in  the  course  of  three  to  five  years,  and  they  base  their  conclusions  mainly 
on  the  fact  that  the  increase  in  size  at  each  molt  is  considerable;  but  this  question  is  discussed 
elsewhere  in  this  report.  We  do  not  pretend  to  say  that,  in  case  the  slow  growth  of  Lobsters 
is  proved,  breeding  would  be  without  many  good  results;  for,  if  the  growth  and  habits  of  Lobsters 
could  be  well  understood,  much  care  and  protection  might  be  accorded  them,  which  would 
materially  increase  their  numbers.  Any  new  and  carefully  made  observations  on  the  spawning 
habits  and  growth  of  Lobsters  would  be  gladly  welcomed  by  all  who  are  interested  in  the  lobster 
question,  whether  from  a  scientific  or  a  practical  standpoint. 

SPAWNING  SEASON. — Lobsters  appear  to  have  no  definite  spawning  season,  as  they  are 
found  with  eggs,  in  different  stages  of  development,  during  the  entire  year.  According  to  the 
statements  of  lobster  fishermen  and  others  who  have  had  abundant  means  of  observation  in  this 
line,  spawning  takes  place  mainly  from  March  until  September.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  winter  lobster  fishery  is  of  very  much  less  importance  than  the  summer,  and 
that  during  the  farmer  season  the  number  of  Lobsters  handled  does  not  in  any  way  compare  with 
the  number  taken  in  the  latter,  so  that  the  proportion  of  spawning  Lobsters  to  non-spawning 
ones,  in  the  two  seasons,  may  not  be  as  great  as  would  seem  to  appear.  Winter  observations  on 
the  nat  iirnl  history  of  the  Lobster,  as  well  as  of  many  other  of  our  marine  food  invertebrates,  are 
very  much  desired.  It  is  said  that  on  the  northern  New  England  coast,  from  Capo  Cod  eastward, 
Lobsters  with  spawn  about  ready  for  extrusion  from  the  body  begin  to  appear  abundantly  in 
March,  and  with  the  spawn  or  eggs  on  the  outside,  as  well  as  hatching,  are  most  abundant  from 
June  to  September.  In  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  Lobsters  spawn  principally  from  the  last  of  June  to 
the  last  of  August.  Southward  of  these  limits  the  spawning  season  begins  earlier. 

Considering,  now,  the  fact  that  spawning  Lobsters  occur  throughout  the  entire  year,  we  are 
left  without  data  as  to  the  frequency  of  spawning  in  each  individual  Lobster.  Did  a  short, 
definite  spawning  period  exist  for  each  year,  we  might  assume  that  Lobsters  spawned  only  once 
a  year,  or  at  least  we  could  assert  that  they  spawned  no  oftener  than  once  a  year.  The  ouly  way 
of  determining  the  fact  positively  would  be  to  study  individual  Lobsters  for  a  certain  period  of 
time,  in  their  natural  haunts  and  under  natural  conditions,  and  every  one  knows  how  difficult 
such  an  undertaking  would  be  with  most  marine  animals.  As  it  is,  the  possibility  exists  of 
Lobsters  spawning  more  than  once  a  year,  and  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  they  spawn 
with  any  exact  regularity  as  to  time.  We  have  the  .jtatements  of  several  individuals,  some 
published  and  others  not,  to  the  effect  that  quite  fully  developed  eggs  are  sometimes  apparent 
in  the  ovaries  when  the  Lobster  is  carrying  spawn  on  the  outside  of  the  body.  But  there  is  no 
way  of  determining  how  long  a  time  must  elapse  before  the  second  lot  of  spawn  might  be 
fertilized  and  made  ready  for  extrusion.  We  are  justified  in  believing,  however,  that,  as  a  rule, 
Lobsters  spawn  but  once  a  year.  In  the  Lobster,  as  in  many  other  marine  animals,  only  a  portion 
of  the  ova  is  fertilized  and  developed  at  each  spawning  time,  often  leaving  the  ovaries  still  quite 


SPAWNING  HABITS.  797 

expanded  with  their  contents,  and  therefore  we  must  always  expect  to  find  spawn  in  some  stage 
of  development  within  the  adult  female,  whether  she  is  carrying  external  spawn  or  not.  This 
statement  will  serve  to  explain  to  lobstertnen  the  fact,  which  they  often  regard  with  some 
surprise,  of  females  carrying  both  internal  and  external  spawn  at  the  same  time,  the  former,  of 
course,  tar  less  developed  than  the  latter. 

The  mature  ovaries  form  two  elongate  lobes  of  considerable  size,  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
body,  just  within  the  shell,  and  immediately  before  spawning  Lobsters  arc  considered  to  be  in 
very  good,  if  not  the  best,  condition  for  eating;  it  is  probable  also  that  at  about  this  stage  the 
spawn  first  attracts  the  attention  of  most  fishermen. 

HABITATS  WHILE  SPAWNING. — Nothing  definite  seems  to  be  known  regarding  the  haunts 
of  spawning  Lobsters,  or  as  to  whether  they  change  their  ground  at  such  times.  It  is  probable 
that,  to  some  extent,  they  do  prefer  certain  localities  for  this  purpose;  but  as  Lobsters  with 
spawn  are  taken  by  the  fishermen  in  their  traps  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  all  depths,  this 
rule  cannot,  by  any  means,  be  regarded  as  universal.  By  assuming  that  certain  regions  are  more 
favorable  for  the  development  and  hatching  of  the  eggs,  we  can  readily  explain  the  great  prepon- 
derance of  female  Lobsters  with  spawn  on  the  sandy  shores  about  Provincetown,  Cape  Cod, 
during  the  summer  months.  Yet,  in  direct  contrast  with  this  region  stands  nearly  the  entire 
coast  of  Maine,  rocky  in  the  extreme,  where  Lobsters  are  even  more  abundant,  and  where  they 
probably  reproduce  in  equal  proportions. 

SIZE  OF  SPAWNING  LOBSTERS. — Lobsters  do  not  generally  begin  to  spawn  until  they  have 
attained  a  length  of  about  ten  and  a  half  to  eleven  inches  (exclusive  of  the  claws),  which  is  about 
the  legal  size  of  marketable  Lobsters.  We  are  informed  by  several  correspondents,  however, 
i  hat  spawning  Lobsters  have  been  taken  as  small  as  eight,  nine,  and  ten  inches;  -but  such  as  these 
are  very  rare.  It  is  probable  that  they  become  mature  at  a  smaller  size  at  the  South  than  at 
the  North,  as  Lobsters  average  smaller  in  Southern  New  England  than  in  Northern  New 
England,  and  yet  the  age  may  average  the  same  in  both  cases.  Mr.  S.  M.  Johnson,  of  Boston, 
who  has  handled  many  thousands  of  Lobsters,  states  that  he  has  never  seen  from  east  of 
Cape  Cod  more  than  two  or  three  specimens  bearing  spawn  under  ten  and  a  half  inches.  He 
thinks  that  but  few  begin  to  spawn  much  under  eleven  inches  in  length,  and  this  size,  in  his 
opinion,  would  be  the  proper  limit  below  which  none  should  be  sold  in  order  to  fully  protect  the 
species. 

PAIRING. — So  far  as  we  are  aware,  no  one  has  ever  witnessed  the  operation  of  pairing  in 
Lobsters,  and  all  that  we  know  concerning  it  is  mere  conjecture.  Many  of  the  female  Lobsters 
obtained  from  sandy  bottoms,  as  at  Provincetown,  Cape  Cod,  are  said,  by  observers,  to  have  the 
carapax  more  or  less  abraded  along  the  top,  and  also  somewhat  worn  over  a  limited  area  upon 
the  sides.  This  has  led  the  fishermen  to  believe  that,  in  pairing,  the  female  Lobster  lies  upon  her 
back  with  the  male  on  top,  clasping  her  about  the  carapax  with  his  claws.  While  in  this 
position  any  strong  agitation  of  the  water  by  the  waves  in  slight  depths  would  probably  cause 
I  lie  pairs  to  oscillate  backward  and  forward,  and  might  account  for  the  abraded  carapaces  of 
the  female,  which  are  said  to  be  of  common  occurrence.  This  story  has  beeu  told  us  by  several 
reliable  parties,  entirely  independent  of  one  another;  but  we  cannot  say  how  much  reliance 
should  be  placed  upon  it,  and  the  evidence  is  certainly  very  slight 

A  large  New  York  dealer  in  Cray-fishes,  who  keeps  large  quantities  of  these  lobster-like 
crustaceans  on  hand  during  their  season,  says  that  he  has  frequently  witnessed  them  pairing,  and 
that  the  males  and  females  come  together  belly  to  belly,  with  the  claws  of  one  tightly  claspiug 
those  of  the  other,  and  spread  out  so  as  to  form  with  the  bodies  a  rude  Y-shaped  figure. 


798  NATURAL  HISTOKY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

NUMBER  OP  EGGS. — The  Lobster,  like  many  other  crustaceans,  carries  a  very  large  amount 
of  spawn  on  the  exterior  of  the  body  at  each  spawning  time.  The  number  varies  with  the  age 
and  size  of  the  Lobster,  but  to  what  extent  is  not  known.  Mr.  S.  M.  Johnson,  of  Boston,  states 
that  two  and  a  half  pound  Lobsters  bear  externally,  on  an  average,  about  twenty  thousand  eggs 
at  a  time,  according  to  several  careful  computations,  made  by  comparing  the  weight  of  a  certain 
number  of  eggs  with  the  weight  of  the  entire  mass  of  spawn  attached  to  the  swimmerets. 

Two  females  which  I  examined  at  Eastport,  Maine,  in  the  summer  of  1882,  gave  the  following 
results  as  regards  the  number  of  eggs  carried  on  the  swimmerets.  The  first  specimen,  measuring 
13jj  inches  in  length,  had  875  grains  of  eggs,  there  being  20  eggs  to  a  grain,  making  a  total  of 
17,500  eggs.  The  second  specimen  measured  13  inches  long  and  carried  480  grains  of  eggs,  with 
25  eggs  to  a  grain,  making  a  sum  total  of  about  12,000  eggs.  Neither  of  the  above  specimens, 
however,  appeared  to  have  their  full  quota  of  eggs,  as  many  of  the  bunches  seemed  to  have  been 
more  or  less  brushed  away,  probably  by  rough  handling.  In  the  last  specimen,  especially,  had  all 
the  bunches  been  of  equal  and  full  size,  the  number  would  have  been  increased  fully  one-half. 

According  to  Mr.  Frank  Bucklaud,  "the  [English]  Berried  Lobster  carries  five  bunches  of 
eggs  on  each  side  underneath  the  tail,  making  ten  bunches  in  all.  I  have  counted  the  eggs  in 
one  bunch  and  find  that  there  are  2,496,  making  the  number  of  eggs  in  this  one  lobster  24,960. 
Lobsters  are  found  with  berries  all  the  year  round;  March,  April,  May  are  the  mouths  wheu  they 
are  fullest" 

DESIGNATIONS  OF  SPAWN. — Lobster  spawn  is  variously  designated,  on  different  parts  of  the 
coast,  as  "spawn,"  "roe,"  "eggs,"  "berry,"  "seed,"  "pea,"  "sweetbread,"  "coral,"  etc.;  but  in  most 
places  it  is  known  simply  as  "spawn,"  "eggs,"  or  "berry."  On  the  Nova  Scotia  coast  the  term 
"coral "  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  the  nearly  mature  spawn  while  still  within  the  body  of  the 
Lobster,  and  after  it  has  passed  to  the  outside  it  is  called  "  eggs.''  In  the  Bay  of  Fundy  the  terms 
"  coral,  "  roe,"  and  "  sweetbread  "  refer  to  the  spawn  before  extrusion  from  the  body,  and  they 
may  also  be  used  in  a  similar  way  on  other  parts  of  the  coast.  In  some  portions  of  Long  Island 
Sound,  Lobsters  with  external  spawn  are  called  "  Black-egg  Lobsters." 

THE  SPAWN  AS  FOOD. — Before  the  spawn  has  passed  from  the  body  to  the  external  appendages 
it  is  very  much  esteemed  as  food,  and  is  generally  eaten  whenever  it  can  be  obtained;  it  is  also 
canned.  The  external  spawn,  however,  although  sometimes  used  to  garnish  fish  dishes  and 
salads,  is  not  usually  regarded  as  edible. 

EXTRUSION  OF  THE  EGGS,  ETC.— The  spawning  of  the  Lobster  is  accomplished  in  about  the 
same  manner  as  with  the  Cray  fish,  regarding  which  many  more  carefully  recorded  observations 
are  extant  According  to  Huxley,  the  fecundating  material  of  the  Cray-fish,  which  is  extruded 
from  a  small  aperture  on  the  basal  joint  of  the  hindermost  pair  of  legs,  is  a  "thickish  fluid, 
which  sets  into  a  white  solid  after  extrusion."  This  substance  is  deposited  by  the  male  on  the 
thorax  of  the  female,  between  the  bases  of  the  hindermost  pair  of  thoracic  limbs.  The  apertures 
for  the  outward  passage  of  the  eggs  are  situated  on  the  bases  of  the  second  pair  of  legs,  back  of 
the  large  claws.  The  eggs,  "  as  they  leave  the  apertures  of  the  oviducts,  are  coated  with  a  viscid 
matter,  which  is  readily  drawn  out  into  a  short  thread.  The  end  of  the  thread  attaches  itself  to 
one  of  the  long  hairs  with  which  the  swimmerets  are  fringed,  and  as  the  viscid  matter  rapidly 
hardens,  the  egg  thus  becomes  attached  to  the  limb  by  a  stalk.  The  operation  is  repeated  until 
sometimes  a  couple  of  hundred  eggs  are  thus  glued  on  to  the  swimmerets.  Partaking  in  the  move- 
ments of  the  swimmerets,  they  are  washed  backward  and  forward  in  the  water,  and  thus  aerated 
and  kept  free  of  impurities." 

The  process  of  development  is  slow,  and  the  young,  when  first  hatched,  bear  a  general 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  YOUNG.  799 

resemblance  to  tin-  pan-til.  Kor  sonic  time  at'ti-r  they  arc  hatched  they  In. 1,1  on  to  the  swimmerets 
of  the  mother,  ami  are  carried  aliout  protected  by  her  abdomen.  AH  they  become  more  active 

the\  s limes  leave  ilie  mother  when  she  is  resting  quietly  ami  creep  about  a  short  distance  off, 

but  quickly  return  to  her  on  the  first  semblance  of  danger.  A  few  days  later  they  gradually 
forsake  her  for  good.  The,  earlier  stages  of  tbe  embryo  Lobster  differ  considerably  from  those 
of  the  Cray-fish,  as  described  further  ou.  The  eggs  of  the  Lobster  lire  probably  extruded  in 
a  similar  manner,  and  are  attached  to  tbe  swimmerets  by  the  same  viscid  substance.  Accord- 
ing to  s e  American  observers,  however,  the  viscid  substance  is  first  extruded  from  the  openings 

of  the,  oviducts  and  appears  as  a  thick,  globular  muss,  which  is  brushed  back  over  the  swim- 
merets by  the  movements  of  the  posterior  pair  of  thoracic  legs.  The  eggs  are  said  to  follow 
immediately  afterwards  and  to  be  spread  about  in  the  same  manner.  Becoming  thus  securely 
attached  to  the  swimmerets,  they  remain  well  protected  and  are  kept  constantly  aerated  by  the 
movements  of  these  posterior  flaps  until  the  young  are  batched.  Without  further  observations 
we  cannot  strongly  indorse  the  idea  of  the  viscid  material  being  first  excreted;  but  if  such 
occurs  in  the  beginning,  there  is  still  no  reason  why  the  eggs  may  not  be  also  covered  with  the 
same  substance  as  they  are  laid.  The  eggs  are  not  attached  to  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
s\\immerets  of  the  Lobster,  but  to  the  long,  slender  hairs  which  project  from  along  their  sides. 
In  that  way  they  hang  more  loosely  and  can  be  given  freer  motion. 

SHEDDING  AFTER  SPAWNING. — As  explained  under  "shedding,"  it  is  probable  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  females  shed  their  shells  soon  after  their  eggs  are  hatched,  as  there  is  no  other  way  of 
ridding  themselves  of  the  broken  egg-shells  adhering  so  firmly  to  the  swimmerets  by  means  of 
the  tough  little  threads.  Lobsters  with  very  ripe  spawn  have  frequently  been  seen  in  a  condition 
preparatory  to  shedding,  thus,  in  a  measure,  corroborating  the  above  conjecture.  According  to 
Prof.  S.  I.  Smith  this  shedding  after  spawning  is  known  to  occur  in  some  of  the  Grabs.  This 
peculiarity  is  also  affirmed  with  regard  to  the  European  female  Lobster,  as  described  elsewhere. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  YOUNG. — The  earlier  embryonic  stages  of  the  Lobster  have  been 
studied  by  Prof.  S.  I.  Smith,  of  Yale  College,  whose  observations,  however,  extended  over  onlj-  a 
limited  period.  They  were  made  at  Wood's  Holl,  Massachusetts,  and  New  Haven,  Connecticut. 
K-'g.i  with  the  embryos  well  advanced,  taken  from  the  females  May  2,  had  the  shape  of  slightly 
elongate  spheroids,  about  2.lmm  long  and  1.9mni  across.  "  One  side  is  rendered  very  opaque  dark 
green  by  the  unabsorbed  yolk  mass,  while  the  other  shows  the  eyes  as  two  large  black  spots, 
and  the  red  pigment  spots  on  the  edge  of  the  carapax,  bases  of  the  legs,  etc.,  as  irregular  lines 
of  pink  markings.  .  .  .  Fully  one-half  the  embryo  is  still  occupied  by  the  unabsorbed  port  ion 
of  the  yolk.  .  .  .  The  eyes  are  large,  nearly  round,  and  with  a  central  portion  of  black 
pigment.  .  .  .  The  five  pairs  of  cephalo-thoracic  legs  are  all  similar  and  of  about  the  same 
si/.e,  except  the  main  branch  of  the  first  pair,  which  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the  others.  .  .  . 
The  subsequent  development  of  the  embryo  within  the  egg  was  not  observed." 

In  the  account  of  his  observations,  Professor  Smith  goes  on  to  describe  such  of  the  embryonic 
stages  following  hatching  as  he  was  able  to  obtain.  From  his  long  and  technical  descriptions  we 
extract  only  those  portions  which  can  be  best  understood  by  the  general  reader,  and  which  it  will 
be  well  for  the  breeder  to  become  acquainted  with  to  aid  him  in  his  practical  labors.  We  would 
suggest  here  that  the  breeder  himself,  or  some  intelligent  man  in  his  employ,  should  t'amiliari/i- 
himself  with  the  workings  of  an  ordinary  low-power  microscope,  in  order  that  he  may  follow  the 
development  of  the  young  Lobsters  under  his  care,  and  observe  whether  they  are  doing  well  or 
die  off  soon  after  hatching.  Unless  such  precautions  as  these  are  taken,  he  might  continue  to 
work  for  a  long  time  completely  in  the  dork,  and  without  knowing  whether  he  was  making 


800  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

progress  or  not     A  continuous  series  of  observations  would  enable  him,  at  all  times,  to  follow 
the  success  of  his  experiments,  or  determine,  perhaps,  the  causes  of  his  failures. 

The  exact  number  of  changes  or  moltings  which  take  place  between  the  last  egg  stage  and 
the  first  stage  having  the  general  shape  and  characters  of  the  adult,  is  not  known.  Professor 
Smith  observed  three  such  stages,  but  supposes  others  to  be  wanting.  His  account  of  these 
stages  is  as  follows : 

"The  following  observations  on  the  young  lame,  after  they  have  left  the  eggs,  have  all  been 
made  upon  specimens  obtained  in  Vineyard  Sound,  or  the  adjacent  waters,  during  July.  These 
specimens  were  mostly  taken  at  the  surface  in  the  daytime,  either  with  the  towing  or  hand  net. 
They  represent  three  quite  different  stages  in  the  true  larval  condition,  besides  a  later  stage 
approaching  closely  the  adult.  The  exact  age  of  the  larvae  of  the  first  stage  was  not  ascertained, 
but  was  probably  only  a  few  days,  and  they  had,  most  likely,  molted  not  more  than  once. 
Between  the  third  stage,  here  described,  and  the  last  there  is  probably  an  intermediate  form 
wanting. 

"  First  stage. — In  this  stage  the  young  are  free-swimming  Schizopods '  about  a  third  of  an 
inch  (7.8mm  to  S.O""11)  in  length,  without  abdominal  appendages,  and  with  six  pairs  of  pediform 
cephalo-thoracic  appendages,  each  with  the  exopodus  developed  into  a  powerful  swimming  organ. 
The  eyes  are  bright  blue;  the  anterior  portion  and  the  lower  margin  of  the  carapax  and  the 
bases  of  the  legs  are  speckled  with  orange;  the  lower  margin,  the  whole  of  the  penultimate,  and 
the  basal  portion  of  the  ultimate  segment  of  the  abdomen  are  brilliant  reddish-orange.  The 
antenna?  have  large,  well-developed  scales,  furnished  along  the  inner  margin  with  long,  plumose 
hairs.  .  .  .  The  anterior  cephalo-thoracic  legs,  which  in  the  adult  develop  into  the  big  claws, 
are  exactly  alike  and  no  longer  than  the  exterior  maxillipeds.  The  pediform  (outer)  branch 
is,  however,  somewhat  stouter  than  in  the  other  legs,  and  subcheliform  (bearing  an  imperfect 
claw);  the  legs  of  the  second  and  third  pairs  are  similar  to  the  first,  but  not  as  stout.  The  legs  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  pairs  are  still  more  slender,  and  styliform  at  the  extremity,  as  in  the  adult." 
Very  rudimentary  branchiae  or  gills  are  observed  on  all  of  the  legs  and  the  external  maxillipeds. 
"The  abdomen  is  slender,  the  second  to  the  fifth  segments  each  armed  with  a  large  dorsal  spine, 
curved  backward,  and  with  the  lateral  angles  produced  into  long  spines,  and  the  sixth  segment 
with  two  dorsal  spines.  The  posterior  margin  of  the  last  segment  is  armed  with  a  long  and  stout 
central  spine,  and  each  side  with  fourteen  or  fifteen  plumose  spines  or  setae,  which  are  articulated 
to  the  margin. 

"In  this  stage  the  young  were  first  taken  July  1,  when  they  were  seen  swimming  rapidly 
about  at  the  surface  of  the  water  among  great  numbers  of  Zoeae,  Megalops,  and  Copepods.  Their 
motions  and  habits  recall  at  once  the  species  of  Mysis  and  Thysanopoda,  but  their  motions  are  not 
quite  as  rapid,  and  are  more  irregular.  Their  bright  colors  render  them  conspicuous  objects,  and 
they  must  be  readily  seen  and  captured  by  fishes.  They  were  frequently  taken  at  the  surface  in 
different  parts  of  Vineyard  Sound  from  July  1  to  7,  and  several  were  taken  off  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,  as  late  as  July  15,  and  they  would  very  likely  be  found  also  in  June,  judging  from  the 
stage  of  development  to  which  the  embryos  had  advanced  early  in  May  in  Long  Island  Sound. 
Besides  the  specimens  taken  in  the  open  water  of  the  Sound,  a  great  number  were  obtained  July 
0  from  the  well  of  a  lobster-smack,  where  they  were  swimming  in  great  abundance  near  the 
surface  of  the  water,  having  undoubtedly  been  recently  hatched  from  the  eggs  carried  by  the 


1  The  Schizopods  are  a  gronp  of  Shrimps,  lower  in  organization  than  our  common  Shrimp  (Orangon  vulgaris),  and  very 
abundant  along  the  New  England  coast.  They  generally  swim  in  large  schools,  either  at  the  surface  or  at  intermediate 
depths  between  the  surface  and  the  bottom,  oltcn  at  some  distance  from  land. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  Till:  YOUNG.  801 

female  Lobsters  coiiflncd  iu  the  well.  Some  of  these  specimens  lived  in  vessels  of  fresh  sea-water 
for  two  days,  but  all  efforts  to  keep  them  alive  long  enough  to  observe  their  molting  failed.  They 
appeared,  while  thus  in  confinement,  to  feed  principally  upon  very  minute  animals  of  different 
kinds,  but  were  .several  times  seen  to  devour  small  Zoeae,  and  occasionally  when  much  crowded,  so 
that  some  of  them  became  exhausted,  they  fed  upon  each  other,  the  stronger  ones  eating  the 
weaker. 

"Second  stage. — In  the  next  stage  the  young  Lobsters  have  increased  somewhat  in  size,  and 
the  abdominal  legs  of  the  second  to  the  fifth  segments  have  appeared.  The  rostrum  is  much 
broader  and  there  are  several  teeth  along  the  edges.  The  basal  segments  of  the  antenuulae  have 
become  defined,  and  the  secondary  flagellum  has  appeared,  but  is  not  subdivided  into  segments. 
The  autcnuiB  and  mouth  organs  have  undergone  but  slight  changes.  The  first  cepbalo-thoracio 
legs  are  proportionally  larger  and  stouter  than  in  the  first  stage,  and  have  become  truly  cheli- 
forrn.  The  succeeding  legs  have  changed  little.  The  epipodi  of  all  the  legs  and  of  the  external 
maxilhpeds  have  increased  in  size,  and  the  branchial  processes  are  distinctly  lobed  along  the 
edges,  and  have  begun  to  assume  the  form  of  true  branchiae.  The  segments  of  the  abdomen  have 
the  same  number  of  spines,  but  they  are  relatively  somewhat  smaller,  and  the  last  segment  is 
relatively  -smaller  and  broader  at  base.  The  appendages  of  the  second  to  the  fifth  segments  differ 
considerably  in  size  indifferent  specimens,  but  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  segments  themselves; 
their  terminal  lamella?,  however,  are  represented  only  by  simple,  sack-like  appendages,  without 
sign  of  segmentation,  or  clothing  of  hairs  or  set®.  The  penultimate  segment  is  still  without 
appendages.  Specimens  in  this  stage  were  taken  only  twice,  July  1  and  15.  They  have  the  same 
habits  and  general  appearance  as  in  the  first  stage,  but  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  posses- 
sion of  rudimentary  abdominal  legs.  In  color  they  are  almost  exactly  the  same,  only  the  orange- 
colored  markings  are  perhaps  a  little  less  intense. 

"  Third  stage. — In  the  third  stage  the  larvae  are  about  half  an  inch  (12"1111  to  13mm)  in  length, 
and  the  integument  is  of  a  much  firmer  consisten«y  than  in  the  earlier  stages.  The  antennuItB  are 
still  rudimentary,  and  considerably  shorter  than  the  rostrum,  although  the  secondary  flagellum 
has  increased  in  length  and  begins  to  show  division  into  numerous  segments.  The  antennae 
retain  the  most  marked  feature  of  the  early  stages — the  large  size  of  the  scale — but  the  tiagellum 
is  much  longer  than  the  scale  and  begins  to  show  division  into  segments.  .  .  .  The  external 
inaxillipeds  have  begun  to  lose  their  pediform  character.  The  anterior  legs  have  increased 
enormously  iu  size,  and  those  of  the  second  and  third  pairs  have  become  truly  chelate,  while  the 
swimming  exopodal  branches  of  all  the  legs,  as  well  as  of  the  external  maxillipeds,  are  relatively 
much  smaller  and  more  unimportant.  .  .  .  The  branchiae  have  developed  rapidly  and  have 
a  single  series  of  well-marked  lobes  along  each  side.  The  abdomen  still  has  the  spines  charac- 
teristic of  the  earlier  stages,  though  all  of  them  are  much  reduced  iu  size.  The  appendages  of 
the  second  to  the  fifth  segments  have  become  conspicuous,  their  lamellae  have  more  than  doubled 
in  length,  and  the  margins  of  the  terminal  half  are  furnished  with  very  short  ciliated  setae.  The 
appendages  of  the  penultimate  segment  are  well  developed,  although  quite  different  from  those  in 
the  adult.  The  outer  lamella  wants  wholly  the  transverse  articulation  near  its  extremity,  and 
both  are  margined,  except  the  outer  edge  of  the  outer  lamella,  with  long  plumose  hairs.  The  last 
segment  is  relatively  smaller  and  more  quadrangular  in  outline,  and  the  spines  of  the  posterior 
margin  are  much  smaller.  The  only  specimens  procured  in  this  stage  were  taken  July  8  and  15. 
In  color  they  were  less  brilliant  than  iu  the  earlier  stages,  the  orange  markings  being  duller  and 
the  whole  animal  slightly  tinged  with  greenish-brown. 

"  In  the  next  stage  observed,  the  animal,  about  three  fifths  of  an  inch  (W""  to  17mm)  long,  has 
51  F 


802  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

lost  all  its  schizopodal  characters,  and  has  assumed  the  more  important  features  of  the  adult 
Lobster.  It  still  retains,  however,  the  free-swimming  habit  of  the  true  larval  forms,  and  was 
frequently  taken  at  the  surface,  both  in  the  towing  and  hand  net.  Although  resembling  the 
adult  in  many  features,  it  differs  so  much  that,  were  it  an  adult  form,  it  would  undoubtedly  be 
regarded  as  a  distinct  genus.  The  rostrum  is  bifid  at  tip,  and  armed  with  three  or  four  teeth  on 
each  side  toward  the  base,  and  in  some  specimens  with  a  minute  additional  spine,  ou  one  or  both 
sides,  close  to  the  tip.  The  flagella  of  the  antennulse  extend  scarcely  beyond  the  tip  of  the 
rostrum.  The  antennal  scale  is  very  much  reduced  in  size,  but  is  still  conspicuous  and  furnished 
with  long  plumose  hairs  along  the  inner  margin,  while  the  flagelluni  is  as  long  as  the  carapax. 
The  palpi  of  the  mandibles  have  assumed  the  adult  character,  but  the  mandibles  themselves 
have  not  acquired  the  massive  molar  character  which  they  have  in  the  older  animal.  The  other 
mouth  organs  have  nearly  the  adult  form.  The  anterior  legs,  although  quite  large,  are  still 
slender  and  just  alike  on  the  two  sides,  while  all  the  ccphalo-thoracic  legs  retain  a  distinct  process 
in  place  of  the  swimming  exopodi  of  the  larva.  The  lateral  angles  of  the  second  to  the  fifth 
abdominal  segments  are  prolonged  downward  into  long  spiuiform  teeth;  the  appendages  of  these 
segments  are  proportionately  much  longer  than  in  the  adult,  and  the  margins  of  their  terminal 
lamelhe  are  furnished  with  very  long  plumose  hairs.  The  lamellae  of  the  appendages  of  the 
penultimate  segment  are  oval,  and  margined  with  long  plumose  hairs.  The  terminal  segment  is 
nearly  quadrangular,  as  wide  at  the  extremity  as  at  the  base,  the  posterior  margin  arcuate,  but 
not  extending  beyond  the  prominent  lateral  angles,  and  furnished  with  hairs  like  those  on  the 
margins  of  the  lamellae  of  the  appendages  of  the  penultimate  segment.  In  color  they  resemble 
closely  the  adult,  but  the  green  color  of  the  back  is  lighter,  and  the  yellowish  markings  upon 
the  claws  and  body  are  proportionately  larger. 

"  In  this  stage  the  young  Lobsters  swim  very  rapidly  by  means  of  the  abdominal  legs,  and 
dart  backward,  when  disturbed,  with  the  caudal  appendages,  frequently  jumping  out  of  the  water 
in  this  way  like  Shrimp,  which  their  movements  in  the  water  much  resemble.  They  appear  to  be 
truly  surface  animals,  as  in  the  earlier  stages,  and  were  often  seen  swimming  about  among  other 
surface  animals.  They  were  frequently  taken  from  the  8th  to  the  28th  of  July,  and  very  likely 
occur  much  later.  From  the  dates  at  which  the  different  forms  were  taken,  it  is  probable  that 
they  pass  through  all  the  stages  here  described  in  the  course  of  a  single  season.  How  late  the 
young,  after  reaching  the  lobster-like  form,  retain  their  free-swimming  habit  was  not  ascer- 
tained." 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  LOBSTER.— According  to  Prof.  G.  O.  Sars,  of  Norway, 
the  European  Lobster  agrees  more  or  less  closely  with  our  own  species  in  its  spawning  habits 
and  development,  as  the  following  extract  from  his  report  will  show : l 

"  The  propagating  of  the  Lobster  does  not  seem  to  be  strictly  confined  to  a  certain  season  of 
the  year,  as  Lobsters  with  roe  may  be  found  nearly  all  the  year  round.  But  the  rule  seems  to  be 
that  the  development  of  the  young  goes  on  during  the  summer  months,  from  the  beginning  of 
July  until  the  early  part  of  September.  The  more  developed  roe  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  its 
lighter  color,  and  partly,  also,  by  the  larger  size  of  the  eggs.  A  closer  examination  shows  distinctly 
in  every  egg  two  dark  spots,  which  are  the  eyes  of  the  embryo.  The  more  distinct  these  spots 
are  the  more  developed  is  the  embryo.  When  its  development  is  complete  the  egg-shell  bursts^ 
and  the  young  Lobsters  come  out.  These  are  in  the  beginning  very  helpless  and  sink  to  the 
bottom,  where  within  a  very  short  time  they  undergo  their  first  change  of  shell.  Soon  afterward 
their  swimming  apparatus,  which  has  so  far  been  surrounded  by  a  skin,  begins  to  work,  and  the 

1  Saltwater  Fisheries  of  Norway.    ChrUtiania,  1878. 


BREEDING  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  LOBSTER.  803 

young  Lobsters  soon  gambol  about  in  the  water,  and  come  up  to  the  surface,  where  they  reinaiu 
during  the  entire  time  of  their  future  development.    .    .    . 

"At  tlif  fifth  change  their  metamorphosis  is  complete,  and  therewith  ends  their  pelagian  life. 
The  young  Lobster  has  then  entirely  lost  its  swimming  apparatus  attached  to  the  fore  part  of  its 
body,  and  in  its  stead  the  well-known  fringes  have  grown  at  the  lower  side  of  the  back  part  of  the 
body.  These  fringes  are  the  only  swimming  apparatus  which  the  grown  Lobster  possesses;  in  the 
female  Lobster  they  also  serve  in  keep  the  roe  in  position.  The  Lobster  now  leaves  the  surface 
and  goes  to  the  bottom,  there  to  lead  the  same  life  us  its  parents.  I  am  not  positively  certain  how 
long  a  time  is  required  for  the  entire  metamorphosis,  but  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  consumes 
a  couple  of  mouths. 

"  Even  after  the  Lobster  has  reached  its  final  development,  it  continues  to  change  its  skin 
regularly  at  least  once  a  year,  and  continues  to  do  so  as  long  as  it  grows.  Only  when  it  lias 
ceased  growing  this  change  of  skin  does  not  occur  so  often.  We  shall,  therefore,  alwajs  find 
that  very  large  Lobsters  are  more  or  less  thickly  covered  with  scales,  which  is  not  so  frequent  in 
smaller  specimens.  .  .  . 

"  I  did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  Lobsters  measuring  from  an  inch  to  a  finger's  length,  and  so 
far  as  I  know  none  are  contained  in  any  museum.  I  consider  it  as  certain,  however,  that  the 
Lobsters  keep  near  the  coast  during  this  stage  of  their  development.  The  reason  why  they  cannot 
be  caught  with  the  bottom  scraper  is  partly  their  quick  movements  and  partly  the  circumstance 
that  they  hide  among  the  algae  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  fact  that  they  cannot  be  caught 
in  the  common  lobster- baskets  is  easily  explained  by  these  having  such  wide  openings." 

The  following  account  of  the  reproduction  of  the  European  Lobster  on  the  French  coast  is 
by  the  late  M.  Coste,  well  remembered  from  his  many  interesting  and  extensive  experiments  in 
several  branches  of  fish  culture.  We  have  no  means  of  determining  how  accurate  these  obser- 
vations are,  nor  do  we  know  whether  they  are  the  result  of  close  study  or  conclusions  derived 
from  the  accounts  of  fishermen.  We  offer  them  here  as  affording  many  valuable  suggestions 
which  may  aid  observers  on  our  own  coast.  The  seasons  do  not  entirely  correspond  with  ours: 

"The  Lobster  commences  breeding  in  the  month  of  October,  and  the  pairing  takes  place 
sometimes  as  late  as  January.  The  couplings  are  rare  at  the  opening  of  the  season,  but  increase 
in  frequency  to  the  end  of  December,  and  but  few  take  place  in  January.  The  female  emits  the 
oggs  in  about  fifteen  or  twenty  days  after  the  pairing.  When  they  have  reached  the  stage 
proper  for  their  expulsion,  the  female  applies  the  inner  side  of  the  tail  against  the  plastron  or 
shell  immediately  over  the  stomach,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  cup  or  cavity,  in  which  are 
to  be  found  the  openings  of  the  oviduct,  placed  exactly  behind  the  third  pair  of  legs.  Conse- 
quently when  the  eggs  escape  they  fall  into  this  natural  cup  or  cavity,  as  described  above. 
They  are  expelled  in  successive  jets,  to  the  number  of  twenty  thousand  in  a  single  day. 

"The  Lobster  emits  at  the  same  time,  along  with  the  eggs,  a  kind  of  adhesive  liquid, 
which  binds  the  eggs  one  to  the  other,  and  attaches  them  all  to  the  small  feet  under  the  tail, 
where  they  remain  in  perfect  shelter  from  all  harm  until  they  are  sufficiently  ripe  for  final 
expulsion. 

"In  order  to  forward  and  force  the  regular  incubation  of  the  ova,  the  females  have  the 
power  to  give  them  more  or  less  light,  as  they  consider  requisite,  by  closing  or  opening  the  fold 
of  the  tail.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  kept  quite  covered,  and  at  other  times  they  give  them  a 
kind  of  washing,  by  moving  the  flanges  of  the  tail  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The  incubation  lasts 
six  months,  during  which  lime  the  female  takes  such  good  care  of  the  ova  that  it  is  rare  to  find, 
an  injured  embryo  or  barren  egg. 


804  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"It  is  during  the  mouths  of  March,  April,  and  May  that  the  actual  birth  of  the  young 
Lobster  takes  place.  The  females,  in  order  to  expel  the  embryos,  now  ready  to  burst  the  shells 
of  the  eggs,  extend  their  tails,  make  light  oscillations  with  the  fan  and  its  appendages,  so  as  to 
rid  themselves  gradually  of  the  young  Lobsters,  which  they  succeed  in  doing  in  a  few  days.  The 
young  Lobster,  as  soon  as  born,  makes,away  from  its  parent,  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
leaves  the  shore  for  the  deep  water  of  the  sea,  where  it  passes  the  earliest  days  of  its  existence 
in  a  vagabond  state  for  thirty  or  forty  days.  During  this  time  it  undergoes  four  different 
changes  of  shell,  but  on  the  fourth  it  loses  its  natatory  organs,  and  is,  therefore,  no  longer 
able  to  swim  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  falls  to  the  bottom,  where  it  has  to  remain  for  the 
future;  according,  however,  to  its  increase  of  size  it  gains  courage  to  approach  the  shore  which 
it  had  left  at  its  birth.  The  number  of  enemies  which  assail  the  young  embryos  in  the  deep 
sea  is  enormous;  thousands  of  all  kinds  of  fish,  mollusks,  and  crustaceans  are  pursuing  it  con- 
tinually to  destroy  it.  The  very  changing  of  the  shell  causes  great  ravages  at  these  periods, 
as  the  young  Lobsters  have  to  undergo  a  crisis  which  appears  to  be  a  necessary  condition  to  their 
rapid  growth.  In  fact,  every  young  Lobster  loses  and  remakes  its  crusty  shell  from  eight  to  ten 
times  the  first  year,  five  to  seven  the  second,  three  to  four  the  third,  and  from  two  to  three  the 
fourth  year.  However,  after  the  fifth  year,  the  change  is  only  annual,  for  the  reason  that  were 
the  changes  more  frequent  the  shell  would  not  last  long  enough  to  protect  the  ova  adhering 
to  the  shell  of  the  female  during  the  six  months'  incubation.  The  Lobster  increases  rapidly 
in  size  until  the  second  year,  and  goes  on  increasing  more  gradually  until  the  fifth,  when  it  begins 
to  reproduce,  and  from  this  period  the  growth  is  still  more  gradual." 

TRANSPLANTING  OF  THE  YOUNG. — For  the  benefit  of  those  interested  in  the  question  of 
breeding  Lobsters  by  artificial  means  or  care,  we  extract  the  following  paragraph  from  a  commu- 
nication made  by  Capt.  N.  E.  Atwood,  of  Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  to  one  of  the  New  York 
papers  about  fifteen  years  ago : 

"  When  we  take  a  cargo  of  Lobsters  on  board  of  a  fishing- smack  and  throw  them  into  the 
well,  many  of  the  young  are  so  far  developed  that  when  they  strike  the  water  the  shell  of  the 
egg  is  broken,  and  you  can  see  hundreds  of  thousands  of  little  Lobsters  on  or  near  the  top  of  the 
water  in  the  well.  After  the  cargo  has  been  taken  on  board,  the  smack  sails  for  New  York,  and 
during  the  whole  passage  the  young  are  being  hatched  and  are  passing  out  through  the  holes  in 
the  bottom  of  the  well.  On  the  arrival  of  the  smack  at  Fulton  Slip  the  Lobsters  are  taken  out 
and  put  in  cars.  If  any  of  the  eggs  are  on  the  Lobsters,  not  hatched,  they  are  soon  eaten  off  by 
eels,  which  go  out  and  in  the  car  as  they  please." 

These  observations  of  Captain  Atwood  are  exceedingly  interesting.  It  is  probable  that  the 
numerous  young  Lobsters  hatched  on  the  trips  of  the  Cape  Cod  smacks  through  Long  Island 
Sound  have  contributed  toward  increasing  the  supply  of  Lobsters  along  that  section  of  coast.  It 
has  amounted  to  a  transplanting  of  Lobsters  from  one  prolific  region  to  another  much  less  prolific, 
and  the  benefits  thus  inadvertently  derived  were  possibly  considerable.  This  traffic  has  long 
ceased,  however,  and  young  Cape  Cod  Lobsters  no  longer  find  their  way  into  the  waters  of  Long 
Island  Sound. 

FOOD. — The  Lobster  appears  to  feed  upon  most  any  kind  of  animal  matter  within  its  reach,  but 
is  said  to  prefer  fresh  fish  as  bait  Feeding  naturally,  it  probably  does  not  discriminate  closely  as 
to  its  food.  It  digs  clams  from  the  bottom  and  removes  mussels  from  their  places  of  attachment, 
soinrt  lines  crushing  the  shells  in  its  claws,  and  afterwards  devouring  out  the  soft  parts.  Flounders 
and  other  bottom  fish  undoubtedly  fall  a  prey  to  its  appetite,  and  it  has  been  seen  to  catch  nimbly 
at  small  fish  swimming  by.  Very  probably  it  feeds  upon  all  kinds  of  invertebrate  life  which 


CASTING  A  CLAW.  805 

arc  palatable  tt)  its  taste  and  live  within  easy  reae.h  of  its  claws.  Sea-urchins  even  are  described 
as  furnishing  food  for  it  on  the  Nova  Scotia  coast.  Flounders, sculpius,  herring,  menhaden,  codfish 
heads,  haddock,  and  blnetish  are  commonly  used  as  bait  in  tbe  lobster-pots.  An  experienced 
observer  who  has  watched  their  habits  under  peculiarly  favorable  circumstances,  on  the  coast  of 
Maine,  states  that,  in  devouring  clams,  he  has  never  seen  them  crush  the  shell,  but  as  it  were 
they  absorb  the  meat  from  between  the  valves,  leaving  the  latter  intact.  He  has  never  seen  them 
catch  living  fish,  bur  could  not  positively  affirm  that  they  did  not  do  so  at  times. 

CASTING  A  CLAM  .—As  is  well  known,  Lobsters  have  the  power  of  dropping  or  "shooting" 
one  or  both  claws,  which  may  be  more  or  less  completely  replaced  by  a  new  growth.  Many 
incentives  are  quoted  for  this  curious  procedure,  the  principal  ones  being  handling,  especially 
in  cold  weather,  entanglement  of  the  claws,  and  flight.  Fright,  or  a  sudden  impulse  to  free  them- 
selves from  impending  danger  or  pain,  is  probably  the  main  cause,  however  it  may  be  produced. 
The  break  does  not  occur  between  any  of  the  movable  joints,  but  always  at  one  particular  point, 
near  the  upper  end  of  the  second  or  double  joint,  where  it  is  smallest  and  encircled  by  a  distinct 
groove.  The  claw  cannot  be  broken  off  at  this  or  any  other  place  by  main  force  without  injury  to 
the  Lobster,  causing  it  to  bleed  to  death. 

Occasionally  in  mild  weather,  but  much  more  frequently  in  cold  weather,  Lobsters  will  shoot 
their  claws  if  handled  by  them  out  of  water.  This  also  frequently  occurs  when  Lobsters  become 
entangled  by  their  claws  in  the  fishermen's  nets.  As  they  are  drawn  above  the  water,  they  will 
often,  without  a  moment's  warning,  slide  back  into  their  native  element,  leaving  their  disjointed 
member  behind.  Loud  noises,  such  as  thunder,  the  firing  of  cannons,  etc.,  are  said  to  incite 
Lobsters  to  shoot  their  claws,  and  also  the  presence  of  very  impure  or  fresh  waters;  bnt  to  what 
extent  this  happens  we  cannot  say.  When  a  claw  becomes  injured  or  broken,  or  perhaps  crushed 
by  an  antagonist  of  the  same  species,  so  as  to  render  it  useless  or  painful,  it  is  often  dispensed 
with,  in  order  that  a  new  one  may  take  its  place.  This  process  of  dropping  an  old  and  growing  a 
new  claw  is  certainly  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  for  this  appendage  is  much  subject  to  injury,  and 
nothing  more  deplorable  can  be  imagined  than  a  Lobster  with  mutilated  claws. 

The  practice  of  shooting  a  claw,  even  under  natural  conditions,  seems  at  times  to  be  a  very 
common  one.  Out  of  one  hundred  specimens,  averaging  about  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  collected 
for  natural  history  purposes  in  Narragansett  Bay,  in  1880,  fully  twenty-five  per  cent,  had  lost  a 
claw  each,  and  a  few  both  claws.  From  each  stump,  iu  all  these  specimens,  projected  a  short  soft 
claw,  still  very  imperfect  in  structure,  and  measuring  from  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  about  an  inch 
in  length.  In  some  of  the  specimens,  one  or  more  of  the  hinder  legs  were  being  reproduced  in 
the  same  way.  Tbe  fishermen  state  that  similar  specimens  are  also  sometimes  common  in  their 
catch.  The  breaking  off  of  a  claw,  according  to  observers,  is  accomplished  so  quietly  that  the 
operation  is  scarcely  perceptible.  If  a  claw  of  a  Lobster  be  seized  by  the  hands  while  he  is  in 
the  water,  and  he  casts  it,  no  unusual  sensation  is  felt,  but  the  claw  is  simply  left  behind,  and  the 
former  owner  darts  quickly  off.  Soon  after  the  break  occurs,  it  is  covered  with  a  crust  of  coagu- 
lated blood,  which  prevents  further  bleeding  until  a  skin  has  formed,  from  the  center  of  which  the 
new  claw  begins  to  grow.  How  long  a  time  is  required  for  the  new  claw  to  attain  a  size  proper 
tioned  to  that  of  the  Lobster,  if  it  ever  reaches  that  size,  is  not  known.  However,  the  incipient 
claw  remains  soft  and  continues  to  grow  probably  until  the  first  molt,  after  which  its  outer  layer 
of  skin  is  supposed  to  harden  like  that  of  the  remainder  of  the  Lobster.  Specimens  are 
frequently  taken  with  hardened  claws  of  regular  shape,  but  of  different  sizes  below  the  normal 
one,  rather  indicating  that  at  least  several  moltings  must  take  place  before  the  claw  can  reach  its 
full  size. 


806  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

The  following  incident,  furnished  by  a  correspondent,  forcibly  illustrates  the  process  of 
shooting  a  claw  and  points  a  moral.  A  party  who  had  purchased  a  number  of  Lobsters  as  food 
thought  to  keep  them  fresh  overnight  by  hanging  them  over  the  side  of  his  vessel,  by  means  of 
cords  tied  to  the  claws.  In  the  morning,  when  he  went  to  examine  his  live  stock,  he  found 
nothing  but  the  claws  remaining  fast  to  the  cords,  the  Lobsters  having  dropped  back  into 
their  former  abode. 

DEFORMITIES  AND  DISEASES. — Lobsters  are  subject  to  many  deformities  or  malformations, 
which  generally  occur  upon  the  claws,  and  appear  to  originate  from  several  causes.  A  broken 
claw  is  sometimes  mended  in  an  irregular  manner,  and  there  are  frequent  instances  of  what  are 
termed  double  claws,  resulting  from  the  formation  of  a  second  projection  or  thumb  upon  either  the 
larger  or  smaller  branch  of  the  claw,  and  which  is  more  or  less  perfect  in  shape  but  immovable. 
Rarely  the  two  branches  of  the  claw  are  not  regularly  set  with  reference  to  one  another,  and 
instead  of  working  in  the  same  plane,  and  meeting  edge  to  edge,  they  pass  one  another  like  the 
blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors.  The  thumb  or  finger  of  one  of  the  claws  occasionally  takes  on  an 
unusual  or  fantastic  shape,  or  becomes  greatly  broadened  and  thickened,  but  the  variations  to 
which  the  claws  are  subject  are  too  numerous  to  warrant  description  here.  Many  of  them  have 
been  figured  and  discussed  by  Mr.  Walter  Faxon  in  the  "  Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  "  for  March,  1881.  They  probably  arise  in  part  from  injuries  received  while  in  the  soft 
state,  but  in  great  measure  they  have  not  been  accounted  for. 

During  the  past  winter,  there  was  sent  to  the  National  Museum,  from  the  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  the  carapax  of  a  medium-sized  Lobster,  with  two  small  round  openings  covered  with 
membranes,  placed  symmetrically  one  on  each  side  of  the  median  line,  a  short  distance  back  of 
the  rostrum.  By  the  person  who  sent  the  specimen,  and  who  saw  the  Lobster  when  alive,  these 
membranes  were  described  as  projecting  slightly  from  the  surface,  and  taking  on  the  appearance 
of  a  second  pair  of  eyes.  Unusual  but  symmetrical  markings  also  occur  upon  the  dorsal  side  of 
the  carapax.  The  specimen  was  so  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried,  however,  before  we  received 
it — nothing  remaining  but  the  shell — that  it  is  now  impossible  to  form  a  correct  idea  as  to  the 
real  import  of  these  strange  features. 

Diseased  Lobsters  are  not  commonly  met  with.  Individuals  are  occasionally  found  in  a  very 
emaciated  condition,  and  some  with  soft  spots  like  sores  upon  the  body ;  but  such  cases  are  rare. 
Specimens  are  sometimes  taken  with  small  portions  of  the  body  gone,  or  with  deep  scars  and  dents 
upon  the  surface,  the  results  of  injury.  It  is  usually  the  older  individuals  that  are  marked  in 
this  way. 

PAH ASITES.— Lobsters  do  not  appear  to  be  much  troubled  with  external  parasites  or  messmates. 
Barnacles  often  grow  upon  the  back  and  claws,  and  mussels  sometimes  attach  themselves  to  the 
same  places.  The  number  of  Barnacles  is  frequently  so  great  and  they  cover  so  large  a  portion  of 
the  exterior  surface  as  to  seriously  impede  the  movements  of  the  Lobster,  but  this  seldom  happens. 
Fish-lice  are  mentioned  by  the  fishermen  as  occasionally  occurring  on  the  Lobsters,  but  as  we 
have  never  seen  any  specimens  of  such  it  is  impossible  to  determine  what  they  may  be,  if  they 
are  parasites  at  all. 

ENEMIES.— All  the  larger  bottom-feeding  fish  probably  feed  upon  the  Lobster,  and  the  sur- 
face fish  also  greedily  devour  the  young.  Soft-shell  Lobsters  sufl'er  most  in  this  way,  and  are 
frequently  found  in  the  stomachs  of  cod  taken  by  the  fishermen.  Sharks,  dogfish,  rays,  tautog,  and 
striped  bass  are  also  mentioned  as  being  especially  fond  of  Lobsters,  but  this  list  could  undoubt- 
edly be  greatly  extended  without  much  trouble.  Water-birds  sometimes  feed  upon  the  smaller 
individuals  in  shallow  water.  During  the  earlier  period  of  their  existence,  while  they  are  still 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  LOBSTER.  Si  >7 

free  swimmers  aud  very  small,  living  mostly  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  by  far  the  greatest 
mortality  must  occur.  At  this  time  they  are  eaten  in  vast  quantities  along  with  other  surface 
animals  by  the  more  active  flsh  and  invertebrates,  and  probably  but  a  comparatively  small  pro- 
portion of  those  hatched  from  the  egg  ever  survive  this  stage.  We  may,  however,  be  justified  in 
asMTting  that  the  greatest  enemy  of  the  Lobster  is  man. 

Mr.  Frank  Buckland,  in  treating  of  the  enemies  of  the  European  Lobster,  says  that  "among 
the  animate  enemies  the  principal  one,  I  believe,  is  the  cod.  A  witness  at  Burghead  stated  that 
'codlisli  are  great  enemies  to  Lobsters;  he  hardly  ever  opens  a  cod  without  finding  young  Lobsters 
in  the  stomach;  this  is  particularly  in  February  and  March;  has  seen  cod  throwing  up  Lobsters 
on  the  deck  of  a  vessel,  as  many  as  five  or  six  Lobsters  in  one  cod.  These  Lobsters  would  be 
three  or  four  inches  in  length,  or  even  smaller.  Cod  eat  Lobsters  all  the  season.  In  the  spring, 
and  in  January,  February,  and  March,  there  are  many  cod  about.'  Skates  and  congers,  codling 
and  haddock,  also  eat  Crabs  and  Lobsters." 

DESTRUCTION  BY  STORMS. — Mr.  F.  H.  Baker,  in  a  recent  paper  on  American  Lobsters,  refers 
to  their  being  occasionally  destroyed  in  great  numbers  in  shallow  water  by  heavy  storms.  He 
cites  as  an  instance  the  great  Saxby  storm  on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  after  which  the  dead 
Lobsters  were  piled  up  in  immense  numbers,  in  several  places,  "lining  the  shores  like  windrows 
of  hay  on  a  field  in  midsummer,  the  stench  from  which  was  overpowering  as  the  Lobsters  decayed 
in  the  sun." 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  HABITS  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  LOBSTER. — The  following  account  of  the 
distribution  and  habits  of  the  European  Lobster,  Homarus  vulgarig,  abstracted  from  a  report 
by  a  Danish-Norwegian  naturalist,1  is  inserted  here  to  permit  of  comparison  between  these  two 
closely  related  forms,  and  to  fill  up  some  of  the  numerous  gaps  in  the  history  of  our  own  species. 
The  European  Lobster  is  so  similar  to  our  own  structurally  that  we  are  safe  in  assuming  that 
the  habits  of  the  two  are  in  the  main  alike.  In  comparing  the  European  with  the  American 
species,  however,  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  former  never  attains  the  extreme  size 
of  the  latter,  and  also  averages  smaller  in  size,  while  the  female  begins  to  spawn  when  only  six 
inches  long,  although  at  this  size  it  may  possibly  be  quite  as  old  as  the  young  spawning  Amer- 
ican female.  There  are  so  many  important  questions  of  practical  value  still  unsolved  regarding 
the  American  Lobster,  that  the  suggestions  set  forth  by  this  Norwegian  report  may  lead  to  their 
proper  investigation : 

"The  European  Lobster  seems  to  have  its  central  location  on  the  southwestern  coast  of 
Norway,  and  goes  as  far  north  as  Finmarken,  where,  according  to  Lem,  in  his  description  of  the 
Finmarkeu  Laplanders,  1767,  it  is  found  north  of  Traenen,  where  he  ate  very  fine  ones  on  the 
island  of  Rodo,  while  formerly  their  northern  limit  was  thought  to  be  the  island  of  Brondo;  but 
he  also  thinks  that  they  would  be  found  in  Finmarken,  if  people  only  searched  for  them.  It  is 
very  rarely  found  on  the  coasts  of  Iceland,  where,  according  to  Mohr's  'Islandske  Naturhistorie,' 
it  has  been  found  by  Dr.  Poulsen  in  Grondevig,  but  it  does  not  extend  to  Greenland  or  Spitzbergen. 
It  does  not  go  into  the  Baltic,  but  is  found  all  over  the  Kattegat,  especially  near  Anholt, 
Hirsholmene,  Laeso,  and  Hjelm,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Fiedler's  report,  in  the  Great  Belt  as  far 
as  Sprogo.  On  the  coast  of  Bohuslan  it  is  very  common,  and  is  said  to  go  into  the  Sound  as  far 
as  the  island  of  Hveen.  On  the  west  coast  of  Jutland,  it  is  found  wherever  the  bottom  is  stony, 
and  it  is  very  common  near  Heligoland.  It  rarely  goes  into  the  inlets  on  our  western  coasts, 
chiefly  on  account  of  their  great  depth.  It  is  very  rare  in  the  inner  portion  of  the  Bay  of  Christi- 
ania,  and  not  very  common  in  the  Limfiord.  On  the  coasts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  it  is 

1  A  x  KI.  BOECK:  Om  det  noreke  Hummerflake  og  dets  Historic.     Copenhagen,  1868-'69. 


808  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

common  wherever  there  is  a  rocky  bottom,  especially  near  Montrose,  Orkney,  Lewis,  and  Harris 
Island,  and  on  the  southern  coast  of  England,  near  Land's  End  and  the  Scilly  Islands.  Near  'he 
Channel  Islands  it  is  common,  as  well  as  near  several  groups  of  islands  on  the  French  coast.  In 
the  Mediterranean  it  is  not  so  common,  although  it  is  not  entirely  wanting;  but  its  substitute  as 
an  article  of  food  is  another  large  species  of  Cray-fish,  the  Langusta  (Palinurus).  It  is,  therefore, 
not  spread  over  a  very  large  extent  of  sea;  but  it  is  found  in  its  central  locations  in  very  large 
numbers,  and  there  becomes  an  important  article  of  food  and  trade. 

"  Its  general  size  is  eight  to  ten  inches  from  the  point  of  the  spine  on  the  forehead  to  the  tip 
end  of  the  tail.  It  rarely  exceeds  this  size  where  large  fisheries  are  carried  on ;  but  now  and  then 
specimens  of  a  much  greater  size  are  found  in  places  from  which  none  are  exported,  and  where  it 
consequently  has  time  to  grow  before  it  is  caught.  Thus,  Pontoppidan,  in  his  'Norges  uaturlige 
Historic'  (part  ii,  p.  279),  says  that  the  very  large  Lobsters  are  called  '  Storjer,'  and  that  near 
Utvaer,  on  the  Bay  of  Evien,  a  Lobster  had  been  seen  which  was  so  large  and  ugly  that  nobody 
dared  to  attack  it,  and  that  it  measured  a  full  fathom  between  the  claws.  This  seems  certainly  to 
be  somewhat  exaggerated ;  but  I  myself  have  seen  the  claw  of  one  which  must  have  been  about 
eighteen  inches  long.  Sir  John  Graham  Dalyell  says,  in  his  work  '  The  Powers  of  the  Creator,' 
1827,  that  he  had  seen  a  joint  of  the  left  claw  of  a  Lobster  that  measured  nine  inches  in  length. 
According  to  this,  the  whole  claw  must  have  measured  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches,  and  the 
whole  animal  three  to  four  feet.  As  a  general  rule,  those  that  are  taken  in  the  fiords  are  larger 
than  those  that  are  caught  near  the  islands  toward  the  sea.  The  color  of  the  animal  when 
alive  is  generally  a  blackish-green,  with  several  blue  spots ;  but  it  may  also  be  lighter,  especially 
near  the  mouths  of  fiords,  while  farther  out  toward  the  sea  it  becomes  much  darker.  I  may 
mention  as  a  curiosity  that  during  this  year  (1868)  I  found  a  Lobster  near  Haugesuud,  one-half  of 
which  was  of  a  greenish-black  and  the  other  of  a  light-orange  color,  there  being  a  sharp  and 
clearly  defined  dividing  line,  which  ran  lengthwise,  and  divided  the  Lobster  in  two  halves  of 
equal  size. 

"The  Lobster  lives  close  to  the  coast,  where  there  is  a  rocky  bottom,  among  the  large  algae; 
but  in  winter,  when  the  water  grows  cooler,  it  descends  as  far  down  as  sixteen  to  twenty  fathoms, 
while  in  spring,  when  the  temperature  of  the  sea  rises,  it  stays  at  a  depth  of  from  one  to  four 
fathoms.  It  is  altogether  a  coast  animal,  which  very  rarely  seems  to  go  any  distance  from  its 
birthplace,  if  it  can  readily  find  there  a  sufficient  supply  of  food.  Sometimes,  however,  they  have 
been  seen  in  large  masses  swimming  toward  the  land  from  the  sea,  and  they  have  then  been 
•  Mil-Ill  in  nets,  having  been  mistaken  for  a  school  of  herrings;  but  this  is  only  a  consequence  of 
local  migrations,  when  it  goes  from  the  deeper  into  the  shallower  waters.  It  is  not  able  to  make 
its  way  through  the  sea  for  any  length  of  time  by  swimming.  Its  structure  certainly  allows  it  to 
make  quick  and  definite  movements,  and  it  can  swim  freely  about  in  the  sea,  but  this  swimming 
never  lasts  long,  as  it  cannot  keep  itself  afloat  very  long.  Neither  is  it  able,  while  swimming,  to 
catch  and  swallow  its  food;  but  it  seizes  its  prey  only  when  it  can  hold  on  to  something.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  it  can  chase  its  prey,  if  necessary,  with  great  rapidity,  but  while  eating  it 
remains  quite  still.  The  Lobster  is  a  very  greedy  animal,  and  can  swallow  great  quantities  of 
food,  which  it  seems  to  find  especially  during  the  night  by  its  scent,  while  during  the  day  it  keeps 
quiet  and  digests.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  the  roe  of  fish,  and  of  dead  fish,  but  likewise  of 
small  crustaceans  and  other  marine  animals.  When  kept  in  confinement,  it  can  live  for  a 
considerable  time  without  fowl.  The  Lobster  seems  to  be  able  to  propagate  when  it  is  a  little 
more  than  six  inches  long  (at  least,  roe  is  only  found  in  animals  of  this  size) ;  but  when  the 
Lobster  reaches  a  length  of  eight  inches  it  contains  a  great  quantity  of  roe.  A  real  act  of 


i;m:i:i>ix(;  IIAIMTS.  so<» 

copulation  takes  plaee,  the  male  Lobster  placing  its  double  male  member  into  the  outer  genital 
opening  of  the  female;  and  the  eggs  are  impregnated  while  they  are  yet  in  the  ovary.  This 
pairing  seems  to  take  place  from  autumn  to  spring,  or  March  aud  April,  for  it  is  highly  probable 
that  the  roe  is  emitted  from  the  ovaries  immediately  alter  copulation  lias  taken  place,  just  as  with 
otlu-r  crustaceans ;  and  the  emitted  roe  is  found  during  the  entire  winter.  After  impregnation, 
the  eggs  are  emitted  from  the  outer  genital  openings  of  the  female,  which  are  found  at  the  bases 
of  the  third  pair  of  feet,  but  do  not  fall  into  the  water,  as  they  are  held  in  a  hollow  which  is 
formed  by  the  bent  tail,  which,  both  at  the  end  and  on  the  sides,  has  leaf-shaped  fringes  that 
inclose  the  space  formed  by  the  bending  of  the  tail.  Under  this  tail  there  is  fastened  a  double 
row  of  the  so-called  tail-feet,  to  which  the  eggs  are  strung  by  strong,  slimy  strings.  The  embryo 
now  begins  to  develope  in  these  eggs,  which  are  quite  numerous,  two  to  three  thousand  in  one 
female,  according  to  the  size,  and  occasionally  as  many  as  ten  to  twelve  thousand.  The  formation 
of  the  embryo  does  not,  however,  seem  to  begin  till  the  temperature  of  the  water  has  become 
milder  in  spring,  even  if  the  pairing  should  have  taken  place  in  autumn  or  winter;  for,  although 
loose  roe  is  often  found  in  winter,  it  is  never  seen  in  any  degree  developed  into  embryos.  This 
pairing  and  the  development  of  the  roe  seem  to  take  place  at  different  times  on  different  portions 
of  the  coast ;  for  the  fishermen  themselves,  who  have  such  an  excellent  opportunity  of  observing 
them,  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  actual  time.  The  development  of  the  embryo  seems  to  take  at 
least  fourteen  days  from  the  time  of  commencement,  and  it  can  easily  be  observed  till  the  young 
break  the  shells  of  the  eggs  and  begin  to  lead  an  independent  life.  When  the  young  Lobster  comes 
out  of  the  egg  it  measures  only  a  few  lines  in  length,  and  does  not  at  all  resemble  the  old  Lobster, 
bat  has  a  different  structure.  It  does  not  leave  the  hollow  under  its  mother's  tail  immediately  after 
being  hatched,  but  lives  there  for  some  time,  and  later  freqnently  returns  to  it.  It  is  particularly 
distinguished  by  a  less  complete  development  of  its  feelers  and  tail-feet,  and  by  the  feet  being 
exceedingly  small  but  furnished  with  long,  brush  like  branches,  with  which  it  swims  vigorously 
on  the  surface  of  the  water.  After  having  spent  some  time  in  this  state,  it  changes  its  skin  several 
times  and  assumes  the  shape  of  its  mother,  when  it  goes  to  the  bottom.  Its  life  from  this  moment 
till  it  reaches  a  size  of  five  to  six  inches  is  entirely  unknown ;  for  no  young  Lobsters  have  been 
caught,  either  by  fishermen  or  scientists,  the  smallest  having  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  the 
torsk,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  they  spend  this  portion  of  their  life  at  a  greater  depth,  and  live 
in  a  different  manner  and  on  other  food  than  at  a  later  period.  There  cannot,  therefore,  be  any- 
artificial  hatching  of  Lobsters  in  the  sense  of  artificial  fish-hatching,  but  all  that  can  be  done  is 
to  keep  the  Lobster  imprisoned  during  the  development  of  the  eggs,  and  thus  protect  it  from  the 
dangers  which  threaten  it  and  its  young.  It  is  impossible  to  do  anything  for  the  tender  young,  as 
they  die  very  soon  when  confined.  I  see,  however,  that  several  persons  in  France,  and  Mr.  von 
Kris,  in  the  lagoons  of  Triest,  near  Grado,  have  batched  several  millions  of  young  by  keeping 
Lobsters  with  ripe  roe  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  perforated  boxes. 

"The  greatest  enemy  of  the  Lobster,  and  one  who  sensibly  diminishes  its  numbers,  is  man.  When 
swimming  near  the  surface  during  its  youth,  with  a  number  of  other  small  crustaceans,  it  becomes 
a  welcome  prey  to  the  herring  and  the  mackerel.  As  the  grown  Lobster  keeps  at  no  great  depth, 
and  where  large  fish  of  prey  are  not  commonly  found,  it  is  not  much  exposed  to  them,  but 
occasionally,  when  lying  near  the  surface,  it  is  taken  by  large  birds  of  prey.  An  interesting  scene 
may  be  witnessed  near  Bukkeno,  north  of  Stavanger,  where  an  Englishman  has  constructed  a 
large  pond,  between  some  small  islands,  for  keeping  live  Lobsters.  Whenever  the  pond  becomes 
too  full  of  Lobsters,  so  that  they  do  not  find  sufficient  food,  they  leave  the  water  and  crawl  about 


810  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

seeking  to  reach  the  sea;  but  during  their  wanderiugs  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  large  numbers  of 
crows  hovering  round,  which  take  them  in  their  claws,  fly  high  up,  and  let  the  unfortunate 
Lobsters  drop  down  on  the  rocks,  where  their  shells  are  broken,  so  that  the  crows  can  eat  them  in 
comfort.  The  crows  are  not  easily  scared  away,  but  show  a  remarkable  degree  of  sense,  only 
flying  away  when  any  one  approaches  with  fire-arms,  and  later  they  carry  on  their  depredations 
in  the  early  morning,  when  they  have  less  to  fear." 

In  addition  to  the  above  we  have  some  interesting  remarks  on  the  natural  history  of  the 
European  Lobster,  from  observations  made  by  Prof.  G.  O.  Sars,  about  1875,  and  published  in 
1878,  in  a  report  on  the  "  Salt-water  Fisheries  of  Norway."  In  prefacing  his  remarks,  Professor 
Sars  states : 

"  In  order  to  judge  of  this  matter  (the  protection  required  for  the  fishery)  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  have  as  complete  a  knowledge  as  possible  of  the  natural  history  of  the  Lobster.  But 
in  this  respect  very  little  progress  has  been  made.  Although  the  Lobster  is  one  of  the  commonest 
nidi  inc  animals  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  and  has  been  made  the  subject  of  special  investigations 
by  many  naturalists,  its  mode  of  life  is  still  involved  in  darkness." 

Farther  on  he  gives  the  following  general  accounts  of  its  habits : 

"  As  to  its  organization  and  its  analogy  with  similar  crustaceans,  the  Lobster  must  doubtless 
be  on  the  whole  considered  as  a  stationary  animal.  It  never  undertakes  long  migrations  like 
some  of  our  fish.  The  Lobster  certainly  moves  about  with  great  swiftness  and  ease,  aided  by  its 
strong  tail  and  the  swimming  apparatus  attached  to  it;  but  this  mode  of  moving  about  is 
evidently  not  the  rule.  The  hard-shell  and  ponderous  Lobster  must  always  make  an  extra 
exertion  in  moving  about,  and  its  movements  cannot,  therefore,  be  of  long  duration.  People 
certainly  talk  of  the  so-called  '  traveling  Lobsters,'  which  are  said  to  come  from  the  open  sea  in 
large  schools ;  and  some  even  say  that  they  have  seen  such  schools  many  miles  from  the  coast, 
moving  about  rapidly  near  the  surface  of  the  sea.  If  this  is  really  so,  I  consider  it  as  absolutely 
certain  that  these  schools  came  from  no  very  great  distance,  possibly  from  some  of  the  elevated 
bottoms  off  the  coast.  The  grown  Lobster  is,  as  every  lobster  fisher  will  know,  in  its  whole  mode 
of  life  a  genuine  bottom  animal,  and  prefers  a  stony  or  uneven  bottom,  overgrown  with  algae, 
where  it  finds  good  hiding-places  for  lying  in  wait  for  its  prey.  During  summer  and  part  of 
autumn,  the  Lobster  goes  on  higher  bottoms  in  the  bays  and  inlets,  and  is  then  frequently  caught 
quite  near  the  shore  among  the  alga?,  at  a  depth  of  less  than  a  fathom.  Toward  winter  it  again 
retires  into  the  deep ;  and  still  later  in  the  season  it  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  those 
places  where  it  was  quite  common  during  summer.  Occasionally,  however,  it  is,  even  iu  the 
middle  of  winter,  found  in  deep  water,  and  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  Lobster  never  leaves 
our  coast  entirely,  but  considers  it  as  its  proper  home. 

"  As  may  be  judged  from  its  powerful  claws,  the  Lobster  is  a  fierce  beast  of  prey,  that  is 
not  satisfied  with  small  marine  animals,  but  occasionally  attacks  all  kinds  of  small  fish  that  are 
unfortunate  enough  to  come  within  its  reach.  The  bait  used  for  catching  Lobsters  consists 
exclusively  of  fish,  principally  small  codfish  and  herrings.  These  must,  however,  be  tolerably 
fresh ;  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  get  old  the  Lobster  leaves  them  to  his  cousins,  the  Crabs,  which 
are  less  fastidious  in  their  tastes,  and  they  enter  the  baskets  in  great  quantities. 

"The  Lobster  is  cautious  and  cunning.  It  never  pursues  its  prey  openly,  but  either 
endeavors  to  surprise  it,  in  which  it  is  greatly  aided  by  its  very  highly  developed  sense  of  smell, 
or  waits  patiently  among  the  algae  till  some  marine  animal  comes  within  reach  of  its  claws.  I 
have  several  times  observed  with  what  cautiousness  and  evident  distrust  the  Lobster,  attracted 
by  the  bait,  has  gone  round  the  traps  and  examined  them  several  times  on  all  sides,  before  it  has 


COMPOSITION  OF  LOBSTERS. 


811 


gone  in.  Only  when  it  is  very  hungry,  as  is  especially  the  case  later  in  summer,  after  the  spawning 
season  and  r.istiug  of  the  shell  is  over,  is  it  loss  cautious  and  more  ready  to  enter  the  traps. 

"The  Lobster  is  best  and  (attest  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  while  later  in  the  summer 
and  autumn  it  becomes  thin,  in  consequence  of  which  the  English  will  not  take  it  during  those 
seasons." 

COMPOSITION  OF  LOBSTEUS. — According  to  a  series  of  careful  analyses  by  Professor  W.  O. 
Atwater,  of  Middletowu,  Connecticut,  the  composition  of  the  flesh  of  Lobsters  is  as  follows,  the 
figures  given  indicating  the  average  results  obtained  from  three  specimens  received  from  the 
coasts  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts : 

Proportions  of  edible  portion  and  shell :  Per  cent. 

Total  edible  portion 39. 77 

Shell 67.47 

Loss  in  cleaning 2. 78 

Proportions  of  water  and  dry  substance  in  edible  portion : 

Water 82.73 

Dry  substance 17. 27 

Chemical  analysis  calculated  on  dry  substance  : 

Nitrogen 12.64 

Albuminoids  (nitrogen  X  6.25) 78.37 

Fat 11.43 

Crude  ash 10.  06 

Phosphorus  (calculated  as  PiO») 2. 24 

Sulphur  (calculated  as  SO,) i 2.  47 

Chlorine 3.46 

Chemical  analysis  calculated  on  fresh  substance  in  flesh  : 

Water 82.73 

Nitrogen 2.17 

Albuminoids  (nitrogen  X  6.25) 13.57 

Fat 1.87 

Crude  ash 1.74 

Phosphorus  (calculated  as  P«C>5) -39 

Sulphur  (calculated  as  SO,) - 43 

Chlorine 69 

Nutritive  value  of  the  flesh  of  Lobsters  compared  with  beef  as  a  standard  and  reckoned  at  100.  61. 97 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  flesh  of  the  European  Lobster  is  stated  by  Mr.  Frank 
Bnckland  to  be  as  follows: 


Flesh. 

Soft  Internal 
matter. 

Spawn. 

PwewU. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Nitrogenous  matter  

H.1TO 

13.140 

21.892 

Fatty  matter.....   ........................... 

1.1TO 

1.444 

8.234 

Mineral  mfttter..................  .......-•••• 

1.823 

1.749 

1.998 

Non-nitrogenom  matter  and  IOM.. 

1.-JPJ 

0.854 

4.893 

Water   

76.618 

84.313 

62.983 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

In  connection  with  this  table,  Mr.  Bnckland  makes  the  following  observations: 

"That  phosphorus  exists  in  large  quantities  in  Lobsters  may  easily  be  proved.    A  Lobster  in 

hot  weather,  when  it  ceases  to  be  fresh,  assumes  a  highly  phosphorescent  appearance  when  seen 

in  the  dark,  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  a  glow-worm  or  luminous  centipede.    This  light 

increases  by  friction    .    .    .    and  this  phosphorescent  appearance  is  probably  caused  by  the 


812  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

chemical  changes  in  the  organic  tissues,  when  life  is  no  longer  present  to  resist  the  ordained 
agency  of  decay  and  decomposition;  in  fact,  it  is  a  slow  combustion  by  combination  with  oxygen. 
"The  presence  of  phosphorus  in  the  Lobster  is  of  great  importance  to  the  consumers  of  these 
sea  luxuries;  there  is  no  substance  which  conveys  phosphorus  so  readily  into  the  human  system 
in  an  agreeable  form,  and  which  the  system  so  readily  and  quickly  assimilates,  as  the  flesh  of 
Crabs  and  Lobsters." 

225.  THE  CRAY-FISHES— ASTACUS  AND  CAMBARUS. 

RELATIONS  AND  DISTRIBUTION. — The  so-called  "  Cray  -fishes"  or"  Craw-fishes"  are  common 
inhabitants  of  most  of  the  fresh- water  streams  of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  but  in  this 
country  they  are  not  eaten  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  in  some  parts  of  the  Old  World,  and 
they  are  not  generally  regarded  here  as  a  staple  article  of  food. 

The  North  American  Cray-fishes,  although  belonging  to  but  a  single  family,  the  Astacidce, 
constitute  two  distinct  genera,  Astacus  and  Cambarus,  and  about  thirty-eight  species,  three  of 
which  do  not,  however,  occur  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  The  Cray -fishes  bear  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  the  Lobsters  (Homarus),  to  which  they  are  closely  related,  but  there  are 
several  important  structural  differences  between  them,  and  none  of  the  Cray-fishes  grow  nearly 
as  large  as  the  Lobster. 

Europe  contains  only  three  species  of  Cray-fishes,  all  belonging  to  the  well-known  genus 
Antaeus.  They  are  A.  nobilis  Huxley  (fluviatilis),  A.  torrentium,  and  A.  leptodactylus.  Much 
discussion  has  taken  place  among  naturalists  as  to  whether  the  above  species  are  really  distinct 
from  one  another,  or  merely  form  varieties  of  a  single  variable  species.  The  relations  of  A.  nobilis 
to  A.  torrentium  are  more  marked  than  of  those  two  forms  to  A.  leptodactylus,  but  probably  the 
specific  differences  pointed  out  are  as  good  as  exist  between  many  other  unquestioned  species  of 
the  same  group  in  this  country.  It  matters  little  to  us  in  this  connection,  however,  what  may  be 
the  true  affinities  of  these  forms  to  one  another,  as  long  as  we  can  define  them  sufficiently  well  to 
speak  of  their  relations  to  the  fresh- water  fisheries  of  Europe,  as  an  introduction  to  our  own  species. 

Astacus  nobilis  and  A.  torrentium  are  the  edible  Cray-fishes  of  Western  Europe,  and  inhabit 
fresh-water  streams  generally.  They  "are  intermixed  over  a  large  part  of  Central  Europe. 
A.  torrentium  has  a  wider  northwestward,  south  westward,  and  southeastward  extension,  being 
the  sole  occupant  of  Britain,  and  apparently  of  Spain  and  of  Greece.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Central  Europe,  A.  nobilis  appears  to  exist  alone.  Farther  to  the 
east  a  new  form,  A.  leptodactylug,  makes  its  appearance."1  Those  who  have  treated  of  the  two 
western  species  of  Europe  from  a  practical  standpoint  have  generally  spoken  of  them  as  a  single 
species,  to  which  the  old  and  well-known  name  of  fluviatiUs  has  been  applied.  This  distinction 
corresponds  with  the  views  of  the  older  European  naturalists,  and  this  species  thus  constituted, 
with  ite  two  or  more  varieties,  is  the  common  fresh-water  Cray-fish  of  European  literature,  which 
has  come  to  have  a  world-wide  reputation. 

The  structure  of  the  Cray-fish  can  be  best  described  by  defining  some  of  the  principal 
characters  in  which  it  differs  from  the  common  Lobster,  according  to  Huxley.  The  general  shape 
of  the  body  with  its  appendages  and  the  general  make-up  of  the  two  forms  are  very  similar; 
but  the  Cray-fish  has  only  eighteen  pairs  of  perfect  gills  or  branchiae  at  the  most,  and  the  Lobster 
twenty.  "Moreover,  the  branchial  filaments  of  these  gills  are  much  stiffer  and  more  closely  set" 
in  the  Lobster  than  in  most  Cray-fishes.  The  most  important  distinction,  however,  is  presented 
by  those  gills  which  are  attached  to  the  bases  of  the  thoracic  limbs,  and  which  number  six  pairs 

'HUXLKY  :  The  Cray-fish,  1880,  pp.  299,  300. 


DISTRIBUTION  OP  CRAY-FISHES.  813 

in  both  the  Lobster  ami  the  Cray-fish.  In  the  latter  animals  each  of  these  gills  forms  a  simple 
Mem  eiulin;:  al>ove  iu  a  plume  and  plate;  in  the  former  this  "stem  is,  as  it  were,  completely  split 
into  two  parts  longitudinally,  one  half  corresponding  with  the  lamina  (plate)  of  the  Cray-fish  gill, 
and  the  other  with  its  plume." 

The  shedding  and  the  spawning  habits  of  the  Cray-fish  correspond  very  closely  with  those 
of  the  Lobster,  iu  connection  with  the  description  of  which  animal  the  subject  has  been  discussed 
at  some  length. 

As  stated  above,  the  American  Cray-fishes  belong  to  two  genera,  Astacua  and  Cambarus,  while 
all  the  European  speeies  belong  to  the  one  genus  Astacim.  The  only  marked  difference  between 
the  two  genera  is  this,  that  while  iu  Astacus  there  are  eighteen  gills  on  each  side,  in  Cambarus 
there  are  only  seventeen.  This  difference  in  structure  is  considered  to  be  of  sufficient  ini]x>rtauce 
to  warrant  the  formation  of  the  two  genera,  but  the  external  differences,  such  as  the  variation  in 
shape  of  the  body,  and  in  the  proportionate  sizes  of  the  several  external  parts,  which  are  more 
apparent  and  more  striking  to  the  superficial  observer,  have  only  specific  value.  On  such 
ditierences  as  these  are  founded  the  thirty-two  species  of  Cambarus  and  the  six  species  of  .(xt,i,-n><, 
belonging  to  the  North  American  fauna.  More  careful  and  detailed  studies  of  large  collections 
of  Cray-fishes  from  different  parts  of  North  America  may  serve  to  greatly  reduce  this  number  of 
species,  and  if  such  should  follow,  it  would  simply  go  to  prove  that  some  of  the  differences  now 
sup|>osed  to  be  of  specific  importance  are  merely  varietal.  Strangely  enough,  all  of  the  North 
American  species  of  Attacks  are  limited  to  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
that  is  to  say,  to  that  portion  of  our  country  most  distant  from  Europe;  while  the  geuns  Cambarus 
is  confined  to  the  intervening  area  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Atlantic  coast.  The 
six  species  of  Astacus  are  variously  distributed  through  California,  Oregon,  Washington  Territory, 
and  British  Columbia,  but  only  one  species,  A.  nigrescent,  appears  to  be  used  as  food,  at  least  to 
any  extent.  This  probably  results  from  the  fact  that  this  is  the  only  species  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  San  Francisco,  outside  of  which  city  there  is  little  or  no  demand  for  this  sort  of  food.  Adult 
individuals  of  this  species  exceed  four  inches  iu  length,  and  when  living  are  blackish  in  color; 
after  death,  however,  they  become  of  a  light  grayish  tint.  According  to  Mr.  Lockington,  of  San 
Francisco,  this  species  is  brought  to  that  city  only  in  small  quantities,  the  demand  for  it  being 
slight.  The  supply  is  mostly  obtained  from  Coyote  Creek,  Santa  Clara  County,  and  from  the 
sloughs  of  the  San  Joaquin. 

The  genus  Cambarus  is  pretty  generally  distributed  throughout  the  region  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  No  Cray-fishes  have  ever  been  found,  however,  in  the  New  England  States,  excepting 
in  the  extreme  western  parts  of  Vermont  and  Massachusetts  and  in  Central  Maine,  and  ten  years 
ago  no  species  had  been  recorded  from  most  of  the  Western  Territories,  especially  between  the 
Kocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  where  if  any  Cray-fishes  should  be  found  in  the  future  it 
will  be  interesting  to  know  whether  they  belong  to  the  western  genus,  Astacus,  or  the  eastern, 
Cambarus. 

At  present  we  know  so  little,  comparatively  speaking,  of  the  invertebrate  fauna  of  the  rivers  of 
the  Territories  that  it  is  not  at  all  strange  we  should  have  so  few  records  of  Cray-fishes  from  them ; 
but  it  is  very  probable  that  Cray-fishes  exist  there  in  greater  or  less  numbers.  New  England,  on 
the  contrary,  has  been  too  well  explored  to  leave  much  doubt  but  that  Cray-fishes  are  absent  from 
it  excepting  in  the  localities  above  cited.  To  enter  into  a  discussion  of  all  the  species  of  North 
American  Cambarus  would  lead  us  away  from  the  main  object  of  this  sketch,  which  is  intended 
principally  to  point  out  the  range  and  habits  of  those  species  known  to  be  eaten.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  the  species  are  more  or  less  irregularly  distributed,  some  States,  or  even  sections  of 


814  NATUBAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Sates,  having  several  species,  and  others  again  only  one  or  two.  Some  species  are  very  limited  in 
their  range,  while  others  are  widely  distributed.  Cambarus  acutus  is  an  illustration  of  this  wide 
distribution,  ranging  as  it  does  through  a  large  number  of  the  States  from  the  Great  Lakes 
southward  to  the  Gulf,  and  from  Missouri  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  C.  Bartonii  ranges 
from  Canada  to  the  District  of  Columbia  and  Kentucky ;  C.  obesns,  from  Illinois  to  Louisiana,  and 
from  Missouri  to  New  York  and  Virginia.  C.  affinis  occurs  in  all  of  the  Middle  States  and  in 
Maryland  and  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  C.  virilis  extends  from  Lake  Winnipeg,  British 
America,  to  Toronto  in  the  east  and  Texas  in  the  south.  Very  many  of  the  species  have  been 
recorded  from  only  a  single  locality  each,  but  this  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  restricted  range, 
as  they  may  occur  in  other  places  in  which  no  collections  have  yet  been  made. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE. — Although  Americans,  as  a  rule,  do  not  regard  the  eating  of  Cray-fishes 
with  much  favor,  these  animals  are  probably  used  as  food  in  many  of  the  localities  in  which  they 
are  abundant  and  can  be  easily  obtained.  The  French  in  this  country  are  perhaps  the  principal 
consumers  of  this  delicacy,  as  they  are  in  Europe,  where  their  own  country  can  supply  only  a 
small  part  of  the  demand,  great  quantities  being  annually  imported  into  France  from  Germany 
and  other  neighboring  countries.  In  the  United  States  the  principal  centers  for  the  consumption 
of  Cray-fishes  are  New  York  City  and  New  Orleans,  and  we  have  been  unable  to  learn  of  any  other 
cities  demanding  a  regular  supply.  New  Orleans  derives  its  supplies  from  the  fresh  waters  near 
at  hand,  but  New  York  depends  upon  more  distant  sources.  The  Cray-fish  season  in  New  York 
City  begins  early  in  the  spring  and  lasts  until  fall,  or  until  frost  sets  in.  The  first  supplies  come 
from  the  Potomac  Eiver  at  Washington,  where  the  Cray-fishes  are  first  taken  soon  after  the 
breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  the  river.  About  June  1  the  weather  becomes  almost  too  warm  for 
the  shipment  of  Cray-fishes  from  Washington,  and  another  more  northern  locality,  Milwaukee  and 
vicinity,  begins  to  send  supplies  to  New  York.  In  the  early  part  of  July,  Montreal  adds  her 
quota  to  the  New  York  markets,  and  the  shipments  from  these  two  latter  localities  continue  as 
stated  above  until  into  the  fall.  The  Potomac  Eiver  Cray-fishes  are  larger  than  those  from 
Milwaukee,  while  the  Montreal  species  is  the  smallest  of  all.  The  Milwaukee  Cray-fishes  are  most 
esteemed  by  epicures,  their  flesh  being  less  coarse  and  of  a  finer  flavor  than  any  of  the  other 
species  sold  in  the  New  York  markets.  The  Potomac  species  is  the  darkest  in  color  when  living, 
but  does  not  turn  red  by  boiling,  while  the  Milwaukee  and  Montreal  species  do.  Small  quantities 
of  Cray -fish  are  very  probably  brought  to  New  York  City  from  the  State  and  from  New  Jersey, 
but  if  so  they  do  not  pass  through  the  larger  markets,  and  there  is  no  regular  supply. 

The  Potomac  Eiver  Cray-fish  sent  to  New  York  is  the  Cambarus  affinis  Erichson,  and  the 
Milwaukee  species  is  the  Cambarus  virilis  Hagen.  We  have  never  examined  specimens  of  the 
Montreal  species.  The  New  Orleans  market  Cray-fish  is  the  Cambarus  Clarkii  Girard,  while  the 
San  Francisco  species,  as  already  stated,  is  the  Astacus  nigrescens.  One  of  the  Lower  Mississippi 
Eiver  species,  either  the  Cambarus  Clarkii  or  the  Cambarus  acutus,  burrows  into  and  causes  much 
damage  to  the  levees  of  the  river  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans. 

HABITS. — Cray-fishes  differ  widely  in  their  habits,  and  while  some  species  prefer  clear  run- 
ning streams,  others  live  in  more  quiet  waters,  and  still  others  upon  muddy  banks,  where  they  dig 
holes,  and  remain  much  of  the  time  out  of  the  reach  of  water. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott  has  given  us  the  following  account  of  the  habits  of  three  of  our  commoner 
species  of  Cray-fishes,  which  occur  near  Trenton,  New  Jersey.1  They  are  Cambarus  acutus,  G. 
affinis,  and  C.  Bartonii,  which  have  already  been  referred  to  as  living  in  regions  where  Cray- 
fishes are  taken  as  food : 

'American  Naturalist,  vii,  1873. 


IIAI'.ITS  or  riJAV   1  ISHKS.  HIT, 

"It  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  the  three  species  is  the  most  abundant  in  the  general  locality 
wo  have  named,  inasmuch  as  they  seem  to  prefer  different  streams;  one  being  a  plant-loving,  one 
a  stone-haunting,  and  the  third  n  mud  frequenting  species.  In  their  respective  haunts  each  ia 
apparenth  as  numerous  as  is  either  of  the  others  in  its  chosen  home.  .  .  .  We  have  found 
('iini/Kinin  m-ittiiK  to  frequent  running  streams  which  have  masses  of  vegetation  growing  in  them, 
tin-  animal  in  question  resting  upon  the  plants,  usually  near  the  surface  of  the  water.  We  have 
tuiinil  sinee  our  Collecting  excursions,  on  carefully  approaching  clear  running  streams,  such  as 
just  mentioned,  that  this  Cray-fish  is  to  be  seen  resting  on  the  plants,  always  with  the  head 
directed  down-stream.  If  disturbed,  they  would  dart  backward,  down  to  the  roots,  apparently, 
of  the  plant  upon  which  they  were  sitting.  After  a  lapse  of  about  ten  minutes  they  would  return 
to  their  former  resting  place,  creeping  up  the  plant  down  which  they  had  so  suddenly  darted  tail 
Ion-most. 

"The  Cambarm  affinia  is  apparently  the  river  species  of  this  locality.  We  have  been  able  to 
find  it,  as  yet,  only  in  the  Delaware  River,  usually  frequenting  the  rocky  bed,  but  also,  in  fewer 
numbers,  on  the  mud  bottomed  portions  of  the  river.  They  are  usually  found  resting  under  flat 
st mies,  well  out  from  the  banks  of  the  stream,  where  the  water  is  of  considerable  depth. 
Wherever  the  vegetation  is  dense,  we  have  failed  to  find  them ;  nor  have  we  seen  anything  to 
indicate  that  it  is  a  'burrowing'  species.  .  .  .  Cambarus  Bartonii,  it  appears  to  us,  is  the  one 
burrowing  species  of  this  locality.  We  have  found  in  the  deep  ditches,  with  precipitous,  muddy 
banks,  a  medium-sized  Cray-fish,  which  in  most  respects  accords  with  the  species  called  Cambarus 
Bartoiiii  Fabr.  by  Dr.  Hagen.  .  .  . 

"  Cray-fish  are  strictly  omnivorous  animals,  but,  although  excellent  scavengers,  do  not  feed 
wholly  upon  decayed  animal  and  vegetable  matters.  We  have  frequently  noticed  that  C.  Bartonii 
in  an  aquarium  breaks  oil'  the  short  stems  of  the  common  river  weed,  and  eats  the  main  stem, 
after  stripping  it  of  its  minute  leaves.  So  the  C.  affinis,  from  beneath  its  sheltering  flat  stone,  and 
C.  Bartonii,  in  its  safe  burrow,  will  seize  the  minute  young  cyprinoids,  that  pass  up  and  down  the 
stream  in  such  myriads,  ever  and  anon  peeping  into  the  various  little  indentations  in  the  banks. 
Such  little  fish,  when  once  fairly  caught  by  the  big  claws  but  by  no  means  clumsy  '  hands'  of  a 
Cambarux,  have  no  chance  of  escape,  and  are  soon  torn  to  pieces." 

Cambarus  Bartonii  described  by  C.  Girard  as  C.  Diogenes,  constructs  very  interesting  bur- 
rows on  the  meadow  flats  of  the  Potomac  River  at  Washington,  which  Mr.  Girard  describes  as 
follows :' 

"The  holes,  as  they  appear  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  nearly  circular,  from  seven-tenths 
of  an  inch  to  one  inch  and  one  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  depth  of  the  burrows  varies 
according  to  the  locations ;  this  we  generally  found  to  be  from  sixteen  inches  to  two  feet,  and 
sometimes  to  three  feet  and  more.  The  construction  of  the  burrow  itself  is  often  exceedingly 
simple;  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  excavation  exhibits  gradual  slope,  in  direction  more 
or  less  undulating,  for  a  distance  of  from  five  to  ten  inches,  when  it  becomes  vertical  for  six  or 
eight  inches,  and  then  terminates  in  a  sudden  bottle-shape  enlargement,  in  which  the  animal  is 
found.  The  bottom  of  the  burrows  having  no  subterraneous  communication,  no  other  issue  except 
towards  the  surface,  it  is  entirely  isolated  from  its  neighbors,  and  leaves  no  chance  of  escape  to  its 
inhabitant.  The  same  burrow  may  have  several  external  holes  connected  with  it,  several  inclined 
channels,  which,  however,  meet  at  the  depth  where  it  becomes  vertical.  We  constantly  found  the 
cavity  full  of  water,  but  this  was  in  March  and  April ;  the  bottom,  for  several  inches,  was  filled 
with  a  soft  and  pulpy  mud. 

1  Proc.  Phila.  A«d.  Nat  Sci.,  vi,  pp.  88-90,  1854. 


816  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"We  generally  found  a  single  individual  in  each  burrow,  it  being  either  a  male  or  a  female, 
the  latter  in  March  or  April,  carrying  under  the  tail  a  bundle  of  her  eggs.  Sometimes,  when 
numerous  individuals  are  gathered  on  a  small  space,  it  may  happen  that  the  windings  of  the  upper 
part  of  their  burrows  will  accidentally  meet  and  have  in  this  case  a  comtuuuication  which  was  not 
contemplated.  Each  individual,  however,  remains  in  its  own. apartment;  so  at  least  we  constantly 
found  to  be  the  case.  To  accomplish  the  act  of  breeding,  males  and  females  must  come  together 
at  one  particular  time.  In  one  of  the  burrows  which  we  examined  we  found  a  male  and  a  female. 
We  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  male  quits  its  retreat  and  goes  in  search  of  the  female,  as  one 
individual  of  the  former  sex  was  found,  at  one  time,  walking  over  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

"In  the  spring, and  we  are  told  in  the  fall  also,  the  burrowing  Craw-fish  builds  over  the  holes 
of  its  burrow  a  chimney  of  the  maximum  height  of  one  foot,  but  most  generally  lower.  This 
chimney,  circularly  pyramidal  in  shape,  is  constructed  of  lumps  of  mud,  varying  in  size,  irreg- 
ularly rolled  up,  and  piled  up  one  upon  another,  and  intimately  connected  together.  Its  exterior 
has  a  rough  and  irregular  appearance,  whilst  the  interior  is  smooth  and  as  uniform  as  the  subter- 
raneous channel,  and  having  the  same  diameter  as  the  latter.  The  cementing  of  the  successive 
balls  of  mud  is  easily  accounted  for  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  latter  are  brought  up  in  a 
very  soft  state,  and  that  their  drainage  and  subsequent  solidification  on  their  exposure  to  the 
atmospheric  air  and  rays  of  the  sun  are  all  that  is  required  to  unite  these  parts.  .  .  .  The 
last  touch  consists  in  shutting  up  the  aperture.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  several  balls 
of  mud  brought  up  from  underneath,  deposited  temporarily  on  the  edge  of  the  chimney  and 
drawn  back  in  close  contiguity,  so  as  to  intercept  all  communication  with  the  external  world. 
The  number  of  such  chimneys  is  sometimes  very  great  in  one  particular  locality,  distributed 
without  any  geometrical  regularity,  and  recalling  to  mind  the  scattered  habitations  or  village  of 
a  newly  settled  colony." 

226.  THE  SHEIMPS  AND  PRAWNS. 
THE  COMMON  SHRIMP — CRANGON  VITLGARIS,  Fabncius. 

This  species  of  Shrimp  occurs  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  is  eaten  both  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  It  is,  therefore,  of  considerable  economic  importance,  though  of  less  value  than 
the  larger  Shrimp  (Peruem)  of  tue  Southern  States.  Crangon  vulgaris,  on  the  American  coast, 
ranges  from  Labrador  to  North  Carolina,  and  from  low-tide  level  to  depths  of  about  fifty 
fathoms.  "It  is  found  in  greatest  abundance  in  shallow  water,  and  on  sandy  or  weedy  bottoms, 
but  occurs  also  on  muddy,  shelly,  and  rocky  bottoms,  and  extends  at  least  to  about  fifty  fathoms 
in  depth.  It  varies  much  in  coloration  according  to  the  location  in  which  it  is  found.  Upon  the 
exposed  and  light-colored  sandy  shores  of  Southern  New  England,  specimens  are  invariably 
translucent  and  very  pale  in  color,  so  as  to  closely  resemble  the  surface  upon  and  beneath  which 
they  live,  while  upon  dark -colored  muddy  bottoms  they  are  very  much  darker  in  color.  Specimens 
from  a  dark-colored  muddy  inlet  of  Vineyard  Sound  and  others  from  dark  muddy  and  sandy 
bottoms  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  are  very  dark  indeed,  the  pigment  spots  covering  nearly  the 
-entire  surface,  and  the  caudal  appendages  becoming  almost  black  toward  the  tips." ' 

"When  resting  quietly  on  the  bottom,  or  when  it  buries  itself  partially  and  sometimes  almost 
entirely,  except  the  eyes  and  long,  slender  antennae,  it  cannot  easily  be  distinguished  by  its 
enemies,  and,  therefore,  gains  great  protection  by  its  colors.  When  left  by  the  tide  it  buries  itself 
to  a  considerable  depth  in  moist  sand.  It  needs  all  its  powers  of  concealment,  however,  for  it  is 

'8.  I.  SMITH:  Trans.  Conn.  Acad.,  v,  p.  50,  1879. 


TIIK  COMMON   SII1MMP.  817 

eagcily  hunted  anil  captured  by  nearly  all  the  larger  lislie.s  whieh  frequent  the  same  waters,  and 
it  eonstiiiites  the  principal  food  of  many  of  them,  such  as  the  weak-fish,  king-fish,  white  perch, 
bluefish,  flounders,  striped  bass,  etc.  Fortunately  it  is  a  very  prolific  species,  and  is  abundant 
along  the  entire  coast,  from  North  Carolina  to  Labrador,  wherever  sandy  shores  occur.  The  young 
swim  free  for  a  considerable  time  alter  hatching,  and  were  taken  at  the  surface  in  the  evening,  in 
large  numbers."1 

According  to  White,1  the  common  Shrimp  are  in  spawn  on  the  English  coast  during  the  entire 
summer;  "the  ova  are  of  a  dirty  white  color." 

We  have  no  published  data  as  to  the  duration  of  the  spawning  season  upon  our  coast,  but 
"the  young  are.  hatched  in  the  neighborhood  of  Vineyard  Sound  in  May  and  June,  and  arrive  at 
the  adult  form  before  they  are  more  than  four  or  five  millimeters  long.  Specimens  of  this  size 
were  taken  at  Wood's  Holl,  at  the  surface,  on  the  evening  of  July  3.  Later  in  the  season  much 
larger  specimens  were  frequently  taken  at  the  surface  both  in  the  evening  and  daytime. 

"The  young  of  the  different  kinds  of  Shrimp,  Crangon  rulgaris,  Palatmonetcx  vulgarw,  and 
Virbius  sontericola,  when  hatched  from  the  egg,  are  free-swimming  animals,  similar  in  their  habits 
to  the  young  of  the  Lobster.  In  structure,  however,  they  are  quite  unlike  the  larvae  of  the 
Lobster,  and  approach  more  the  zoea  stages  of  the  Crabs.  When  they  first  leave  the  egg, 
they  are  without  the  five  pairs  of  cephalo-thoracic  legs,  the  abdomen  is  without  appendages, 
and  much  as  it  is  in  the  first  stage  of  the  young  Lobster,  while  the  maxillipeds  are  developed 
into  long  locomotive  appendages,  somewhat  like  the  external  maxillipeds  of  the  first  stage 
of  the  young  Lobster.  While  yet  in  the  free-swimming  condition  the  cephalo-thoracic  legs 
are  developed,  the  maxillipeds  assume  the  adult  form,  and  the  abdominal  limbs  appear.  The 
young  of  these  Shrimp  are  very  much  smaller  than  the  young  of  the  Lobster,  but  they 
remain  for  a  considerable  time  in  this  immature  state,  and  were  very  frequently  taken  at  the 
surface  in  the  towing-net."3  ' 

Although  Crangon  rulgaris  may  be  common  in  the  southern  part  of  its  range  (New  York  to 
North  Carolina),  it  has  not  been  often  recorded  from  that  region,  and  in  fact  we  know  much  more 
about  it  on  the  New  England  coast,  along  the  entire  extent  of  which  it  is  very  abundant,  though 
somewhat  less  so  north  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  About  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  it  is  again  abundant 
and  of  large  size  from  low  water  mark  to  eighteen  fathoms,  on  sandy,  muddy,  stony,  and  rocky 
bottoms.  It  is  common  everywhere  in  shallow  water  and  at  low-water  mark  on  most  sandy 
beaches  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  It  also  occurs  in  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  Since  this 
report  was  in  manuscript.  Crangon  vuJgaris  has  been  found  by  the  Fish  Commission  to  occur  in 
different  parts  of  Chesapeake  Bay  in  immense  numbers  and  of  unusually  large  size. 

The  common  Shrimp  attains  a  length  of  over  two  inches,  exclusive  of  the  anterior  appendages, 
but  is  generally  smaller.  In  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  and  about  New  Bedford,  Mass., 
it  is  taken  as  food.  Northward  from  there  it  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  only  utilized  to  a  slight  extent, 
and  for  bait  only.  It  may  perhaps  be  taken  on  the  southern  coasts,  where  it  occurs,  in  connection 
with  Penffiw,  which  is  sent  in  large  quantities  to  New  York,  but  from  all  the  information  we 
have  been  able  to  obtain,  no  notice  is  taken  of  it  south  of  New  York. 

Mr.  W.  N.  Lockington  states  that  Crangon  vulgaris  is  very  abundant  upon  the  Pacific  coast 
of  North  America,  ranging  from  Alaska  (Mutiny  Bay)  to  San  Diego,  California.  It  is  smaller  than 
C.  francuicorum,  with  which  it  is  found  associated ;  and  it  is  also  less  abundant  in  the  San 

1  VEBKILL:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  339,  1871-'72. 
1  Popular  History  of  British  Crustacea,  1857,  p.  107. 
»S.  I.  SMITH  :  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  528,  529,  1871-'72. 
52  F 


818  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

Francisco  markets,  although  comprising  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  total  catch  of  Shrimp,  and 
at  some  seasons  it  is  more  common  than  its  congener.  The  average  length  of  the  specimens 
taken  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  said  to  be  about  two  and  a  quarter  inches,  but  large  examples 
exceed  three  inches  in  length.  This  form,  which  is  a  sort  of  color  variety,  is  easily  distinguished 
from  C.  franviscorum  by  its  black  tail,  and  the  large  proportion  of  black  upon  its  body,  as  well  as 
by  the  different  form  of  the  hand,  the  movable  finger  of  which  is  much  shorter  and  folds  trans- 
versely across  the  tip  of  the  hand.  From  its  black  coloring  it  has  received  the  name  of  "  Black- 
tailed  Crab." 

This  Shrimp  is  taken  on  the  west  coast  in  connection  with  C.franciscorum,  and  is  sold  fresh  in 
the  markets  as  well  as  boiled  and  dried  for  exportation  to  China. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  SHBIMP— CRANGON  FRANCISOORUM,  Stimpson. 

According  to  notes  furnished  by  W.  N.  Lockitigton,  this  is  the  largest  species  of  Shrimp  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  is  the  Shrimp  par  excellence  of  the  San  Francisco  mar- 
kets, where  large  quantities  are  sold  during  nearly  every  month  of  the  year. 

The  total  length  of  the  body,  in  the  adults,  ranges  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  inches, 
while  in  the  same  the  length  of  the  carapax  is  about  seven-eighths  of  an  inch. 

From  the  Pacific  coast  variety  of  Crangon  vulgaris  this  species  can  be  distinguished  by  its 
larger  size ;  by  the  absence  of  the  black  tail  and  large  black  spots,  characteristic  of  the  former ; 
by  the  small  dots  of  dark  tint  which  mottle  the  surface;  and  most  readily  by  the  much  greater 
length  of  the  movable  finger  of  the  hand,  which  folds  parallel  with  the  side  of  the  hand  instead 
of  across  its  extremity. 

Crangon  franciscorum  has  a  somewhat  limited  range,  not  being  known  from  north  of  Puget 
Sound,  nor  south  of  Point  Conception,  California.  In  San  Francisco  Bay  and  Tomales  Bay  it  is 
exceedingly  abundant,  frequenting  especially  the  sandy  coves  along  their  shores.  Not  only  is 
this  Shrimp  largely  consumed  upon  the  coast  when  fresh,  but  it  is  also  taken  by  the  Chinese  in 
immense  quantities  and  shipped  to  China  after  boiling  and  drying.  The  Shrimp  industry  affords 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  Chinese,  and  constitutes  an  important  factor  in  the  export  trade 
of  San  Francisco.  The  Shrimp  are  usually  caught  in  purse-nets,  which  are  conical  in  shape, 
about  twenty -five  feet  long  and  ten  feet  across  the  mouth ;  they  taper  to  the  lower  end,  which  is 
opened  and  closed  by  means  of  a  "puckering  string."  It  is  said  that  no  diminution  in  the  number 
of  Shrimp  results  from  the  continuous  fishing,  although  the  edible  species  of  fish  are  nearly 
exterminated  in  San  Francisco  Bay. 

A  species  of  Hippolite  (H.  brevirostris),  of  a  uniform  light  crimson  or  scarlet  color,  occurs  at 
the  Straits  of  Fuca,  in  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  probably  along  the  intervening  coast.  In  San 
Francisco  Bay  it  is  taken  with  the  Grangons  for  food. 

THE  COMMON  PRAWN— PAL^MONETES  VTTLGARIS,  Stimpson. 

The  common  American  Prawn,  which  closely  resembles  the  English  species,  although  occurring 
in  great  abundance  along  some  portions  of  our  Atlantic  coast,  does  not  rank  among  our  food 
invi-rtebrates  on  account  of  its  small  size.  It  frequently  makes  up  for  that  deficiency,  however, 
by  its  great  abundance. 

The  average  length  of  specimens  is  about  one  and  one-half  inches.  The  body  is  translucent, 
almost  colorless,  but  is  "marked  with  irregular,  ill-defined,  dark  blotches  and  spots,  which 
admirably  adapt  it  for  concealment  among  the  discolored  and  dead  leaves  of  eel-grass,  at  or  near 
the  bottom,"  in  which  localities  it  is  most  abundant.  The  American  Prawn  differs  from  the 


Till:   I'KKl'  WATER  PRAWNS.  S]«» 

English,  among  otlu-r  things,  in  the  charactci -of  its  rostrum  and  in  its  smaller  size.  The  rostrum 
of  the  latter  is  <li\  idc •<!  «r  double  at  the  tip,  and  specimens  rauge  in  length  from  three  to  five 
inches. 

P.  rult/in-is  ranges  from  Massachusetts  Bay  to  Northern  Florida.  North  of  Cape  Cod,  how- 
ex  IT.  it  is  rare.  It  is  very  common  among  eel-grass,  etc.,  in  Vineyard  Sound,  Buzzard's  I  lay, 
Fi>lici's  Island  Sound,  and  Long  Island  Sound.  Thence  it  has  been  recorded  from  the  south  side 
of  Long  Island,  and  from  numerous  points  along  the  coant  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Southern  States, 
as  far  smith  as  Saint  John's  Kiver,  Florida.  The  localities  inhabited  by  this  species  are  described 
us  follows  h\  1'iofosor  Yen-ill: ' 

"The  common  Prawn  has  its  true  home  among  the  eel-grass  (in  brackish  water),  and  here  it 
occurs  in  countless  numbers.  .  .  .  It  is  also  very  abundant  in  the  pools  and  ditches  (of  the 
imi<l(h  shores  in  brackish  water),  even  where  the  water  is  but  little  salt,  and  also  occurs  in 
immense  numbers  on  the  muddy  bottoms." 

It  likewise  abounds  on  the  muddy  bottoms  in  pure  salt  water.  On  sandy  bottoms  iu  both  salt 
and  brackish  water  it  often  occurs  associated  with  Crangon  rulgaris,  but  not  in  large  numbers. 

THE  RIVER  SHRIMPS— PAL-SMON  OHIONIS,  Smith;  PAL^EMONETES  EXILIPES,  Stimpson. 

Only  two  species  of  river  Shrimp  have  yet  been  described  from  the  United  States  east  of 
the -Mississippi  River,  and  they  seem  to  be  used  as  food  in  only  a  few  localities.  At  New  Orleans, 
however,  one  species,  the  PaUemon  ohionw,  is  very  much  esteemed. 

In  this  species,  the  carapax  or  anterior  part  of  the  body  is  smooth,  stout,  and  considerably 
swollen,  with  a  short  rostrum.  Specimens  from  the  Ohio  River  measured  in  total  length  of  body 
from  two  to  three  and  one  fourth  inches,  the  carapax  occupying  about  one-fourth  of  this  length. 
The  original  specimens  from  which  the  species  was  described  were  from  the  Ohio  River  at 
Cauuelton,  Indiana,  where  it  is  taken  for  food.  Since  then  it  has  been  found  over  a  larger  area, 
including  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans. 

I'lilirniiiiii-tm  emlipes  is  a  much  smaller  species  than  the  above,  measuring  only  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  total  length.  It  has  been  recorded  from  Sandusky  Bay,  Lake  Erie;  Ecoree, 
Michigan;  Somerville,  South  Carolina;  and  from  fresh-water  streams  in  Florida.  It  is  probably 
quite  widespread  in  its  distribution,  but  we  are  not  aware  of  its  ever  having  been  used  as  food, 
probably  on  account  of  its  small  size. 

THE  DEEP-WATER    PRAWNS — PANDALU8    BOREALIS,   Kroyer;   LEPTOCEROS,   Smith;   MONTAOm, 

Leach ;  PROPINQUUS,  Sars. 

These  species  of  Prawns,  which  resemble  one  another  very  closely  in  appearance  and 
structure,  are  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  deeper  waters  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  the  Gulf  of 
Maine,  and  elsewhere  off  the  coast  of  New  England,  the  British  Provinces,  and  southward  as  far 
as  Virginia,  at  least. 

Pandalus  bnrealis  grows  to  a  much  larger  size  than  the  other  three  species,  but  all  are  large 
enough  to  serve  as  food,  and  sufficiently  abundant  in  the  localities  where  they  occur.  Unfor- 
tunately they  never  approach  the  shore,  and  the  ordinary  methods  of  taking  shrimp  in  shallow 
water  will  not  answer  for  their  capture.  If  some  means  of  taking  Them  easily  could  be  devised. 
they  would  undoubtedly  find  a  ready  sale  in  the  Boston  and  New  York  markets,  for  they  have  an 
exceedingly  good  flavor. 

Pandalun  boreali*  attains  a  length  of  seven  inches.  As  to  color,  it  is,  according  to  Professor 
Verrill,  "  thickly  sprinkled  with  small,  red,  stellate  spots,  which,  from  closer  aggregation,  make  the 

1  Vineyard  Sound  Report.  1871-'72. 


820  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

tail  deeper  in  color  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  spermaries  are  purplish -red,  the  outer 
membrane  golden,  ovaries  blue,  eggs  ultramarine  blue."  Females  carrying  eggs  were  taken  in 
August  and  September,  1877  and  1878,  in  and  off  Massachusetts  Bay  and  off  Cape  Ann.  The 
localities  where  this  species  has  been  found  are  as  follows :  Massachusetts  Bay,  off  Salem, 
forty-five  to  fifty  fathoms,  mud,  very  abundant;  Gulf  of  Maine,  forty  to  one  hundred  and  sixty 
fathoms,  muddy  bottoms,  very  abundant  in  some  places.  In  the  Gulf  of  Maine,  it  was  found 
to  be  especially  common  in  a  region  about  fourteen  miles  southeast  from  Cape  Ann,  in  fifty 
to  about  one  hundred  fathoms.  It  was  also  encountered  twenty  to  thirty  miles  off  Cape  Sable, 
Nova  Scotia,  in  depths  of  fifty-nine  to  eighty-eight  fathoms,  and  thirty  miles  off  Halifax  in 
eighty-five  to  one  hundred  and  ten  fathoms.  Beyond  our  seas  it  has  been  recorded  from 
Greenland,  Norway,  and  Bering  Sea. 

Pandalus  Montagui  and  leptoceros  differ  from  P.  borealis  in  coloration,  "in  having  the  red 
more  intense  and  arranged  in  clearly  defined  markings,  of  which  those  upon  the  carapax  and 
abdomen  are  arranged  in  conspicuous  obliquely  transverse  lines  or  bars,  while  the  color  upon 
the  rest  of  the  body  and  upon  the  appendages  is  collected  in  distinct  specks,  blotches,  or 
annulations."  The  largest  specimens  which  have  been  examined  were  from  depths  of  ninety 
fathoms,  off  Cape  Ann,  and  measured  four  and  one  half  inches  in  length.  Specimens  over  four 
inches  long  have  been  obtained  from  several  localities.  Only  a  few  individuals  have  so  far 
been  seen  carrying  spawn.  They  were  taken  in  different  places  during  the  months  of  August, 
September,  and  October.  These  species  range  all  the  way  from  off  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  to  Greenland,  and  P.  Montagui  also  occurs  on  the  European  coast  as  far  south  as  the 
British  Islands.  They  are  more  abundant  than  P.  borealis,  though  of  smaller  size,  and  are 
common  in  much  shallower  water,  as  well  as  in  the  same  deeper  places  resorted  to  by  P.  borealis. 

In  Massachusetts  Bay,  they  inhabit  depths  of  twenty-two  to  forty-eight  fathoms,  where  the 
bottom  is  gravelly,  sandy,  and  muddy,  and  have  also  been  found  on  Stellwagen  Bank.  In  the 
Gulf  of  Maine  they  are  widespread  and  exceedingly  abundant  in  many  localities,  being  often 
associateil  with  P.  borealiit  on  muddy  bottoms.  They  live  on  all  kinds  of  bottom,  in  depths  of 
ten  fathoms  downward.  They  have  been  found  east  of  George's  Bank  in  a  depth  of  four  hundred 
and  thirty  fathoms ;  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  ten  to  seventy-seven  fathoms ;  off  Nova  Scotia,  sixteen 
to  seventy-five  fathoms ;  in  Bedford  Basin,  Halifax,  twenty -six  to  forty-one  fathoms;  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence,  Labrador,  etc.  South  of  Cape  Cod  they  range  down  to  depths  of  two  and  three  hundred 
fathoms. 

Pandalus  propinquus,  which  has  been  recognized  only  since  this  report  was  first  written, 
occurs  associated  with  the  two  last  species  south  of  Cape  Cod. 

The  United  States  Fish  Commission,  in  its  explorations  with  the  dredge  and  trawl  along  the 
New  England  coast  during  the  past  ten  years,  has  constantly  come  upon  immense  schools  of  these 
deep-water  Prawns,  sometimes  two  or  more  of  the  species  being  associated  together,  at  others 
occurring  separately.  It  has  been  no  uncommon  occurrence  for  a  peck  or  more  to  come  up  in  a  single 
cast  of  the  beam  trawl,  and  several  such  hauls  have  sometimes  been  made  in  a  single  day.  These 
Prawns  apparently  move  in  schools,  and  it  is  often  impossible  to  secure  more  than  a  single  catch 
in  any  spot  at  ono  time.  This  fact  may  result  from  their  moving  in  a  regular  body  from  place  to 
place,  and  thus  coming  by  chance  in  the  course  of  the  trawl  at  times,  or,  if  naturally  disposed  to 
remain  long  in  a  single  place,  the  appearance  of  the  trawl  must  have  the  effect  of  frightening 
them  away.  They  are  active  in  their  movements,  and  are  thus  seldom  taken  in  the  dredge.  It 
has  been  the  cnstom  on  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  steamer,  when  a  large  haul  of  Pandali 
.has  been  made,  after  having  selected  the  specimens  required  for  scientific  purposes,  to  turn  the 


TIIK  SorniKlIX  SIIIMMPS  AND   Pi;A\YNS.  821 

remainder  over  to  tin-  mess,  and  there  are  many  witnesses  to  testify  to  the  superior  character  of 
the  deep  water  Prawns  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  lohstermeii  of  Itiddet'ord  Pool,  Maine,  who  set  their  pots  ill  the  winter  from  four  to  si x 
miles  from  shore,  occasionally  capture  these  Prawns,  and  here  may  be  a  suggestion  as  to  the' 
style  of  apparatus  which  mijjht  IK'  tried  advantageously  for  their  capture.  The  openings  would, 
of  course,  need  to  he  of  much  smaller  si/e  than  those  of  an  ordinary  lobster-pot.  A  light  beam 
trawl  of  large  six.e  might,  however,  answer  still  better. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  PRAWN— PANDALUS  DAN-*:,  Stimpson. 

According  to  W.  N.  Lockington,  this  is  a  moderately  large  species  of  Prawn,  which  is  now 
commonly  brought  to  the  San  Francisco  market,  and  is  caught  in  the  open  ocean  between  the 
Farallone  Islands  and  Point  Reyes.  The  length  of  the  body  in  the  adults,  including  the  rostrum, 
is  aliout  live  inches,  while  the  average  length  of  the  carapax,  excluding  the  rostrum,  is  about  one 
and  a  quarter  inches.  Fresh  specimens  are  finely  marked  with  transverse  zigzag  lines  of  white, 
separated  by  bands  of  red. 

Pandulun  Dana:  has  been  recorded  from  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  and  Puget  Sound,  north 
of  which  it  is  not  known;  its  southern  limit  is  possibly  Point  Conception,  California,  the  most 
pronounced  point  of  division  between  the  northern  and  southern  marine  faunae  of  California, 
though  this  fact  has  not  been  positively  determined.  This  Prawn  has  been  much  more  abundant 
in  the  Ban  Francisco  markets  during  the  past  two  years  than  formerly,  and  the  reason  assigned  is 
that  the  tishermen,  driven  out  of  San  Francisco  Bay  by  the  constantly  diminishing  supply  of  fish 
there,  have  been  forced  to  resort  to  the  open  sea  between  the  Farallone  Islands  and  Point  Reyes, 
where  the  Prawns  live  in  large  numbers.  It  has  been  noticed  with  spawn  in  November,  Decem- 
ber, and  January.  A  second  species  of  Prawn  is  occasionally  brought  to  the  San  Francisco 
market,  along  with  P.  Dance,  being  obtained  in  the  same  places.  It  is  of  smaller  size  than  P. 
Dante  and  of  a  uniform  light  pink  color  when  fresh;  it  also  differs  from  the  latter  in  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  rostrum,  appendages,  etc.,  and  in  the  number  of  the  rostral  spines. 

In  1879,  several  examples  of  a  large  species  of  Prawn,  apparently  identical  with  Penceus 
brasiliensi*,  of  Brazil  and  the  Southern  United  States,  were  brought  to  the  San  Francisco 
markets;  in  1880  none  were  observed.  This  species  is  also  recorded  from  the  west  coast  of 
Nicaragua.  Adult  specimens  examined  at  San  Francisco  measured  seven  inches  in  total  length, 
including  the  rostrum.  Compared  with  specimens  from  the  Bio  Grande,  Brazil,  no  points  of 
difference  as  regards  form  or  proportion  of  parts  were  detected. 

THE  SOUTHERN  SHRIMPS  AND  PRAWNS— fanyjEus  SETIFERUS,  M.-Edwards;  PEN^EUS  BRASIL- 

l  I..NSIS.    l.at  reille. 

These  are  the  large  Shrimps  or  Prawns  which  occnr  in  such  immense  numbers  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Southern  States,  and  are  taken  to  supply  the  markets  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina; 
Savannah,  Georgia;  New  Orleans,  Louisiana:  New  York,  and  elsewhere.  The  two  species  are 
often  found  associated  together,  but  Penteus  seti/ertis  is  the  more  abundant,  nnd  is,  therefore,  more 
commonly  seen  in  the  markets.  According  to  Prof.  Lewis  R.  Gibbes,  these  species  may*be  dis- 
tinguished apart  by  the  following  characters: 

"The  common  Shrimp  (P.  netiferus)  has  a  groove  on  each  side  of  the  large  spine  that  springs 
from  the  fore  and  upper  part  of  the  shell  or  carapax;  these  run  backward  and  terminate  about 
the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  shell.  In  the  same  tray  in  the  market  will  frequently  be  found 
other  individuals,  far  less  numerous,  in  which  these  grooves  run  the  whole  length  of  the  shell, 
terminating  just  in  front  of  the  hinder  edge  or  border  of  the  shell,  at  the  first  joint.  This  form  I 
have  referred  to  the  P.  brasiliewi*  of  Lat reille. 


Q22  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

"Full  grown  individuals  of  P.  setiferus  measure  six  or  more  inches  in  length,  from  the  tip  of 
the  large  anterior  spine  to  the  tip  of  the  tail  spine,  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  deep  and  broad 
in  the  front  or  body  part.  These  large  specimens  of  both  species  are  known  in  the  markets  as 
'Prawns,'  or  'Sprawns,'  and  the  half-grown  individuals  are  distinguished  as  'Shrimps.'  The 
Prawns  appear  in  our  waters  generally  in  March,  or  in  warm  seasons  as  early  as  the  latter  weeks 
of  February,  and  remain  in  season  for  two  or  three  months,  after  which  the  supply  diminishes,  and 
they  appear  to  retire  for  a  time  to  spawn.  To  what  region  or  localities  they  retreat  I  do  not 
know,  nor  have  I  been  able  to  learn  anything  concerning  this  matter  from  the  fishermen.  I  may 
add  that  I  have  never  seen  one  of  these  Shrimp  carrying  its  eggs.  It  may  be  that  they  ascend 
our  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  and  friends  have  called  my  attention  to  what  they  call 
'  fresh-water  Shrimp'  that  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  common  Shrimp,  and  yet  are  found  in  the 
rivers  above  the  reach  of  salt  water.  In  June  and  the  succeeding  months  of  summer,  the  half- 
grown  individuals  or  '  Shrimps'  are  in  season,  and  for  tenderness  of  flesh  and  delicacy  of  flavor  are 
preferred  to  the  'Prawns.'  In  the  autumn  they  all  disappear  from  our  waters,  and  I  suppose  go 
southward  or  else  into  deeper  water.  As  Prawns  and  Shrimps  die  very  soon  after  being  taken 
from  the  water,  they  cannot  be  sent  fresh  to  any  distance.  They  are  used  both  as  food  and 
bait." 

According  to  Stiinpson,  Penceus  brasiliensis  "is  often  found  in  brackish  water,  and  even 
ascends  streams  to  points  where  the  water  is  nearly  or  quite  fresh.  It  was  thus  found  in  the 
Crotou  River  at  Sing  Sing,  New  York,  by  Professor  Baird,  and  by  myself  in  a  fresh-water  creek 
near  Somers  Point,  New  Jersey."  From  these  places  it  ranges  southward  to  Brazil,  and  is  found 
more  or  less  continuously  along  the  Southern  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  Gulf  coast  to  Mexico. 
Penceus  netiferm  has  not  been  recorded  from  north  of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  but  thence  southward  its 
range  corresponds  with  that  of  P.  brasiliensis,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  the  coast  of  the  United 
States. 

Mr.  T.  E.  Fisher,  of  Fernandina,  Florida,  who  has  been  interested  in  the  Shrimp  industry  at 
that  place  for  several  years,  furnishes  the  following  notes  regarding  the  Shrimps  and  Prawns, 
which  he  distinguishes  from  one  another  in  the  same  way  as  Professor  Gibbes:  "It  is  my  belief 
that  the  Shrimp  (smaller  individuals)  move  out  into  deeper  water  at  the  beginning  of  winter  and 
there  remain  until  about  the  full  moon  in  March  or  thereabouts,  when  they  return  to  the  bays 
and  rivers  in  great  quantities  as  'Prawns'  and  ascend  the  rivers  and  creeks,  I  think,  to  spawn. 
This  is  the  time  when  they  are  taken  as  food.  After  spawning,  or  about  May  or  June,  they 
return  to  the  sea.  From  May  to  August  the  so-called  Shrimp,  which  then  appear,  are  quite 
small  and  used  principally  as  fish  bait;  from  August  to  December  they  grow  quite  rapidly. 
September  and  October  are  the  best  shrimping  months  of  the  season,  and  May  and  June  are  the 
only  mouths  when  Shrimp  are  scarce,  excepting  during  the  colder  mouths  of  winter,  when  they 
leave  the  coast  for  a  time."  The  seasons  on  the  coasts  of  South  Carolina  and  Eastern  Florida, 
therefore,  nearly  correspond,  excepting  that  in  Florida,  the  climate  being  milder,  the  Shrimp 
reuiaiu,  upon  the  coast  much  later  in  the  season  or  nearly  all  winter.  Mr.  Silas  Stearns,  of 
Pensacoia,  Florida,  writes  that  "  Shrimp  are  abundant  on  all  parts  of  the  Gulf  coast,  and 
especially  so  in  the  region  of  Louisiana  and  Texas.  They  live  on  the  grassy  or  sandy  flats,  and 
among  the  weeds  on  the  bottoms  of  bayous  and  lagoons,  in  both  salt  and  brackish  water.  On  the 
Florida  coast  they  are  found  throughout  the  summer  months,  and  appear  to  breed  in  the  spring 
or  early  summer.  In  the  fall  they  make  up  in  schools,  and  seem  bent  on  migratory  movements. 
At  this  time  a  few  are  taken  in  seines  and  sold  to  the  restaurant  keepers  of  the  cities.  On  the 
Louisiana  and  Texas  coasts  the  habit  of  schooling  is  much  more  common,  and  as  the  Shrimp 


TIIK   MANTIS  SHIM  Ml'.  823 

arc  very  a1>iiinlaiit  at  all  times  dining  warm  weather,  they  can  be  profitably  caught  for  the 
market.  Barrataria  Bay,  of  the  Louisiana  coast,  ami  CiaheMon  :nnl  Matagorda  Bays,  of  the 
Te\a-«  coast,  are  notable  (daces  for  the  shrimp  fishery.  The  fact  that  these  bays  afford  unusually 
good  feeding  grounds  and  hiding  places  for  the  Shrimp  will  undoubtedly  explain  (heir  great 
abundance  there.  Shrimp  of  marketable  size  average  about  four  inches  in  length.  Their  color 
tends  to  imitate  that  of  the  bottom  on  which  they  dwell.  New  Orleans  and  Galveston  are  the 
only  .itics  of  the  Gulf  coast  which  engage  in  the  shrimp  trade." 

227.  THE  MANTIS  SHRIMPS— SQUILLIDJE. 

THE  MANTIS  SHRIMP,  OB  SEA  MANTIS— SQUILLA  EMPUSA,  Say. 

"The  Squilla  empuAa  is  a  very  interesting  creature,  whose  habits  are  still  imperfectly  known. 
It  is  often  thrown  on  the  beaches  by  the  waves,  and  probably  it  usually  burrows  in  the  mud  below 
low-water  mark,  but  in  certain  localities  it  has  been  found  burrowing  at  or  near  low-water  mark  of 
spring  tides,  forming  large,  irregular  holes.  The  very  curious,  free-swimming  young  were  often 
taken  in  the  towing-nets.  Large  specimens  are  eight  or  ten  inches  long  and  about  two  broad. 
The  body  is  not  so  stoutly  built  as  that  of  the  Lobster,  and  the  carapax  or  shell  is  much  smaller  and 
softer,  while  the  abdomen  is  much  larger  and  longer  in  proportion.  The  legs  and  all  the  other 
organs  are  quite  unlike  those  of  the  Lobster,  and  the  last  joint  of  the  great  claw,  instead  of  forming 
a  pair  of  pincers  with  the  next,  is  armed  with  a  row  of  six  sharp,  curved  spines,  which  shut  into 
corresponding  sockets,  arranged  in  a  groove  in  the  next  joint,  which  also  bears  smaller  spines. 
By  means  of  this  singular  organ  they  can  hold  their  prey  securely,  and  can  give  a  severe  wound 
to  the  human  hand,  if  handled  incautiously.  It  also  uses  the  stout  caudal  appendages,  which  are 
armed  with  spines,  very  effectively.  The  colors  of  this  species  are  quite  vivid,  considering  its 
mud-dwelling  habits.  The  body  Js  usually  pale  green  or  yellowish  green,  each  segment  bordered 
posteriorly  with  darker  green  and  edged  with  bright  yellow;  the  tail  is  tinged  with  rose  and 
mottled  with  yellow  and  blackish;  the  outer  caudal  lamella?  have  the  base  and  spines  white,  the 
last  joint  yellow,  margined  with  black ;  the  inner  ones  are  black,  pale  at  base;  the  eyes  are  bright 
emerald-green ;  the  inner  antenna  are  dark,  with  a  yellow  band  at  the  base  of  each  joint ;  and  the 
flagellum  is  annulated  with  black  and  white."1 

This  species  of  Squilla  ranges  from  Cape  God  to  Florida,  but  from  its  habit  of  remaining  most 
of  the  time  in  its  burrows  it  is  not  very  commonly  known  or  met  with  on  the  sea-shore,  though  it 
is  probably  very  abundant  in  some  localities. 

••  The  Mediterranean  species  of  Squilla  are  generally  found  at  considerable  depths ;  they  live 
in  sandy  places,  where  they  can  easily  procure  their  food,  which  seems  to  consist  chiefly  of  annelids 
and  fragments  of  the  Actinia  effceta.  According  to  Kisso,  the  females  when  they  wish  to  deposit 
their  eggs,  which  they  have  under  their  aftdominal  appendages,  retire  to  rocky  places.  The 
,sv/ «///«•  are  timid,  avoiding  danger;  they  swim  much  after  the  fashion  of  Lobsters."*  In  Euro|>e 
wherever  Squilta  can  be  found  in  sufficient  numbers  it  is  much  esteemed  as  food,  and  the  American 
species  would  probably  be  as  wholesome.  On  the  shores  where  it  abounds  it  might  easily  be 
obtained  by  digging,  and  from  deej>er  water  by  means  of  the  rake  dredge. 

Two  other  species  of  Squilla — Squilla  dubia  and  Ijyriogquilla  glabriuscula — also  occur  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Southern  States,  where  one  or  more  of  these  three  species  are  said  to  be  used  as 
bait  to  some  extent. 

1  VERRILL:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  1871-'T2. 
'WHITK:  Popular  History  of  the  British  Crustacea,  1857. 


824  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

228.  THE  AMPHIPODS. 
THE  BEACH  FLEAS,  OR  SAND  FLEAS— ORCHESTIA  AGILIS,  Smith;  SCUDS — GAMMARTJS  LOCUSTA, 

Gould;    AND   ALLIED   FORMS. 

The  extensive  group  of  Amphipoda,  to  which  these  species  belong,  consists  entirely  of  small 
aquatic  animals  which,  although  not  of  direct  importance  from  an  economical  point  of  view,  still 
serve  an  important  purpose  in  the  general  economy  of  nature,  and  deserve  at  least  some  mention 
here.  Besides  serving  as  food  for  fish,  many  of  the  species  act  as  scavengers  on  the  sea-shore, 
and,  despite  their  small  size,  are,  from  their  great  numbers,  able  to  dispose  of  a  large  quantity  of 
dead  refuse  matter.  Some  of  the  species  live  entirely  in  the  water,  while  others  are  exposed  to 
the  air  during  low  tide,  or  even  most  of  the  time.  The  experiment  of  utilizing  these  small  creat- 
ures in  the  preparation  of  skeletons  for  anatomical  purposes  has  been  tried  with  much  success. 
Fish,  cleaned  of  the  bulk  of  their  flesh,  have  been  fastened  to  boards  and  anchored  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  water,  near  the  docks  in  Eastport  Harbor,  and  within  the  space  of  a  few  hours 
nothing  but  the  bones  remained,  being  cleaned  as  completely  as  by  any  other  process,  and  with 
but  little  expenditure  of  time  on  the  part  of  the  naturalist.  Several  species  upon  our  coast  are 
abundant  enough  to  act  in  unison  in  this  way.  Some  of  the  deep-water  species  are  as  destructive 
to  dead  animal  matter  as  are  those  which  live  near  the  shore.  The  cod  and  halibut  fishermen 
often  suffer  from  their  depredations,  as  several  of  the  deep-water  Amphipods  quickly  attack  the 
fish  which  die  after  being  caught  on  the  trawl  lines  before  they  are  hauled  up.  The  gills  of  the 
fish  appear  to  be  first  devoured,  but  within  a  few  hours  they  are  able  to  eat  out  the  entire 
muscular  and  visceral  matter,  leaving  only  the  bones  and  skin.  Cod  and  hake  frequently  die 
upon  the  trawls,  and  are  thus  destroyed,  but  halibut  are  more  hardy  and  are  seldom  much 
injured. 

The  number  of  species  of  Amphipods  upon  our  coast  is  very  large,  but  we  need  refer  here  to 
only  two  or  three  species  to  illustrate  their  principal  characteristics. 

"  These  small  Crustacea  are  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  our  fisheries,  for  we  have 
found  that  they,  together  with  the  Shrimps,  constitute  a  very  large  part  of  the  food  of  most  of  our 
more  valuable  edible  fishes,  both  of  the  fresh  and  salt  water.  The  Amphipods,  though  mostly  of 
small  size,  occur  in  such  immense  numbers  in  their  favorite  localities  that  they  can  nearly  always 
be  easily  obtained  by  the  fishes  that  eat  them,  and  no  doubt  they  furnish  excellent  and  nutritions 
food,  for  even  the  smallest  of  them  are  by  no  means  despised  or  overlooked  even  by  large  and 
powerful  fishes  that  could  easily  capture  larger  game.  Even  the  voracious  bluefish  will  feed 
upon  these  small  Crustacea  where  they  can  be  easily  obtained,  even  when  menhaden  and  other 
fishes  are  plenty  in  the  same  localities.  They  are  also  the  favorite  food  of  trout,  lake  white-fish, 
shad,  flounders,  scup,  etc.,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  lists  of  the  animals  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
fishes.  One  species,  which  occurs  in  countless  numbers  beneath  the  masses  of  decaying  seaweeds 
thrown  up  at  high-water  mark  on  all  the  shores  by  the  waves,  is  the  Orchestia  agilis  Smith,  which 
has  received  this  name  in  allusion  to  the  extreme  agility  which  it  displays  in  leaping  when 
disturbed.  The  common  name  given  to  it  is  'Beach-flea,'  which  refers  to  the  same  habit.  Its 
color  in  dark  olive  green  or  brown,  and  much  resembles  that  of  the  decaying  weeds  among  which 
it  lives,  and  upon  which  it  probably  feeds.  It  also  constructs  burrows  in  the  sand  beneath  the 
vegetable  debris.  It  leaps  by  means  of  the  appendages  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body. 

"A  much  larger  species,  and  one  of  the  largest  of  all  the  Amphipods,  is  the  Gammarus 
locitnta,  which  occurs  in  great  numbers  beneath  the  stones  and  among  the  rock-weed  near  low- 


TIIK  P.CIKIM;  AMI-IUI-OD.  825 

water  mark.  Tin-  mal.->  are  much  larger  than  the  females,  and  sometimes  become  nearly  an  inch 
and  a  half  Ion-;.  They  cannot  leap  like  their  cousins  that  live  at  high-water  mark,  but  skip 
actively  about  on  their  sides  amon,,  the  stones  and  gravel  until  they  reach  some  shelter  or 
enter  the  water,  when  they  swim  rapidly  in  a  gyrating  manner  l>ack  downward  or  sideways. 
But  although  they  can  swim  they  are  seldom  met  with  away  fiom  the  shore  or  much  below  )o\v- 
u.iter  mark.  The  zone  of  I-'IK-HX  is  their  true  home.  This  species  is  abundant  on  all  our  shores, 
wherever  rocks  and  /•'//<•«*  occur,  from  Great  Egg  Harbor,  New  Jersey,  to  Labrador.  Its  color 
is  generally  olive  brown  or  reddish-brown,  much  like  that  of  the  Fuctm  among  which  it  lives. 
The  only  good  English  name  that  I  have  overheard  for  these  creatures  is  that  of  *  Sends,' given 
by  a  small  boy,  iu  reference  to  their  rapid  and  peculiar  motions.  .  .  .  Two  other  related 
species,  of  larger  si/e  and  paler  colors,  but  having  the  same  habit  of  leaping  as  the  On-!i,xtin, 
though  not  in  such  a  high  degree,  occur  among  the  weeds,  or  burrowing  in  the  sand,  or  IxMieath 
•  1  rift  wood,  etc.,  a  little  below  high-water  mark.  In  fact,  the  sand  is  sometimes  completely  tilled 
with  their  holes,  of  various  sizes.  Both  these  species  are  stout  iu  form,  and  become  about  an 
inch  long  when  mature.  One  of  them,  Talorchentia  longicorniit,  can  be  easily  distinguished  by 
its  very  long  antennae;  the  other,  T.  megulophthalma,  by  its  shorter  antenna-  and  very  large  eyes. 
Both  these  species  are  pale  grayish,  and  imitate  the  color  of  the  sand  very  perfectly.  When 
driven  from  their  burrows  by  unusually  high  tides  or  storms  they  are  capable  of  swimming 
actively  in  the  water.  They  make  dainty  morsels  for  fishes  and  many  shore  birds,  as  well  as  for 
certain  Crabs,  especially  Ocypoda  a  remind."1 

THE  BORING  AMPHIPOD— CHELUBA  TEREBRANS,  Phillipi. 

This  very  destructive  little  crustacean,  which  is  of  common  occurrence  on  the  European 
coast,  from  Southern  Norway  to  the  Adriatic  Sea,  has  so  far  been  noticed  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States  at  only  two  places,  Wood's  Holl  and  Provincetown,  Massachusetts.  At 
both  of  these  localities  it  was  found  associated  with  the  "Gribble"  (Limnoria  lignorum),  in  the 
submerged  piles  of  old  wharves.  It  is  more  than  possible,  however,  that  it  is  a  common  inhabitant 
of  our  coast,  doing  a  certain  amount  of  the  damage  hitherto  ascribed  to  other  boring  animals. 
Without  a  careful  examination,  it  is  quite  easy  for  an  unskilled  eye  to  confound  Chelura  with 
Limit»ri<i,  although  they  belong  to  very  distinct  divisions  of  the  Crustacea. 

The  main  characteristics  of  this  animal  by  which  it  may  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
Amphipods,  as  well  as  crustaceans,  are  the  three  pairs  of  caudal  styleui,  the  last  pair  being 
nearly  as  long  as  the  body  proper  of  the  males,  although  much  shorter  in  the  females  and  young. 
As  to  color,  the  body  is  semitranslucent  and  thickly  spotted  and  mottled  above  with  pink. 

Professor  Alluiau,  of  England,  who  has  studied  living  specimens,  describes  the  habits  of 
this  species  as  follows:2 

••<'h>  I  Hi-it  terebram  is  an  active  little  animal,  swimming  on  its  back  and  employing  its 
thoracic  legs  to  adhere  to  the  timber  which  it  has  selected  for  its  ravages.  ...  Its  habits 
are  truly  xylophagous,  and  it  excavates  the  timber  not  merely  for  the  purpose  of  concealment . 
but  with  the  object  of  employing  it  as  food,  which  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  the  alimentary 
canal  may  be  found  on  dissection  filled  with  minutely  comminuted  ligneous  matter.  .  .  . 
Timber  which  has  been  subject  to  the  ravages  of  Chelura  presents  a  somewhat  different 
appearance  from  that  which  has  been  attacked  by  Limnoria  lignorum.  In  the  latter  we  find 
narrow  cylindrical  burrows  running  deep  into  the  interior,  while  the  excavations  of  Chelura  are 

'VEBRII.L:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  313,  314,  1871-'72. 
'Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hiat,,  xix,  p.  361,  1847. 


826  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

considerably  larger  and  more  oblique  in  their  direction,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  timber  thus 
undermined  by  these  destructive  animals  is  rapidly  washed  away  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  and 
the  excavations  are  exposed  in  the  greater  part  of  their  extent,  the  wood  appearing  plowed 
up,  so  to  speak,  rather  than  burrowed  into.  Upon  the  whole,  Chelura  would  seem  to  be  a  still 
more  destructive  creature  than  even  Limnoria." 

229.  THE  ISOPODS. 
THB  GRIBBLE,  OR  BORING  LIMNORIA — LIMNORIA  LIGNORUM,  White. 

This  little  crustacean  pest,  which  measures  less  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  is  a  very 
common  habitant  of  our  Atlantic  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  to  Florida,  and  also 
occurs  abundantly  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  of  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  spite  of  its 
small  size,  it  is  very  destructive  to  all  kinds  of  submarine  wood-work,  which  it  rapidly  eats  away. 
Its  body,  which  is  subcyliudrical  iu  shape,  consists  of  fourteen  segments,  the  anterior  one  being 
the  head ;  the  two  ends  are  rounded  and  the  sides  are  nearly  straight  and  parallel  to  one  another. 
The  first  seven  segments,  not  including  the  head,  bear  each  a  pair  of  short  legs.  It  makes  its 
burrows  by  means  of  stout  mandibles  or  jaws.  In  color  it  is  grayish,  the  upper  surface  of  the 
body  being  covered  with  minute  hairs,  to  which  more  or  less  dirt  usually  adheres. 

The  Gribble  generally  lives  above  and  just  below  low-water  mark,  but  has  been  found  at 
times,  though  very  rarely,  as  low  down  as  seven  to  ten  fathoms.  It  gnaws  burrows  into  all  sorts 
of  sunken  or  floating  wood  near  the  shore,  and  lumber  or  drift-wood  left  for  some  time  on  muddy 
shores  is  pretty  certain  to  be  attacked  by  it.  The  burrows  are  made  to  a  depth  of  about  half  an  inch, 
and  when  they  become  numerous  enough  to  reduce  the  superficial  layer  of  wood  to  a  mere  honey- 
comb, it  scales  off,  leaving  a  fresh  surface,  which  is  at  once  attacked.  Much  damage  is  done  by 
this  little  creature  to  the  piles  of  wharves  and  other  submarine  wood-work  all  along  our  Atlantic 
coast,  and  numerous  methods  of  stopping  its  ravages  have  been  devised.  It  has  been  observed 
attacking  the  gutta  percha  of  submarine  telegraph  cables.  Professor  Verrill  describes  its  habits 
and  the  damage  it  has  done  on  the  American  coast,  as  follows:1 

"It  has  the  habit  of  eating  burrows  for  itself  into  solid  wood  to  the  depth  of  about  half  an 
inch.  These  burrows  are  nearly  round,  and  of  all  sizes  up  to  about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  iu 
diameter,  and  they  go  into  the  wood  at  all  angles  and  are  usually  more  or  less  crooked.  They  are 
often  so  numerous  as  to  reduce  the  wood  to  mere  series  of  thin  partitions  between  the  holes.  In 
this  state  the  wood  rapidly  decays,  or  is  washed  away  by  the  waves,  and  every  new  surface 
exposed  is  immediately  attacked,  so  that  layer  after  layer  is  rapidly  removed,  and  the  timber  thus 
wastes  away  and  is  entirely  destroyed  in  a  few  years.  It  destroys  soft  woods  more  rapidly  than 
hard  ones,  but  all  kinds  are  attacked  except  teak.  It  works  chiefly  in  the  softer  parts  of  the  wood, 
between  the  hard,  annual  layers,  and  avoids  the  knots  and  lines  of  hard  fiber  connected  with  them, 
as  well  as  rusted  portions  around  nails  that  have  been  driven  in,  and  consequently,  as  the 
timbers  waste  away  under  its  attacks,  these  harder  portions  stand  out  in  bold  relief.  Where 
abundant  it  will  destroy  soft  timber  at  the  rate  of  half  an  inch  or  more  every  year,  thus  dimin- 
ishing the  effective  diameter  of  piles  about  an  inch  annually.  Generally,  however,  the  amount  is 
probably  not  more  than  half  this,  but  even  at  that  rate  the  largest  timbers  will  soon  be  destroyed, 
especially  when,  as  often  happens,  the  Teredos  are  aiding  in  this  work  of  destruction.  It  lives  in 
a  pretty  narrow  zone,  extending  a  short  distance  above  and  below  low-water  mark.  It  occurs  all 

!  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  379,  380,  1871-'72. 


THE  SALVE  BUG.  827 

along  our  shores,  from  Long  Island  Sound  to  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  Bay  of  Fundy  it  often  does 
great  damage  to  the  timbers  and  other  wood-work  used  in  constructing  the  brush  fish-weirs,  aa 
well  as  to  tin-  wharves,  etc.  At  Wood's  IIoll  it  wns  found  to  be  very  destructive-  to  the  piles  of 
the  \\harves.  The  piles  of  the  new  government  wharves  have  been  protected  by  broad  hands  of 
tin-plate  covering  the  zone  which  it  chiefly  affects.  North  of  Cape  Cod,  where  the  tides  are  much 
greater,  this  /one  is  broader,  and  this  remedy  is  not  so  easily  applied.  It  does  great  damage  also 
to  ship  timber  floating  in  the  docks,  and  great  losses  are  sometimes  caused  in  this  way.  Com- 
plaints of  such  ravages  in  the  navy-yard  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  have  been  made,  and 
they  also  occur  at  the  Charlostown  navy-yard  and  in  the  piles  of  the  wharves  at  Boston.  Probably 
the  wharves  and  other  submerged  wood- work  in  all  our  sea-ports,  from  New  York  northward,  are 
more  or  less  injiirril  l>y  this  creature,  and,  if -it  could  be  accurately  estimated,  the  damage  would 
be  found  surprisingly  great. 

"Unlike  the  Teredo,  this  creature  is  a  vegetarian,  and  eate  the  wood  which  it  excavates,  so 
that  its  boring  operations  provide  it  with  both  food  and  shelter.  The  burrows  arc  made  by  means 
of  its  stout  mandibles  or  jaws.  It  is  capable  of  swimming  quite  rapidly,  and  can  leap  backward 
suddenly  by  means  of  its  tail.  It  can  creep  both  forward  and  backward.  It>  legs  are  short  ami 
better  adapted  for  moving  up  and  down  in  its  burrow  than  elsewhere,  and  its  body  is  rounded, 
with  parallel  sides,  and  well  adapted  to  its  mode  of  life.  When  disturbed  it  will  roll  itself  into  a 
ball.  The  female  carries  seven  to  nine  eggs  or  young  in  the  incubatory  pouch  at  one  time. 

"The  destructive  habits  of  this  species  were  first  brought  prominently  to  notice  in  1811,  by 
the  celebrated  Uobert  Stephensou,  who  found  it  rapidly  destroying  the  wood-work  at  the  Bell 
Rock  light  -house,  erected  by  him  on  the  coast  of  Scotland.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  investi- 
gated and  its  ravages  have  been  described  by  numerous  European  writers.  It  is  very  destructive 
on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  known  as  the  '  Gribble.' 

"The  remedies  used  to  check  its  ra/ages  arc  chiefly  copper  or  other  metallic  sheathing; 
driving  broad-headed  iron  nails,  close  together,  into  the  part  of  the  piles  subject  to  their  attacks; 
and  applying  coal  tar,  creosote,  or  verdigris  paint,  once  a  year  or  oftener." 

THE  SALVE  BUG — J5GA  PSORA,  Kroyer. 

This  is  the  largest  species  of  Isopod  liviug  upon  the  New  England  coast,  and  attains  a  length 
of  two  inches  and  a  breadth  of  one  inch.  It  occurs  as  a  parasite  on  the  cod  and  halibut  In  addi- 
tion to  its  large  size,  when  adult,  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  large  eyes,  which  nearly 
cover  the  upper  surface  of  the  head,  and  approach  closely  together  at  their  anterior  extremities. 
The  first  three  pairs  of  legs  are  adapted  for  clinging  to  the  surface  of  the  fish  on  which  it  lives. 
The  body  is  oval,  and  broadest  just  in  front  of  the  middle.  The  Salve  Bugs  are  used  as  an  unguent 
by  the  fishermen,  who  sometimes  collect  them  in  large  quantities. 

230.   THE  ENTOMOSTRACANS. 

This  dhler  of  crustaceans  includes  a  vast  number  of  small,  generally  minute,  free-swimming 
forms,  frequently  called  water-fleas,  which  abound  in  both  fresh  and  salt  waters,  and  other  and 
generally  larger  species  which  occur  as  parasites  on  fish  and  other  aquatic  animals.  The  former 
serve  as  an  important  article  of  food  for  many  fishes,  such  as  the  menhaden  and  mackerel,  while 
the  latter  are  frequently  injurious  to  them,  being  often  strangely  modified,  and  burrowing  deeply 
into  the  flesh,  from  which  they  suck  the  juices,  causing  great  irritation  and  at  times  perhaps 
death. 


828  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

231.  THE  CIRRIPEDIA. 
THE  BARNACLES — BALANTJS  EBUENETJS,  Gould,  AND  ALLIED  SPECIES. 

Several  species  of  Barnacles  (which  belong  to  the  natural  group  of  Crustacea,  despite  the 
hard,  tuollusk-like  shell  of  most  of  the  species)  occur  upon  our  coast  and  serve  as  food  for  some 
of  our  fishes,  but  it  is  mainly  their  intrusion  upon  certain  of  the  marine  industries  that  gives 
them  a  place  in  this  volume.  A  large  species  of  Barnacle,  Coronula  diadema,  Liune,  growing  upon 
the  skin  of  one  or  more  species  of  whales,  is  eaten  to  some  extent  by  the  west  coast  Indians. 

In  one  group  of  Barnacles  the  animals  are  furnished  with  a  fleshy  stem  or  peduncle,  by  means 
of  which  they  remain  permanently  attached  to  floating  objects  in  the  sea.  The  species  of  this 
group  bear  the  general  name  of  "Goose  Barnacles."  Our  commonest  species  is  the  Lepas 
fagcicularis.  The  other  group  of  Barnacles,  represented  upon  our  coast  by  the  "  Rock  Barnacle" 
(Balanus  balanoides),  "Ivory Barnacle"  (Balanus  eburneus),  and  other  species,  has  no  peduncle, 
but  the  several  valves  forming  the  conical  shell  are  attached  directly  and  permanently  to  the 
rocks  or  wood  on  which  they  happen  to  dwell.  Some  of  the  species  of  both  groups  grow  upon  the 
hulls  of  ships  below  the  water-line,  and  in  connection  with  seaweed  and  other  species  of  marine 
animals  cause  the  so-called  fouling  of  the  bottom,  necessitating  constant  cleaning  and  scraping  of 
the  bottoms  of  vessels  at  considerable  expense.  Barnacles  also  stand  as  a  serious  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  oyster  culture,  as  shown  by  the  recent  experiences  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 
They  grow  with  exceeding  rapidity,  very  much  faster  than  the  oyster,  and  are  so  hardy  as  to  defy 
any  attempts  at  extermination.  In  the  spring  of  1880,  when  the  experiments  in  the  artificial 
breeding  of  oysters  were  being  carried  on  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  slates  coated  with  plaster  were 
used  as  collectors.  To  these  the  oyster  embryos  attached  themselves  in  large  numbers,  and  began 
their  growth  with  good  promises  of  success ;  but  at  the  same  time  embryos  of  the  Ivory  Barnacle 
were  fully  as  abundant  in  the  water,  and,  attaching  themselves  in  even  greater  numbers,  rapidly 
outgrew  the  less  hardy  oysters.  In  many  places  they  completely  crowded  the  oysters  out  of 
place,  and  soon  occupied  entire  surfaces.  In  other  places,  however,  they  were  less  numerous  and 
interfered  less  with  the  oyster  growths.  It  is  very  certain  that  this  inconvenience  must  always 
remain  as  a  certain  check  on  all  oyster- cultural  experiments  on  our  coast,  and  must  seriously 
interfere  with  any  attempts  at  artificial  oyster-breeding.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  however,  that  future 
experiments  will  prove  that  the  Ivory  Barnacle  cannot  entirely  destroy  the  profits  of  such  an 
important  industry,  which,  in  consideration  of  the  greatly  impoverished  character  of  some  of  our 
formerly  rich  oyster  regions,  it  is  very  necessary  should  be  started  at  once,  and,  if  possible,  carried 
to  a  high  state  of  perfection. 

The  Ivory  Barnacle  ranges  from  Massachusetts  Bay  to  Florida  and  the  West  Indies,  while  the 
Kock  Barnacle  inhabits  the  entire  North  Atlantic  coasts  of  both  continents.  The  habitats  of  our 
common  species  are  given  as  follows  by  Professor  Verrill: 

"The  common  Barnacle  of  the  rocky  shores,  Balanus  balanoides,  is  also  common  on  the  piles 
of  wharves  and  bridges,  between  tides,  and  also  on  the  bottoms  of  vessels,  etc.  It  never  grows 
very  large,  although  it  may  become  so  crowded  together  as  to  form  a  continuous  crust.  It  is 
easily  distinguished  from  the  other  species  by  its  membranous  base,  which  never  forms  a  solid 
plate  like  that  of  the  other  species.  The  '  Ivory  Barnacle,'  Balanun  eburneus,  is  also  common  on 
all  kinds  of  submerged  wood-work,  whether  fixed  or  floating.  It  is  usually  abundant  on  the  piles 
and  timbers  of  wharves,  buoys,  oyster-stakes,  bottoms  of  vessels,  etc.  It  is  chiefly  found  below 
low-water  mark  if  on  fixed  objects,  and  is  even  more  common  in  the  brackish  waters  of  estuaries 
than  in  the  purer  waters  outside,  and  it  is  capable  of  living  even  in  pure,  fresh  water,  for  Prof. 


TIIE  HORSESHOE  CRAB.  SL>«.» 

Jeffreys  Wyman  has  sent  me  specimens  collected  by  himself  about  sixty-five  miles  up  tin-  Saint 
.luliii's  K'iver,  in  Florida,  where  the  water  is  not  at  all  brackish.  This  species  is  sometimes  found 
adhering  to  the  carapax  of  Crabs,  the  shell  of  Limvlvt,  and  various  mollusks.  It  is  easily 
distinguished  (nun  most  species  on  account  of  its  low,  broad  form  and  its  smooth,  white  exterior. 
It  has  a  shelly  base.  The  />'.  rrcnatwi,  common  on  shells  and  stones  in  deep  water,  also  occurs  on 
vessels.  Other  species  are  often  found  on  the  bottoms  of  vessels  that  have  couie  from  warmer 
latitudes.  Some  of  them  are  of  large  size.  One  of  the  most  frequent  of  these  is  Balantm 
tintiinuttnilinn." 

232.  THE  XIPHOSURA 
THE  HORSESHOE  CRAB — LIMULUS  POLYPHEMUS,  Latreille. 

The  curious  form  of  marine  animal  called  "Horseshoe  Crab,"  "King  Crab,"  and  "  Horse 
foot,"  ranges  along  our  entire  Atlantic  coast,  from  Casco  Bay,  Maine,  to  Mexico,  and  gives  rise 
to  an  important  industry  in  at  least  one  region — Delaware  Bay.  It  is  not,  however,  a  true  Crab, 
and  its  exact  position  in  the  animal  kingdom  is  still  involved  in  much  obscurity.  Some  natu- 
ralists regard  it  as  a  low  type  of  crustacean,  while  others  place  it  among  the  Arachnida,  or 
scorpions  and  spiders.  Its  nearest  allies  all  occur  as  fossils,  through  many  geological  ages  down 
to  nearly  the  oldest  of  the  fossiliferous  series.  Another  species  of  the  same  genus,  however,  still 
lives  upon  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia. 

The  carapax  of  the  King  Crab  is  very  large,  with  a  regularly  rounded  outer  margin,  termi- 
nating in  a  spine  at  the  posterior  angles  on  both  sides.  The  abdomen  is  much  smaller,  and  from 
its  hinder  end,  to  which  it  is  jointed,  runs  out  a  long,  tapering  spine.  The  basal  portions  of  the 
feet  on  the  lower  side  of  the  carapax  serve  as  masticating  organs. 

The  King  Crab  is  sluggish  in  its  movements,  and  spends  mnch  of  its  time  more  or  less  buried 
in  the  mud  and  sand  of  shallow  water,  coming  up  occasionally  to  high-water  mark.  It  is  most 
abundant  on  the  muddy  bottoms  of  shores  and  estuaries,  where  it  burrows  just  beneath  the 
surface,  and  feeds  upou  various  small  animals. 

"  At  the  breeding  season,  however,  it  comes  up  on  the  sandy  shores  to  deposit  the  eggs,  near 
high-water  mark.  According  to  the  statements  of  Rev.  S.  Lockwood,  the  spawning  is  done  at  the 
time  of  high  tides,  during  May,  June,  and  July;  they  come  up  in  pairs,  the  males,  which  are 
smallest,  riding  on  the  backs  of  the  females  and  holding  themselves  in  that  position  by  the  short 
feet,  provided  with  nippers,  which  are  jteciiliar  to  the  males.  The  female  excavates  a  depression 
in  the  sand  and  deposits  the  eggs  in  it,  and  the  male  casts  the  milt  over  them,  when  they  again 
return  to  deeper  water,  leaving  the  eggs  to  be  buried  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  In  aquaria, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  the  eggs  hatch  in  about  six  weeks,  but  in  their  natural  conditions 
they  probably  hatch  sooner  than  this;  under  unfavorable  conditions  the  hatching  may  be  delayed 
for  a  whole  year.  The  eggs  are  very  numerous."' 

From  several  intelligent  observers  living  on  the  Delaware  Bay  side  of  Southern  New  Jersey 
we  have  received  interesting  notes  on  the  habits  of  the  King  Crab,  as  exemplified  in  that  region, 
and  which  may  also  hold  good  for  others.  While  this  Crab  is  comparatively  rare  on  the  outer 
side  of  Southern  New  Jersey,  on  the  inner  side,  along  the  shores  of  Delaware  I'.ay.  from  Cape 
May  to  Reed's  Island,  it  is  unusually  abundant.  It  is  not,  however,  always  present  in  the  very 
shallow  water  near  shore.  During  the  breeding  season,  which  is  mainly  confined  to  the  months 
of  May  and  June,  but  also  extends  slightly  into  .Inly,  the  males  and  females  approach  and  ascend 
the  beaches  in  countless  numbers,  the  latter  to  lay  their  eggs,  the  former  to  impregnate  them.  It 

:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  340,  341,  1871-'72. 


830  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

is  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  the  female,  as  she  crawls  up  the  beach,  to  be  accompanied  by  two, 
three,  and  even  as  many  as  six  males,  the  forward  one  clinging  to  the  abdomen  of  the  female,  and 
the  remainder  fastened  to  one  another  in  the  same  manner.  As  a  rule,  however,  each  female  brings 
with  her  only  a  single  male.  After  the  spawning  has  been  accomplished,  they  retreat  from  the 
beach  in  the  same  order.  King  Crabs  are  not  equally  abundant  at  all  times  during  the  spawning 
season,  bnt  are  most  plentiful  on  the  beaches  during  the  spring  tides,  which  occur  about  the  times 
of  the  new  and  full  moon.  Westerly  winds  suit  them  best  for  spawning,  and  they  will  not  come 
ashore  in  large  numbers  during  an  easterly  wind.  They  approach  with  the  floor!  tide  and  leave 
soon  after  the  ebb.  The  eggs  hatch  in  July  and  August,  at  which  times  the  sands  become  literally 
alive  with  the  young  Crabs.  These  soon  disappear,  not  to  return  to  the  shore  until  they  have 
attained  a  considerable  size.  After  the  close  of  the  spawning  season  the  adult  Crabs  are  not  seen 
in  abundance  about  the  shore,  but  probably  live  in  slight  depths  of  water  near  at  hand.  During 
the  winter  they  are  often  taken  out  in  Delaware  Bay  by  the  oyster  dredgers.  They  are  very 
much  less  abundant  now  than  formerly,  on  account  of  so  many  having  been  caught  from  year  to 
year  for  use  as  a  fertilizer.  It  would  appear  as  though  a  few  years  more  of  indiscriminate  capture 
would.result  in  their  being  entirely  exterminated  from  the  region.  The  men  catch  them  mainly 
in  their  hands,  as  they  come  upon  the  beaches,  but  they  are  also  captured  in  pounds  and  weirs. 

The  King  Crab  is  rarely  used  as  food  for  man,  bnt  is  often  fed  to  swine  and  poultry,  and, 
after  drying,  is  extensively  employed  as  a  fertilizer.  It  also  serves  as  bait  for  eels  and  some 
species  of  fish.  This  species  of  Crab  has  been  introduced  on  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States, 
the  young,  it  is  supposed,  having  been  carried  over  mingled  with  the  spat  of  the  eastern  oyster, 
which  has  been  largely  transplanted  into  the  shallow  waters  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  It  has  also 
been  introduced  on  the  European  coast. 


Z.— THE  WORMS. 

233.  THE  ANNELIDS. 
THE  MARINE  WORMS,  BAIT  WORMS,  ETC. — NKBEIS  VIRENS,  Sara,  AND  ALLIED  SPECIES. 

Marine  Worms  of  many  different  kinds  occur  in  great  abundance  along  the  entire  Atlantic 
mill  I'arilic  coasts  of  the  United  States,  ami  are  available  as  bait,  for  which  purpose  a  few  species 
are  t'ir<|iientl.v  employed  by  both  professional  and  amateur  fishermen.  They  are  generally  easily 
obtained  by  dig.uing  with  a  spade  or  trowel  into  sandy  or  muddy  shores,  but  are  not  common  on 
c\po>ed  beaches  of  dear  sand.  They  usually  require  for  their  existence  a  greater  or  less 
admixture  of  mud,  gravel,  and  organic  matter,  the  latter  to  serve  as  food.  Shores  which  furnish 
the  common  clam  (Mi/a  arenaria)  usually  abound  in  Marine  Worms  of  several  varieties,  which  are 
iivcrtimied  in  digging  for  that  niollusk.  So  far  as  we  know,  there  is  no  regular  trade  in  this 
marine  product  on  any  part  of  our  coast;  but  occurring  as  they  do  within  the  convenient  reach  of 
most  of  the  shore  fishermen,  these  Worms  may  be  obtained  at  short  notice,  and  deserve  mention 
here  as  forming  an  element  of  some  importance  in  our  marine  fisheries.  The  following  account  of 
the  habits  of  Marine  Worms  in  general  and  of  some  of  our  commoner  species  is  extracted  from 
the  report  of  Prof.  A.  E.  Verrill:1 

"The  Marine  Worms  or  Annelids  are  very  numerous  under  the  rocks  between  tides,  ami 
concealed  beneath  the  surface  of  the  gravel  and  mud  that  accumulates  between  and  beneath  the 
stones  and  in  crevices.  Many  kinds  also  live  in  the  pools,  lurking  among  the  roots  of  the 
algae,  burrowing  in  the  bottom,  or  building  tubes  of  their  own  iu  more  exposed  situations.  Many 
of  these  Annelids  are  very  beautiful  in  form  and  brilliant  in  color  when  living,  while  most  of  them 
have  curious  habits  and  marvelous  structures.  Several  species  are  of  large  size,  growing  to  the 
length  of  one  or  two  feet.  Some  are  carnivorous,  devouring  other  worms  and  any  other  Miiall 
creatures  that  they  can  kill  by  their  powerful  weapons ;  others  are  vegetarians ;  but  many  are 
mud-eaters,  swallowing  the  mud  and  tine  sand  in  great  quantities,  for  the  sake  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  organisms  that  always  exist  in  it,  as  is  the  case  with  clams  and  most  of  the  bivalve 
shells  and  many  other  kinds  of  marine  animals. 

"  All  these  Annelids  are  greedily  devoured  by  most  kinds  of  marine  fishes,  whenever  they  can 
get  at  them,  and,  since  many  of  the  Annelids  leave  their  burrows  in  the  night  to  swim  at  the 
surface,  or  do  this  constantly  at  the  breeding  season,  they  make  an  important  element  in  the  diet 
of  many  fishes  besides  those  that  constantly  root  for  them  in  the  mud  and  gravel,  like  the  tantog, 
scup,  haddock,  etc.  The  young  of  nearly  all  the  Annelids  also  swim  free  in  the  water  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  in  this  state  are  doubtless  devoured  in  immense  numbers  by  all  sorts  of 
yonng  and  small  fishes. 

"One  of  the  largest  and  most  common  Annelids  found  under  rocks,  burrowing  in  the  sand 
and  gravel,  is  the  Nereis  virens.  It  lives  both  at  low-water  mark  and  at  a  considerable  distance 
farther  up.  It  grows  to  the  length  of  eighteen  inches  or  more,  and  is  also  quite  stunt  in  its 
proportions.  The  color  is  dull  greenish,  or  bluish  green,  more  or  less  tinged  with  led.  and  the 
surface  reflects  bright  iridescent  hues;  the  large  lamellae  or  gills  along  the  sides  are  greenish 

1  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  317,  318,  341,  342,  1871-'72. 

631 


832  NATURAL  HISTOEY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

anteriorly,  but  farther  back  often  become  bright  red  owing  to  the  numerous  blood-vessels  that 
they  contain.  It  is  a  very  active  and  voracious  Worm,  and  has  a  large,  retractile  proboscis,  armed 
with  two  strong,  black,  hook-like  jaws  at  the  end,  and  many  smaller  teeth  on  the  sides.  It  feeds 
on  other  Worms  and  various  kinds  of  marine  animals.  It  captures  its  prey  by  suddenly  thrusting 
out  its  proboscis  and  seizing  hold  with  the  two  terminal  jaws ;  then  withdrawing  the  proboscis, 
the  food  is  torn  and  masticated  at  leisure,  the  proboscis,  when  withdrawn,  acting  somewhat  like  a 
gizzard.  These  large  Worms  are  dug  out  of  their  burrows  and  devoured  eagerly  by  the  tautog, 
scup,  and  other  fishes.  But  at  certain  times,  especially  at  night,  they  leave  their  own  burrows, 
and,  coming  to  the  surface,  swim  about  like  eels  or  snakes,  in  vast  numbers,  and  at  such  times  fall 
an  easy  prey  to  many  kinds  of  fishes.  This  habit  appears  to  be  connected  with  the  season  of 
reproduction.  They  were  observed  thus  swimming  at  the  surface  in  the  daytime,  near  Newport, 
in  April,  1872,  by  Messrs.  T.  M.  Prudden  and  T.  H.  Kussell,  and  I  have  often  observed  them 
in  the  evening  later  in  the  season.  At  Watch  Hill,  Rhode  Island,  April  12,  I  found  great 
numbers  of  the  males  swimming  in  the  pools  among  the  rocks  at  low  water,  and  discharging  their 
milt.  This  Worm  also  occurs  in  many  other  situations,  and  is  abundant  in  most  places  along 
sandy  and  muddy  shores,  both  of  the  sounds  and  estuaries,  burrowing  near  low-water  uicirk. 
It  occurs  all  along  the  coast  from  New  York  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  is  also  common  on  the 
northern  coasts  of  Europe. 

"  With  the  last,  in  this  region  and  southward,  another  similar  species,  but  of  smaller  size,  is 
usually  met  with  in  large  numbers.  This  is  the  Nereis  limbata.  It  grows  to  the  length  of  five  or 
six  inches,  and  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  its  slender,  sharp,  light  amber-colored  jaws,  and  by 
the  lateral  lamellae,  which  are  small  anteriorly  and  narrow  or  ligulate  posteriorly.  Its  color,  when 
full  grown,  is  usually  dull  brown,  or  smoky  brown  or  bronze-color  anteriorly,  with  oblique  light 
lines  on  the  sides,  and  often  with  a  whitish  border  to  each  of  the  rings,  which  form  narrow,  pale 
bands  at  the  articulations ;  posteriorly  the  body  and  lateral  appendages  are  pale  red,  and  the 
longitudinal  dorsal  bloodvessel  is  conspicuous. 

"Annelids  are  quite  numerous  on  the  sandy  shores  where  the  conditions  are  favorable.  It 
is  evident  that  these  soft-bodied  creatures  would  be  quickly  destroyed  by  the  force  of  the  waves 
and  the  agitation  of  the  sand  were  they  not  provided  with  suitable  means  for  protecting  them- 
selves. This  is  effected  mainly  in  two  ways:  the  sand-dwelling  species  either  have  the  power  of 
burrowing  deeply  into  the  sand  with  great  rapidity,  or  else  they  construct  long,  durable  tubes, 
which  descend  deeply  into  the  sand  and  afford  a  safe  retreat.  Many  of  the  active  burrowing 
species  also  construct  tubes,  but  they  usually  have  but  little  coherence  and  are  not  very  perma- 
nent, nor  do  they  appear  to  be  much  relied  on  by  the  owners.  There  is,  however,  great  diversity 
both  in  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  tubes  of  different  species,  and  in  the  modes  by  which 
the  rapid  burrowing  is  effected. 

"  The  large  green  Nereis  (N.  virens)  is  found  on  the  sandy  shores  in  places  that  are  somewhat 
sheltered,  especially  if  there  be  an  admixture  of  mud  or  gravel  with  the  sand  to  give  it  firmness 
and  solidity.  This  species  burrows  deeply  beneath  the  surface  and  lines  the  interior  of  its  large 
irregular  burrows  with  an  abundant  mucus-like  secretion,  which  gives  smoothness  and  some 
coherency  to  the  walls,  but  does  not  form  a  solid  tube.  With  this,  and  in  greater  numbers,  the 
smaller  species,  Nereis  limbata,  is  also  found,  and  its  habits  appear  to  be  essentially  the  same. 
Both  this  and  the  preceding  can  burrow  rapidly,  but  much  less  so  than  some  other  worms,  and 
consequently  they  are  not  well  adapted  to  live  on  exposed  beaches  of  moving  sands,  but  prefer 
coves  and  harbors.  The  two  large  species  of  Rliynchobolus  are  much  better  adapted  for  rapid 
burrowing.  Their  heads  are  very  small  and  acute,  and  destitute  of  all  appendages,  except  four 


THK  AMI'.IMCAN   MKDK'IN.M.   I.KKCII. 

minute  tentacles  at  the  ••ml;  the  body  is  long,  smooth,  and  tapers  gradually  to  both  ends,  ami 
the  muscular  system  is  very  powerful,  ami  so  arranged  as  to  enable  these  Worms  to  roil  them- 
selves up  into  the  shape  (.fan  open  spiral,  like  a  corkscrew,  and  then  to  rapidly  rotate  them-chcx 
on  the  axis  of  the  spiral.  When  the  -h. up  head  is  inserted  into  the  loose  mud  or  sand  and  the 
body  is  thus  rotated,  it  penetrates  with  great  rapidity  and  disap|M>ars  almost  instantly,  liolh 
these  species  are  t'ound  on  sandy  as  well  as  on  muddy  shores  and  flats  near  low-water  mark,  and 
also  in  deeper  water.  The  one  usually  most  abundant  is  7i.  ililn-nnchidtux.  This  is  readily  distin- 
guished by  having  a  simple  gill  both  on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  lateral  appendages. 
The  other,  It.  n»irri<-itnnx,  has  gills  that  arc  more  or  less  branched  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
appendages,  but  none  on  the  lower  side;  the  appendages  are  also  longer,  es|M-<-ially  posteriorly, 
ami  differently  shaped.  The  proboscis  is  remarkably  long  and  large,  and  when  fully  protruded  it 
shows  four  large,  black,  sharp,  fang-like  jaws  or  hooks.  Both  these  Worms  are  destitute  of  true 
bloodvessels,  such  as  most  of  the  allied  Worms  possess,  but  have  the  general  cavity  of  the  Ixxly 
filled,  between  the  various  organs,  with  bright  red  blood,  which  shows  through  the  skin,  giving  a 
i •«•  or  less  red  or  purple  color  to  the  whole  body  and  proboscis." 

The  principal  species  of  marine  Worms  which  are  used  as  bait  are  the  Nereis  vireii*,  Herein 
1i»ih<itti,  l>i(>i>«ti-«  ciijirea,  Arenicola  marina,  Clymenella  torquata,  Marphyxa  xaiiiiniiii-n,  Arabella 
t>l>alinn,  and  h'lii/iH-liobnhix  dibranchiatux. 

The  Karth  Worm  might  also  be  mentioned  in  this  connection,  as  it  is  likewise  very  commonly 
used  as  a  fish  -bait,  especially  in  fresh  waters.  All  sportsmen,  from  boyhood  up,  are  acquainted 
with  this  simple  form  of  bait,  which  is  more  easily  obtained  than  any  other.  Large  quantities  arc 
used  annually,  but  no  statistics  can  ever  exist  to  determine  the  amount,  which  is  irregularly 
distributed  over  the  country. 

234.    THE  LEECHES. 
THE  AMERICAN  MEDICINAL  LEECH— MACROBDKLLA  DECOBA,  Vernll. 

Structure  of  teeche*. — In  the  true  Leeches,  which  belong  to  the  order  Hirvdinca,  the  body  is 
flattened,  divided  into  numerous  short  and  indistinctly  marked  segments,  and  bears  neither  bristles 
nor  appendages  of  any  kind.  The  head  is  small,  with  five  pairs  of  minute,  simple  eyes,  and  each 
end  of  the  body  terminates  in  a  sucker.  "The  mouth  is  armed  internally  with  three  pharyngeal 
teeth  arranged  in  a  triradial  manner,  so  that  the  wound  made  in  the  flesh  of  i>ersons  to  whom  tin- 
Leech  is  applied  consists  of  three  short,  deep  gashes  radiating  from  a  common  center."  The 
stomach  is  large,  and  the  nervous  system  consists  of  a  "brain"  and  ventral  cord.  The  Leech  is 
hermaphroditic.  The  eggs,  which  range  from  six  to  fifteen  in  number,  are  contained  in  a  sort  of 
spongy,  slimy  cocoon,  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  are  deposited  near  the 
\\  ater's  edge  and  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Respiration  in  the  Leeches  is  carried  on  through 
small  ai>ertures  arranged  along  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  The  Leech  swims  with  a  vertical 
undulatory  motion  and  moves  both  in  and  out  of  the  water  by  means  of  ite  suckers,  fastening  itself 
first  by  one  and  then  by  the  other,  and  alternately  stretching  out  and  contracting  it*  body. 

There  are  two  or  three  species  of  Leeches,  known  as  medicinal  Leeches,  which  afford  the 
most  convenient  means  of  drawing  blood  from  the  human  body.  They  have  been  used  by 
physicians  for  this  purpose  for  many  years,  and  have  given  rise  to  a  very  extensive  and  profitable 
trade.  One  of  the  species  belongs  to  North  America. 

Distribution  and  xtructure  of  the  American  Leech. — Although  numerous  species  of  Leeches 
abound  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States  and  are  related  to  the  fisheries  in  various  ways, 
ft3  F 


834  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

this  region  has  so  far  afforded  only  a  single  species  of  true  blood-sucking-  Leech,  the  MacroMella 
decora  of  Verrill.  This  is,  therefore,  the  only  known  Leech  in  our  country  of  economic  value.  It 
is  very  widely  distributed  in  the  Northern  United  States,  and  was  at  one  time  quite  extensively 
used  by  physicians.  Being  somewhat  inferior  in  quality  to  the  European  Leeches,  however,  it 
has,  since  they  have  begun  to  import  the  latter  regularly  into  this  country,  ceased  to  be  consid- 
ered as  an  officinal  Leech  excepting  in  a  few  places. 

The  American  Leech  has,  according  to  Professor  Verrill,  a  large,  stout,  and  broad  body, 
which  is  considerably  compressed  throughout.  It  is  strongly  annulated,  and  in  extension  is  much 
elongated,  gradually  tapering  anteriorly.  The  larger  specimens  measure  twelve  inches  or  more 
in  length,  and  have  a  breadth  of  upwards  of  an  inch.  The  head  is  rounded  in  front,  and  is 
furnished  with  three  stout  and  prominent  maxillae,  having  the  outer  edge  denticulate  with  numer- 
ous acute  teeth.  The  eye-spots  are  ten  in  number.  The  breeding  season  is  in  the  spring.  The 
color  above  is  a  dark  livid  brown  or  olive  green,  with  a  median  dorsal  row  of  about  twenty  to 
twenty-two  bright  or  pale  red  spots,  which  are  sometimes  obsolete,  and  a  row  of  rounded  black 
spots  near  each  margin,  corresponding  in  number,  and  nearly  in  size,  with  the  red  oiies.  The 
lower  surface  is  a  bright  or  dark  orange  red  or  reddish  brown,  sometimes  with  black  spots  near 
the  margin.  "  This  species  is  very  common,  and  widely  diffused  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
Northern  United  States.  Its  range  northward  and  southward  is  unknown.  It  is  the  only  true 
blood-sucking  Leech  known  from  the  Northern  States.  It  is  capable  of  drawing  blood  from  the 
human  skin,  but  ordinarily  subsists  upon  fishes,  frogs,  and  tadpoles.  It  often  attaches  itself  to 
the  throat,  and  speedily  kills  them,  even  when  of  considerable  size."1 

While  the  American  Leech  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  twelve  inches,  four  to  five  inches 
is  the  average  adult  size,  and  the  majority  of  those  sold  in  the  shops  measure  only  two  to  three 
inches.  American  Leeches  are  now  seldom  used  by  physicians.  The  foreign  species  are  so  easily 
obtained,  so  cheap,  and  so  much  more  reliable  in  the  majority  of  cases,  that  they  are  now  given 
the  preference  nearly  everywhere.  The  American  Leech  was  formerly  extensively  employed, 
before  they  began  to  import  the  foreign  species,  and  even  for  some  time  afterwards,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  continued  high  price  of  the  latter.  With  the  gradual  decline  in  the  practice 
of  leeching  the  import  trade  in  Leeches  has  also  fallen  off  from  year  to  year,  the  imports  for  the 
past  few  years  being  less  than  half  those  for  1856,  and  the  price  about  one-fourth  what  it  was  then. 

Cultivation  and  economic  value  of  the  American  Leech. — Attempts  have  been  made  to  breed 
and  raise  the  American  Leech  in  artificial  ponds  after  the  plan  pursued  in  Europe,  but  always 
without  success.  The  Leeches  in  these  inclosures  have  never  thrived  well,  and,  in  addition,  the 
slight  demand  for  them  has  tended  to  render  all  the  attempts  in  this  direction  decidedly  unprofit- 
able. Mr.  Herman  Witte,  of  New  York,  has  perhaps  experimented  more  extensively  in  leech- 
culture  in  this  country  than  any  other  person.  His  ponds,  constructed  very  much  like  those  in 
France,  to  be  described  further  on,  are  located  between  Winfield  and  Newtown,  Long  Island, 
New  York.  They  are  live  in  number  and  cover  an  area  of  over  fifteen  acres.  At  present  they 
serve  merely  as  preservative  ponds  for  surplus  supplies  of  imported  Leeches.  Other  artificial 
ponds  have  been  started  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  and  near  Saint  Louis,  Missouri,  but  they 
were  all  speedily  given  up.  Turtles,  snakes,  birds,  and  insects  were  said  to  have  destroyed  great 
quantities  of  the  Leeches  and  discouraged  operations.  American  Leeches,  when  they  were  in 
common  use,  were  probably  collected  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  most  of  the  regions  where  they 
were  employed.  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  Bucks  and  Berks  Counties  especially,  seems,  however,  to 
Lave  furnished  the  principal  collecting  ground,  in  past  limes  as  at  present.  Numerous  ponds  in 

'VEBBILL:  Report,  U.  8.  Fish  Commissioner  for  187-J-'7:i,  p.  669. 


LKKOI  CULTtTUI-:.  -. .;;, 

KaM.-rn  Massachusetts,  including  ih,-  southern  part  of  I'apc  r,,,|.  «,-i,-  loniieily  noted  lor  thf 
large  number-  of  Leeches  they  contained.  iin.I  during  tin-  curly  purl  of  this  century  many  Leeches 
were  collected  from  them  for  mcdieinul  purposes.  Philadelphia  is  now  the  only  large  city  \\heie 
American  l.eeehe- arc  used  1>.\  physicians,  whopnfcr  them  to  the  European  for  certain  kinds  ,,f 
tivalmeiii.  The  latter  Leech  is  the  more  powerful,  and  extracts  the  most  I, I,,,,.!.  According  to 
the  statements  of  Philadelphia  lecchers, about  four  American  Leech.-,  an-  iv.|iiiivd  to  ilo  the  work 
of  one  European. and  the  chief  merit  of  the  former  arises  from  the  fact  that  ihcy  can  lie  used  more 
freely  and  with  less  danger  to  the  patient,  and  can  also  be  employed  on  the  more  delicate  pails 
of  the  body,  where  the  European  Leech  would  act  too  vigorously .  They  are  especially  recom- 
mended for  the  re-ion  about  the  eye,  and  several  are  sometimes  used,  distributed  over  a  wider 
space,  when  it  is  thought  best  not  to  extract  the  blood  from  a  single  spot  by  the  aid  of  an 
imported  specimen.  The  American  Leech  does  not  attach  itself  as  readily  as  the  foreign,  and  often 
several  specimens  have  to  be  tried  before  one  can  be  found  to  fasten  itself.  They  bite  much  1. 
readily  out  of  water  than  in.  The  bites  of  the  two  Leeches  are  different;  that  of  the  European 
being  deeper  and  more  pronounced  and  bleeding  much  longer  after  the  Leech  has  been  detached. 
The  wound  of  the  American  Leech  generally  closes  very  soon  after  the  Leech  has  been  released, 
and  sometimes  immediately. 

The  European  Leech. — The  European  Leech  belongs  to  a  different  genus  from  our  own,  Jlinulo, 
and  by  some  authorities  is  considered  to  constitute  two  distinct  species,  H.  medicinalis,  the  Gray 
I.eeeh,  and  II.  officinalis,  the  Green  Leech.  By  others  the  Green  Leech  and  Gray  Leech  are  placed 
in  the  one  species,  H.  medicinalis  of  Linuwus.  "They  are  both  marked,  with  six  longitudin  d 
dorsal  ferruginous  stripes,  the  four  lateral  ones  being  interrupted  or  tesselated  with  black  spots. 
The  color  of  the  back  varies  from  a  blackish  to  a  grayish  green.  The  belly  in  the  first  variety  is 
of  a  yellowish  color,  free  from  spots,  and  bordered  with  longitudinal  black  stripes.  In  the  second 
it  is  of  a  green  color,  bordered  and  maculated  with  black.  This  Leech  varies  from  two  to  four 
inches  in  length.  It  inhabits  marshes  and  running  streams,  and  is  abundant  throughout 
Europe." 

Prior  to  thirty  years  ago  nearly  all  the  northern  countries  of  Europe  contained  Leeches,  but 
most  of  the  supplies  came  from  Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  and  Hungary.  The  swampy  regions  in 
which  they  lived  were  drained  from  time  to  time,  for  one  reason  and  another,  until  finally  vast 
areas  which  had  once  been  profitable  became  dried  up,  to  the  almost  entire  destruction  of  the 
I  .i-.-ches.  Then,  and  for  the  first  time  was  the  extent  of  the  injury  fully  realized  over  all  Europe, 
and  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  remedy  the  evil.  Several  governments,  including  the  French, 
Prussian,  and  Hanoverian,  offered  premiums  for  successful  results  in  leech-culture,  but  these 
cllbrts  were  rewarded  only  in  the  former  country.  At  present  the  larger  share  of  the  Leech e^ 
used  in  Europe  and  this  country  come  from  the  artificial  ponds  or  meadows  of  Southern  I-' ranee. 
although  many  are  also  raised  in  Hungary  and  in  other  countries  of  Southern  Europe.  Paris  is. 
lln  principal  receiving  center,  whence  they  are  sent  to  England,  to  the  English  colonies,  and 
the  United  States.  The  export  trade  to  South  America  and  the  West  Indies  is  largely  carried 
on  through  the  United  States. 

I. "i-li  culture. — The  localities  selected  for  leech-raising  are  swampy  meadows,  where  the 
bottom  is  more  or  less  firm  and  solid.  A  certain  area  having  been  chosen,  it  is  divided  into 
rectangular  plots  of  different  sizes  by  means  of  ditches.  The  breeding  season  is  in  .Innc  ami 
July.  At  this  time  water  is  admitted  only  into  tin-  ditches,  the  meadow  Hats  remaining  dry. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  loose,  swampy  soil  at  the  margins  of  the  ditches,  and  when  the  young 
creep  out  about  six  weeks,  more  or  less,  afterwards,  the  meadows  are  overflowed  artificially  to  a 


836  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

depth  of  six  to  eight  inches.  Before  the  young  appear,  however,  as  many  of  the  old  ones  as 
possible  are  caught  anil  transferred  to  other  places.  Otherwise  they  would  consume  too  much  ot 
the  food  required  for  the  young.  The  young  Leeches  are  fed  upon  the  blood  of  living  animals, 
horses,  cattle,  etc.,  which  are  driven  into  the  shallow  water  about  twice  a  week  and  allowed  to 
remain  a  certain  length  of  time.  The  Leeches  attach  themselves  merely  to  the  feet,  but  find  in 
those  portions  of  their  prey  enough  sustenance  to  cause  them  to  grow  rapidly  and  quickly  attain 
the  required  size.  Fresh  blood  obtained  from  the  slaughter-houses  and  deprived  of  its  fibrine  by 
agitation  is  also  supplied  to  them,  or  they  are  placed  in  it,  while  it  is  still  warm,  for  a  short  time. 
The  feeding  is  carried  on  principally  in  September  and  October,  and  again  in  April  and  May. 
During  the  winter  the  Leeches  remain  torpid  at  the  bottom. 

Extravagant  statements  have  sometimes  been  published  as  to  the  manner  of  feeding  Leeches 
in  France.  It  is  said  that  many  of  the  owners  of  ponds  are  accustomed  to  buy  up  old  and  diseased 
horses,  drive  them  into  the  ponds,  and  allow  them  to  be  overcome  by  the  Leeches,  which  fasten  to 
all  parts  of  the  body  and  kill  them  by  a  slow  process  of  torture.  This  may  occasionally  take 
place,  but  we  are  assured  by  one  who  has  had  considerable  personal  experience  in  the  matter 
that  it  is  by  no  means  a  common  practice.  The  quantity  of  blood  sucked  from  the  feet  injures 
the  horses  but  little ;  and  they  are  taken  out  in  time  to  prevent  harm.  Some  single  breeding 
establishments  in  Southern  Europe  cover  an  area  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  hectares.  In  about 
three  years'  time,  the  young  Leeches,  without  being  forced  in  their  growth,  attain  a  good  medium 
size  and  are  suited  to  the  wants  of  physicians.  Medium  Leeches  are  about  two  inches  long,  and 
weigh  three  and  one-half  to  four  pounds  to  the  thousand.  The  large  Leeches  weigh  about  five  to 
five  and  one-half  pounds  to  the  thousand,  and  this  is  the  preferred  size.  The  European  Leeches 
are  graded  in  the  markets  as  small,  medium,  and  large.  Only  the  medium  and  large  Leeches  are 
used  in  this  country.  The  very  large  ones,  however,  are  generally  considered  too  dangerous  for 
use,  and  are  kept  for  breeding  purposes.  The  foreign  Leeches  are  transported  and  generally 
stored  in  wooden  cases  or  pails,  containing  swamp  earth  or  mold.  The  American  Leeches,  how 
ever,  are  usually  kept  in  glass  vessels  of  water. 

American  Leech  pond*.— Mr.  Witte's  ponds  on  Long  Island,  where  he  attempted  the  breeding 
of  American  Leeches,  occupied  about  three  and  one-half  acres  each,  and  were  divided  into  five 
compartments  by  ditches,  like  the  French  ponds.  As  before  stated,  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful, 
or  at  least  iinprotttably  rewarded.  In  connection  with  these  large  ponds,  Mr.  Witte  has  since  con- 
structed thirteen  others  of  mucli  smaller  size  (about  twelve  by  fifteen  feet  each)  for  the  storage 
and  feeding  of  Leeches,  which  are  generally  imported  in  larger  quantities  than  are  required  to 
Miipply  the  immediate  demands  of  the  trade.  He  has  had  as  many  as  one  hundred  thousand 
Leeches  in  these  small  ponds  at  a  time,  but  the  number  varies. 

UM  of  foechex. — Leeches  are  not  now  used  nearly  as  much  as  formerly,  and  the  practice  of 
leeching  is  gradually  declining.  From  year  to  year  the  imports  have  constantly  fallen  off,  and  the 
price  of  Leeches  has  rapidly  decreased.  Whether  this  will  continue  until  the  old  custom  of  leech- 
ing is  entirely  replaced  by  other  methods  of  treatment  or  not  cannot  be  predicted.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  in  Philadelphia  the  practice  has  greatly  revived  during  the  past  few  years,  and  the 
best  physicians  are  once  more  advocating  the  application  of  Leeches.  About  ten  years  ago  the 
leeching  practice  reached  its  minimum  in  Philadelphia,  and  it  has  remained  at  a  low  stage  until 
very  recently.  A  well-known  Philadelphia  leechcr  says  that  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  many  m,:re 
American  Leeches  were  used  in  that  city  than  European,  but  during  the  past  year  he  has  applied 
only  alx>ut  one  hundred  of  the  former.  Another  leecher  of  the  same  city  states  that  formerly  he 
applied  on  an  average  over  three  thousand  American  Leeches  a  year,  while  now  he  uses  but  a 
very  few. 


TIII:  YAIMF.TIF.S  OF  i  i:i:<  IIFS.  837 

.  Tin  rnrirtirx  of  l.mhex.— The  trims  ••  Spani>h  Let-Hies"  and  "Swedish  Lcccho"  have  ill  this 
country  lost  their  distinctive  meaning.  We  are  informed  by  a  large  importer  Ilia)  the  Spanish 
Leech  was  a  smaJl  green  Leech  brought  here  occasionally,  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  by  sea 
captains.  The\  \\cre  inl'crior  to  other  varieties,  and  during  tin-  pa>t  twenty  \earn  none  have 
been  brought  into  the  country,  at  least  not  through  regular  import  inn  houses.  Tlic  name 
••  Spanish  Leech"  is,  however.  Mill  used  in  the  trade,  and  we  ha\r  heard  it  frequently  referred  to 
liy  cuppers  and  leechers.  who  are  pn>bal>ly  ignorant  of  tfie  real  sources  of  their  supplies.  AH  to 
the  Swedish  Leeches,  they  were  probably  the  first  variety  brought  to  this  country  when  the 
import  trade  began  some  fifty  years  ago.  They  then  came  from  the  country  whence  they 
derived  their  name.  Since  the  beginning  of  leecli-cnltnre  iu  France,  this  same  Leech  has  been 
raised  there  artificially,  and  it  is  claimed  that  tin-  American  supplies  from  France  arc  wholly  of 
this  kind.  The  Leeches  used  in  England  are  also  said  to  lie  mostly  descendants  of  the  Swedish 
stock  raised  in  France.  Having  been  shipped  originally  to  London  by  way  of  Hamburg,  they 
received  there  the  name  of  Hamburg  Leeches,  which  they  still  retain.  The  Leeches  used  almost 
exclusively  in  France  come  from  a  native  stock,  which  is  now  propagated  artificially.  The>  arc 
small  and  of  a  green  color. 

In  the  (ienuanleech  trade  two1  kinds  of  Leeches  are  recognized,  one  of  which  is  called  the 
dermaii  Leech  and  the  other  the  Hungarian  Leech.  The  former  has  a  black  s|M>t ted  In-lly,  while 
in  the  latter  the  belly  is  uniform  in  color.  The  first  is  a  native  of  Germany,  where  it  has  become 
rare  on  account  of  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  caught  up.  It  is  now  raised  artificially.  The 
Hungarian  Leech  is  imported  from  Hungary,  whence  come  most  of  the  supplies  now  used  in 
<  lei-many.  Other  sources  of  supply  are  the  principalities  of  the  Danube  and  I'lagacx  en  I  Nisei  i. 
Tin-  Island  of  Porto  liico  and  other  islands  of  the  West  Indies  are  said  to  contain  medicinal 
Leeches.  Most  of  the  South  American  countries,  however,  on  both  sides  are  supplied  from 
Europe  via  the  United  States,  and  Mexico  receives  some  supplies  from  the  same  source. 


ZA.— THE  RADIATES. 

235.  THE  ECHINODERMS. 

THE  SEA  CUCUMBERS,  OR   TREPANG — UOLOTHUKIA  FLORIDANA,    Pourtales ;    HOLOTHURIA 

PRINCEPS  ;  PENTACTA  FRONDOSA,  Jteger. 

The  Sea  Cucumbers,  or  Holothurians,  are  the  highest  members  of  the  group  of  Echinoderms, 
whicli  also  includes  the  Sea  Urchins  aud  Star-fishes.  They  usually  have  an  elongate,  cylindrical, 
flexible  body,  covered  with  a  muscular  skin,  which  varies  greatly  in  thickness  in  the  difl'eivnt 
species.  The  mouth  is  located  at  one  end  of  the  body,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  more  or 
less  complex  tentacles  or  feelers.  That  division  of  the  Hololhurians  to  which  the  economic  species 
belong  are  furnished  with  the  so-called  ambulacral  feet,  which  are  sometimes  arranged  in  five 
longitudinal  rows  or  series,  ami  at  others  are  scattered  without  order  over  the  surface  of  the  body. 
The  body  wall  frequently  contains  numerous  minute  calcareous  plates,  of  various  shapes,  whicli 
are  often  peculiar  to  the  different  species.  Many  of  the  species  are  quite  worm-like  in  external 
appearance.  The  Trepang  of  Chinese  commerce  is  the  dried  skin  of  a  large  species  of  Ilolothurian 
living  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  and  used  as  food  iu  China. 

The  largest  and  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  New  England  Holothurians  is  the  PeutuHu 
frondom,  which  inhabits  the  northern  Atlantic  coasts  of  both  Europe  aud  America,  from  low-water 
mark  to  a  depth  of  one  hundred  fathoms  or  more.  It  is  of  a  brown  color,  and  measures  from  a 
few  inches  to  about  a  foot  in  length  when  expanded.  The  ambulacral  feet  form  five  double  and 
irregular  rows,  and  the  tentacles  are  ten  in  number,  and  much  branched.  Dr.  William  Stimpson 
remarks  concerning  this  species  that,  made  into  a  soup,  it  is  very  palatable ;  but  it  has  never 
been  regularly  used  as  food. 

Holothuria  floridana  is  a  large  dark-brown  species,  with  the  feet  scattered  irregularly  over 
the  body,  and  with  smaller  tentacles  than  Pentacta.  It  occurs  abundantly  on  the  Forida  reefs,  just 
below  low-water  mark,  and  grows  to  about  fifteen  inches  in  length.  Holothuria  princeps  is 
another  large  Florida  Sea  Cucumber.  One  or  both  of  these  species,  but  more  probably  the  former, 
gave  rise,  about  1870,  to  a  limited  industry  on  the  Florida  coast,  to  be  described  hereafter.  Large 
quantities  were  collected  on  the  reefs,  cleaned  of  their  internal  organs,  boiled,  and  then  dried 
and  shipi»ed  to  China;  but  the  industry  was  abandoned  after  two  years'  trial,  probably  having 
been  unprofitable.  Chinese  coolies  assisted  in  the  work. 

THE  SEA  URCHINS — STRONOYLOCENTROTUS  DROBACHIENSIS,  A.  Ag.;  STRONG YLOCENTROTUS 
FRANCrsCANUS,  A.  Ag. ;  EciIlNARACHNirs  PARMA,  Gray. 

The  Sea  Urchins  are  related  to  the  Sea  Cucumbers,  but  differ  from  them  in  form,  and  in  the 
character  of  their  external  covering.  The  body  is  generally  somewhat  spherical  in  shape,  but 
more  or  less  flattened  below,  the  mouth  being  placed  near  the  center  of  the  lower  surface.  The 
outer  covering  is  built  up  of  calcareous  plates,  closely  fitting  together,  from  which  project  a 
multitude  of  spines,  sometimes  of  small,  sometimes  of  large  size,  there  being  generally  a  great 
variation  in  size  in  the  same  individuals.  The  larger  spines  are  generally  arranged  in  regular 

series.    There  is  a  water  system;  five  double  rows  of  feet,  which  run  from  the  center  above  to 
838 


TIIK  SAM)  DOI.I. AH.  s::i» 

the  imintli  below;  ami  many  pedicellate.  The  oesophagus  is  small  and  tin-  stoniarh  and  intestine 
somewhat  lengthened  and  curved  upon  it  sol  I'.  Tin-  sexes  among  Sea  I'lchins  an-  distinct,  the 

different  individuals  containing  cither  ovaries  or  spermai  ics  only.     These  arc  live  in   n IMT.  ami 

resemble  those  ..f  tin-  Star-Hsu.  This  i»ortioii  of  tin-  Sea  I'rcliins  (the  ovaries)  arc  the  most 
important  in  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  ovaries  alone  In-ing  eaten. 

The  common  or  -riven  Sea  Urchin  (StroHgylwntrotux  ilrolxtfhifiixix)  has  a  very  \\ide  range, 
and  is  very  abm.dant  n|ioii  our  northern  const.  It  extends  from  New  Jersey  to  the  May  of 

Fnndy.  Imt  .south  and  \vc.st  of  the  eastern  part  of  Long  Island  Sound  it  is  raiv.     Its  Itathy trieal 

range  is  from  low  water  mark  to  depths  of  over  four  hundred  fathoms.  Outside  of  the  I'nited 
States,  it  ranges  from  Nova  Scot  in  to  the  Arctic  Ocean;  from  Spifzbcrgen  to  (ireat  Britain;  from 
I'.ering  Strait  to  the  Gulf  of  Georgia;  and  along  Eastern  Siln-ria  to  Okhotsk  Sea.  and  De 
Castries'  Kay.  This  species  "feeds  partly  on  diatoms  and  other  .small  alga-,  etc.,  which  it  cutsfrom 
the  rocks  with  the  sharp  points  of  its  teeth,  and  it  is  also  fouil  of  dead  fishes,  which  arc  scon 
devoured,  lioncs  and  all.  In  return  it  is  swallowed  whole,  in  large  quantities.  by  the  wolf  li>h 
and  other  large  lishes."  The  green  Sea  Urchin  is  not  now  eaten  U]K»II  our  eastern  coast,  and 
most  Americans  would  probably  regard  its  use  as  food  with  much  repugnance,  but  it  was  formerly 

eaten   l>y   s e  of  the  native  east  coast   Indian   tribes,  and  is  still   favorably  regarded  by  the 

Alaskans.  Mr.  Henry  Elliott  states  that  at  Saint  Paul's  Island  the  villagers,  principally  Aleuts, 
search  for  it  at  low  tide,  under  the  shelter  of  the  bowlders,  which  stand  in  the  tide  pools,  on  tin- 
rocky  shores,  during  nearly  all  seasons.  Usually  the  shells  are  broken,  the  ovaries  removed  and 
spread  out  like  raw  oysters  on  a  plate,  and  eaten  with  salt,  IK>PIMT,  and  vinegar.  The  old  women. 
called  "barbies,"  despise  these  condiments,  however,  and  suck  the  Sea  Urchins  as  small  boys  do 
eggs.  The  native  Alaskan  name  for  this  Sea  Urchin  is  "  Kepkie." 

The  common  west  coast  Sea  Urchin  (Strnntfyloeenlrotu»  fraiiciHcanun)  inhabits  the  coasts  of 
Southern  Alaska,  British  Columbia,  and  the  United  States,  as  far  south  as  San  Diego,  California. 
It  attains  a  much  larger  size  than  the  green  Sea  Urchin,  and  is  used  as  food  in  some  localities. 
In  Southern  Kurope  a  related  species,  Ntrnnyi/loft-ntrotitg  liriiJus,  in  much  esteemed  as  food. 

The  "Sand  Dollar,"  or  "Flat  Sea  Urchin"  (Ecliinarachniu*  parma),  of  the  New  Kngland  coast 
diners  so  much  from  the.  Green  Sea  Urchin  in  appearance  that  it  would  scarcely  appear  to  belong 
to  the  same  group  of  animals,  from  a  superficial  examination.  Its  principal  points  of  dinYrcnei- 
are  its  extremely  compressed  form  and  very  small  spines,  which  are  nearly  uniform  over  the 
entire  body.  The  lower  side  is  perfectly  flat,  and  the  upper  but  hlightly  convex.  Its  only 
Importance  from  an  economic  standpoint  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  an  indelible  ink, 
which  might  possibly  be  utilized  in  the  arts,  as  it  now  is  to  a  slight  extent  by  the  tishcrmcn  of 
some  parts  of  the  coast. 

The  Sand  Dollar  is  commonly  met  with  on  sandy  shores,  but  is  seldom  found  living  -except 
at  extreme  low  water  of  .spring  titles,  when  it  may  sometimes  be  tound  on  Hats  or  bars  of  line  sili 
ceous  sand  in  great  numbers,  buried  just  beneath  the  surface,  or  even  partially  exposed.  It  creeps 
along  beneath  the  sand  with  a  slow  gliding  motion,  by  means  of  the  myriads  of  minute  extensile 
suckers  with  which  it  is  furnished.  It  is  far  more  abundant  on  sandy  bottoms  at  various  depths 
oft' shore.  It  has  a  very  wide  range,  for  it  is  found  all  the  way  from  New  Jersey  to  Labrador,  and 
also  on  the  North  1'aeitic  coast;  and  in  depth  it  ranges  from  low-water  mark  to  four  hundred  and 
thirty  fathoms,  off  Saint  George's  Bank,  where  it  was  dredged  l>\  Me^r-.  Smith  and  llai-ci. 
When  living  its  color  is  usually  a  rich  purplish-brown,  but  it  soon  turns  green  when  taken  from 
the  water.  It  gives  a  dark  green  or  blackish  color  to  alcohol,  which  stains  very  injuriously  an> 
other  specimens  put  in.  with  it.  The  fishermen  on  the  coast  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick  some- 


840  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

times  prepare  an  indelible  marking-ink  from  these  '  Sand  Dollars,'  by  rubbing  off  the  spines  and 
skin,  and,  .after  pulverizing,  making  the  mass  into  a  thin  paste  with  water.  A  number  of  fishes 
have  been  found  to  swallow  this  unpromising  creature  for  food,  and  the  flounders  consume  large 
numbers  of  them." ' 

THE  STAR-FISHES — ASTEKIAS  VULGARIS,  Stimpsou ;  ASTEBIAS  FORBESII,  Verrill. 

Only  two  species  of  Star-fish  merit  our  attention  in  this  report,  not  from  any  good  they  perform, 
out  from  their  destructive  attacks  upon  our  oyster-beds,  which  they  are  said  to  damage  to  the 
extent  of  perhaps  two  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually.  These  two  Star-fishes,  called  Asterias 
vutgaris  and  Asterias  Forbesii,  are  so  closely  related  to  one  another  and  so  similar  in  appearance 
as  to  require  considerable  skill  at  times  to  point  out  their  differences;  but  when  living  the  Axtcrinn 
Forbesii  can  generally  be  recognized  by  its  bright  orange  madreporic  plate  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
body,  the  corresponding  plate  in  A.  vulgarw  agreeing  more  closely  in  color  with  the  surrounding 
portions  of  its  disk.  The  fishermen  do  not  distinguish  between  the  two  species;  to  them  they  are 
both  alike,  and  both  are  designated  under  the  common  but  descriptive  terms  of  "  Star-fish,"  u  Five- 
finger,"  "  Sea  Star,"  or  simply  "  Star." 

The  Star-fish,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  star-shaped  animal,  consisting  of  a  central  disk  from 
which  radiate,  in  the  case  of  the  species  now  under  discussion,  five  elongate  arms,  which  are  not 
marked  off  or  separated  in  any  way  from  the  disk,  but  exist  merely  as  prolongations  from  it.  The 
upper  and  lower  sides  arc  quite  different  from  one  another.  "  The  upper  side  presents  a  rough 
surface  of  a  greenish,  brownish,  reddish-green,  or  purple  hue,  which  when  it  is  dried  turns  to  a 
yellowish -brown.  This  is  the  leathery  membrane  covering  the  skeleton  of  the  animal,  which  con- 
sists of  small  limestone  plates,  united  together  at  their  edges  by  a  sort  of  cartilage.  This  forms 
the  framework  of  the  arms  and  disk,  and  acts  as  a  chain-armor,  encircling  and  protecting  all  the 
soft  parts  within.  On  the  lower  side  of  the  Star-fish  this  framework  terminates  in  two  series  of 
larger  plates.  This  armor  is  sufficiently  flexible  to  allow  the  Star-fish  to  bend  himself  clumsily 
over  or  around  anything  he  is  likely  to  wish  to  climb  upon  or  grasp."  The  entire  upper  surface 
is  covered  with  many  short  spines,  which  are  largest  and  thickest  at  the  edges  of  the  rays  and 
upon  the  plates  bordering  the  lower  sides  of  the  rays.  Around  the  base  of  each  spine  there  is  a 
circle  of  curious  little  claw-like  appendages  called  pedicellariai,  which  may  serve  to  aid  in  clearing 
the  upper  surface,  but  whose  functions  are  not  satisfactorily  made  out.  Scattered  between  the 
spines  are  little  soft  water  tubes,  and  at  one  side  of  the  disk  on  the  back  is  a  sieve-like  arrange- 
ment, called  the  madreporic  plate,  for  the  admission  of  water. 

The  under  side  of  the  body  is  softer  than  the,  upper  and  much  lighter  in  color.  The  month  is 
in  the  center  of  the  disk;  it  bears  no  teeth,  but  is  surrounded  by  an  elastic  tube.  Five  furrows 
run  from  the  mouth  down  the  center  of  each  arm.  They  are  filled  with  numerous  extensible  soft 
tabes,  terminating  in  a  disk  and  arranged  in  four  rows.  These  are  the  so-called  feet  of  the  Star- 
fish, and  by  means  of  them  it  moves  about.  The  majority  of  the  Star  fishes  are  bisexual,  but  in 
the  two  species  under  discussion  the  sexes  are  distinct. 

Our  common  Star-fishes,  and  especially  the  Asterias  vulgaris,  attain  a  large  size,  specimens 
often  measuring  fifteen  inches  across,  and  upwards,  on  the  Maine  and  Massachusetts  coasts. 
From  this  extreme  we  find  all  the  intermediate  sizes  down  to  the  very  smallest.  They  inhabit 
various  kinds  of  bottoms,  from  above  low- water  mark  to  twelve  or  fifteen  fathoms  and  deeper,  but 
it  is  in  shallow  water  that  they  do  the  most  damage.  They  live  on  muddy,  sandy,  rocky,  and  shelly 
bottoms,  and  even  on  the  piles  of  wharves,  and  are  most  abundant  where  they  can  find  the 


1  VBERILL:  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  pp.  362,  363,  1871-'72. 


mi:  COKAI.S  AND  .in.i.v  FISHES. 

greatest  ainoiint  of  food,  and  it  is  for  tin-  pmposc  of  feeding  that  they  visit  the  oyster-tads  in 
such  large  droxcs.  They  arc  not  always  abundant  in  (lie  same  places,  hut  seem  ti>  move  ahunl. 
I'lcili'-snr  Verrill  thinks  "their  habit  of  coming  up  to  the  shore  may  be  connected  with  their 
icpiodiictivc  season."  They  do  ubt  enjoy  too  brackish  water,  and  o\.>lcis  in  such  locations  are 
sale  iVoni  their  attacks. 

Ax/i'i-iiix  riilt/in-in  ranges  from  Ix>ng  Island  Sound  to  Labrador,  and  A.Ftirbrxii  from  Massa 
chusetts  May  to  the  (lull  of  Mexico.  The  former  species  is,  therefore,  essentially  a  northern  one, 
and  the  latter  a  southern  one,  but  over  a  certain  region  they  oveilap.  and  it  is  through  this  region 
and  juM  to  the  souih  of  it  tliat  most  of  the  dam.ige  is  done.  .-I.  Forbexii  is  the  shore  species  where 
the  uii-.iifi  |i.u  I  of  the  oyster-beds  occur,  and  it  must  assume  most  of  the  blame  for  the  thousands 
of  oysters  destroyed  on  these  beds. 

236.  THE  CffiLENTERATES. 
THR  COKALS. 

Many  of  the  (Common  Florida  Corals,  from  their  graceful  shapes  and  delicately  sculptured 
surfaces.  ai<-  highly  prized  for  ornamental  purposes,  and  have  come  to  |H>SSCSS  a  certain  coniincr 
eial  value.  They  are  regularly  kept  for  sale  in  most  of  the  larger  cities,  such  as  Moston  and  New 
York,  and  unusually  tine  specimens  frequently  command  a  high  price.  The  group  of  Corals,  as 
popularly  understood,  includes  members  of  two  classes  of  the  Cuslenterata,  the  I'olyp  Corals  and 
the  Hydroid  Corals,  both  of  which,  and  especially  the  former,  present  a  great  variety  of  forms. 
The  principal  ornamental  Corals  found  on  the  coast  of  Florida  are  as  follows:  Among  the 
(iorgonians  occur  the  Sea-fans  (Gorgonia  Jhtbellu iw),  and  the  Sea-feathers  or  Sea-plumes  ((iurt/niiut 
i',;i;>xn  and  (Inrijnn'ut  xetoxti).  Among  the  true  stony  corals  are  the  Stag  horn  Corals  (Mutlrepora 
iitt.  /»•<>! ifcrti,  and  palmtita);  the  Brain  Corals  (Meanilrina  labyrinthiformi*,  rliruxu,  and 
i,  l>ii>l<>ria  cerebriformis,  and  Maniclna  arcolata);  the  Fungus  Corals  (Agarieia  iif/m-ii-itix 
and  Mi/irilinni  frnyilr);  the  Star  Corals  (Orbicella  annularix  and  carernona),  and  many  others 
without  eouiinon  names,  such  as  the  Oculina  diffuxa  and  Ixophyllia  (liptuicea.  (  nly  a  single  speciea 
of  Ilulroid  <'oral  is  commonly  seen  in  show  collections ;  it  is  the  so-called  Finger  < 'or.il  or  Sea 
(linger  lMilli']>(>rn  nU-icnrnix),  the  latter  common  name  having  reference  to  the  smarting  sensation 
which  it  imparts  to  the  skin,  on  handling,  soon  after  it  is  taken  from  the  water.  .Many  foreign 
species  of  Corals,  belonging  to  the  above  groups,  are  often  to  be  seen  in  the  natural  history  stores; 
they  come  mainly  from  the  West  Indies  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Neither  the  precious  Coral 
(Coralliiim  rubrum)  nor  any  other  species  approaching  it  in  value  to  the  trade  occurs  in  American 
waters,  but  large  quantities  of  the  former  are  imported  annually  from  Europe  for  making  into 

jewelry. 

TOE  JELLY-FISHES. 

The  Jelly-fishes,  Sun-fishes,  or  Medusas,  which  are  well  known  to  the  sea-coast  inhabitants  as 
transparent  and  delicate  floating  animals,  most  abundant  in  the  summer  months,  are,  at  times,  a 
source  of  gn  at  annoyance  to  the  net  fishermen.  These  watery  creatures,  whose  bodies  contain  only 
a  \ery  small  percentage  of  solid  matter,  vary  greatly  in  shape,  and  belong  to  several  orders  of  the 
Ceelenterata.  They  have  often  been  described  and  figured  in  popular  books  on  natural  history,  to 
\\liich  the  reader  is  referred  for  details  concerning  their  structure  and  habits.  The  commoner 
.species  found  on  the  New  England  coast  are  referred  to  as  follows  by  Prof.  A.  E.  Verrill.1 

"  A  fine,  large  specimen  of  the  beautiful  Jelly-fish  Tima  formoaa  has  been  sent  me  l>y  Mr.  V. 
N.  Edwards,  who  captured  it  at  Wood's  Holl,  April  30.  He  states  that  the  same  species  was  very 

1  Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  449,  1871-'72. 


#42  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

abundant  in  February,  1872.  It  has  not  been  previously  recorded  as  found  south  of  Capo  Cod. 
Among  the  most  common  of  the  larger  species  iu  summer  were  Mnemiopsis  Leidyi,  which  occurred 
in  abundance  at  nearly  all  hours  of  the  day  and  evening,  and  was  very  phosphorescent  at  night; 
Cyanta  arctica,  which  occurred  chiefly  in  the  daytime,  and  was  here  seldom  more  than  a  foot  in 
diameter;  Aurelia  flavidula,  which  was  not  unfrequently  seen  in  the  daytime;  fiactylometra 
quinquccirra,  which  was  quite  common  both  by  night  and  day  in  August  and  September;  and 
Zygodactyla  grcenlandica,  which  was  common  in  July,  both  in  the  day  and  evening,  but  was  seldom 
seen  later  in  the  season.  In  the  winter  season  the  Afnemiopsis  Leidyi  is  often  abundant  in  Long 
Island  Sound,  and  I  have  also  observed  it  in  New  York  Harbor  in  February,  in  large  numbers. 
At  Wood's  Holl,  Mr.  V.  N.  Edwards  found  the  Pleurobruchia  rhododactyla,  both  young  and  nearly 
full-grown,  very  abundant  in  February  and  March.  At  Watch  Hill,  April  13,  I  found  both  adult 
specimens  and  young  ones  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  probably  occurs 
through  the  entire  year,  for  we  frequently  met  with  it  in  midsummer  in  Vineyard  Sound.  Mr.  S. 
1.  Smith  also  found  it  very  abundant  at  Fire  Island,  on  the  south  side  of  Long  Island,  in 
September.  The  Idyla  roseola,  so  abundant  on  the  coast  of  New  England  north  of  Cape  Cod,  was 
only  occasionally  met  with,  and  in  small  numbers,  while  the  Bolina  alata,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  species  on  the  northern  coast  of  New  Englar.cl,  was  not  seen  at  all.  The  Aurelia 
Jtavidula  is  less  common  than  north  of  Cape  Cod,  but  was  found  in  abundance  in  Buzzard's  Bay, 
in  May,  by  V.  N.  Edwards." 

Many  accounts  have  been  given  of  the  damage  done  to  the  nets  of  the  fishermen  by  Jelly- 
fishes,  when  they  have  congregated  together  in  large  numbers.  Mr.  Fred.  Mather,  writing  from 
Say  brook,  Connecticut,  in  1881,  says  that  "the  Jelly-fish,  called  Sun-fish  here,  are  a  source  of 
great  annoyance  this  year.  They  clog  up  the  meshes  of  the  nets,  and  the  tide  sweeps  away  either 
the  net  alone,  or  with  its  stakes." 

The  following  extract  from  a  letter  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Stannard,  of  Westbrook,  Connecticut,  dated 
June  1,  1881,  refers  to  the  destruction  occasioned  in  former  years.  "The  Jelly  fish  have  been 
very  destructive  to  pound  fishing  several  times  within  the  past  thirty-five  years,  and  there  have 
been  more  or  less  of  them  every  year  in  the  Sound.  In  1861,  the  best  part  of  the  season  was 
destroyed,  and,  in  18C8,  one-half  of  the  shad-fishing  season  was  destroyed  by  the  Jelly-fish  taking 
away  the  nets  and  stakes.  In  1878,  Jelly-fishes  were  very  plentiful ;  they  stopped  the  shad  fishing 
with  pounds  almost  entirely,  and  to  such  an  extent  that  the  company  did  not  pay  expenses.  This 
year,  1881,  they  have  destroyed  about  one-third  of  the  catch  or  season.  If  no  Jellyfish  had 
appeared  I  believe  the  catch  would  have  been  one-third  larger  than  it  is." 


ZB.— THE  POKIFERS. 

237.   THE  SPONGES. 

GENERAL  CONSIDKK  \TIONS.— The  natunil  group  of  SjKjnges  with  which  the  public  have 
become  familiar,  through  their  constant  use  of  the  domeslic  varieties,  remained  until  comparatively 
recent  limes  in  ilie  iniieli  disputed  ground  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  The 
careful  investigations  of  several  distinguished  modern  naturalists,  however,  finally  established 
fl.eir  animal  nature  he  ond  all  question,  and  they  were  accordingly  transferred  to  the  kingdom  in 
\\Iii-.-Ii  tliey  properly  jelong.  Hut  some  years  were  yet  to  pass  before  their  true  atlinilies  with 
other  animals  could  be  definitely  determined,  and  they  were  grouped  provisionally  with  the-,, 
called  rf»t<>:,,,i.  :\  somewhat  heterogeneous  assemblage  of  such  low  forms  as  did  not  agree  stiue 
tin-ally  with  any  of  the  four  great  branches  or  subkingdoms,  then  rccogni/cd  as  composing  the 
animal  kingdom.  Still  later  researches  have  clearly  proved  that  the  Sponges  have  a  much  higher 
organi/ation  than  the  Protozoa  proper,  and  propagate  by  means  of  eggs,  while  the  members  of  the 
latter  group  do  not.  Compared  as  a  whole  with  all  the  groups  above  the  Pn>tiw>n,  the  Sponges 
appear  to  be  the  lowest  iii  structure,  and,  moreover,  they  stand  apart  by  themselves  as  a  distinct 
group,  which,  in  the  more  recent  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  by  most  authoiities  into  some 
seven  suhkingdoms  or  branches,  in  place  of  the  original  four,  assumes  the  rank  of  a  subking- 
dom  called  Porifera,  and  comes  into  the  plan  of  classification  between  the  Pruttwm  and  the 
Ccelentera  rt< . 

The  term  Sponge  conveys  to  the  minds  of  most  people  simply  the  idea  of  an  irregular,  sofi, 
llexible  mass  of  open  structure,  whose  exterior  is  generally  much  roughened  by  projecting  |xiints. 

and  pierced  by  numerous  holes,  leading  toward  the  interior,  and  whose  .structure, re  closely 

examined,  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  fine  net-work  of  small,  horny  fibers.  This  typical  Sponge,  as  we 
may  term  it,  from  its  being  the  form  most  commonly  known  and  observed,  is  the  ordinary  Sponge 
of  commerce,  which,  though  limited  in  its  range  to  but  a  few  tropical  and  subtropical  regions,  is 
collected  in  great  quantities  and  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Tue  commercial  S|M»ngcs.  which 
are  the  only  ones  of  economical  importance  to  mankind,  all  belong  to  a  single  natural  genus, 
•s'/wH///(f.  and  form,  so  far  as  the  number  of  species  are  concerned,  but  a  small  portion  of  the  en  tin- 
branch  Porifera. 

As  stated  above,  the  general  conception  of  a  Sponge  is  a  fibrous  skeleton,  and  nearly  all 
Sponges  possess  a  skeleton  or  the  rudiments  of  one,  but  this  varies  greatly  in  character  in  the 
di  1Vercnt.  divisions  of  the  branch.  In  the  commercial  Sponges  and  their  allies,  the  skeleton  is 
horny  and  more  or  less  flexible,  consisting  of  tine  tibcrs  interwoven  and  joined  together.  In 
another  group,  the  skeleton  is  composed  of  horny  fibers  intermingled  with  which  are  many 
siliceous  spiciiles,  causing  it  to  have  a  much  stiller  and  harsher  structure.  In  a  third  group,  the 
so-called  siliceous  Sponges,  the  skeleton  is  entirely  made  up  of  siliceous  spiciiles,  which  may  In- 
scattered  singly  through  the  soft  substance  of  the  Sponge,  or  joined  together  in  bundles.  These 
^picnics  vary  in  shape,  some  being  simple  and  straight,  and  others  pyramidal,  star  shape,  or 
granular.  A  fourth  group,  the  calcare.nis  Sponges  has  a  skeleton  of  calcareous  materials.  <li>p.i-.  il 

in  lines  or  columns  at  right  angles  to  the  walls.     The  recent   members  of  this  group  have  the 

843 


844  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

skeleton  made  up  of  calcareous  spicules,  while  the  fossil  forms  referred  to  the  same  have  calcareous 
•  columnar  supports,  instead  of  spicular. 

The  soft  and  fleshy  part  of  the  Sponge,  which  is  the  truly  organized  portion,  and  upon  a 
knowledge  of  which  we  must  rely  for  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  relations  of  .Sponges,  is  the 
most  difficult  to  study,  as  it  is  also  the  least  known.  It  collapses  and  begins  1o  decay  almost  on 
the  moment  of  the  Sponge  being  taken  from  the  water,  and  alcoholic  preparations  are  of  compara- 
tively little  value  for  investigation.  The  structure  of  some  forms  has,  however,  been  sufficiently 
well  made  out  to  give  us  a  tolerably  clear  idea  of  what  it  must  be  in  the  entire  group.  Prof.  A. 
Hyatt  describes  the  general  structure  of  the  Sponge  as  follows:1 

4i  They  are  structurally  remarkably  uniform,  though  differing  greatly  in  external  aspect.  They 
consist  internally  of  a  mass  or  layer  of  sarcode  or  mesoderm,  containing  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  true  cells,  and  have  an  ectoderm  and  endoderin  of  cellular  tissue.  The  majority  of  the  forms 
are  supported  by  a  skeleton  of  interwoven  threads  or  spicules,  or  both,  of  various  forms.  The 
exterior  is  perforated  by  innumerable  pores,  leading  into  channels  in  the  interior,  which  enlarge 
and  join  with  groups  of  neighboring  channels,  forming  large  branches.  These,  in  turn,  form 
junctions  with  other  branches,  and  finally  all  of  them  unite,  into  one  or  several  large  trunks, 
which  open  outwards,  like  minute  craters,  on  the  external  surface.  These  are  lined  with  another 
membrane,  differing  from  anything  else  of  its  kind  in  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  composed  of 
minute  cells,  furnished  on  the  free  side  with  a  long  whip  or  flagellum,  surrounded  by  a  collar. 
Their  interiors  contain  .1  nucleus  and  digestive  vacnoles,  and  they,  in  all  respects,  resemble  the- 
independent  animals  known  as  flagellate  infusoria.  They  take  in  and  digest  food  in  the  same 
manner,  and  eject  excrements  in  great  profusion  from  the  area  inclosed  by  the  membraneous  collar. 

"The  eggs  and  spermatozoa  are  derived  from  moditied  cells  of  the  mesoderm,  whereas  the 
skeleton  is  either  built  up  partly  from  the  external  membrane,  and  partly  from  the  sarcode  by 
exogenous  growth,  or  by  the  transformation  of  the  loose  cells  of  the  sarcode  into  spicuhi'.  The 
function  of  the  smaller  external  pores  is  to  admit  the  water,  which  is  thus  strained  and  deprived 
ol' its  coarser  floating  material.  It.  is  then  carried  along  the  canals,  by  the  motion  of  the  cilia, 
and  conveys  its  load  of  minute  food  to  the  ampnllaceous  sacs  and  zooidal  cells.  The  hydraulic 
pressure  occasioned  by  the  inward  flow  of  the  innumerable  minute  streams  forces  it  through  the 
larger  trunks  and  out  at  the  craters  or  ostioles  with  great  rapidity." 

Their  peculiar  cellular  structure  caused  the  Sponges  when  they  were  first  carefully  studied  to 
be  looked  upon  as  compound  animals,  but  this  idea  has  been  refuted  by  more  recent  studies,  and 
each  individual  Sponge  is  now  considered,  "in  its  simplest  adult  form,  as  homologically  a  single 
animal  with  the  internal  structure  and  functions  of  a  colonial  organization." 

The  branch  or  subkingdom  Par  if  era  is  divided  into  two  classes,  the  Calci  Spongiee  (calcareous 
Sponges)  and  the  Carneo-Sponfii(e  (horny  and  siliceous  Sponges). 

The  Otbt-SffHfia  are  again  divided  into  two  orders,  and  the  Carneo-Spongia;  into  four  orders, 
the  Halixarcoidea,  Keratoidea,  Kerato-Siiicioidea,  and  Silitioi<lc«. 

The  Keratoidea  includes  all  the  purely  horny  Sponges,  and  the  only  genus,  Spongia,  of  direct 
importance  to  mankind.  According  to  Professor  Hyatt,  the  horny  Sponges  "appear  to  require 
for  the  production  of  the  forms  in  abundance  tropical  or  subtropical  seas,  and  obtain  by  far  their 
greatest,  development  in  the  number  of  the  forms  and  species  in  the  West  Indian  seas.  The 
typical  forms,  the  commercial  Sponges,  are  essentially  confined  to  the  waters  of  the  Caribbean 
Islands,  Bahama  Archipelago,  and  the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Florida,  in  this  hemisphere. 
and  to  the  Mediterranean  and  Hed  Seas  in  the  other. 


'Memoirs  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii,  187r>-'77. 


IHSTmr.l  TION   <>|-  Sl'ONV.KS. 

••  Australia  allords  a  tew  forms,  and  I  have  heard,  though  I  cannot  substantiate  the  I'M.-I.  of 
some  species  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  liraxil.  Bermuda  also  lias  a  few  of  tht>  commeicial  kinds, 

which,  according:  to  Mr.  (mode's  n  port,  anil  the  unite  of  specimens   forwarded,  arc  n li  COMI-I-I 

than  (lie  Key  West,  darker  in  color,  ami,  in  tact,  junt  about  intermediate  betw.-.-n  these  and  those 
of  Australia.  They  are  occasionally  found  in  the  stores,  hut,  as  a  rule,  are  used  .nils  liy  the 
lislierincn  themselves,  about  their  boats,  the  Bahama  Hjwnges  being  preferred  for  domestic 
imrposcs  l»y  the  inhabitants. 

••The  true  Sp,>H<,i,r  are  all  shallow-water  forms.  In  the  Mediterranean,  according  to  Kckhel, 
they  are  not  found  below  thirty  fathoms,  and  in  onr  own  seas  about  the  same,  probably,  though 
not  tished  to  greater  than  five  fathoms.  The  greater  part  of  the  fishery  is  accomplished  between 

the  depths  of  three  and  twenty  feet,  according  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Palmer,  from  \vh these 

remarks  are  principally  derived.  The  commercial  grades  coincide  very  closely  here  and  in 
Kurope,  but  it  is  quite  easy  to  show  that  each  of  them  may  be  considered  a  distinct  species,  if  one 
has  an  inclination  to  multiply  in  this  direction.  The  three  grades  [of  American  Sponges].  Glove 
SjMHigc  iSiHHtiiiii  officinal!*),  subspecies  tubulifera,  Wool  Sponge  (Spongia  r//»i/m),  subsides  go*- 
xi/i>inii,  and  Yellow  and  Hard  Head,  both  under  the  name  of  (Spongia  agaricina),  subspecies  ,-,,, 
toxin,  correspond  with  remarkable  accuracy  to  the  three  principal  grades  of  commercial  Sponges 
in  Kuropc.  These  are  the  Bath  Sponge,  Spongia  officinal!*,  the  Horse  Sponge,  Spoiii/iti  M/iiiim.  and 
the  Xiinocc.a  Sponge,  Spongia  agaricina.  This  result,  in  which  three  species  appear  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic,  as  representing  alone  the  marketable,  qualities  of  the  genus  Spongia,  becomes 
of  double  interest  when  these  varieties,  or  local  species,  as  they  might  be  called,  are  compared 
with  one  another.  It  is  then  found  that  the  aspect  of  the  surface  is  closely  similar  in  each 
of  the  three;  that  subspecies  tubuUfera  represents  Spongia  offieiiutli*,  subspecies  goiutypina  offsets 
H/ionf/ia  equina  iu  the  same  way,  and,  lastly,  subspecies  corloitia  has  the  same  relation  to  Spongia 
iii/nricina. 

"The  whole  group  of  Keratosa  is  confined  to  seas  in  which  the  differences  observable 
between  the  winter  and  summer  isotherms  are  not  excessive.  None  are  found  north  of  Cape 
Hatteras  and  the  island  of  Bermuda,  and  doubtless  a  similar  limit  occurs  to  the  southward  of 
the  equator. 

"The  liner  skeletons  of  the  Keratoza,  those  of  the  genus  Spongia,  are  only  to  be  sought  in 
the  intermediate  zone,  where  the  waters  are  of  equable  and  high  temperature.  Again,  in  examining 
the  species  of  this  genus  with  relation  to  each  other,  it  becomes  equally  evident  that  they  arc 
finest  and  most  numerous  in  archipelagoes  or  off  coasts  which  are  bordered  by  large  numbers  of 
islands  or  long  reefs,  or  in  sheltered  seas. 

"The  Sponges  near  Nassau  lie  on  reefs  very  much  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  waves,  often 
thirty  miles  from  land,  and  always  in  currents,  sometimes  running  three  or  four  miles  an  hour. 
Such  currents  are  usual  wherever  groups  of  islands  confine  the  tide  water  within  certain  definite 
channels,  and  they  have  also  the  effect  of  concentrating  the  floating  food  in  the  channels,  or 
wherever  tides  meet.  Both  of  these  conditions  are  essential  to  successful  sponge  growth,  namely, 
a  continuous  renewal  of  aerated  water  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  food,  and  are  probably  partially 
the  cause  of  their  abundance  in  such  places. 

"The  shallow-water  Sponges  arc  coarser  than  the  deep-water  forms.  This  is  probably  due,  in 
part,  as  in  other  species,  to  the  quantity  of  sediment,  which  is,  of  course,  less  in  deep  than  in 
shallow  water,  as,  for  example,  at  Key  West  in  the  winter  time.  I  am  informed  that  no  fine 
qualities  of  any  Sponges  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the  milky  water,  but  all  the  liner  qualities 
of  the  marketable  kinds  in  the  deepest  water  in  which  the  species  occur,  except  perhaps  in  the 


846  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

case  of  the  Reef  Sponge.  Glove,  Reef,  and  Hard  Head  are  fished  in  shallow  waters,  greatest 
depth  two  fathoms,  and  the  other,  and  generally  finer  marketable  varieties,  in  from  two  to  live 
fathoms.  This  fact  also  explains  in  a  measure,  but  not  wholly,  the  greater  coarseness  of  our  own 
Sponges  us  compared  with  the  European.  For  though  it  may  be  assumed,  from  the  examination 
of  the  skeletons,  that  Mediterranean  Sponges  are  much  less  exposed  to  turbid  waters,  and  though 
it  may  be  shown  by  the  microscope  that  the  primary  fibers  contain  less  debris,  this  does  not 
wholly  explain  their  greater  fineness  and  elasticity.  I  think  that  we  may  attribute  this  either 
wholly  or  partly  to  peculiar  climatic  conditions. 

u  The  coral  reefs  afford  good  holding  ground  for  the  bases  of  the  colonies,  and  protection 
from  the  excessive  surf  of  ocean  shores,  while  they  grow  in  water  the  remarkable  clearness  of 
which  to  a  considerable  depth  is  constant  subject  of  remark.  These  are  undoubtedly  favorable 
conditions,  as  they  are  common  also  to  the  Mediterranean  waters.  The  great  quantity  of  cal- 
careous sediment,  however,  which  is  churned  by  the  waves  in  the  winter,  on  the  borders  of  a 
coral  reef,  is  not  present  in  the  Mediterranean ;  and  the  average  temperature  also,  which  is  very 
much  higher  than  that  under  which  the  finest  Sponge  skeletons  are  produced  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, cannot  be  considered  as  favorable.  These  last,  then,  are  probably  the  direct  cause  of  the 
inferiority  of  the  skeleton  of  the  commercial  varieties  found  in  this  association  [I.  e.,  many  of  the 
American  varieties). 

"The  coarsest  quality  of  all  the  Mediterranean  Sponges,  the  Gherbis  sort  and  other  coarse 
sorts,  grow  in  localities  along  the  coast,  where  they  are  most  subject  to  the  action  of  suspended 
matter  in  the  water;  but  all  of  these  are,  however^  on  account  of  the  clearness  and  medium 
temperature  of  the  Mediterranean  waters,  as  compared  with  those  of  other  seas,  of  much  finer 
finality. 

"The  coarser  kinds  of  the  same  variety  grow  nearest  the  shore,  and  the  finer  kinds  in  deeper 
water,  and  also,  according  to  Nassau  spongers,  are  more  apt  to  occur  on  marly  ground,  where  the 
sediment  is  finer  than  upon  other  kinds  of  bottom.  The  openness  which  usually  accompanies 
and  appears  to  correlate  with  coarseness  of  the  fiber  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the  elements 
of  inferiority,  which  invariably  accompanies  a  skeleton  having  a  loose  microscopical  texture  or 
mesh,  and  harsh  or  inelastic  or  easily  torn  fibers,  but  is  also,  though  rarely,  found  in  skeletons  of 
very  fine  quality,  especially  at  an  early  age.  Thus  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  undoubtedly  a 
common  characteristic  of  all  the  inferior  qualities  of  Mediterranean,  and  of  all  the  Caribbean 
commercial  Sponges  without  exception,  which,  though  they  may  have  very  flue  or  very  coarse  or 
inelastic  fibers,  are  always  permeated  in  the  interior  and  have  the  surface  also  cut  up  by  larger 
and  more  numerous  canals  than  the  corresponding  Mediterranean  species." 

238.  THE  GENUS  SPONGIA  AND  THE  AMERICAN  COMMERCIAL  SPONGES. 

The  skeleton  of  this  genus,  according  to  Professor  Hyatt,  is  composed  of  solid,  elastic  fibers, 
the  primary  ones,  those  having  their  origin  in  the  external  integuments,  being  usually,  though 
not  invariably,  more  or  less  radiatory  in  -their  arrangements;  but  the  secondary  or  connecting 
fibers  are  excessively  irregular,  and  generally  very  closely  intertwined.  The  primary  libers  are 
particularly  noticeable  on  the  inner  side  of  (he  walls  of  the  large  or  excurrent  openings.  The 
skeleton  exhibits  a  very  rough  surface,  due  to  Hie  development  of  large  projecting  masses  of  the 
secondary  or  connecting  fibers,  which  are  separated  by  horizontal  channels  of  greater  or  less 
depth.  The  primary  libers  protrude  above  the  surface  of  the  cushions  or  ridges  thus  formed, 
carrying  with  them  more  or  less  of  the  secondary  fiber,  and  forming  a  scries  of  superficial  tufts, 
giving  the  skeleton  a  peculiarly  hirsute  aspect.  The  pores  through  which  the  water  enters  the 


TIII-:  (ii.ovi:  BPOXOB.  -  17 

Spoil-. •>  are  very  numerous,  i|i|ite  permanent  ill  their  positions.  :iihl  ii-iT^lll:irl\  -,-  iltel.  d  ,IMT  111.' 
sides  of  tin'  mass,  often  remaining  open  even  in  dried  >pe. -miens..  Tin-  cloacal  canals  an-  lew  in 
number,  lull  exceedingly  large,  anil  their  apertures  arc  irregularly  scattered  admit.  but  are 
almost  always  on  the  upper  side,  of  the  colony.  When  living,  the  outer  skin  is  of  a  dark  brown, 
very  dark  purple,  or  a  Mack  color.  The  external  layer  is  usually  more  or  less  filled  with  whate\er 
sediment  may  In-  prevalent  in  the  water,  and,  especially  in  tlie  \Vest  Indie-.,  with  the  siliceous 
spicules  of  other  Sponges. 

Only  lour  species  or  six  so  called  subspecies  of  commercial  S| gcs.  arc  recogni/cd  iVom  the 

Florida  waters,  and  these  give  rise  to  the  flvo  grades,  known  to  the  trade,  in  the  order  of  their 
importance,  beginning  with  the  finest,  as  Sbeepswool,  Velvet,  Grass,  and  Clove  Sponges.  These 
same  grades  and  sul)s))ecies,  with  one  exception,  also  occur  among  the  Mahama  Islands,  the 
.sponge  fauna  of  Florida  and  the  Bahamas  being  more  or  less  identical,  but  the  corresponding 

grades  of  these  two  regions  are  generally  finest  in  the  Florida  waters,  the  Florida  em rcial 

Sponges  ranking  much  higher  than  the  Bahama,  and  commanding  higher  prices.  < 'ommereially, 

Bahama  has  two  or  three  times  as  many  grades  of  Sponges  as  Florida  luit  these  < imeicial 

grades  are  not  of  specific  or  even  subspecific  importance.  They  result  from  a  division  according 
to  quality  for  the  convenience  of  the  trade.  Notwithstanding  the  many  Bahama  grades,  the 
best  of  the  Manama  Sheepswool  Sponges  are  inferior  to  the  best  Florida  Sheeps\\ool. 

The  following  descriptions  of  the  several  Florida  and  Bahama  commercial  Sponges  are  taken 
from  Professor  Hyatt's  memoir,  "Revision  of  the  North  American  Poriferae,"  with  notes  on  the 
corresponding  Mediterranean  species: 

THE  GLOVE  SPONGE — SPONGIA  OFFICINALIS,  Linn.,  subspecies  TUBULIFEBA. 

"This  subspecies,  as  compared  with  other  American  subspecies,  baa  a  skeleton  composed  of 
remarkably  fine  fibers,  which  bleach  out  to  a  whitish  brown  color.  The  MM  face  is  covered  with 
line  tufts  of  primary  libers,  which  are,  however,  very  pliable.  The  surface  is  generally  quite  free 
from  cushions  and  ridges,  and  the  channels  between  these  when  they  do  occur  are  neither  very 
deep  nor  long.  The  result  of  these  characteristics  is  a  form  with  a  smoother  snrface  and  a  denser 
looking  skeleton  than  usual,  pierced  on  the  sides  by  numerous  small  ajH-rtures,  very  regularly 
distributed,  and  at  the  top  by  one  or  more  large  cloacal  oscules.  The  form  is  generally  dome  like, 
and  is  never,  so  far  as  I  know,  cup  shaped,  though  it  may  become  exceedingly  irregular,  listular. 
or  even  dendritic.  The  older  specimens  show  a  decided  tendency  to  increase  by  the  prolongation 
of  the  parts  immediately  around  the  apertures.  Thus  the  main  body  of  the  Sponge  becomes 
projected  into  numerous  smaller  conical  or  head-shaped  masses  like  the  young  of  variety  rotunda, 
and  crested  masses  like  those  of  variety  ditciformix.  At  an  advanced  age  the  fiber  becomes  very 
brittle  and  unfit  for  domestic,  purposes." 

This  Mihspccics  generally  occurs  abundantly  upon  hard  bottom.  While  living  its  color  is 
black;  the  largest  specimen  seen  by  Dr.  Edward  Palmer,  who  collected  many  specimen-  for 
Profes-ior  Hyatt,  measured  about  eight  inches  in  height  by  about  twenty  inches  in  circumference. 
It  lives  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Florida  (Key  West),  and  among  the  Bahama  Islands  (Nassau), 
upon  hard  bottoms  or  reefs,  in  about  six  feet  of  water.  Ten  varieties  are  enumerated,  all  of 
which  inhabit  American  tropical  SIMS.  They  are  as  follows:  pcrttixa,  iiiollix.  praca,  disfiftn-mi*, 
rafiniilii.  I'liirtn.  i;>rl'>x(t\u-iii!x.  </»/</<./.  f.nitirii,  and  xoliilii. 

The  Glove  Sponge  ranks  as  the  poorest  of  .ill  the  Florida  commercial  grades,  and  >et  belonging 
to  the  same  species,  under  the  name  subspecies  mediterranea,  are  the  Levant  Toilet  Sponges,  the 
finest  of  all  Sponges,  and  the  fine-textured  Turkey  Cup  Sponges.  The  different  grades  of  the 


848  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

subspecies  metliterranea,  some  of  which  are  of  an  inferior  quality,  occur  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Adriatic,  on  the  coast  of  Greece  to  Asia  Minor,  and  thence  to  Tripoli  and  Tunis. 

THE  GRASS  SPONGE — SPONGIA  GRAMINEA,  Hyatt. 

"  This  is  one  of  the  Grass  Sponges  of  commerce,  and  is  perhaps  one  of  the  least  variable  of 
all  the  species.  .  .  .  The  general  structure  is  coarser  than  in  tubulifera,  and  the  interior  is 
exceedingly  open,  owing  to  the  large  size  and  central  situation  of  the  efferent  canals.  The  form 
is  that  of  a  truncated  cone,  fluted  by  deep  furrows  on  the  sides,  and  either  infundibuliform  or  flat 
on  the  truncated  surface.  The  large  excurrent  orifices  are  all  upon  this  surface,  or  in  the  depres- 
sion which  takes  its  place.  The  smaller  apertures  are  situated  on  the  sides,  invariably  in  the 
depressions  between  the  ridges.  The  persistency  of  the  former  and  of  the  latter  ridges,  and  the 
situation  of  the  different  kinds  of  orifices,  are  by  far  the  most  characteristic  features  of  this  species. 
Notwithstanding  these  facts,  and  though  I  am  obliged  to  describe  this  and  some  other  forms  as 
distinct  species,  I  have  great  doubts  of  the  truth  of  the  assumption.  It  rests  upon  the  evidence 
of  many  specimens,  but  they  are  all  from  one  locality." 

This  species  occurs  at  Key  West,  Florida,  where  it  grows  abundantly  on  the  coral  reefs,  either 
on  smooth  bottoms  or  attached  to  corals  or  other  Sponges,  in  three  feet  of  water  and  deeper. 
When  living  its  color.is  black. 

THE  SIIEEPSWOOL  SPONGE — SPONGIA  EQUINA,  Schm.,  subspecies  GOSSYPINA. 

"  The  typical  variety  of  this  species,  usually  called  the  Sheepswool  Sponge,  varies  greatly  in 
form.  All  of  these  forms,  however,  are  characterized  by  a  peculiar  surface.  The  skeleton  rises 
into  large  tufts  over  the  entire  surface,  the  larger  oscula  occupying  the  depressions  between. 
Sometimes  these  are  very  numerous,  the  whole  interior  being  very  cavernous,  and  sometimes  the 
structure  is  much  denser,  with  fewer  large  openings  and  many  small  ones  scattered  between  the 
tufts.  Occasionally  the  depressions  are  filled  up  on  parts  of  the  Spouge,  and  a  surface  is  presented 
having  no  large  tufts,  but  only  the  small  secondary  bundles  of  fibers,  which  are  especially  charac 
teristic  of  this  variety.  The  result  of  this  structure  is  to  leave  great  hollows  or  rather  a  net- work 
of  deep  tunnels  under  the  derm,  which  are  apparent  only  after  the  drying  of  the  specimens,  when 
they  become  exposed  by  the  universal  contraction  and  cracking  of  the  skin.  The  color  when 
living  is  said  by  Dr.  Palmer  to  be  a  shining  black." 

The  habitat  of  this  species  is  Southern  Florida  and  the  Bahama  Islands,  where  it  grows  in 
from  three  to  sixteen  feet  of  water  and  deeper.  The  largest  specimen  examined  measured  about 
nine  inches  high  by  thirty  inches  broad.  The  following  five  varieties  are  recognized  by  Professor 
llyatt:  dendritica,  poroiia,  alba,  noLtaria,  and  hirsuta. 

This  is  by  far  the  finest  of  the  American  commercial  Sponges,  ranking  much  higher  than  any 
of  the  other  grades.  It  is  also  the  one  most  eagerly  sought  for,  the  supply  being  quite  unequal  to 
the  demand.  It  takes  the  place  of  the  finer  Mediterranean  grades  for  most  purposes,  and,  though 
not  so  fine  in  texture,  is  more  durable  than  the  Turkish  Sponges.  In  the  same  species  are  placed 
Rome  of  the  best-known  of  the  eastern  grades,  the  so-called  Horse  Sponge,  Venetian  Bath  Sponge, 
and  Glierbia  Sponge,  which  occur  in  numerous  placet-  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Tin;  VELVET  SPONGE— SPONGIA  EQUINA,  Schm.,  subspecies  MEANDRINIFORMIS. 

"This,  the  well-known  Velvet  Sponge  of  commerce,  .  .  .  differs  from  the  preceding  in 
it*  extreme  forms  by  the  absence  of  the  pointed  bundles  or  tufts,  and  the  fibers  are  also  perhaps 
slightly  finer.  The  absence  of  the  pointed  tufts  gives  a  smoother  surface,  since,  as  in  the  preceding 
variety,  tue«e  are  mainly  composed  of  coarse  primary  fibers  loaded  with  foreign  matter,  whereas 


TIII:  <;I:ASS  AND  YF.U.ONY  SPONC.KS. 

the  coiiiu-ctin^  or  secondary  libers  are  composed  of  pure  keratose.  The  surface  in  also  ic..  ai kable 
for  tin-  protruding,  flattened  cushions  of  fiber,  which  slightly  resemble  the  convoluted  rid  gen 
of  a  mniHilriiHi.  Sometimes  these  cushions  are  transformed  into  long,  solid  brushes  or  peucils  of 

liber-." 

The  localities  from  which  this  subspecies  has  been  recorded  are  as  follows:  Biacayiiu  Buy  and 
Key  West,  Florida;  Nassau,  Bahamas;  Havana,  Cuba;  Mauritius  Islands;  and  the  island  of 
Fernando  de  Norouha,  off  the  coast  of  Brazil.  But  one  variety  of  this  subspecies  has  been  recog- 
nized ;  it  is  also  in  its  typical  form  known  commercially  as  the  Velvet  Sponge.  Professor  Hyatt 
writes  of  it  as  follows:  "The  forms  of  the  specimens  in  our  collection  are  more  spreading  than  is 
usual  in  that  variety  (meandriniformis),  and  the  texture  is  quite  as  soft,  though  deuser/perhaps, 
when  the  skeleton  is  dry.  The  projecting  cushions  of  fiber  are  similar  in  form  to  those  of  variety 
meandriniformix,  but  are  joined  together  in  larger  masses  by  a  tissue  of  fine  superficial  threads ;  also 
are  often  less  dense  and  simply  bridge  the  intermediate  channels.  This  and  the  tortuous  and 
rather  shallow  character  of  the  channels  give  the  surface  a  smoother  aspect  than  is  common  in  the 
skeleton  of  meandriniformis.  The  oscules  are  very  large  and  have  a  peculiar  ragged  aspect  in  dried 
specimens.  They  look  as  if  some  one  had  mudo  them  by  repeatedly  running  a  knife  into  the  animal 
while  it  was  drying,  and  then  omitted  to  clean  out  the  interior  thoroughly,  leaving  sharp  pinnacles 
of  dried  sponge  cuttings  projecting  inward,  sometimes  so  as  to  fill  the  center,  but  oftener  sticking 
around  the  center  of  the  aperture,  and  more  or  less  completely  joined  to  the  wall  of  the  canal, 
This  characteristic  ragged  look  is  sometimes  also  to  be  seen  in  the  oscules  of  subspecies  gostypina. 
but  never  so  decidedly."  This  variety  is  found  at  Key  West,  Florida,  and  Nassau,  Bahamas. 

This  is  a  fair  grade  of  Sponge,  rather  rare,  and  not  much  in  demand ;  in  fact,  the  dealers 
often  omit  it  in  their  enumeration  of  the  American  commercial  Sponges.  It  is  considered  of  little 
value  by  the  trade. 

THE  GRASS  SPONGE — SPONGIA  EQUINA,  Schm.,  subspecies  CEREBRIFORMIS. 

''The  aspect  of  this  species,  commonly  known  as  one  of  the  'Grass  Sponges,'  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  Spongia  agaricina,  subspecies  corlosia,  variety  typica.  The  difference  consists  principally 
iu  the  aspect  of  the  surface.  This  is  broken  up  by  parallel  longitudinal  ridges  of  irregular  length 
on  the  sides,  each  ornamented  with  one  or  two  lines  of  tufts.  These  ridges  extend  onto  the  upper 
surface,  giving  them  a  markedly  radiatory  arrangement.  The  larger  orifices  are  situated  in  rows 
in  the  channels  between  the  ridges."  Six  varieties  are  enumerated,  as  follows:  typica,  described 
above;  plana,  inhabiting  Florida  and  Kingsmill's  Islands;  divisa,  found  upon  hard,  irregular  bottom 
or  corals,  in  about  two  feet  of  water  at  low  tide,  at  Key  West  and  Biscayue  Bay,  Florida,  and  at 
Stone's  Inlet,  South  Carolina;  mexicana,  from  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico;  caliciformis,  from  Nassau, 
Bahamas;  and  obscura,  from  Nassau  and  the  Bermudas.  These  several  varieties  differ  more  or 
less  markedly  from  the  typical  specimens,  some  of  them  approaching  other  species  iu  shape  and 
general  appearance.  This  grade  is  inferior  in  quality. 

THE  YELLOW  SPONGE — SPONGIA  AGAEICINA,  Pall.,  subspecies  COBLOSIA  AND  CUBA. 

"The  subspecies  corlosia  resembles  very  closely  iu  external  appearance  the  Spongia  dura,  or 
'Hard  Head,'  but  an  examination  of  a  full  series  of  forms  showed  that  very  considerable  differ- 
ences exist  in  the  texture,  though  superficially  there  is  little  or  no  distinction  in  the  aspect  of  the 
surface.  Dealers  can  identify  these  varieties  instantly  by  the  color,  which  is  usually  lighter  than 
that  of  the  'Hard  Head,'  and  by  the  touch,  the  'Yellow  Sponge'  yielding  much  more  readily  and 
feeling  less  harsh  under  the  fingers.  These  characters,  however,  only  apply  to  the  normal  head- 
like  forms  and  some  of  the  varieties;  many  forms  cannot  be  placed  in  either  one  or  the  other  of 
54  F 


850  NATUKAL  HISTORY  OF  AQUATIC  ANIMALS. 

the  two  groups  with  any  certainty."  This  subspecies  occurs  at  the  Bahama  Islands  and  Florida. 
Three  varieties  are  classed  with  it  by  Professor  Hyatt,  yosaypiniformis,  from  Nassau ;  fnnca-  and 
elongate,  from  Biscayue  Bay  and  Key  West,  Florida  ;  the  range  in  depth  is  from  two  i'eet  of  water 
at  low  tide  to  thirty  feet  or  more. 

This  constitutes  the  second  grade  of  American  Sponges,  and  is  very  abundant.  Although 
selling  at  a  much  lower  price  than  the  Sheepswool  it  forms  an  important  article  of  commerce. 
The  Mediterranean  grade  corresponding  with  it  is  the  so-called  Zitnocca  Sponge. 

239.  INJURIOUS  SPONGES. 
THE  BOEING  SPONGE — CLIONA  SULPHUREA,  Verrill. 

This  is  a  common  species  of  siliceous  Sponge,  which  ranges  along  our  Atlantic  coast,  from 
Cape  Cod  to  South  Carolina,  in  from  one  .to  fifteen  fathoms  of  water.  It  begins  to  grow  on 
mussel,  clam,  or  oyster  shells,  mostly  on  dead,  but  also  on  living  specimens,  into  which,  when 
still  very  young,  it  excavates  numerous  burrows.  "  As  it  grows,  it  penetrates  the  shell  in  every 
direction,  forming  irregular  holes  and  galleries,  which  continue  to  grow  as  more  and  more  of  the 
substance  of  the  shell  is  absorbed,  until  the  shells  are  reduced  to  a  completely  honeycombed, 
brittle  mass,  or  a  mere  skeleton.  Finally  the  Sponge  begins  to  protrude  from  the  surface,  and 
grows  up  into  mammiliform  masses,  or  small  rounded  crusts,  which  continue  to  grow  and  spread 
in  every  direction,  until  finally  they  form  masses  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter.  .  .  .  Owing 
to  the  remarkable  boring  habits  of  this  and  other  allied  Sponges,  they  are  very  important  in  the 
economy  of  the  sea,  for  they  are  the  principal  agents  in  the  disintegration  and  decay  of  the  shells 
that  accumulate  over  the  bottoms,  thus  performing  the  same  function  in  the  sea  that  fungi  and 
insects  perform  on  the  land." ' 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  offices  of  this  Sponge  are  mainly  for  good,  as  stated  above; 
but  they  often  attack  living  shells,  burrowing  into  them  as  far  as  the  inner  layer,  and  greatly 
irritating  the  animal,  which  will  sometimes  deposit  one  or  more  new  coatings  of  shell  structure,  so 
as  to  cover  up  the  little  pores  about  to  open  into  the  inside.  They  probably  also  often  cause  the 
destruction  of  oysters.  These  burrows  sometimes  appear  on  the  inside  as  little  prominences, 
scattered  over  the  surface.  Masses  of  this  Sponge,  when  full  grown,  measure  a  foot  or  more  in 
length,  and  contain  stones  as  large  as  one's  fist,  as  well  as  a  large  quantity  of  sand.  "  This 
species  is  of  a  bright  sulphur  yellow  color,  and  grows  into  hemispherical  or  irregular  massive 
forms  of  firm  texture,  the  surface  being  covered  with  scattered,  low,  wart-like,  soft  prominences, 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  contract  when  the  Sponge  is  dried,  leaving  shallow 
pits." 

Cliona  svlphurea  has  the  power  of  burrowing  into  submerged  limestone  as  well  as  shells.  A 
case  of  this  sort  was  brought  to  notice  in  1878,  when  a  wrecked  cargo  of  marble  was  discovered 
off  Long  Island,  having  lain  there  for  several  years.  The  pieces  of  marble  taken  up  were 
completely  riddled  by  this  Sponge  to  a  slight  depth. 


'Vineyard  Sound  Report,  p.  421,  1871-'72. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

AaliimttiT  .....................................        317 

Alialoncs  ......................................         700 

AUI'ciir,  Dr.  C.  C.,  on  common  Seals  .............     55.66 

habits  of  the  Cray-fishes..  .814,816 
spawning  and  footling  hab- 
its of  White  Perch  .......  432,4X1 

Alx-oiiii  aurora  .................................         278 

iiiininiii  ................................  276-278 

AlHTili-rn  lish  ..................................        200 

Ara  nt  hard  i  UN  |  it  HI  ii  nis  ............  .  .............         405 


Aranthiirns  i-ii-riili-ii- 
nigricans 
Arliigau 

Ai-liirus  linratiiN 

A  i  i|»-i]M  T  liiwirostris 


oxyrhynchns 

sturio 

trail  MI  mi  It  a  mi- 


279 
27i) 
401 
.  ......          177 

.  ............         659 

6fi2 
659 
659 

662 

659 

Acrocliilus  alutucens  ...........................  618 

Actinopbrys  sol  ................................  734 

A.  iin...  Christopher,  on  the  Pegebney  ...........  120 

products  of  the  Pece- 

Buey  ..............  128 

Ailanis,  I'rof.  A.  !>.,  on  the  habits  of  the  Togne  ..  493 

Ailmete  Coutbouyi  .............................  693 

Aeeche  .........................................  506 

African  Pompauo  ...............................  327 

distribution  of  .................  329 

Agaphcltis  gibhomis  ...  .........................  31 

Agariciaaguricites  .............................  841 

Agasxiz  on  breeding  of  Green  Tnrtles  ............  151 

breeding  seasons  and  habits  of  Snap- 

ping Turtles  .......................  153 

range  of  Soft-shell  Turtles  ...........  152 

rate  of  growth  of  Loggerhead  Turtle.  148 

Aglektok  .......................................  62 

Agouidie  .......................................  257 

AgonuH  family  .................................  257 

Aguglia  iiupcriale  ..............................  358 

Aguja.  .........................................  337 

Blauca  ...................................  337 

di  Palada  ................................  337 

Prieta  ...................................  337 

Voladora  .................................  337 

deCasta  .................................  337 

Agulha  ........................................  337 

Agulhao  .......................................  '£tJ 

Alaska  Pollack  .................................  232 

Smelt..  544 


r.... 

Albicore 3^11 

Albula  vnlpOH r,|-j 

A!  I  in  In  l.i- (ji;{ 

Aleby-trout 236 

Alepidosaiirido! r>47 

AlepidoHnuniH  borealis 547 

ferox 548 

A4epocephulun  Agassizii 54H 

Bairdii 548 

family 548 

Alewife 569,576,580 

abundance  of 588,583 

food  of 686 

former  abundance  of 5K3,C84 

geographical  dUtrilmtion  of 584,585 

history  and  nomenclature  of. 579-6H2 

migrationa  and  movements  of 586 

occurrence  of,  iti  New  England 580,581 

reproduction  of 596 

size  of 587 

ii-i-s  of. 587 

Bay 509 

Branch 58H 

Inland 594 

Alfloue 277 

Allen  on  Fur  Seal  pups ;i:i 

reproduction  of  Fur  Seal 106 

SealM  and  Walruses 33 

swinuniug  of  Fur  Seal Ity 

Alligator 141 

abundance  of 142 

economical  value  of 14(5 

the  fishery  of 14(i 

food  and  manner  of  obtaining  it 142 

geographical  distribution  of 141 

hibernation  of 145 

mode  of  capture  of 146 

mode  of  life  of 144 

origin  of  name  of 141 

pugnacity  of 143 

size  of 142 

voice  of 145 

AlligatorGar 663 

Snapper l."3 

Tnrtle 153 

Allman,  Professor,  on  habits  of  the  Boring  Ain- 

phipod 825, 8»5 

Alopias  vnlpes 675 

Alosa  cyanonoton 579 

tyrannus 579 

Alutera  8choepni 171 

Aiii:iMrn|i-i-  i-landira 693 


852 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Ainbcr-fish 331 

fishes  and  Leather-jackets 331, 33d 

Auibloplites  rnpestris 404 

American  Leech 834 

Lobster 781 

Soles 175 

Amia  calva 658 

Amiidse 658 

AmiuTDS 626 

nebulosus 627 

Ammodytes  lanceolatns 244 

tobianns 248 

Ampelisca,  sp.,  found  in  stomach  of  Sea-robin 256 

Amphibians  159-162 

Amphibious  Carnivora 33 

Amphioxus 681 

Amphipod,  Boring 825,826 

Ampin  poils 824-826 

Amphisphyra  debilis 694 

hiemalis 694 

Amphistichus  argentens 278 

Ainyda 152 

mutica 152 

Anachis  596 

Anarrhicas  lepturug 249 

lupus 248,249 

minor 249 

Anarrhichadidffi 248 

Anarrichthys  ocellatus 250 

Anchovaa 544 

Anchovies 611, 612 

Angel-fish  171 

Black 280 

family 280 

White 280 

Yellow 280 

Angelo 674 

Angler,  Marbled 173 

Anglers 169 

Anglia 171 

Angnilla  bostoniensis 630 

marmoruta 630 

megalostoma 630 

mowa 630 

texana 630 

vulgaris 629 

Angulus  tener 703 

Annelida 831-633 

Anodonta 703 

Anonyz,  sp.,  found  in  stomach  of  Sea- robin 256 

Anoplopoma  fimbria 243, 268 

Anspach  on  habits  of  the  Capelin 545 

Aolknaaa 247 

Apeltes  quadraciu 457 

Aphoristia  atricauda 175 

Apodichthys  flavidns 251 

fuel  iruin 251 

violaceus 251 

Aporrhais  occidental!* 693 

Aproplarchus  atropurpnrens 251 

Arabella  opalina 833 

A i rli it.  iitlii>  Hai-veyi 687 

priuceps 687 

Arihojilit.-H  interruptus 276,405 


Page. 

Arctic  Sea-cow 128 

extinction  of,  iu  historical  times-  .128-129 

Arcto'cephalus 37 

californiauus 52,53 

monteriensia 52,53 

ursinus 52 

Arenicola  mnrina 833 

Argina  pexata 703 

Aromochelys  odorata 154 

Artedi  on  different  forms  of  Ostracion 171 

Artedius  fenestralis 259 

lateralis 259 

megacephalus 259 

notospilotus 259 

pugettensis 259 

seriatns 259 

Ascelichthys  rhodorus 259 

Ashby ,  Captain,  on  distribution  of  Halibut 193 

food  of  Halibut 195 

Halibut  Spawn 196 

migrations  of  Halibut 194 

spawning  of  Mackerel 295 

Aspidonectes  asper 152 

Emoryi 152 

uucbalis 152 

spinifer 152 

Aspidophoroides  iueriuis 258 

monopterygius 257,258 

Astacus 812 

leptodactylus 812 

nigresceus 813 

nobilis 812 

torrentium 812 

Astarte  quadrans 703 

Asterias  Forbesii 840,841 

vulgaris 840,841 

Astyris 698 

lunata 693 

rosacea 693 

Atberesthes  stouiias 188 

Atherinidie 456 

Atherinops  afflnis 457 

californiensis 457 

AtkaMackerel 268 

Atlantic  Porpoise  14 

Tom  Cod 223 

Attarak 62 

Atteitsiak  62 

Attereoak 62 

Atwood,  Captain,  on  abundance  of  Haddock 225 

abundance  of  thePlaice. 178, 180, 181 
capture  of  White  Whales  in 

Massachusetts 18,19 

distribution  of  the  Laut  ..  .245, 246 

distribution  of  the  Scuppaug  387 

food  of  Cod 213 

food  of  Mackerel 290 

geographical  distribution  of 

Mackerel 281 

the  habits  of  the  Hake  235 

habitsof  theHorned  Dogfish. 672, 673 
habits  of  Horse-Mackerel  . .  321, 322 

habits  of  the  Lant 245 

habit*  of  Pollock..  22!) 


INIH  A. 


858 


Atwood,  Captain,  on  the  Man-<-at<T  Shark  670 

movement*  of  Pollock Bt 

the  Nurse  Shark 074 

rate  of  growth  and  size  of 

Mackerel 298 

reproduction  of  Pollock 231 

scarcity  of  the  Bone  Shark.        OGH 

the  Scrag  Whale 30 

the  sire  of  Codfish 220 

size  of  the  Halibut 193 

spawning  of  Mackerel 296,297 

thoTorpedo 666 

the  torpidity  of  the  Tautog 

and  the  Scup 978 

transplanting   young    Lob- 
sters         804 

useful    products   of   Sperm 

Whale 11 

the  uses  of  the  Lant 240 

Anrelia  flavidula 842 

Auricula  vestita  Emersonit 693 

AutennaridiiD 173 

Auxis  Thazard 305 

Azia 250 

Bncalaos 200 

Bacchi 200 

Bachelor 407 

Baddoch 228 

Baggit 468 

Uagro 379 

Bnird,  Professor,  on  abundance  of  Cod 205 

abundance  and  qualities  of 

Spanish  Mackerel 312, 313 

the  Anchovy 611,612 

capture  and  uses  of  Herring. 56T>,  566 

the  Common  Pompano 327 

culture  of  Lake  Trout 492 

decrease  of  Cod-fisheries  on 

New  England  Coast 221-223 

flesh  of  Little  Tunny,  when 

cooked 322 

food  of  Mackerel 291 

the  food  and  voracity  of  Blue- 
fish 

the  habits  of  the  Eel 631  632 

the  habits  of  the  King-fish .  .375, 376 
history  and  habits  of  the  La- 
fayette          371 

the  history  and  habits  of  the 

Scuppang 388-393 

the  Horse-Mackerel 320 

manner  of  capturing  Plaice.        181 

migrations  of  Mackerel 283 

movements        of        Herring 

Schools 553-655 

movements  of  Mackerel 287 

movements  aud  migrations  of 

Blnefish 434,435 

periodicity  of  abundance  of 
abundance  of  Herring  in 

Northern  Europe 5f>7 

periodicity  of  Blnefish 435-437 

Plaice  fishing  and  distribu- 
tion .  178 


Baird,  Professor,  on 


i-  p 
Sword  (kh  ....301,363 

reproduction  of  tho  Alewlfe.        680 
reproduction  of  IlliiKinh  ____  440,441 

•izeof  BlncflBh  .............  414,443 

spawning  habits  of  Herring.  5O«,  663 
spawning  season  of  Mackerel.  297 
theusrsof  theAlewifo  ......  r87,5P8 


Bairdiellachrysnnt 

Bait-bug 

stealera  

worms 

Bnkkeljaune 

Balicna  boops 

gibbosa  

nodosa 

Novio  Angllae. ... 

vera 

Balumoptera  Davidsonii . 
jubartes  ... 

velifera 

Baltenopterido) 

Balahoo 

Balanus  balanoide* 

crematns 

ebnrnens  

tlntinnabnlnm .. 

Baleine  jnbarte 

Batistes  capriscns 

Balistide 

Ball-fish 

Banded  Drum 


376 

779 

273 

831 

200 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

30 

89 

30 

29 

461 


829 

829 

29 

172 

171 

170 

XT 

Grouper 418 

Rudder  fish 331 

Bank  Cod 201 

Lick  Bam 406 

Banner  Pompano 327 

Pompano,  distribution  of 329 

Barb 377 

Barl>ot  on  mode  of  capture  of  South  American 

Manatee 127 

products  of  South  American  Manatee.  127 

Bard 247 

Bar-fish 406 

Barlow,  Bev.  William,  on  Mola,  Salv.  or  Snnfioh 

and  glne  made  from  it 169 

Barnacle  Eater 171 

Rock 828 

Barnacles <28,829 

Barnacles,  Goose 828 

Barn-door  Skate 666 

Barracuda - 448 

Barraconta 448 

Barraconta  family 448 

Barrel-fish  334 

Iturtraiii  on  breeding  habits  of  Alligators 145, 146 

pugnacity  of  Alligators 143, 144 

size  of  the  Alligator 142 

the  voice  of  Alligators 145 

Bashaw 627 

Basking  Shark ••>'•' 

Baas,  name  for  Red-fish 

Bank  Lick 408 

Black 81(6 

Black 401 


854 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Bass,  Brassy 424 

Calico 406 

Channel,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

family 401 

Grass 40C 

Moss 401 

Mud 405 

Oswego 401 

Otsego 507 

Bed,  name  for  Ked-fish 372 

Reef,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

Rock 404 

Rock 413 

School,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

Sea 378 

Sea 407 

Sea,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

Silver,  namr  for  Moon-eye 612 

Spotted,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

Strawberry 406 

Striped 424,425 

StripedLake 424 

White 428 

White  Sea 378 

Yellow 4.31 

Bastard  Cod 268 

Halibut 182 

Snapper 397 

Trout,  name  for  Silver  Squeteague 367 

Turtle 147 

Bat.Sea 255 

Bath  Sponge 845 

Uathymoater  signatns 361 

Batrachus  pardus 251 

tan 251 

Bavarian  char 500 

Bay  Alewife 5(i9 

Porpoise 14 

Porpoise,  of  California,  and  Marsuin,  of  Eu- 
rope, similarity  between 14 

Seal 62-65 

Shark 675 

Bdellostoma  Dombeyi  182 

Beach  Clam 708 

Fleas 824 

Beale  on  distribution  of  Sperm  Whale 7 

habits  of  Sperm  Whale 9 

size  of  Sperm  Whale 9 

Bean,  T.  II.,  on  cliiroid  fishes 268 

distribution  of  the  Halibut 190 

distribution  of  Starry  Flounder . .  184 

the  Rough  Liraanda 184 

the  Burbot 235 

occurrence  of  Branch  Alewife  in 

certain  lakes  of  New  York 588-594 

Bear,  Sea 49 

Tront 497 

Bearded  Seal 63 

Beardless  Drum 372 

Beaver 11 

Became  de  Her 338 

Becker 39:5 

Bedlainers (52 

Bedlimem 02 


Bola  dcenssata 693 

harpularia 693 

pyramidal  is 69:! 

turricula 69:! 

Belknap  on  the  Grampus It 

Bellamrrs 6-2 

Bellows-fish 17:! 

family 170 

geographical  distribution  of 170 

numbers  of 170 

Bell's  Tortoise 157 

BclouidiB ...        458 

Beluga 18 

Bendire  on  t he  Red-fish 478, 479 

Benecke,  Dr.  B.,  on  breeding  habits  of  the  brook 

Lamprey 677, 678 

habits  of  river  Lamprey 677 

migrations  of  Eels 633, 6:M 

movements  of  young  Eels. . .        650 

reproduction  of  the  Eel 634-038 

reproductive  habits  of  Eels . .  646, 647 
the  spawning  of  Lump-fish..        254 

viviparous  nature  of  Eels 645 

breeding  habits  of  the  Pike..        463 

Bergylt 260-273 

Bering,  Capt.  Vitus,  death  of 129 

Bermuda  Chub 394 

Berried  Lobster 783 

Berycidie  361 

Beryx  family 361 

Beshow( Alaska  Pollock) 233 

(Black  Candle-fish) 268 

Bezaan  fisch 338 

Beznga 370 

Bicnda 338 

Bieltiya  ryba 477 

Bii-t  on  habits  of  American  Manatee 120 

products  of  South  American  Manatee 127 

Big-eyed  Herring 580-611 

Mackerel 303 

Mullet 449 

Biggy-head  259 

Big-month 405 

BlackBass 401 

Bill-fish 336,337 

name  for  Gar-pike 6(52 

name  for  Silver  Gar-fish 458 

Billard 228 

Billet 228 

Biococuosis 734 

Bishop  Ray 665 

Bitter  Head 406 

Kit  t  him  nigrum 693 

Bitumen 11 

Bivalves 703-710 

Black  Angel-fish .' 280 

Bass 401 

distribution  of 401,402 

habits  and  food  of 402 

name  for  Black  Rock-fish 266 

names  of 401 

spawning  of 402,403 

tenacity  of  life  of 403,404 

transportation  of 404 


INDKX. 


855 


I!:i~-,  liiu  iniiuth... 

Slliull-llllllltll 

Black-lM-llie.s 

Black    liitel* ... 

(  'amllc-lish    

I'.hlck-Coal.SCV 

r.l.-ick-dotteil  l-'loiiiider..  . 
Blai  k  liriiiu 

Black-till 

I1.!:.. •k-tini.rd  shark 

Bla.k-lish    . 


401 

401 

5»i 

201 

208 

228 

1^ 

367 

Ml 

672 

968,980 

Clack  liMui|irr  411 

lirmit 398, 399 

Harry 407 

Horse 615 

Jack 228 

Lolmter 783 

I  .miRe 487 

Mullet 375 

IVnl, 444 

Perch,  i NII i !••  for  Black  Surf-fish 278 

ISlack-l'oil.M-k 228 

Itlark  Ki>< -k-iish 266 

I.'... -k-lish  of  Alaska 266 

Black  Rnck-tish,  S|M.I t ,-•! 266 

Rouradnr 379 

Salmon 487 

Snapner 307 

Snappers,  name  for  Cod 201 

Spotted  Trout 475 

Snrf-liMi 278 

tailed  Crab,  mime  for  Shrimp 818 

Triple-tail 545 

Warmouth 405 

Whale 11-25 

Will 407 

Blackfish 17 

capture  of 13 

distribution  of 11 

fowl  of 12 

movements  of 12 

name  for  Spa  Bass 407 

reproduction  of. 12 

schools,  stranding  of 12 

size  of 12 

thin?  when  most  abundant. .'. 12 

used  as  food 13 

useful  products  of 13 

value  of 13 

Alaska 466,467 

Blueklislics 11 

Mlai-k  lord,  on  prices  of  Bull-frogs 161 

Blacksmith  276 

Blainville,  on  Sperm  Whale  in  Brittany 9 

Blake,  .1.  II..  Notes  on  Sperm  Whale  Porpoise  ...  18 

Blauchera,  de  la,  on  Sword-fish  in  Bay  of  Biscay.  342 

Blan.iuilln 361 

Biasing,  on  ilistrilnitir.ii  nt'Kinged  Seal 65 

on  geographical  distribution  of  Hooded 

Seal 70 

Bleking  Herring 550 

Blenniida' 250 

Bli-nny  family 250 

Blcjiharis  run  it  us 320 


BlejMUl  eirrli.«un 259 

Blew-flsh 435 

Bl«-w  Hound-fish 3»- 

Uluiks £M 

Blobs 

B I. ..  k i n 228 

Blow-fish II- 

Bluwcr 170 

Blowing  Whnle 11 

Bl back 5H2 

Salmon 477 

Blue  Bream 406 

Cat-fish 

Cat-flub  (seeCat-flsh) 249 

Chiinwra 6l!2 

Cod 868 

Crab 77.r. 

Crab,  distribution  of 775 

Crab,  external  character  of 775,  TTii 

Crab,  habits,  uses,  dec 776-778 

Kin 541 

Herring 579 

Lampflsh 254 

Parrot-fish 274 

Perch 277 

Perch,  name  for  Cunner 273 

Perch,  similar  in  form  to  Red  Perch 260 

Pike,  name  for  Pike  Perch 417 

Shark 669,671,675 

Snappers 4£l 

Sun-fish 406 

Surf-fish 277 

Bliieliu 541 

Bliiefish »:« 

abundance  in  New  Jersey,  li-7H  ami  Ivl  .4:19,440 

distribution  of 433 

enemy  of  Mackerel „.     299 

family 4:« 

food  and  voracity  of 437-440 

Qirella  nigricans 394 

movements  and  migrations  of    434,435 

Mn  in  ii  iic  I  !••« 449 

name  for  Chogset  273 

name  for  Sea  Bass 407 

name  for  Squeteagne 363 

names  of 433 

periodicity  of 435-137 

reproduction 440,441 

size  of 441,442 

uses  of 443,444 

film-sides '•- 

Blunt-nosed  Shiner 322 

Boar-nsh 335 

Boccac 966 

Boccaccio    266,267 

Boccone,  S.  Panlo,  on  the  SaugnUnga,  parasite  of 

Sword-fish 354,356 

Bodach  65 

I  !i  ul  ii-rnii 267 

Boeck  Axel,  on  distribution  and  habits  of  Euro- 
pean Lobster  807-810 

ou  process  of  shedding  of  European 

Lobster 793,794 

Bohutilaii  Herring 550 


856 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Boldner,  Leonhart,  on  the  development  of  the  Lam- 
prey    678 

Bolina  alata 842 

Bone  fish,  name  for  Dog-fish 673 

name  for  Lady-fish 612 

name  for  Surgeon-fish 279 

Bone  Shark 667-669 

Bonito 

abundance  of 317 

Cuban  name  for  Medregal 331 

distribution  of 317 

as  a  food-fish 318,319 

name  for  the  Cobia 444 

Pacific 319 

plain 306 

striped 316 

Bonuet-headed  Shark 671 

Bonnet- worm,  food  of  Black  Bass 402 

Bony  fish 569 

Boohoo 337 

Boregat 267 

Boregata 267 

Boring  Amphipod 825,826 

limnoria 826,827 

sponge 850 

Bothragonns  Swani 258 

Bottle  fish 170 

Bottle-head  Whale 11 

Bottle-nose  Whale 14 

Boundary  Herring 550 

Bowfin 658 

Bowhead  and  Right  Whales,  confusion  between  .  20 

Bowhead  Whale 20 

economic  importance  of 21 

feeding  habits  of 23 

foodof 23 

movements  of 21 

reproduction  of 21 

eizeof 21 

Box-fish 170 

Box  Turtle,  Carolina 158 

Box  Turtles 158 

Brachyiatins  frenatns 278 

rosacens 278 

Brail 178 

Brain  Corals 841 

Braize 393 

Brama  chilensis 335 

BramaRaii 335 

Bramidte 335 

Branch  Alewife 588 

capture  of 593 

economic  value  of 593 

enemies  and  fatalities  of 592, 593 

movements  of 591,592 

occurrence   in   certain   lakes    of 

New  York 588-594 

origin  of,  in   Lake  Ontario   and 

New  York  Lakes 590,591 

Branch  Alewife,  scarcity  of  in  St.  Lawrence  River.  589 

Branch  Herring 580 

Branchiostomida 681 

B  ranch  iostoma  lanceolatom 681 

Branded  Dram 372 


Page. 
Brandt  on  abundance  of  South  American  Manatee.         123 

the  Arctic  Sea-cow 134 

breeding  habits  of  Manatees 118 

Brassy  Bass 424 

Bream 393 

Bluo 406 

Copper-nosed 406 

Salt-water 393 

Breeding  Harps 62 

Brevoort,  J.  Carson,  on  names  of  Codfish 200 

uses  of  the  Gurnard 256, 257 

Brovoortia  patrouus 570,575 

pectinata  570 

tyrannus 569 

tyrannus  aureus 570 

Bricke 676 

Briggs  on  intestines  of  embryonic  White-fish 516 

Brim 406 

Brit 550 

found  in  the  same  locality  as  the  Laut 246 

Brochet 462 

Brook-fish 466 

Pickerels 464 

Sucker 614,615 

Trout 475 

Brooks,  W.  K.,  on  anatomy  of  the  Oyster.711, 712, 713, 714 

reproduction  of  the  oyster 719, 720,  721 

Brosmius  brosmo 233,236 

Brosmophycis  marginatus 244 

Brotulidro 244 

Brown  Cod 201 

Brown  on  products  of  Ringed  Seals 66 

Brown,  J.  Ross,  on  Northern  Fur  Seals 49 

Brown,  Robert,  on  geographical  distribution  of 

Hooded  Seal 69 

Brown,  Dr.  Robert,  on  similarity  of  feeding  of 

Whales  and  Mackerel 294 

Brown  Rock-fish 264 

Snapper 410 

Buccinnm  ciliatnm 693 

Buccinum  nndatnm 693,694 

Buckland  on  abundance  and  value  of  Gar-fish 459 

Buckland,  Frank,  on  chemical  composition  of  Eu- 
ropean Lobster 811,812 

Buckland,  F.  T. ,  on  gastronomic  value  of  Bull- 
frogs  160,161 

gastronomic  value  of  Cat- 
fish          250 

the  habits  of  the  Lant 244,245 

the  Lump-fish 254 

modeofcapturoofBull-frogs       160 
number  of  eggs  in  English 

Lobster 798 

on  rate  of  growth  and  shed- 
ding of  European  Lobster. 794,795 

Buckler 776 

Buckskin  Trout 488 

Bug,  Salve 827 

Buffalo  Cod 263 

Buffalo-fish 614 

Buffalo-fishes 615 

liuflaloJack 324 

Bull-frogs 159 

breeding  habits  of 159 


S:,T 


Bull-frogs,  cultare  of 

discovery  of 

economic  uses  of 

how  to  get  spawn  of 

take  care  of  spawn  of  . 

modi's  of  capture  of 

range  of 

size  and  mode  of  life  of 

Bull-bead,  name  for  Horned  Pout 


150 
159 
IfiO 
159 
159 
160 
159 
159 
627 

.      Scnlpin 258,250 

Whitiug 377 

BullMackerel 303 

Hull-pout   627 

Bull  Trout 604 

Hunch  Whale 26 

Hunker 569 

Burbot 235,236 

abundance  of 238 

American  and  European,  relation  between       237 

distribution  of 238 

economic  value  of 240 

food  and  feeding  habits  of 239 

information  desired  concerning  the 240 

mode  of  capture  of 239 

name  of 235,236 

popular  names  of 236 

reproduction  of 238 

size  of 237 

Burgall 273 

Bnrmeister  on  range  of  American  Manatee 1 H  • 

Burr-fish 170 

Buttcrfish 333 

Humpbacked 323 

Butterfly-fish 257 

Butterfly  Ray 665 

Cabezon 259 

Cabrilla 413 

Spotted 414 

Cachalot 7-10 

Caing  Whale 11 

Calamary,  Flying 090 

Calnmus  arctifrons 394 

bajonado 394 

raacrops 394 

megacephalns 394 

Milneri 394 

Calci-Spongia? 844 

Calico  Bass 406 

California  Anchovy 612 

Conger  Eel 628 

Grampus 14 

Gray  Whale,  abundance  of 31 

captnreof 32 

distribution  of 31 

food  and  reproduction  of.          32 

habits  of 31 

sizeof 32 

GrunU 400 

Hake 243 

Herring 568,569 

Pompano 334 

Prawn 321 

Salmon 479 


California  Sardine 569 

SeaElephant 7S 

general  history  of 79 

geographical  distribution 

of W 

habits  of 73 

and  Southern  Sea  Ele- 
phant, eomparison  be- 
tween    74 

Sea  Lion 44 

geographical  distribution  of..  44 

habit*  of 4:. 

Shrimp 818 

Smelt 457,544 

Yellow-tail 331 

Cnllineotes  hastatus 775 

larvatos 776 

ornatns 775 

tnmidns 775 

Callista  gigantoa 708 

Callocephalns  vitnlinns 66 

Callorhinua 37,40 

iirsiuus 49,52,63,77 

Cambarns 812 

acntus 814 

afflnis 814,815 

Bartonii 814,815 

Clarkii 814 

Diogenes 815 

obesus 814 

virilia 814 

Campbellite 407 

Cancer  antennarins 771 

boiealis 7flB 

irroratns 766 

found  in  stomach  of  Sea-robin . .  256 

magister 770 

product  us 771 

Candle-fish 268,547 

Canestrini  on  distribution  of  the  Pollock 228 

on  the  Scomber  puenmatophorns :t03 

Cape  May  Goody 370 

Capelin 544 

name  for  Sand  Smelt 466 

Capelinas 644 

Carangidte 322 

Carangoid  fishes  1 322 

Caranx  chrysos 324 

crnmcnophthalmns 324 

fallax 325 

hippos 323 

Richardil 325 

Caraasina  gibelio 620 

Caravina 378 

Carcone 322 

Carcharias  coernleus 671 

glancus 675 

lamella 676 

obacnrns 671 

Carcharodon  Atwoodii  669 

carcharias 669,674,676 

Eondeletii 609 

Carcinas  ma-nas 774 


858 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Cardinm  islandicum 703 

pinnnlatum 703 

Carneo  Spongiffi 844 

Carnivora,  Amphibions 

Carolina  Box  Turtle 158 

Pompano  326 

Carp 618 

growth  and  size  of 624-626 

habits  of 621,622 

races  oif,  their  history  and  habits . . . : 618-621 

reproduction  of 622-624 

Leather 619 

Mirror 619 

Poor  Man's 6-20 

Scale 619 

Sucker 615 

Carpenter,  Dr.  Philip,  on  the  Cuttles 687 

Carpiodes  cyprinus 615 

Carroll  on  geographical  distribution  of  Hooded 

Seal 69 

habits  of  Hooded  Seals 58 

Cassis  madagascariensis 699 

Cat-fisli 248 

Blue 249,626 

Channel,  common 626 

Flannel-mouth 627 

foodof 249 

Gaff-topsail 627 

Great  Lake 627 

Great  Mississippi 626 

Mud 627 

pugnacity  of 249 

Salt-water 628 

Sea 248,627 

Spotted 249 

Stone 627 

Yellow 627 

Cat-fishes 626 

Cat,  Sea 51 

Shark 675 

Cat-thra»her 582 

Catenby  on  the  Sword-fish 339 

(JatoHtomidie 614 

<  ':i  1 1  is  1 1  mi  us  ardens 615 

Commersoni 615 

fecnndiis 615 

longirostris 615 

macrocheilus 615 

nigricaus 615 

occidentalis 615 

tahnthmis 615 

CanlolatiliiH  anomalng 361 

chrysopg 360 

microps 300 

Cavally 323 

the  Scad  and  the  Jurels 322-326 

Cavaaina 331 

Cayman 141 

Caymanes .' 142 

<••  licdirhthys  violacens 250,251 

Ccntrurchulic 401 

CentrarchiiH  nmcroptenu 406 

Cephalopoda 687 

Cerutich tlivH  bignttatns 617 


Page. 

Cero 307,310 

King 307,31(1 

Spotted 307,316 

Cetacea 33 

Cetorhiuns  maximus 667, 674, 675 

Chaenobryttus  antistius 405 

gulosus 405 

ChajtodipteruB  faber 445 

ChiutodontidiB 280 

Channel  Bass,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

Cat,  common 62(i 

of  the  Potomac <>27 

Cats 02(5 

Chapman  on  food  of  Sirenians 118 

size  of  South  American  Manatee  ...  118 

Char 501 

Bavarian EOO 

Chars,  distribution  and  effect  of  temperature  on.  502, 503 

Chasmistes  brevirostris 615 

liorus 615 

luxatus 615 

Chelouia  mydas 150 

virgata 150 

Chelopus 157 

guttatus 158 

insculptus 158 

Mnhlenbergi 158 

Chelura  terebrans 825 

Chelydra 153 

serpentina 153 

Chelydroidoo 153 

Cherna 411 

Chewagh 504 

Chicken  Halibut 178,194 

Tortoise 157 

Chickwit 362 

Chief  Mountain  White-fish 542 

Chiloinycterus  geometricus 170 

Chinititra  affinis 662 

blue 662 

Colliei 662 

family -. 662 

Chimtcridae 662 

Chinnook  Salmon 479 

Chinquapin  Perch 407 

Chiono  succiucta 708 

Chiridte 267 

Chiton 693 

uses  of 701 

Chogset  „ 273 

Chopa  blanca 370 

gpina 393 

Chorruy  Kyba 460 

Choweccha 479 

Christmas  Flounder 183 

Chromis  punctipinnis 276 

Chrysemys  Belli 157 

marmoratus 157 

picta 157 

reticulata 157 

Chub,  name  for  Black  Bass 261) 

Fall-fish 617 

Lafayette 370 

Tautog 209 


i\i>r\. 


«•>'.  I 


Chilli.  lli-nii  iula 


'I 


Kel 236 

Mackerel 303-:t05 

Nigger 618 

l.'is.-i     617 

Salt-water 809 

Sucker 614 

of  Ttali  Lake 616 

Chubby  (l,,by 255 

Cicharni 324 

Cichlii!  family 276 

< 'i^ar-tish . . ....  324 

Cinosti-riioida- .  . ....  ......  ... .... ...  154 

Cirri  pedia 828,829 

541 

Cist  udo 158 

Carolina 158 

ornata 158 

Cithai-i,-htli>-->rdidn» 186,187 

civit-cat 11 

Clam 708 

Beach    708 

Cod 201 

Flat 708 

Hard 708 

Hen 708 

Long 707 

Painted 708 

Round  708 

Sea  708 

Soft 707 

Sorf 708 

Clark,  A.  II.,  on  abundance  of  Frigat«  Mackerel.  30(5 

abundance  of  Halibut 192 

distribution  of  Cod 202 

George,  letter  on  marked  White-fish 508 

on  rate  of  growth  of  White-fish . . .  509 

Clarke,  8.  C.,  on  the  Black  Grouper 411 

breeding  habits  of  the  Drum  . . .  MB 

theCobia  444 

habits  and  spawning  of  Sheepe- 

head  386 

mode  of  life  of  Alligators 145 

names  and  habits  of  Whiting..  377 

(lie  Big-nub 399 

size,  abundance,  and  habits  of 

Silver  Mullet 453 

spawning  of  Red-fish 373, 374 

Cliona  sulphurea 850 

Clnpeu  a  sti\  alis 579 

chrysochloris  ..  594 

i-u-riilea . —  ......  — ....  579 

finta KM 

halec 579 

harengus 684 

indigena 579 

mattowaca •- 807 


menhaden 

iniialiili- 
parvula 


-a  pull  "inn 


579 
594 


Clupea  vernalis 57U.588 

Clapeidffi,  families  related  to 610-613 

Clymenella  torquata 633 

Coal 228 

Coal-fish 288.2:1:1 

Coal-Whiting 

•Coalsey _ 288 

Cobia,  distribution  of 444 

Cock-paddle 804 

Cock-paidle 254 

Cockle 70H 

Cod 200 

family  and  its  kindred 200 

Bank 201 

Bastard 268 

Blue 268 

Brown Wl 

I  in  Halo 268 

Clam 201 

Cult, ,- 267 

Deep-water 201 

fish,  name  fof  Cult  us  Cod 267 

Fresh- water 230 

Herring 201 

Inshore 801 

Native 201 

Night 214 

Pine-tree 201 

Rock 200 

School 201 

Shoal-water 801 

Shore -M" 

Tom 2117 

Worm -'"I 

Codfish,  distribution  of 2i« 

food  of 211,212 

names  of 200 

history  of,  in  America '-'"I 

reproduction  of 214 

schooling  of  the '-'":l 

schools,  migration*  and  movements  of..  207 

size  of «0 

Cu-lentcrates 841,842 

Cogward 

Culm 

Cojii.ua 

Cojumero 

Colemie 

Collet  on  distribution  of  the  Sea  Cat-Hub 

Robert,  on  the  Gray  Seal 

Collins,  Capt.  J.  W.,  on  distribution  of  Mackerel. 
Mackerel  -fishing  ground* 


477 
:«4 
11(5 
228 
•-'I- 
103 
2*1 
294 


migrations  of  Mackerel..  301,302 
spawning  of  Mackerel. .. 

food  of  Halibut 

food  of  Marken-1 

Halibut  spawn 

migrations  of  Halibut. .. 
size  of  the  Halibut 


Colmey 

Common  Flounder. 
Pompano 


Sun-fish . 


M 
196 
M3 
197 

m 

I'.KI 

MB 

m 

327 

56 

405 


860 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Conch 694,f>99 

food  and  destrncti veness  of 695, 696 

uses  of 700 

( 'oiuluni  i  no  on  habits  of  South  American  Manatee .  121 

Coney 412 

Conger  Eel 655 

California 628 

Congeree .' 628 

CongoEel 247 

Congrngadidse 243 

Congrogadns,  family 243 

Conklin  on  food  of  Sirenians 119 

habits  of  American  Manatee 121 

size  of  Florida  Manatee 117 

Cony-fish 237 

Cooter 158 

Florida 155 

Cooth 228 

Cope  on  distribution  of  the  Alligator 142 

Hooded  Seal 71 

Terrapins 154 

the  Wall-eyed  Pike 423 

Copper-nosed  Bream 406 

Corallinm  rnbrnm 841 

Corals 841 

Brain 841 

Finger 841 

Fungus 841 

Hydroid 841 

Polyp 841 

Stag-horn 841 

Star 841 

Cordeaux,  John,  on  general  history  of  Harbor 

Seals 58,59 

Coregouns  Artedi 541 

clnpeifonnis 507 

Hoyi 541 

labradoricns 541 

nigripinnis 541 

quadrilateralis 541 

tnllibee 541 

Williamsoni 542 

Corn-cracker 665 

Cornide,  Don  Joseph,  on  pugnacity  of  Swordflsh.  351 

Coronula  diadema 828 

Corsair 265 

Spotted 265 

Corvina 378 

satnrna 379 

Coryphtena  hippnrus 332 

Coryphamidte 332 

Coste  on  reproduction  of  European  Lobster  on  the 

French  coast 803,804 

Cothurni* 733 

Cottidie 258 

Cottusamens 258 

octodecimspinosns 258 

polyacanthocephalns 259 

scorpius  gromlaodicns 258 

Conch,  on  abundance  of  Dogfish 673 

food  of  Sperm  Whale 10 

the  habits  of  the  Lant 245 

habits  of  the  Silver  Hake 242 

the  habits  of  the  Skipjack 461 


Page. 

Cover 177 

Cover-clip 177 

Cow-fish 13,16 

Cow-pilot 275 

Crab,  Black-tailed,  name  for  Shrimp 818 

Bine 775 

Common  edible... 770 

Common,  of  Pacific  coast 770, 771 

Crab-eater 444 

Crab,  Green 774 

Horseshoe 829 

Jonah 769 

Kelp 778 

King 829 

Lady 774,775 

Oyster 765,706 

Red 771 

Red  Rock 778 

Rock 766 

Bock,  of  Pacific  coast 771,772 

Sand 774 

Sea w 775 

Stone 772-774 

Crabs 763-780 

Fiddler 763 

Hermit 779 

Mud 772 

Soft 776 

Soldier 779 

Spider 778 

Craibe,  Angus  W.,  on  habits  of  Leopard  Seal 60, 61 

Craig  Flounder 198 

Crane,  Agnes,  on  habits  of  South  American  Ma- 
natee   121,122 

Crangon  franciscorum 818 

vnlgaris 816 

found  in  stomach  of  Sea-robin..        256 

Crappie 407 

Crawfishes 812 

Crayfish 780 

and  Lobster,  similarity  of  shedding  and 

spawning  habits 813 

Crayfishes 812-816 

economic  valueof 814 

habits  of 814-816 

relations  and  distribution  of 812-814 

Creek  fish 614 

Cremnobates  integripinnis 251 

Crenella  glandula 703 

Crenilabrus  melops 273 

Crepidula  fornicata 693 

plana 693 

Crested  Seal 62,63,68 

CrevalW 323 

Horse 324 

Croaker 378 

name  for  black  Surf-fish 278 

fresh- water  Drum 370 

Crocodile 141 

North  American 141 

Crocodilus  acntns 141 

Crocus,  name  for  Croaker 378 

name  for  Drum 370 

Crustaceans  . .  . .  763-830 


INDKX. 


SGI 


Cryptodou  Gouldii 703 

Crytodari  siliqua 703 

t'lc nolabrus  adsperaus 273 

(iimilar    in    form    to    Red 

Perch 260 

•     rupestris -273 

Cubanjurel 325 

Cubby  yew 444 

Cuckoo-fish 257 

Cucumbers,  Sea 838 

Cudden 228 

Cuddy 328 

CuItnsCod 267 

Cummer,  similar  in  form  to  Rose-fish 260 

Gunner 273 

Gunners 274 

Cusk 233 

abundance  of 233 

Cut-lips 618 

Cutlass-fish 335 

Cattle-fishes 687 

Cuttles 687-693 

Cuvier,  on  distribution  of  Sword-fish 340 

Cyauoa  arctica 842 

Cybinin 307 

maculatum,  supposed  to  have  been  caught 

at  Prince  Edward  Island 310 

Cycleptus  elongatns 615 

Cyclopterida 253 

Cyclopterus  lumpus 253,864 

orbis 255 

Cylichnaalba 694 

Cymatogaster  aggregates 278 

Cyuoscion  maculatum 365 

nobile 378 

uothnm 367 

parvipinne 379 

regale 362 

Cyprina  islandica 703 

Cyprnidm 616 

Cyprinodon  californiensis 466 

CypriuodoutidiD 466 

Cyprinus  carpio 616-618 

carpio  commnnis 619 

carpio  coriacens,  si ve  nndns 619 

carpio  specularis 6*9 

Cystophora  angustirostris 74 

aiitillarmu 71 

cristate 65,68,71 

falklandica 74 

kerguelensis 74 

leonina 74 

proboscidea 74 

Dace 616,617 

Horned 617 

Red 617 

Dactylometra  quinquecirra 842 

I). n  tylopterus  volitans 255 

Daddy  sculpin 258 

Doll,  on  Ambergris 11 

Northern  Fur  Seals 53 

reproduction  of  the  Burbot 238 

Sword-fish 350 

Pallr.i  delicatissima 467 


Dallla  peotoralii 400 

Damalicbtbys  argyixMomut 276,277 

Dampier,  on  size  of  South  American  Manatee 117 

Dard 337 

Dareste,  M.  C.  M.,  on  the  claaiiflcation  of  the  Eel.6v!9, 630 

Dargie 228 

Darters 417 

Darwin,  on  local  variation  in  form  of  Oyster* 742,743 

Date-fish 707 

Dauphin  Blauo 18 

Davy,  on  movements  of  young  Eels 651 

Dawson,  J .  W. ,  on  scarcity  of  Oaspereanx  in  Saint 

Lawrence  River 589 

Day  Chub (Jig 

Daylight,  name  for  Sole 177 

Spotted  Sand  Flounder 199 

Deal-fish  family 449 

Drcaisuc,  on  cause  of  green  color  of  Oyster 738 

Decapterns  macarellus 384 

pnnctatus 324 

Deep-Sea  Flounder,  name  for  Plaice 178 

name  for  Pole  Flounder 198 

Deep-water  Cod 201 

Sculpin 258 

Trout 488 

Trout,  name  for  Squeteague 364 

Whiting 377 

DeKay,  on  abundance  of  Chub  Mackerel 303 

Pig-fish 399 

distribution  of  the  Chogset 273 

Hooded  Seal 70,71 

Rose-fish 260 

gastronomic  value  of  Cat-fish 250 

Harbor  Seals 65,56 

the  uses  of  the  Silver  Hake 243 

Dvlphinapterns  catodon 18 

Delphinus  Bairdii 16 

clymenis 16 

Demoiselle  and  Cichlid  families 275, 276 

Dentalinm  pretiosnm 703 

Descourtlitz,  on  breeding  habits  of  Manatees 118 

mode  of  capture  of  South  Ameri- 
can Manatee 127 

Devil-fish 31 

geographical  distribution  of 173 

habits  and  form  of 173 

Devil-fishes 173,665 

Diabasis 397 

anrolineatua 396 

Plnmieri 398 

Diamond-back  Terrapin 155,157 

breeding  habits  of 156, 157 

characteristics  and  habits 

of 156 

distribution  of 156 

economic  value  of 157 

foodof 156 

Diamond  Flounder 185 

Diaphana  Oonldit 694 

Dickie 224 

Difienbacb,  E . ,  on  the  Scrag  Whale 31 

Diodoutide 170 

Diopatra  cuprea 833 

Diplodus  Holbrookii 386 


Pago. 

Diplodus  probatocephalns 380 

Diploria  ccrebriformis 841 

Ditrema  atripes 277 

fnrcatum 277 

Jacksoni 277 

laterale 277 

Temmincki 276 

Doctor-fish 279 

Dogfish,  name  for  Shark 675 

Shark 670 

Dog  Salmon 476 

Sea 55 

Shark 675 

Dogfish,  enemy  of  Mackerel 299 

name  for  Bowfin 236 

Burbot 658 

Horned 672 

Smooth 672 

Dollar-fish 333 

Dollardee 406 

Dolly  Vardcu  Trout 504 

Dolphins 16 

(CoryphscnidiB) 332 

habits  of 16 

Dorc" 418 

Dormitator 255 

Dorosoma  lepidcannm 610 

Dorosomatidtu 610 

Dorset 200 

Dory 417-420 

family 335 

Dotard 58,65 

Douglass,  on  Alewivcs 579,580 

products  of  Sperm  Whale 11 

Sperm  Whale  in  North  America 8 

DowU-r,  Beunct,  on  the  manner  in  which  Alliga- 
tors obtain  food 142,143 

Drill 696 

destrnctireness  of 697 

Drum 367 

family 362 

Banded 367 

Beardless 372 

Black 367 

Branded 372 

Fresh-water 370 

Little 367 

Red 362,371 

Striped 367 

Drnmfish 15 

Drummer,  name  for  Sen] pin 259 

Drnmmers  362 

Dnbcrtus  rhndinsnlensis ..  29 

Duck-billed  Cat 659 

Ducky  Shark 671,672 

Dudley,  Hon.  Paul,  on  the  Scrag  Whale 30 

Dugong 127 

Dum£ril  and  Bibron  on  classification  of  the  Tor- 
toise    147 

Dunfish 200 

Dunn,  Matthias,  on  spawning  of  mackerel 297 

DnTertre,on  breeding  habits  of  Manatee 118 

capture  of  American  Manatee 126 

habits  of  American  Manatee 120 


Pag... 

Dwarf  Salmon 470 

Eagle  Bays 6(6 

Earll,  E.  E.,  011  Bluefish  in  North  Carolina 14:1 

food  of  Cod 213,214 

history  of  Spanish  Mackerel 309, 310 

migrations  of  Codfish ,  ..210,211 

movements  of  Pollock 2:50 

Spanish  Mackerel . .  310, 311 

reproduction  of  Codfish 215, 219 

Haddock 227 

Pollock 230,231 

Spanish  Mackcrol,313-315 
schooling  of  the  Codfish.  203-20.".,  206  -207 

size  of  Codfish 220 

Easter  Mackerel 304 

Echeneididu) 44G 

Echidnoceros  setimanns 778 

Echinarachnius  parma 838, 839 

Echinoderuis 838-841 

Eel 629 

classification  of 629,630 

discover)1  of  female 636 

male,  by  Syrski 638-640 

Conger 655 

Conger,  California 628 

Congo 247 

Horned 246 

Lamper 247 

Maroona 247 

Pout 236,247 

Sea 655 

Silver 335 

Slime €80 

Eels,  ancient  beliefs  concerning  reproduction  of.  .634-6:W 

external  characteristics  of 644,645 

geographical  distribution  of 630,61!! 

habits  of 631,632 

internal  characteristics  of  males  and  females. 64 0-644 

life  history  of 632,633 

male,  do  they  leave  the  sea  and  enter  fresh- 
water?  .". 648 

migrations  of 633, 634 

normal,  reproductive  habits  of 646,647 

supposed  to  be  viviparous 645 

young,  search  for 646 

Lamper 676 

Egg-fish 170 

figrefin 224 

Egypt  Herring 460 

Eithiuyoo-cannooshoeoo  462 

Elacate,  Canada 444 

Elagatis  pinnnlatus 332 

Eleotris 255 

El-la-chick 157,158 

Elliott,  H.  W.,  on  difference  between  California 

and  Alaska  Sea  Lions 48, 49 

figures  of  Fur  Seals 54 

Fur  Seals 53,75-113 

Northern  Fur  Seals 50 

peculiar    methods    of   catching 

SheepOiead 383,384 

Sea  Lions 39,44 

size  of  Northern  Fur  Seal 50 

uses  of  Pacific  Walrus  . .  36 


INDEX, 


868 


IMn-ki-nik  ..................................... 

Klop.s  KIII  run..  ____  ............................  243 

101  1  «  Imp  ......    ...............................  58u 

KlhvilV  .........................................  goo 

Kinbiotocidie  ...................................  270 

Kiiiix-renr  ......................................  337 

Klil-i-l-  ..........................................  133 

Kinydidii*  ......................  ,  ...............  154 

Kinvs  nirlrafjris  ................................  158 

i-h  lli'iiin^  ................................  582 

EagTMlifa   ....................................  Gil 

Kimplir.vs  lii.Min  .................................  259 

Kn-alrlla  iiinrrifiiiiii  ...........................  703,707 

I'.iilniiiontraranN  ................................  827 

Km/.,  on  «;rri'ii  matter  iu  animals  ................  730 

f.\H-<-  ili  '.Mi  -i    ...................................  337 

Kpiulitis  product  us  .............................  778 

KpiiirpiirliiH  iipini  ..............................  412 

Dniimiioiid-Hiiyi  ...................  412 

nmrio  ..............................  410 

nijrritiiii  ...........................  411 

-Hiatus  ............................  412 

cl.vM  w|ii»inatu  .........................  14'J 

liai'liaius  .............................  63,  107 

Kriinw.nii  CiMMlei  ...............................  G14 

Hllri-ttlt  ...............................  614 


I  -  In  i.  -In  ami  Keiuhardt  on  distribution  of  Bow- 


KM>\  aim-ricanus 
luciiiH 

enemy  of  Ale  wives 
uobilior 

enemy  of  Alewives 
reticulatns 

enemy  of  Alewives 
\  ••!  in  ii-n  la  In- 


20 
464 
4(51 
592 
404 
592 
4(i2 


4C4 
337 

K.-pa  1  1  a  r  I  <  •  ......................................  337 

I'.spailiiii    .......................................  337 

KHt<-»,  Dr.,  on  habits  of  the  Bowliu  ..............  658,669 

D.  C.,  on  Imbitfi  of  Moon-eye  ..............  013 

KsiliooHtoinatidu'  ...............................  417 

Kt/i'l,  Anton  von,  on  diHtribution  of  Halibut  .....  I'.'J 

Ellbalienil  anl  ipmlai  HIM  .........................  25 

anstralis  ............................  25 

biscayenuia  ----  .  ....................  24 

i-  i  -a  i  i'ti  i-ii  ...........................  24 

cnllamach  ..........................  25 

Knr.vclogobiua  Newberrii  .........  ..  .....  .  ......  255 

Kulat-liim  ......................................  547 

KiiiiirsojrraiiiiniiH  Hiibbifnrcatns  .................  213 

r.iiiiu  lupias  ....................................  37 

cloiigiituit..  ........................  39 

Stelleri  .........................  38,39,49,82 

r.npa^iiniH])ollii!ari.s  ...........................  779 

Bernhardns  .................   .......  779 

longicarpus  .........................  779 

pubescens  ...........................  780 

Kuploten  .......................................  733 

Kuropean  Leech  ................................  835 

Exocoetua  califomienais  ........................  459 

Rondeletii  ...........................  459 

maxillingua  ........................  618 


i  , 


l'.'| 
in; 


,  thu  greal  N..nli,rii 
I.Mpifini-liii,  on  I'.MM!  of  AlliKiittm  ............ 

lialul-  Ain.-i  ir.ni  M.ni.it.  . 
name  of  Manatee 
Kyebait 

Kabriun*,  on  habitH  ol  Harbor  Seal  ..............  57 

Fair  Maid  ......................................  ;;-; 

FalMUh  ........................................  1,17 

Fan-fish  ........................................  339 

Fat-back,  name  for  Menhaden  ..................  509 

name  for  Mnlh-t  ......................  449 

Fat-head  .......................................  275 

Fat  Herring  ....................................  559 

Mullet  .....................................  451 

Fiber  oanadenaiB  ...............................  n 

Fiddler  Grata  ..................................  ;(j;i 

Fierasfer  family  ................................  243 

1'icnwfei  idiu  ................................  243 

family  .................................  171 

geographical  diNtribntion  ..............  171 

number  of  spteien—  habits  ..............  171 

Orange  ................................  171 


Finback  Wbalea  ...........................  24,27,28-30 

abundance  in  New  Kii|;laiid  ____          28 

distribution  of  .................  28 

movcmcntfl  of  ..................          28 

in  the  Pacific  .................. 

Finger  Coral  ...................................        841 

Mullet  ..................................        453 

Finncr,    Sharp-headed  ..........................          30 

Finncra  .................  .......................          24 

Fish  Ox  ........................................         120 

Fisher,  Captain,  on  spawning  of  Mackerel  .......        isd 

Fisher,  8.  E.,  on  Southern  Shrimps  and  Prawns.  .H22,  Hit 
Fishing  Frog  ...................................        IT;I 

Fiaaurella  aculeata  ............................        701 

Five-finger  .....................................        840 

Fjord  Herring  ..................................         f,:,i 

Seal  .....................................          C2 

FjordskSl...r..  ................................          02 

Flannel-month  Cat  .............................        627 

Flasher  ........................................        445 

Flat  Clain  ......................................        708 

back  ......................................          27 

fish  .......................................  17!».  1-j 

fishes  .....................................  17.-i.17t; 

Fleas,  Beach  ....................................        824 

Sand  .....................................        824 

Fleming,  on  the  range  of  American  Manatee  ____         116 

Sperm  Whale  in  Orkney  _____  .......  9 

Flelan  .........................................         191 

Flianm  .........................................        265 

Floe-rat  ........................................          66 

Florida  Cooter  .................................        155 

Flonnder  ...................................  177,178,184 

Black-dotted  ..........................        187 

Common  ..............................        178 

Craig  .................................  198,237 

Deep  Sea  ..............................  178,198 

Diamond  ...........  .  ..................         18u 

Four-spotted  ...................  .  ......        181 

Pole  ..............................  177,178,198 

BuHty  .................................        197 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Flounder  Sand,  spotted 199 

Smooth 183 

Starry 184 

Turbot 178 

Water 199 

Winter 179,182 

Flounders 175 

Fluke 182 

Flower,  W.  H.,  on  distribution  of  Kinged  Seal. . .  65,  66 

Fly-fish 264 

Flying  Calamary 690 

Flying-fish 257 

family 459-461 

Flying  Gurnard 255 

Food-fishes 169 

Fool-fish,  name  for  File-fish 171 

Flounder 183 

Foreter,  J.  E.,  on  feeding  habits  of  the  Burbot . . .  239 

size  of  Burbot 237 

Fortin,  P.,  on  abundance  and  modes  of  capture  of 

Horee-Mackerel 321 

Four-eyedfish 280 

Four-spotted  Flounder 181 

Fox  Shark 671 

Freia  products 733 

Fresh-water  Cod 236 

Drum 370 

Seals 59 

Terrapins 152 

Friar 456 

Frigate  Mackerel 305 

Frog-fish 173 

fishing 173 

Frostfish 336 

Fulgur  carica 694 

Fnndnlus  grandis 466 

majalis  466 

parvipinnis 466 

Fungus  corals 841 

Fur  Seals 37 

action  of  reproduction Ill 

age  of  female  when  first  pregnant 78 

albinos  among 105 

among  the  breakers 101 

arrival  of  Cow-seals  at  rookeries 85 

at  seal  grounds 77 

attitudes  and  coloration  of 81, 82 

on  land 88 

battle  of  the  Seals 80,81 

behavior  of  females  on  rookeries 88 

atnight,of 95 

change  in  weight  104 

classing  the  hollaschickie  by  age 103 

coming  in  of  the  bulls 77,78 

comparative  size  of  females  and  males  103, 104 

courage  of 87,88 

definition  of  bollnschickie 98 

description  of  adult  male 75-77 

Cow-Seal 85,86 

the  hollnschickie 97, 98 

pups 89-91 

disorganization  of  rookeries 91,92 

dispersal  of  the  hollnschickie 105 

distribution  in  southern  seas 38 


Page. 

Fur  Seals,  dolphin,  jumps  of 101 

effects  of  heat  on 83 

eyes  of  the  pups 94, 9."> 

fasting  at  the  rookeries B4 

fine  opportunities  for  observation 107 

general  character  of 37 

genitalia  of  the  male  and  female 108 

gentleness  of  hollnschickie 99 

geographical  distribution  of 37, 38 

and     migra- 
tion of 49 

habits  of 37,75 

hauliug-grounds  on  beaches  for  hollu- 

schickie 99 

holluschickie 72,82,96 

hollnschickio  do  not  fast 99, 100 

hospitals  of 93 

intestinal  worms 84,85 

irregular  feeding  of  the  pups 1 10 

leaping  out  of  water 101 

life  history  of 75 

locating  the  hauling-grounds  of  hollu- 
schickie    98 

mangy  cows  and  pups 92 

monstrosities  among 105, 106 

necessity  of  understanding  the  method 

of  reproduction 106, 107 

odor  of 96 

old  and  young  males  fighting 79 

only  one  pup  born  at  a  time 79 

organization  of  the  rookeries 86, 87 

paths  through  the  rookeries  for  hollu- 
schickie    98,99 

pelagic  coition  impossible Ill 

period  of  gestation Ill 

podding  of  the  pups 94 

power  of  scent  of 96 

pre-emption  of  the  rookeries 80 

preliminary  advances  of  sexual  union  110 

range  of  vision  of 95 

relative  duration  of  life  of 79 

reproduction  is  terrestrial 79 

review  of  statements  of  life  in  rook- 
eries    96,97 

rich  milk  of 110 

second  change  of  coat 94 

shedding  the  hair 103 

sleeping 89 

sleeping  afloat 84 

small  number  of  barren  females 113 

speedy  birth  of  pups 108 

sports  and  pastimes  of  young  bache- 
lors    100 

stagey  seals 103 

sullenness  of  old  males 95 

swimming  feats  of  the  bachelors 101, 102 

taste  in  the  matter  of  weather 105 

unattached  males 87 

vitality  of  the  male 112 

voice  of  the 82,83 

weight  of  females 104 

where  do  they  diet 106 

young  Seals  learning  to  swim 93 

Northern 4J 


INDKX. 


866 


(Jiiddii  

Gadidu-,  unimportant  families  related  to  the 243 

Gadug 200 

chalcogrammus 233 

compresstis 836 

lacustris   235 

lot:* 235 

iM.iculosus 236 

morrhna  800,236 

periscopus s>32 

tan 851 

Calf-topsail  Cat-fish 627 

Poinpano 329 

Gag 413 

Oaillon  and  Johnitou,  observations  on  green  color 

of  Oyster 737-738 

Galeocerdo  tigrinug 672, 675 

enemy  of  Sword-fish 354 

Galeorhinng  zygopterus 674,675 

Gauimarus  locust  a 824 

Gannet,  enemy  of  Mackerel 299 

Gaper 708 

Garden,  Alexander,  on  the  Sword-fish 339 

Gar-fishes,  Silver 458 

Garibaldi  270 

Garman,  8.  W.,  on  distribution  of  West  Indian 

Seal 68 

Garonpa 411 

Gar-pike 662 

pugnacity  of 663 

Alligator  663 

Long-nosed 662 

Short-nosed 663 

Garrick 458 

Garrod  on  size  of  South  American  Manatee 118 

Garrupa 262 

Black  and  Yellow  264 

Flesh-colored 864 

Green 265 

Red 264 

Speckled 263 

Gasperean 590,589 

Gaspergon 370 

Gasperot 580 

Gasteropoda C93 

Gasterosteidie 557 

Gosterosteus  acnleatoa 338,457 

biacnleatus 813 

microcephalns 458 

pungitins 457 

Gast  rochiena 699 

Gawnook 460 

(MM™,  R.  I.,  on  the  Lake  White-fish 507 

Gcddes,  Patrick,  on   chlorophyl-containing  ani- 
mals   737,739 

Gelasimns  mlnax 763 

pugilator 703 

pngnax 763 

Genyonemns  lineatus 379 

Geographic  Tortoises 152 

Geophagns  snrinamensis 276 

George's  fish 201 

55  P 


, 

German  Leech 337 

i  :•  iTt-8  argcnteus 279 

harengulus 879 

liomonymus 279 

Gerride 860 

Gcrvais  on  Sperm  Whale  in  Mediterranean 9 

Gherbis  Sponge 043 

Gibbar •.- , 

(iihburt  us 29 

Gibbero  Dorso 89 

Gihbes,  L.  R.,  on  habits  of  the  Stone  Crab 773 

the  Southern  Shrimps 881,898 

Gibbonsia  ulegans 251 

Gila  elegans 616 

Grahami 616 

robnsta 616 

Gill  on  distribution  of  Black  Bass 402 

history  of  California  Sea  Eluphant 73 

Sperm  Whales,  Giant  and  Pigmy 11 

Gillichthys  mirabilis '. . .  '. 855 

Gilpin,  Dr.  Bernard,  on  geographical  distribution 

of  Hooded  Seal 69 

Gilpin,  habits  of  the  Mackerel 885-887,888 

movements  of  Haddock 224 

Gilt-head 273 

Girella  nigricans :{94 

Gizzard  Shad «10 

Glashan 228 

Glass-eye 417 

Glassock 228 

Glattbutt 199 

Claudius 337 

Globe-fish 170 

Globicephalus  iuterniedius 11 

Scammonii 18 

swineval 11 

Gloasan 898 

Glossin 288 

Glove  Sponge 845-847 

Glut  Herring 688 

Glyphidodon  soxatilis 275 

Glyptocephalus  cynoglowas 198, 237 

pacificns 186-188 

zachinis 188 

Gnathodon  cnneatns 708 

Goafs-head  Porgy 393 

Gobius  glaucofnennm 255 

soporator 255 

Gobiesocidie 253 

Gobiesox  reticnlatns 255 

Gobiidm 255 

Gobiosoma  alepidotnm 255 

Goblins 259 

Goby,  Chubby 251,255 

Goggle-eye 404,405 

Goggled-eyed  Jack 324 

Goggler 324 

Gold-fish 276 

Golden  Shiner 616 

Trout 475 

Goldsinny 273 

Golet 605 


866 


INDEX. 


Pago. 

Goody 

CapeMay 370 

Goose  Barnacles 828 

Goose-fish,  appearance 

eggs — time  of  spawning 174 

geographical  distribution  of 173 

habits  and  food  of 173 

palatable  for  food 174 

Goose  fishes 173 

Gopher  Tortoise 158 

Gorgonia  acerosa    

flabellum 841 

setosa 841 

Gottenburg  Herring 550 

Gonjon 627 

Gourd-seed  Sucker 615 

Gr&ben  Herring 550 

Grampus 

color  and  size  of 13 

distribution  of 13 

habits  of 14 

known  to  early  colonists 14 

products  of ••  14 

California 14 

Mottled 14 

White-headed 14 

griseus 13 

Stearnsii 14 

Grande  flcaille 611 

Grandykye 611 

Grass  Bans 406 

Herring 550 

Grass-hopper,  name  for  yonng  Lobster 783 

Grass  Rook-fish 264 

Sponge 848, 849 

Gray,  on  distribution  of  the  Grampus 13 

feeding  habits  of  Bowhead 23 

Greenland  Whales 22 

Pilot  Whale 11 

Sperm  Whale  in  English  Channel 9 

figures  of  Fur  Seals 54 

geographical  distribution  of  the  Hooded 

Seal i 70 

North  American  Manatees 114 

Northern  Fnr  Seals 52 

Gray  Back  Whale 31 

Leech 835 

Perch,  name  for  Drum 370 

Pickerel 421 

Pike 424 

Snapper 397 

Tront 487 

Whale,  California 31,32 

Grayling r>05 

American  and  European,  similarity  of. .  50fi 

distribution  of,  in  Europe 500 

name  for  Salmon 470 

Great  Herring 550 

Great  Lake  Pike 402 

Greedignt 173 

Green-bone,  name  for  Mutton-fish 247 

Silver  Gar-fish 458 

Green  Crab 773 


Green  Cod 

fish 

Garriipa 

head 

Leech  ... 
Pike.... 
Pollock  . 


238 

433 

WJ 

425 

835 

418 

228 

Rock-fish 265,266 

RockTrout 267 

Smelts 456 

Sturgeon 662 

tail 569 

Turtles 147,150 

breeding  of 151 

distribution  of. 150 

food  and  feeding  habits IfiO 

names  of 150 

size  of 150 

uses  of 151 

North  American  species  of 150 

Greenland  and  Right  Whales,  Baleen  of 21, 22 

Turbot 197 

Whale 20 

Greenlander 258 

Grenadier  family 244 

Grey  Gurnard 256 

Halibut 194 

Grey-lord 228 

Grey-Trout,  name  of  Squeteague 362 

Gribble 826 

Grilse 468 

Groper 410 

Ground-holders 783 

Ground-keepers 201,213 

Ground  Pike 424 

Shark 674,675 

Tenders 201 

Grouper,  name  for  Rock  Cod 262 

Triple-tail 444 

Banded 412 

Black 411 

Red 410 

Grabber 612 

Grubbers,  name  for  Cod 212 

Grubby 258 

Grunt,  Black 308,390 

Californian  400 

Red-mouth 398 

White 399 

Yellow ,..  399 

Grnnter 256 

Guard  on  distribution  of  the  alligator 142 

Gnasa 4'1 

Gubartas 29 

Gundlach  on  abundance  of  Florida  Manatee 123 

Guelmen 337 

braniliensibns 356 

Gnffer 247 

Guichenot  on  distribution  of  Sword-fish 340 

Gulf  Menhaden  575 

food  of 577 

messmates  of 576 

movements  of j 576 


IMM  A. 


867 


Unit' Mi-nli.iilni,  popular  names  of. 
reproduction  of. .. 

(illll-nsll    

:!,  on  name  of  Manatee ... 


.........  576 

.........  f»77 

.........  888 

.........  116 

(iiiiithcr.  mi  tin-  anatomy  of  the  Mullet  ..........  449,450 

classification  of  the  Eel  .........  699 

distribution  of  Row-fish  ----  ........  260 

-li-riilie  .......................  243 

history    anil    habits    of  the     Pilot- 

fi>h    ............................  330 

Lampreys  ..........................  670 

tin-  lit'.-  history  of  the  Eel  .........  632.633 

movements  of  t  lie  Gar-  fishes  ........  468 

namoH  of  American  Bnrbot  .........  1S16 

rate  of  growth  of  Swonl-fiHheH  .......  347,348 

Scope]  us  family  .....................  547 

Thread-fish  .........................  27<l 

varia  t  ions  of  Saibling  ...............  501 

Human!  family  .................................  255 

Gurnard,  Flying  ................................  255 


Re<l 

Gnrry  Shark 
Gut-pock  Herrings 
Hadilie 
lladdnek 
Hadilork,  abundance  of 

disirilintionof 

food  of 

movements  of 

names  of 

uses  of 

Norway 
ll.nldoh 
Hailow 
Hadot 
Hag-tigh,  enemy  of  Halibut 


256 
674 
550 
224 
223 
...............        285 

................        223 

226 
224 
224, 
228 
1  ........        260 

476 
^  ...........        224 

224 
182 

680,681 
37 
610 
234 
234 
235 
234 
235 
243 
234 
234 
Old  English  .........  .....................        234 

Silver  ..................  .  .................        240 

Squirrel  ..................................        234 

White  ...................................        234 

Half  Herring  ...................................        551 

llall'.lieak  ....  .................................        461 

Half  moon  ......................................         395 

Halibut  .............  ...........................         177 

abnormal  individuals  among  ............         197 

abundance  of  ...........................        193 

common  names  of  .......................        190 

distribution  in  N.  W.  Atlantic  ...........         191 

food  of  ................................         196 

migrations  of  ...........................        194 

size  of  ..................................         193 

spawning  of  ............................         196 


Hair  Seals 
Hairy-bark  Shad 
Make 

distribution  of 

habit*  of 

names  of 

uses  of 

California 

Dame 

King 


i-.. 

Halibut.  ItMtMd UN 

'  1'icknn ITM'.M 

'•"'         194 

Little  197 

Mi>ntci-c\   18J 

Italic  h.rni-  L;r\  ptir.   i   . 

1 1  alii  you  rirhardsi .-,7 

ll.ilisareoiden 844 

Mall  on  Spawning  of  Market*! 29»i 

Hiillefisk |;i| 

Hullrfliindra 191 

Hallock,  Charlea,  on  migration  of  Sen  Ham 408 

on  distribution  of  Stri|x-d  liam 425 

Charles,  on  hiil.il-  of  the  liowflu 658 

on  spawning  habits  of  Black  Bam 403 

Hamlin,  on  habits  of  Luke  Trout 1-7 

Hammer-brad  Shark r,71,i~:, 

Sucker 615 

Handsaw  Fish  family 547, 548 

HannaliilU 407 

Haplnidonotusgriiniiiens 362,370 

Harbin 228 

Harbor  Porpoise,  food  of ].". 

dest  ruct  i venem  of 16 

di-triliiilion  of 14 

repriMlurtion  of 16 

size  ami  movementn  of 15 

uses  of  1.". 

Seal 

general  history  ami  lynouymy  of 65 

geographical  ilixtrihiitiou  of 55 

habiteof 57 

Hard  Clam 708 

Hard-head,  name  for  Salmon 444 

Whale 31 

Shad,  Name  for  Menhaden 669 

Sponge 846 

Hard-month 618 

Hani-tail   324 

Harding,  Capt.   King,   on   abundance  of  Mack- 
erel   290 

Harding,  Capt.  King,  on  food  of  Mackerel '.".M 

Hare-lip 614 

Hare,  Sea 18 

Harlan,  on  abundance  of  Florida  Manatee l£l 

American  Manatee* 114 

-i/«-  of  Florida  Manatee 117 

Harmer,  Thomas,   on    enumeration    of  eggs    in 

Mackerel 298 

Harp  Seal 62,r.T, 

Breeding iW 

geographical  distribution  of. 

hunting,  and  products fi3,  (M 

Turning 62 

Voting '  -' 

Hart,  M.  A.,  on  capture  of  Lampreys ••-" 

Harvewt-flsb 333 

distribution  of 333 

Harwood  on  the  no«e  of  the  Fur  Seal 79 

Haul-a-boat Ull 

Hawk's-hill  Turtles 147, 1 1'.' 

asfood i:." 

economic  valne,   grades  of 

shell  of..  149 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Hawk'8-bill  Turtle,  food  and  habits  of 149 

range  of 149 

sizeof 149 

Hecht 562 

Hector  on  Sword-fish  in  New  Zealand 341 

Heilbot 191 

Heiligebutt 191 

Helmet-shell 699 

Hemdurgan 260 

Hemilepidotns  spinosns 259 

trachurus 259 

Hemirhamphas  Rosse 460 

nnifasciatns 461 

Hemitripterus,  americanns 258 

hispidus 258 

HenClam 708 

Hen-fish  family 335 

Henshall,  J.  A.,  on  the  Black  Bass 401 

Heptranchias  maculatus 674 

Herbert  on  the  peculiarities)  of  the  Siscowet 496 

Hermes,  Dr.  Otto,  on  reproductive  organs  of  Con- 
ger-Eel    656,657 

Hermit  Crabs 779,780 

Herrard  on  habits  of,  American  Manatee 119, 120 

on  products  of  South  American  Manatee.        127 

on  the  pugnacity  of  Alligators 143 

Herring 549 

abundance  and  importance  of 549 

artificial  propagation  of 563 

capture  and  uses  of 565,566 

effect  of  meteorological   conditions   on 

capture  of 554,555 

fishery,  alleged  deetructivoness  of 560-568 

food  of 563-565 

geographical  distribution  of 551-552 

movements  and  migrations  of 552-557 

name  for  Char 501 

GnlfMenhaden 576 

Menhaden 569 

names  of 550 

periodicity  of  abundance  of,  on  Euro- 
pean coast 557-559 

reproduction  of 559, 563 

Big-eyed 611,680 

Bleking 550 

Bine 579 

Bohnslan 650 

Boundary : 550 

Branch 580 

California 568,169 

Cod 201 

English 682 

Kat 650 

Fjord 551 

Glut 682 

Gottenbnrg 660 

Grdben 650 

Gnas 550 

Great 660 

Gut-pock 650 

Half 151 

Hogs 14 

KnlU 550 

641 


Herring,  Laid 

Little , 

Michigan 

New  York 

Norwegian 

Norwegian  Winter 

Scotch  Dutch 

Skarp 

Small 

Spiced , 

Sprat 

Spring 

Summer. ...... .... 

Tender 

Tiny 

Toothed 

Tribe 

Wall-eyed 


Page. 

651 

579 

541 

579 

550 

550 

551 

550 

550 

550 

579 

579 

579 

551 

579 

612 

549 

580 

Herrings  of  the  Pacific  coast 568,569 

Eiver 579 

Hessel,  Rudolph,  on  the  Carp 618-626 

Heterodontns  Francisci 675 

Heterograpsns  nndus 765 

oregonensis 765 

Heterostichns  restrains 251,275 

Hewlook-Powak 505 

Hexagrammns  asper 268 

decagrammus 267,268 

lagocephalus 267,268 

ordinatus 268 

Stelleri 267 

Hezanchus  corinus 676 

HickoryShad  607 

abundance  of 608,609 

geographical  distribution  of 608 

names  of 607,608 

reproduction  of 609 

sizeof 609 

Higginson,  Francis,  on  abundance  of  Mackerel  in 

1629 289 

High-finned  Killer  Whale 17 

Hind,  H.  Y.,  on  abundance  of  Herring.., 549 

the  causes  of  irregular  movements 

Mackerel  schools 300-1 

distribution    and    abundance    of 

Codfish 209,210 

geographical  distribution  of  Mack- 
erel         2£1 

migrations  of  the  Mackerel 288 

movements  of  Capelin 546 

Codfish  schools...        208 
relations  between   Mackerel  and 

Launce   292,293 

spawning  Codfish 209 

habits  of  the  Capelin 545, 546 

Hind,  Spotted 412 

Hippa  talpoida 779 

Hippocampus  hcptagonus 172 

hu<ls<  in  nis 172 

ingens 172 

Hippoglossoidcs  elassodon 188 

r.xilis 187 

Jordani 186,187 

platessoides 197 


868 


vul^aris 

Hippulytr  liivvinistiN 

Hinulo  im'ilii  inalis 

ofllcinaliH 

parasite  of  Sword-fish. 


180 

818 

835 

.^  836 

306 

Histiophorus  amcricaQiia 336,337,356 

gladius 336,357 

i  in  mar  ii  l;t  MM 338 

indic-iM 356 

oricutalis 3J6 

piili'lii-Ilu.s 336 

Histriophoca  fattciata 63,67 

fasciata 107 

Hoe 673 

Mother 667 

llojj-choker 177 

Hogfiith 275 

nanio  for  Log  Perch 417 

Pigfish 398 

Holacauthus  ciliaris 280 

Holbrook  on  beat  fishing-grounds  for  Sheepshead.  989 

breeding  of  Green  Turtles 151 

differences  between    Sea   Boss  and 

Black-fish 408 

distribution  of  the  Alligator 141 

Tautog 269 

food  and  feeding   habita  of  Green 

Turtles 150 

the  food  of  the  Loggerhead  Turtle  .  148 

habits  of  the  Crab-eater 444 

habits  of  the  Grouper 410 

Sheepshead 382 

Spanish  Mackerel 312 

the  Squirrel-fish 410 

the  habits  of  the  Whiting 376, 377 

Mobilianer 155 

mode  of  life  of  Alligators 144 

origin  of  name  of  Alligator 141 

the  Pig-fish 300 

range  of  Ha wk's-bill  Turtles 140 

the  Bed-mouth  Grunt 398 

size  of  the  Alligator 142 

and  mode  of  life  of  Bullfrog. ..  159 

Holconotus  Agassizi 278 

analis 278 

argentens 278 

rhodoterua 278 

Holia 476 

Holibut 191 

Holocauthus  tricolor 280 

Holm-minim  pentacanthnm 361 

Holothnria  tloridana 8S8 

princepa 838 

Holybut 191 

Homarns  americanns 781 

capensis 783 

vulgaris 783 

Home,  Sir  Edward,  on  development  of  the  Lam- 
prey    678 

Homer 667 

Hone 476 

Hooded  Seal 65,68 

foodof..                71 


r,  . 
Hooded  Seal,  geographical  distribution  and  rnigra- 

tniiiMof 68-71 

habits  of 71 

limiting  and  productsof 71 

Hoopid  Salmon 477 

Horned  Dace 617 

Dogfish 678 

Eel 846 

Pout 687 

Homes* 340 

Horny-head 617 

Uor§ 3J6 

Hone  CrevaHe* 323i  334 

Horsn-flsh,  name  for  Blunt-nosed  Shiner :«2 

Sauger 424 

Hone-head ;&•:( 

Horse-mackerel 380 

name  for  Black  Candle-fish 968 

Blnefish 433 

California  Hake 243 

Jnrel 324 

Horse,  Sea 35 

Sponge 845,848 

Horseshoe  Crab 829,830 

Horsewhale 36 

Honndlish,  name  for  Blnefish 435 

Silver  Gar-fish 459 

Blew 308,435 

Speckled 308,435 

Hubbard  on  abundance  of  Sperm  Whale 9 

distribution  of  Atlantic  Walrus 34 

Hnmaana 474 

Humpback  Whales 26,27,29 

foodof 26 

distribution  of 26 

migrations  of 26 

in  New  England 27 

size  of 26 

Hump-backed  Salmon 476 

Butterflsh :i23 

Hungarian  Leech 837 

Hunter  and  Woods  on  Sperm  Whale  in  England.  9 

Huxley,  Prof.  T.  H.,  on  abundance  of  Herring 549, 550 

alleged  destructiveness  of 

the  Herring  fishery 507,668 

distribution  of  the  Cray- 
fishes         818 

the  functions  of  the  append- 
ages of  Cray- fish 782 

migration  of  Herrings 553 

spawn  ing  habita  of  Herring.559-568 
the  structure  of  the  Cray- 
fish  812,813 

Hya-qna 703 

Hyatt,  Prof.  A.,  on  Florida  and  Bahama  commer- 
cial Sponges 846-850 

general  structure  of  the  Sponge       844 

the  horny  Sponges 844-846 

Hydroid  Corals 841 

Hyodon  alosoides 612 

•elenope 612 

tergisns 612 

Hyndontida 612 


870 


INDEX. 


Hyodon  tergisus 
Hyperaodon  bidens 
Hypleurochilus  gentilis 
Hypomesus  olidus 
Hypsopsetta  guttulata 
Hypsurus  Caryi 
Hysterocarpus  t  ni  ski 
Icichthys  Lockiugtoni 
Icosteus  xnigmaiicus 

family 
Ictalurus 

albidus 


Page. 
613 
18 
251 
544 
185 
278 
279 
361 
361 
361 
626 
627 
nigricans  .........................  .....  626,  627 

pondrrosus  ...........................        626 

punctatus  .............................        626 

Ictiobus  bnbalns  .............................  ...        615 

cnrpio  .................................        615 

cyprinella  .............................        615 

cyprinus  ...............................        615 

urus  ...................................        615 

Idyia  roseola  ...................................        842 

Ikanjj^an  .....................................        338 

Ikau-layer  .....................................  368,357 

Ilyanassa  .....................................         696 

obaoleta  ..............................        693 

luipcrador  ......................................        337 

Ingcrgoll,  E.,  on  ageucies  destructive  to  Oysters  .746-748 
ou  destructive  influence  of  the  Drum 
on  Oyster-beds  ....................        369 

ou  interference  of  other  animal  life 

with  Oysters  ....................  748,749 

on  Oyster  culture  .................  732,733 

Inland  Alewifo  .................................        594 

Inshore  Cod  .......................  .  ............        201 

Ltogomphodon  inaculipinnis  ....................        672 

Isophyllia  dipsacca  .............................        841 

Isopods  ........................................  826,827 

Isurus.sp  ......................................        675 

Ivory  1  in  i  n;ir  !<•  .................................        828 

Jnck,  name  for  Boccacio  ........................        266 

Jurel  ............................        324 

Pickerel  .........................        464 

Wall-eyed  Pike  ............  >  .....        418 

Buffalo  ...................................        324 

Salmon  ...................................        418 

Jackson,  J.  B.  8.,  on  Sperm-Whale  grounds  .......  8 

Jacobs,  Solomon,  on  migrations  of  Mackerel  .....        287 

Jacoby  on  discover}-  of  female  Eel  ..............  636,  638 

the  external  characteristics  of  Eels  ..  .644,645 
natural  history  of  the  Eel  ............  652-055 

search  for  young  Eels  ................        646 

Jrllv-fish,  food  of  ocean  Sunfish  ................         169 

Jrlly-fisuea  .....................................  841,842 

Jcrker  .........................................        617 

Jew-fish  .......................................        413 

name  for  Black  Grouper  ................        411 

Tarpum  .......................        611 

Jewel-head  .....................................        370 

Joe  Rocker  .....................................        774 

John  Dory  ....................................        335 

name  for  Rose-fish  ...................        260 

Johnny  ........................................        259 

Orindle  .................................        658 

Verde  ..  413 


Page. 

Johnson,  Capt.  G.  A.,  on  spawning  of  Halibut 190 

Jonah  Crab 769 

affinities  of 709 

distribution  and  habits 769 

economic  value  of 770 

name  of 770 

Jones,  J.  Matthew,  on  abundance  of  Horse-Mack- 
erel         321 

distribution  of  Sword-fish 34 1 

pugnacity  of  Spear-fishes .        359 

Joohoo :<37 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  Prof., on  distribution  of — 

AgonidiB 258 

Alaska  Pollack 232,  -£tt 

Banner  Pompano 329 

Barracouta 448 

Blue  Pike 423 

California  Anchovy 612 

Conger  Eel 628 

Flying-fish 459, 460 

Herring 508,569 

Pompano 3:i4 

Sardine 569 

Smelt 457,544 

Yellow-tail 331 

Spuroids 394, 395 

Carp  family 616-618 

Catfish  family 626-028 

Chub  Mackerel :!0:i 

Corvhms  and   Roncadors  of 

the  Pacific  coast 378-380 

Dolly  Varden  Trout 504, 505 

Flat-fishes  and  Soles  of  the 

Pacific  coast 184-189 

Fresh- water  Drum 370 

Hasj-fishes 681 

Inland  Alewife 594 

King-fish 31li 

Little  Tunny 322 

LOR  Perch    417 

Long-fiiined  Tunny 320 

Mullet  in  California 456 

Parrot-fish 275 

Pacific  Boni  to 319 

Tom  Cod 223 

Pike  Perches 417 

Quinnat  Salmon 479,480 

Ratfish 00-2 

Rock  Cods  of  the  Pacific. .  .262-267 

Trouts 267,208 

Salmons  of  the  Pacific 474-479 

ganger 424 

Serraunid  fishes  of  the  Pa- 
cific Coast 413 

Sharks  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 074-676 

Sturgeons  of  California (>02 

Sucker  family  614-010 

Sunfishos  and  their  allies...         404 

Surf-fish  family 276-279 

Surf  Smelt 544 

Sword-fish :!4l 

Tile-fish  family 301 

Wall-eyed  Pike 417 

Whitofisbes 541-543 


INDKX. 


871 


::•-••-' 
899 


j.-.s..|yn  ..ii  tin-  Aiewiie,  n;?:.  .................... 

si/,.,.1  'Maek.Tel.  1675..  ......   ....... 

Joyce,  <'a|,t.  HuDsun  !(..  nn  mi^i.itmh-  of  Muck- 
.i.-l  ..........................................  884,889 


Jubnret  ........................................ 

.InUaites  ........................................ 

JnliartiiM  ........................................ 

Jukes,  Professor,  on  dixirilmtion  of  Kinged  Seals. 
food  of  Howled  Seal  ......... 


.In  ni|iiii^  Mullet 
.  I  line  Mullet 
Jupiter 
Jnpit.-r  KiM'h 

Whale 
Jnpitervisch 
.lur.-l 

Cuba 
Jururna 
Kalieljaauw 
Kalleranlik 
Ka|HMtnik 
Kaskelot 


Kaykc. 
Kazilot  ..... 
Keela  Lank 

Kr.-thie 


29 
29 

'.?.• 

65 

71 

401 

449 

451 

29 

29 

30 

29 

324 

325 

150 

200 

197 

133 

7 

59 

59,66 
476 
7 
18 
173 
173 
173 
778 
275 
413 
67.  Oj 


Keithok  ....................................... 

Kelp  Crab  ..................................... 

Kelp-fish  of  California  .......................... 

Kelp  Salmon  .................................... 

Kemp,  R.W.,  on  distribution  of  West  Indian  Seal. 
Kemps,  Capt.  David,  on  abundance  and  habits  of 
Mullet  .......................................  452,4.':! 

Kerato-Silicioidea  ..............................  844 

Keratniilea  .....................................  844 

Kerr,  J.  W.,  on  food  of  White-fish  ...............  51<; 

spawning  of  White-fish  ..........  523 

Kettlemaw  ....................................  173 

Kiel,  Peter,  on  food  of  White-fish  ................  516 

spawning  of  White-fish  .........  522,523 

Killer  Whales  .................................  12,17 

annoyance  to  whalemen  ..........  17 

destructiveness  of  ................  17 

habits  and  distribution  of  .........  17 

uses  of  ...........................  17 

Low-finned  .......................  17 

Killifish  ........................................  466 

King  Cero  .....................................  307,316 

King  Crab  .....................................  829,630 

K  inn-flub  ...........  ............................  375 

name  for  Cero  .........................  316 

Whiting  .................  ....  377 

Kin;;  Hake  ....................................  034 

King  Salmon  ...................................  479 

Kipper  .........................................  468 

Ki-utch  .......................................  477 

Kirtland,  J.  P.,  on  breeding  lialiits  of  the  Hun  fish.  405,  406 

habits  and  value  of  Grass  Bass.  407 

Klapmyds  ......................................  69 


Klipplisk 200 

K  ni  fe  -bundle 707 

Knight  cm  toml  ami  1'erding  habits  of  Green  Tur- 
tles          161 

habits  of  Yellow-bellied  Terrapin 155 

K.'-I.-I  Floweri 11 

Kiil.ler 228 

Kotickie 

Krasnuya  Ryba 477 

Kraut 133 

Ktla-why  47(i 

Knlla  Herring 550 

Kill  inn  ml 501 

Kunilien,  L.,  on  Lake  Trout 493-49G 

Muscallonge 464-460 

Pike 463,464 

White  Bass 428-431 

Whitefish 536-540 

Yellow  Perch 414-417 

Ringed  Seal 80 

Halibut 192 

Seals  in  fresh  water 59 

HoodedSeal 69,70 

Ringed  Seals 664 

Salmon  iu  Lake  Ontario 473,47 

228 


Knth 
Kyack 
Kyanck 
Laberdan 

I.ai  lllinla-IMMs 


582 
5S2 
200 
27.'> 


Lady  Crab 774,775 

612 

612 

370 

141 

1C 

16 


Lady-fish 

family 

Lafayette 

Lagartoa 

Lageuorhynchus  obliquidens 

perspicillatus. 


Lagocephalns  lievigatns 170 

Lagodon  rhomboides 393 

LakeCusk 23d 

Herring 541 

Salmon 487 

Sturgeon 6t>0 

Trout 485,504 

Trout,  culture  of 491-493 

enemies  of 491 

foodof 490 

importance  of 488 

names  of 488 

principal  spawning  grounds  of 489,490 

sizeof 486 

spawning  of 488 

varieties  of 486-488 

White-fish 507 

Laker 487 

I. a  ma  ni  in 116 

Lamellaria  perspicna 693 

Lamellibranchiata ---  703 

I. a  m  n  a  comubica 669 

cornnbica 675 

Lamper  Eel,  name  for  Mutton-fish 247 

Eels 67« 

Lamplighter 400 

Lampreta 676 


872 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Lamprey,  ecuuomic  uses  and  capture  of 679, 680 

spawning  season  of 678 

Lampreys 676-680 

LainprididsB 335 

Lampris  guttatus 335 

Lamproie 676 

Lancelets 681 

Land-snails,  edible 701,702 

Lanman,  Charles,  on  capture  of  White-fish  in  the 

GrandLake 536 

economic  value  of  the  Bur- 
bot   240 

feeding  habits  of  the  Bur- 
bot   239 

geographical  distribution  of 

Shad 594,595 

on  spawning  habits  of  the  Capelin 545 

value  of  Capelin 546 

varieties  of  Lake  Trout 487 

Lant 244 

distribution  of 245 

habits  of 244 

uses  of 246 

Lard  Herring 551 

Latilidw 300 

Launce 244 

Lavinia  exilicauda 618 

Lawyer 236 

Leather  Carp 619 

Leather-jacket 332 

habit  of  stealing  bait 172 

name  for  File-fish 172 

Leather  Turtle 147 

l.i-  Baron,  J.  !•'.,  on  mode  of  capturing  Manatee ..  124, 125 

Ledatenuisulcata 703 

Leech,  culture  of 835,836 

ponds,  American 836 

structure  of 833 

use  of 836 

varieties  of 836 

American,  cultivation  and  economic  value 

of 834,835 

distribution  and  structure  of. . .  833 

medicinal 833 

European 835 

German 837 

Gray 835 

Green .' 835 

Hungarian 837 

Spanish 837 

Swedish 837 

Leeches 833-837 

Legateer 141 

Leidy,  on  cause  of  green  color  of  Oysters 738 

the  living  Sponge,  in  Ostrea  virginiana.  750 

the  range  of  American  Manatee 116 

Le-Kai 476 

Leomarinns 39 

Leopard  Seal 59,73 

Shark 675 

Lepas  fascicularis 628 

Lepidogobius  gracilis 255 

Lepidopsetta  bilineata 185 

Lepidopus  caudatns 336 


Lopidosteidae 

Lepidosteus  osseus 

platystonius 
spatula 

Lepomis  cyanellus 
gibbosus 
Holbrookii 
inuuatns 
megalotis 
notatus 
pallidns 
punctatus 

Leptagouus  verrucosus 
xyostemus 

Leptocottus  armatus 

Leptocephalus  conger 

Leptops 


Page. 
662 
622 
063 
603 
406 
405 
406 
406 
406 
406 
406 
406 
258 
258 
259 
655 
626 
olivaris  ...............................  636,627 

Lerneaus,  parasites  of  Sword-fish  ................        354 

Leucorhamphus  borealis  ..................  .....          16 

Peronii  .....  ......   ............          16 

Lewis,  on  abundance  of  Haddock  ...............        225 

Libinia  dubia  ..................................         778 

emarginata  ............................        778 

Licnophora  Cohnii  ..............................         734 

Limanda  aspera  ................................         184 

ferruginea  ............................        184 

Eongh  ................................        184 

Limnea  ........................................        694 

Limnoria,  Boring  ...............................        826 

lignomm  ............................        826 

similar  to  Boring  Amphipod.        825 
Limulns  polyphemus  ............................        829 

Lindahl,  Josna,  on  periodicity  in  movements  of 
Herring  in  Europe  ............................  557,558 

Ling,  name  for  Burbot  ..........................        236 

Cobia  ...........................        444 

CultnsCod  ......................        267 

Hake  ...........................        234 

Mutton-fish  .....................        247 

Liocottus  hirundo  ..............................        259 

Lion,  Sea  ......................................     37,38 

Liostomus  xauthurus  ...........................        370 

Liparididffi  .....................................        253 

Liparis  lineatns  ................................        253 

pulchellus  ..............................        255 

vulgaris  ................................        253 

l.i  i  u.s  perciformis  ...............................        334 

LittleDrum  ....................................        367 

Halibut  .................................        197 

Herring  .................................        579 

Mackerel  ................................        305 

NeckClam  ..............................        708 

Roncador  ................................        379 

Smelt  ...................................        457 

Sunny  ...................................        322 

Littorina  .......................................        693 

Ljungman,   on  annual    migrations    of    Herring 

schools  .......................  555-557 

geographical  distribution  of  Her- 

ring ..........................  551,  502 

migrations  of  Herring  ...........  552,  553 

names  of  Herring  ................        550 

Lob-Koling  ....................................        228 


INDEX. 


873 


I .nl HI  in.'iriiio 

Lobotes  snrinameusis 

Lobster 

American 

name  of. 

Berried 

Blnck  . . 


rip 

46 

444 

780 

781 

783 

783 

783 

European,  development  of 802-804 

distribution  and  habita  of.. ..807-811 

Rock 780,783 

School 783 

Soft-shell 783 

Spiny 780 

Lobsters 780-812 

association  of  males  and  females 789-790 

average  size  at  present 783-784 

bathy  me  trical  range  of 787 

casting  a  claw 806-806 

character  of  the  bottom  preferred  by 787-788 

color  of 785-786 

composition  of 811-812 

decrease  in  size  of 783 

deformities  and  diseases  of 806 

designations  of  spawn  of 796 

destruction  by  storms 807 

development  of  the  young 979 

distribution  and  geographical  range  of.  .786-787 

enemies  of 806-807 

extrusion  of  the  eggs,  etc 798-799 

food  of 804-605 

in  fresh  and  brackish  water 787 

growth,  shedding,  etc.,  of 791-794 

habitats  while  spawning  of 797 

large 784-785 

migrations  of 788 

movements  of 790-791 

number  of  eggs  in 798 

off-shore  range  of 787 

parasites  of 806 

pairing  of 797 

rate  of  growth  of 794-795 

relations  and  structure  of 781-783 

reproduction  of 795-79C 

schooling  of 789 

shedding  after  spawning 799 

size  of  spawning 797 

spawn  as  food 798 

spawning  season  of 796-797 

transplanting  the  young  of 804 

winter  habits  of 790 

Lobster's  Tail,  name  for  Land  Snail 701 

Loche 236 

Lockee  Cod 413 

Lockington  on  the  Glyptocephalns  zachirns 189 

Hippoglossoides  Jordan! 187 

Parophrys  ischyrng 185 

Lock  wood,  Rev.  Samuel,  on  habits  of  Sea-horse. .        172 
tongue  of  the  Drill . .        696 

Lodde 544 

Lodde-Fisk % 205 

Log-fish  334 

LogPerch 417 

Loggerhead  Tnrtle 147, 153 

breeding  habit*  of 148 


Loggerhead  Tnrtle,  distribution  of 147 

economic  value 148 

foodof 148 

rateofgrowth 146 

sizeof 148 

Loggerheads 147 

Pealei, 349,687 

Long-boned  Shad 279 

Long  Clam 707 

Long-eared  Sun-fish 406 

Long- finned  Sole 188 

Tunny 320 

Long-nosed  Oar-pike 662 

Look-down 323 

Lopholatilns  chamrelconticeps 360 

Lophopsctta  macnlata 179,199 

Losh 236 

Lost  Salmon 476 

Lota  brosmiana 236 

inornate 236 

maculosa 235,236 

enemy  of  Alewivea 592 

vulgaris 236 

Low-finned  Killer-whale 17 

Lnccio 462 

Lncioperca  borea. 424 

canadensis 424 

grisea 424 

Lamp-fish 253 

distribution  of 254 

Lnmp-snckers 253 

Lumpenns  angnillaris 251 

Lnnatia  grcenlandica 693 

heros 693 

heros 700 

immaculate 693 

Lnnge 487 

Black 487 

Racer 487 

Silver 487 

1. Upton,  N.  S.,  on  breeding  habits  of  salt-water 

Cat-fish 628 

Luth 147 

Lutjanus  autolycus 397 

Blackfordii 395 

campechianns 396 

caxis 236 

caxis '  397 

Stearnsii 396 

torridus 396 

Lilt  ken  on  distribution  of  Sword-fish 341 

geographical  distribution  of  Rose-fish.  261 

Lnzzo 462 

Lybecker  on  periodicity  of  Herring  in  Europe.. .  558 

Lycodes  family 347 

Lycodidas 247 

Lycodopsis  microstomus 248 

pancidens 248 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  account  of  battle  between  por- 
poise, and  alligators 15 

on  habits  of  Cowfish 16 

I. y man,  Col.  Then.,  on  abundance  of  Tautog  ....  971 

spawning  of  the  Sea-robin  256 

Lyon,  George,  on  capture  of  Lampreys 679-680 


874 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Lysanger 261 

Ly siosquilla  glabriuscula 82:! 

Lytle,  A.  H.,  oil  movements  of  Branch  Alewifc.. .        592 

McDonald,  Marshall,  on  the  Hickory  Shad 607-609 

Shad 594-WK) 

Shad  and  Alewives  .579-588 

Hachaeroplax  obecura 693 

Mackerel,  abundance  of 289,290 

and  its  allies 281,300 

enemies  of 299-300 

food  of 290-294 

geographical  distribution  of. 281-282 

hibernation  of 284 

migrations  of 282,288-289 

spawning  grounds  of 302, 303 

rate  of  growth  and  size  of 298, 209 

reproduction  of 294-298 

schools,  studies  of  the  movements  of  . .        300 — 

Atka 268 

Big-eyed 303 

Bull 303 

Chub 303 

Frigate 305 

Guide 458 

Little 305 

Mixed 304 

Monterey 316 

Shark 669 

enemy  of  Mackerel 299 

Skip 433 

Snapping 433 

Spanish 307 

Thimble-eye  304 

Sinker 304 

Yellow 324 

Mackinaw  Trout 4£8 

Mackinnon,  Captain,  on  Turbot  in  America 176 

Macoma  uasuta 708 

sabulosa 703 

Macrobdella  decora 833 

Macrochelys 153 

lacertina 153 

Macrorliinus  augnstirostris 72 

leouinus 73,74 

MaoruridjB 244 

MacruruH  Bairdii 244 

rupestris 244 

Macy  Zacchens,  on  former  abundance  of  Sperm 

Whale 8 

on  the  Scrag  Whale 31 

Mademoiselle  , 375 

Madrepora  cervicornis 841 

palinata 841 

prol  i  fera 84 1 

Maigre 368 

Malacoclemmys  geographica 156 

Lesncurii  156 

palustris 156 

Mallotns  villosug 207,544 

Malm,  on  dnte  of  capture  of  Cat-fish 250 

Malma fi04 

Malmgren,  on  distribution  of  Hooded  Seal 70 

habits  of  Ringed  Seals 66 

Malthe  ve-tpertilio 172 


Page. 

JIiilthcidiB 173 

Manatee,    names  of 116 

mode  of  capture 123, 124 

probability  of  extinction  of 123 

products  furnished  by 1 27 

size  and  weight  of 117 

American 114 

boundaries  of  the  range  of  . .  116 
early  allusion  to  habits  of, 

by  Columbus 119 

Florida,  abundance  of 122, 123 

distribution  of 114 

size  of 117 

North  American  species  of 114 

South  American,  abundance  of 123 

distribution  of 115 

size  and  weight  of . ..  117 

West  Indian 115 

Manati 116 

Manatus  antiquus 116 

australis 114 

inornatns 116 

latirostris 115 

Manaty 116 

Man-eater  Shark 669-670,675 

Manentine 116 

Mangrove  Snapper 396,397 

Manicina  areolata 841 

Manta  birostris 606 

Mantis,  Sea 823 

shrimp ...  - ..--..  823 

Manuani 663 

Mar,  Captain  Chester,  on  food  of  Mackerel 291-292 

migration  of  Codfish  ..  210 

Marbled  Angler 173 

Margarita  argentata 693 

cinerea    69:? 

groenlandica 693 

Margatefish 394 

Marine  Tortoises  and  Turtles 147 

Turtles,  speciesof  commercial  importance.  147 

Worms 831 

Market  fish 394 

MaroonaEel 247 

Marphysa  sangninea 833 

Marse  Banker 326 

Marshbanker 569 

Marsoon 

Marsuin 14,18 

Marten  on  distribution  of  White  Whale 18 

Marthy 236 

Masooka 37(> 

Masters,  Peter,  on  abundance  of  Mullet  at  Saint 

Augustine 453 

Matajuelo 361 

on  the  colors  of  Grayling 507 

Mather,  Fred. ,  on  destructi  veness  of  the  Drum :  V.  M 

Jelly-fish.  842 
Richard,  on  abundance  of  Mackerel  in 

1635 289 

extract  from  journal 13 

Maties 550 

Matkah 

Mattowacca (m 


1NDKX. 


si.'. 


Manlnish  .......  ...............................  ZW 

M.-i  \iiiiilia  n,  1'rincc.  mi  ili«tril  >nt  ion  of  South  Amer- 

ir:m  Manatee  .................................  ll.'i 

May  Slicker  ....................................  614 

M.i\  M.II.I.  C.  J.,  on  distribution  of  Florida  Mana- 

tee ..........................................  !!."> 

Mrandrina  clmma  ....................  ..  ........  841 

labyrintliiforiiiis  .....................  841 


Medialuia  .....................................  395 

Medregal  .......................................  331 

Medu»»  ........................................  841 

Meerhcdit  .....................................  «42 

lops  thrisftoides  ............................  610 

Megapteru  osjihyia  .............................  26 

vtTMihilis  ...........................  26 

Meluuipus  ......................................  694 

bidentatus  ...........................  701 

Melauograinmus  a>glefinus  ......................  233 

Menhaden  ......................................  569 

abundance  of  .........................  573 

distribution  of  ........................  570 

enemies  of  ...............  .  ............  574 

food  of  ...............................  573-574 

movements  of  .......................  570-573 

names  of  .............................  569-570 

reproduction  of  .......................  673 

uses  of  ...............................  574-675 

Gulf  .................................  575 

Menidia  notuta  .................................  456 

Menippe  mercenarius  ...........................  772 

Meuomonec  White-fish  ..........................  541-542 

Menticirrus  alburnus  ...........................  376 

littoralis  ...........................  376 

nebnlosns  ..........................  375 

nndnlatus  ..........................  379 

Merchant,  Capt.  E.  W.,  on  abundance  of  Haddock.  225 

Pollock..  229 

t  Cod-fish  schools  .......  205 

food  of  Mackerel  ......  292 

the  uses  of  the  Hake  .  .  235 

Merlangus  carbonarius  .........................  231 

vulgaris  ............................  241 

Merluccio  ......................................  240,243 

Merlncius  bilincaris  ............................  240 

merlus  ...............................  240 

productus  ............................  243 

vulgaris  .............................  240 

Mermaid-fish  ..................................  171 

Merou  ..........................................  267 

Methy  .........................................  236 

Mi  unier,  on  overtiming   for  Sword-fish  in   the 

Mediterranean  ..................  349 

reproduction  of  Sword-fish  .......  350 

Michigan  Grayling,  artificial  propagation  of  .....  507 

Herring  ...............................  541 

Microgadus  proximns  ...........................  223 

i.  .mi-oil    ............................  223 

Mirropogon  undnlatus  ..........................  378 

Micropterus  Dolomiei  ...........................  401 

enemy  of  Alewi  ves  ........  592 

salmoides  ..........................  401 

enemy  of  Alewi  ves  .......  59SJ 

MicroHtomidn  ................................  543 


i-  p 

Milaktok    dl 

M  i  I  lr|M>ra  alcicornU 841 

Miller's  Thumb 

.Mill.-t  on  food  and  voracity  of  tin-  Saibling 504 

Milncr,  .1.  W.,  on  artificial  propagati >f  White- 
fish 523-528 

tl»-  Chief  Mountain  Wliit«-iUh.f:42..r>43 

culture  of  White-fish 589-P35 

developme nt  and  rate  of  growth 

of  White-fish f.l 

distribution  of  the  Eel 032 

enemies  of  Lake  Trout 491 

enemies  of  White-fish 512, 513 

food  of  the  Grayling 506, 507 

W  hite-nali 513-51C 

general   habits  and  history  of 

Lake  Sturgeon 660, 661 

the  habitat  of  the  Michigan  Gay- 
ling  506 

habits  of  the  speckled  trout 499 

importance  of  Lake  Trout 481 

improved  methods  of  shipping 

eggs  of  White-fish 529-531 

the  Lamprey  as  a  parasite 679 

movements  of  White-fish  in  the 

Great  Lakes 509-512 

parasites  of  White-fish C35 

size  and  weight  of  Lake  Trout.        491 
spawning    grounds    of     Lake 

Trout 489,490 

spawning  habits  of  Lake  Tront.488, 489 

Minister 627 

Mi  M  nil  n.x  cornutus 617 

Minnow  name  for  Mummicbog 466 

Rot-gut f>lK 

Minnows 616 

Minny 276,278 

Mirror  Carp 619 

Mishcnppaug 386 

Missouri  Sucker (115 

Mitchill,  on  habits  of  the  8heepshea«l 382, 383 

the  Hammer-head  Shark 671 

history  of  the  Chub  Mackerel  .. .        ::".: 

Spanish  Mackerel 308 

Sword-fish 340 

Tautog 2fl9 

Tantog  fishing 272,273 

term  of  continuance  of  the  Sheeps- 

head 380,381 

and  Field  on  abundance  of  Salmon.        469 

Mixed  Mackerel 304 

Mnemiopsis  Leidyi 842 

Mobilianer  Terrapin 155 

Mobins,  Professor,  on  food  of  Herring 565 

reproduction  of  European 

Oyster 720 

Modiola  capax 709 

hamatns 709 

modiolus 703,709 

plicatnla 709 

Modiolaria  discors 703 

Moharra 276,278 

family 279 

Mongrel  White-fish 541 


876 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Monk-fish 171,173 

Mola 169 

Moll 269 

Molligut 173 

Mollusks 687 

dyes  from 699 

shells  for  cameo-cutting 699,700 

Wing-footed 702,703 

MolvaHuntia 236 

vnlgaris 236 

Molyneux  on  Sperm  Whale  in  England 9 

Monocanthus  setifer 213 

Monodou  monoceros 19 

Monterey  Halibut 182 

Mackerel 316 

Moon  eye 541-613 

family 612,613 

Moon-fish 445 

name  for  Blunt-nosed  Shiner 322 

range  of 445 

Silver 323 

Moore,  C.  E.,  on  abundance  of  Spanish  Mackerel.  312 

Moray,  speckled 628 

Morays 628 

Morina ." 250 

Morse 34,35,36 

Mortimer,  C.,  on  pugnacity  of  Sword-fish 351 

Morue 200 

verte 200 

Moss  Bass 401 

Mossbunker 569 

Mother  of  Eels 236 

Mottled  Grampus 14 

Mountain  Trout 475 

name  for  Black  Bass 401 

Moxostoraa  macrolepidotnm 614 

Mncqna 497 

Mud  Bass 405 

Cat 627 

Crabs 772 

Mud-dab 182 

Mud-fish 658 

Mud  Shad 610 

Suckers 615 

Muffle  Jaws 259 

Mngilalbula 449 

brasiliensis 449 

MUller,  August,  on  the  development  of  the  Lamprey  678 

great  Northern  Expedition 129 

Mullet,  abundance  of 450,451,452 

in  California 456 

Eastern  Florida 450-453 

general  habits  of 449 

movements  of 451 

names  of 449 

in  Saint  Mary's  River 453 

Southeastern  Florida 453 

value  of 452 

Big-«yed 449 

Black 375 

Fat 451 

Finger 453 

Jumping .... ...... .-  449 

June..  451 


Mullet,  Roe 

Sand 

Sea 

Silver 

Striped 

White 
Mullets 
Mnmmichog 

family  ...........  : 

Bluefish 
Muraena  nigra 
Muraenid» 
Murenieides  ornatns 
Murie,  Dr.,  on  food  of  Sirenians 


Pago. 
451 
449 
453 
449 
449 
449 
449 
466 
466 
449 
629 
628 
251 
119 

size  of  South  American  Manatee..  117,  118 
Murray,  Andrew,  on  Bowhead  Whales  ............          20 

distribution  of  Right  Whales.          25 

Sperm  Whales  -  7 

Muscallonge  .................  ____  ...............        464 

abundance  of  .......................  464-466 

Musk  Tortoise  ..................................  152,154 

characteristics  of  .................        154 

distribution  of  .................  ...         154 

Musqnaw  River  White-fish  ......................        541 

Mussel  Digger  ..................................          31 

Mussels  ......  .................................        709 

uses  of  .................................        710 

Mustelis  canis  ..................................        236 

Mnstelus  californicus  ...........................        675 

canis  .................................        672 

Mustet  .........................................        244 

Musteta  ........................................        244 

Mutton-fish  ....................................        247 

Mya  arenaria  ...................................        703 

Mycedium  fragile  ......................  .........        841 

Mycteroperca  brunnea  ..........................        413 

falcata  ...........................        413 

microlepis  ........................         413 

stomias  ...........................        413 

Myctophum  crenulare  ..........................        547 

Myers,  W.  E.,  on  the  Mullet  in  Saint  Mary's  River.        453 
Mykiss  ........................................        474 

Myliobatidae  ...................................        665 

Myliobatis  californicus  .........................        666 

Fremenville  .........................        665 

Mylochilus  caurinus  ............................        617 

Mylopharodon  conocephalus  ....................        617 

Myriolepis  zonifer  ..............................        268 

Mytilus  edulis  .................................  703,709 

Myxine  glntinosa  ...............................        680 

Myxinidae  .....................................        680 

Namaycush  ....................................        485 

Narwhal  .......................................          19 

distribution  of  .........................          19 

size,  uses,  &c  ..........................          19 

Nassnlas  .......................................        733 

Natica  .........................................        696 

clausa  ....................  ..  .............        693 

Native  Cod  .....................................        201 

Seal  .....................................    58,65 

Nancrates  dnctor  .......................  ........        330 

Nantichthys  oculofasciatus  ......................        £59 

Needle-fish  ....................................  .        458 

Noill,  Mr.,  on  the  Mutton-fish  ...................        248 


INDEX. 


877 


Neiteek 66,66 

Nejou  ogon C76 

VI, !•:.  \v  ,  on  th..  Blackfish  of  Alaska 46ti,467 

NrnuliiiuM  Hlaiifhardi 251 

satiricus -'••! 

Neoliparis  mucosug 256 

\i  ]>tiiiii>a  degpecta 603 

Nereis  liuibata 832,833 

vireng 831,833 

Ni-iiinartout 69 

Nuunailgo 676 

N ailjjel 676 

NeveriU  duplicata 700 

r.iiKland  Whiting 240 

New  Light 407 

New  York  Herri  ng 579 

Newfoundland  Turbot 177 

Nigger  Chub 618 

Night  Cod 214 

Nilsgon  and  Muller  on  Sea-Beam 52 

Nine-eye 076 

Nippon 273 

NonlciiHkiold  on  extinction  of  Rbytina 135 

Norris,  Tbad.,  on  beauty  of  young  Salmon 472 

habit*  and  size  of  White  Perch 432 

manner  of  fishing  for  Sbeepshead..  383 

the  size  of  the  Salmon   473 

North,  Christopher,  on  the  "  perfect  fish  " 473 

Northern  Fur  Seal 49 

figures  of 53,54 

general  history 51 

size  of 61 

Northwest  Whale 24 

Norway  Haddock 260 

Norwegian  Herring 550 

Winter  Herring 550 

Nosconougo 466 

Notemigonns  chrysoleucna 616 

Noturns  flavus 627 

Nucula  proxima 703 

tennis 703 

Nurse-shark 672,674 

Nye,  William,  on  pugnacity  of  Sword-fish 353 

Oar-fish '. 449 

Obispo  Kay 665 

Ocean  Kingfish 337 

Sun-fishes 169 

Octopus  granulat us 687 

Oculina  diffusa 841 

Odoba;i>iila) 33 

Odobaenns  obesns 34 

rosmarus 34 

Odontaspis  littoralis 670 

Odon  topyxis  tris)ii  IIOSMS 258 

Odowtomia  striatula 694 

Ogilby  on  breeding  habits  of  Mauatees 118 

the  Sucking-fish  as  a  fisher 446, 447 

Oil  Shark 675 

Okow '. 418 

Old  English  Hake 234 

Old  Man 66 

Oligocottus  analis 259 

globiceps 259 

mai-u IIISIIH  . .  259 


IV". 

Oligoplitea  saunu 333 

Olivella  biplicata 699 

damn 699 

gracilig 090 

Oliver  on  the  habiU  of  the  Lant 246 

Ombre  Chevalier 601 

Ommagtrepbeg  illecebrosa 687,690 

enemy  of  Mackerel  . . .  299 

Oncorhynohns  chonicha 479 

gorbngcha 476 

keU 476 

kigutch 477 

nerka 477 

quinnat 480 

Onion-fishes 244 

Opah  family 335 

Ophichthys  ohrysops 628 

ocellatus 628 

Ophidiida) 243 

Ophidinm  marginatnm 243 

Taylori 244 

Ophiodon  elongatng 267,268 

Orange  File-fish 171 

Rockfish 265 

Orbicella  annularig 841 

cavernoga 841 

Orcaatra 17 

gladiator 17 

rectipinna 17 

Orchestia  agilig 824 

Orcynug  alalonga 320 

alliteratng 322 

argentivittatng 320 

pelamyg 316 

thynnug 320 

enemy  of  Sword-fish 354 

similar  to  Frigate  Mackerel  ...  306 

Oregon  Fmner 30 

Ormer-shellg 700 

Ortbagoriscidio 169 

Orthagoriscng  mola 169 

Orthodon  microlepidotng 618 

Osmerng  dentex 544 

eperlanug 543 

mordax 543 

gpirincbng 544 

thaleichthys 544 

Ostracion  bicaadalig 171 

quadricornis 171 

trigonig 171 

triqneter 171 

Ostraciontidii- 170 

Ostreaedulis 711 

virginica 703,711 

rate  of  growth  of 725-729 

Oswego  Bagg 401 

Otaria 37 

califoniiana 45 

jnbata  38,44 

leonina 52 

nr-iiia 54 

Otariee 37 

OUriidffi 33 

Otolithng  thalagginng 364 


878 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Otscgo  Base 507 

Oulachon 547 

O viedo  on  name  of  Manatee 116 

Owen,  Prof.  R.,  on  the  power  of  Sword-fishes 345 

Owl,  Sea 254 

Oxylebius  pictus 268 

Oyster 711 

Oyster  banks,  natural  and  artificial 750-758 

characteristics  of 750, 751 

positions  of  the  spat  in 751, 752 

Oyster-beds,  artificial,  establishment  of 752,753 

cause  of  green  color  of 735-742 

experiments  at 
Washington  and 
Philadelphia  ...  735 

characters  of  the  larval  shell 728 

coarser  anatomy  of 711-715 

colors  in  different  parts  of 740-742 

cnltnre,  influences  of  environment  on 732,733 

situations  best  adapted  for 731, 732 

discrimination  of  sexes  of 722,723 

early  stages  of  development  of 726 

experiments  on,  at  Saint  Jerome's  Creek .        727 

food  of 729-735 

observations    at    Saint    Jerome's 

Creek 729-731 

influence  of  temperature  on 743, 744 

impregnation  of  the  eggs  of 723-725 

interference  of  other  animal  life  with.  ..748-750 

local  variations  in  form  and  habits  of 742-744 

manner  of  taking  on  flesh  and  reproduc- 
tion of  755-758 

methods  of  distinguishing  sexes  and  tak- 
ing eggs  of 722-725 

minute  anatomy  of 715-719 

mud  and  fry  of 747 

physical  and  vital  agencies  destructive  to.  746-750 
and  its  prey,  mutual  relation  between.  ..734,735 

rate  of  growth  of 728,729 

sex,  sexual  products,  and  difference  of 
sexual  habits  in  American  and  Eu- 
ropean  719-722 

size  of  the  egg  of 725,726 

spat  collectors 753,754 

variations  in  color  of 735,736 

the  shell  of 743 

yonng,  food  of 728 

larval  character  of 727,728 

Crab 765,766 

development  of 745, 746 

as  a  messmate  and  purveyor 744-746 

quadruple  commensalism  of 744, 745 

European  experiments  upon 740 

fish,  name  for  Tautog 269 

Toad-fish 2T.1 

Raccoon '62 

Pacific  Bouiro 319 

Kin back 30 

Lycodidg 248 

Tom  Cod 223 

Walrus,  size  of 35 

dixtribution  of 35 

li:ibitnof 35,36 


Pago. 
Packard,   Dr.,  on    geographical    distribution  of 

Hooded  Seal 09 

Paddle-fish 659 

Pagophilus  groonlandicus 70 

Painted  Clam 708 

Palsemon  ohionis 819 

Palscmonetes  exilipes 819 

vulgaris  818 

Palinurus  vulgaris 780 

Palndina 694 

Pandalns  borealis 819,820 

Danse 821 

leptoceros 819,820 

Montagni 819,820 

propinquns 819, 820 

Panganaut  Tamwock 201 

Panopens  depressus 772 

Harrisii 772 

Herbstii 772 

Sayi 772 

found  in  stomach  of  Sea-robin 256 

Pantosteus  platyrhynchus 615 

Panulirus  interruptus 780 

Paper-shell 776 

Paralepidas 548 

Paralepis  borealis 548 

coruscans 548 

family 548 

Paralichthys  dentatns 176,177,178,182 

maculosus 182 

oblongus ..         181 

qnadrocellatus 181 

stigmatias 182 

Parkhurst.on  the  Capelin 544,545 

Parnell,  on  economic  value  of  Cat-fish 250 

on  the  Mutton-fish... 247 

uses  of  1  he  Lump-fish 254 

Red  Gurnard 256 

Parophrys  ischyrus 185 

isolepis 186 

vetulns 185 

Parr 228,468 

Parrot-fish,  Blue 274 

Parrot-fishes  and  some  of  their  allies 274, 775 

Pasture  school 201 

Paugy 386 

Pauly,  Dr.,  on  sex  of  Eels 649 

Peacock-fish 338 

Peal 468 

Pearch 406 

Pece-Buey 128 

Pecten  irradians 703, 709 

islandicns 703,709 

tenuioostatus „ .703,7(19 

Peelers 776, 

Pega  de  las  Agujas 446 

Pegebuey 116 

Pensens  brasiliensin 821 

setiferus 821 

Pennant  on  abundance  of  Alewives 584 

feeding  habits  of  tho  Burbot 2:«» 

Pensacola  Rock  Salmon 331 

Snappers 398 


iNDi:\. 


871) 


838 

IVn-a  iiiiii-ririiiiii 219,414 

llnvi.itilis,  rtirniy  of  Alewives 

Percli,  niiiiif  l'"i  Hlark  BAKU 401 

Chogaot :•'•'• 

Pnim 370 

Surf-fish 276 

Black 444 

name  for  Surf-fish 278 

Illue 277 

CIiin<|ii:i]iiii    407 

Gray,  name  for  Drum -.  370 

Log 417 

Pike 417 

Red 260 

Ringed 414 

1,'iMT 279 

Sacramento 405 

Silver 375 

Striped 417 

White 277,424,431 

name  for  Drnm 370 

Yellow 414 

IV IT ina  caprodes 417 

Peristedium  miniatum 257 

IVri  winkle 694 

Perley.M.  H.,  on  distribution  of  Halibnt 192,193 

the  Pollock 228 

the  habit*  of  the  Hake 235 

migrations  of  Mackerel 288 

movements  of  Pollock 230 

movements  of  the  Silver  Hake 242 

names  of  Hickory  Shad 608 

the  uses  of  the  Lump-fish  254,255 

Permit 329 

Pesce-spada :t37 

pretre 266 

vermiglia 264 

Pescerey 275 

Peters,  on  abundance  of  Salmon 469 

Petricola  pholadiformis 703 

Petromyzon  americanus 676 

argenteug 679 

branchialis..   67h 

fluviatilis 678 

marinus 676, 679 

Planeri 677, 678 

I  vt  rouiyzonidae <>7<> 

Pcz  Colorado 372 

de  epada 337 

Philine  lineolata 694 

Phillips,  Barnet,  a  criticism  on  the  essay  "First 

families  of  the  Atlantic" 282,283 

Phoca  AnHoni 74 

barbata K> 

byroni 74 

canina 57 

dorsata 63 

eleplmntina   "74 

fwtida 59,63,65,107 

groenlandica 62,63,65 

Isidore! 70 

leonina . .  74 


Pure. 

Phoca  nnmmnlaris .",7 

Petrovi 107 

proboscidea 74 

vitulinii 55,57,63,65,73,82,107 

Phocmna  brachycion 14 

Phocarctos  Hookeri 38 

Phocidro 33 

Pholads 707 

Physa 694 

Phycis  blennioides 234 

Chester!  234 

chuss 234 

Earllii 234 

regins 234 

I  r  II II  is 23* 

Pickerel 421,484,462,464 

Brook 464 

Gray •   421 

Salt 418 

Yellow 421 

Pickering 424 

Pickers 201 

Piddocks 707 

Piembo,   Paul,  on  prices  of  Bull-frogs  in  Cali- 
fornia   161 

Pig-fish 398 

name  for  Scnlpin 2fi8 

Pig-fishes 397 

Pig,  Snuffing 14 

Pigmy  Scnlpin 258 

Pike 461 

family 461-466 

Blue,  name  for  Pike  Perch 417 

Gray 424 

Great  Lake 462 

Green,  name  for  Pike  Perch 418 

Ground 424 

Nicholas,  on  habits  of  Spear-fishes 358 

Perches 417 

Sacramento <;17 

Sand 424 

Spawn -121 

Wall  eyed,  name  for  Pike  Perch 417 

Yellow 421 

name  for  Pike  Perch 417 

Pilcher 569 

Pilot-fish 330 

Whales 11 

Piltock 228 

Pin-fish 386,393 

Pine-barren  Terrapin l,r»H 

Pine-tree  Cod 201 

Pinuipedia 33 

Pinnipeds 33 

Pinnotheres  maculatum 76(5 

ostreuin 765 

Pipe-fish,  appearance  and  size I  T'J 

family 172 

geographical  distribution 172 

habits 172 

Pipe-fishes 169 

Piper 257 

Piscator,  onAlewifeintheSaintLawrenceRiver.. .  589 


880 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Piscator,  author  of  "  Practical  Angler,"  on  eco- 
nomic value  of  the  Gurnard 257 

Piacia  Jo  vis 29 

Piao,  on  the  history  of  the  Sail-flah 356 

Plaice 176,178,186 

fishery 179,180 

Plain  Bonito 306 

Planorbis 694 

Platydon  cancellatnn 707 

Platyglossus  bivittatus 274 

radiatus 274 

semicinctns 275 

Platygobio  gracilis 617 

Platyonichus  ocellatns 774 

food  of  Mackerel 290 

Platypeltis  ferox 152 

Platysomatichthys  hippoglossoides 177, 197 

Pleurobrachia  rhodactyla 842 

Pleurogram  mus  inonopterygins 268 

Pleuronectes  glaber 183 

glacialis .*.  184 

stellatns 184 

Plenronichthys  ccenoaus 189 

quadrituberculatus 189 

verticalis 189 

Pliny,  on  the  Sword-fiah 338 

Poddlie 228 

Podley 288 

Podling 228 

Podothecus  acipenserinus 258 

vulsus 258 

Poey  on  distribution  of  Sword-fish 341 

mo vementa  of  Spear-fishes 358 

size  of  Black  Grouper 412 

Poggys 21 

Pogharden 387,569 

Pogoniiis  chromis 367 

fasciatna 367 

Pogonichthes  nmcrolepidotus 617 

Pogy,  name  for  Menhaden  569 

Moon-fish 445 

Scup 387 

Surf-fish 276 

Poisson  boeuf 116 

rouge 372 

Polar  Whale 20 

Pole  Flounder 177,178,188 

Polistotrema,  enemy  of  Cnltus  Cod 268 

Rock  Cod 263 

Stonti 681 

Pollachins  carbonarins 228 

chalcogrammus 232 

viridis 228 

Pollack 223 

Polliwogs 160 

Pollock 228 

distribution  of 228 

habits  and  food  of 229 

reproduction  of 230 

uses  of 231 

raw 228 

Polynemidse 279 

Polywmns  octonoinus 279 

Polyodon  spathula 659 


PolyodontidsB 

Polyp  Corals 

PomacentridsB 

Pomacentrua  rubicnndus  . . . 

PomatomidsB 

Pomatomus  saltatrix 

Pomfret 

Pomodaays  fulvomacnlatus 

Pomoxy  s  annularis 

aparoidea 


Page. 

659 

841 

275 

276 

433 

433 

335 

398 

407 

406 

Pompano,  African 427,329 

Banner ....327,329 

California 334 

Carolina 326 

Common 327 

Gaff-topaail 329 

Round 327,329 

Shore 329 

Pompanoes 326 

Pompilua 330 

Pond  Tortoiaes 152,154,157 

Pookagen 569 

Porbeagle 669 

Porcupine  Fish,  appearance,  habits,  voice 170 

geographical  distribution 170 

fishes 170 

Porgee 276,277 

name  for  Moon-fiah 445 

Three-tail 445 

Porgiea  of  the  Gulf 394 

Porgy,  name  for  Porcupine  Fish 170 

name  for  Scup 386 

Goafs-head 393 

Sheepshead 394 

White-boned 394 

Porichthya  porosiasimus 253 

Poriferata 843,844 

Porifera 843-850 

Porpoise 18 

Atlantic 14 

Bay 14 

Right  Whale 16 

Skunk 16 

Sperm  Whale 11 

vomorina 14 

Harbor 14 

Priatipomatidae 395 

Pot-belly  Trout 488 

Potomac     River,    observations    of   temperature 

taken,  1881 602 

Potfiak 7 

Potter 154 

Pottfisch 7 

Pout,  Horned 627 

Potvisch 7 

Prawn,  California 821 

common 818,819 

Prawns,  Deep-water 819-821 

Preestl 475 

Pricke 676 

Prid 676 

Pride P76 

Prinkle 226 

Prionotua --  255 


INDEX. 


SSI 


Prionotus  palmipes 255,256 

tttephanophrya 258 

strigatus 255 

Pri«tidas 667 

I'ristipoma  Davidson! 400 

Pristis  pectinatus 667 

Proinicrops  guasa 412 

Prosopion  C'oiii'-ii 542 

Psettichlhys 186 

m.-  la  MUM  i.  t  us 186, 187 

Pseudemys  concinna 155 

elegans 155 

hieroglyphica 155 

mobiliensis 155 

rugosa 154 

scabra 155 

Troostii 155 

Psendo-harengns 580 

Pseudojulis  inodestna 275 

Paeudopleuroneotee  americanus 182 

Psych  rolntes  paradoxus 259 

Pternpbryne  hi»trio 173 

l';i  iuplatc:i  uiaclura 665 

inarmorata 666 

Pti'ropoda 702 

Ptychofhilus  Harfordii 617 

lucius 617 

oregonensis 617 

Puckerinouth 178 

Puff-fish 170 

Puffer 14 

Puffers 170 

Puffing-grubby 258 

Pug-nosed  Shiner 322 

PuitAal 247 

I'uiiipkin-beed 333,405 

Puncturclla  nouchina 693 

Purchas  on  American  Manatees 125, 126 

Purple  Shore-crab  of  Pacific  coast 765 

Purpnra 698 

lapillns 693,699 

Puysegnr  on  cause  of  green  color  of  Oyster 738 

Pygosteus  pnugitins 338 

Quahang 708 

Qnaloch 476 

Quassilabia  lacera 614 

Queen-fish 380 

Quill-back 615 

Qninnat  Salmon 479 

development  of 481,482 

distribution  of 480,481 

names  of 480 

river  ascent  of 482,483 

spawning  habits  of 484,486 

speed  of  ascent  of 483, 484 

Qninnault 480 

Quodcly  Salmon 230 

Rabbil  Fish 170 

size  and  habits  of 170 

Rabbit-mouth  Sucker 614 

Racer  Lunge 487 

Raccoon  Oysters 752 

Racochilua  tozotes 277 

Radiates 838-843 

56  F 


Raed-fisk 261 

Ragged -jackets 68 

Raia  biuoculata 667 

inornata 667 

Itevis 667 

rli  ina 667 

stellnlata 667 

Raise 604 

Raiidas 666 

Rainbow  Trout 475 

Raleigh  on  the  Alligator 141 

pugnacity  of  Alligators 143 

Rana  Catesbiana 159 

esculenta 161 

Rangers 58 

Ranzania  truncata 170 

Rasher 265 

Rat-fish  of  California 662 

Rathbnnn,  Richard,  on  Crustaceans,  Worms,  Ra- 
diates, and  Sponges 762 

Rat-tail  Fish 244 

Rattle-snake's  Tail 701 

Rauning  Pollack 228 

Raw  Pollock 228 

Rawlin  Pollack 228 

Ray,  Bishop 665 

Butterfly 665 

Eagle 665 

Sharp-nosed 665 

Stiug 664 

Razor-fish 707 

Razor-clam 707 

Razor-shell 707 

Red  Bass,  name  for  Red-fish 372 

Red-bellied  Snapper 410 

Terrapin 154 

Red  Crab 771 

Cusk  family 244 

Dace 617 

Drum 362,371 

Redeye 404,405 

Red-fender 154 

Red-fin 617 

Red-fish 371,372 

of  California 275 

name  for  Bine-back  Salmon 477 

Rose-fish 261 

Southern 372 

Red  Grouper 410 

Gurnard 256 

uses  of 256 

Red  Hone 372,614 

RedLump-fish 254 

Red-mouth  Grunt 398 

Red  Mullet  family 361 

Perch 260 

name  for  Demoiselle 276 

Red  Rock-Cod 265 

Rock  Crab 778,779 

Rock-fish 265 

of  Alaska 266 

Roncador 379 

Snapper 396 

Snappers,  enemies  of  Turbot ITS 


882 


IKDEX. 


Bed  Snappers,  value  as  a  food-fish . 

Red-spotted  Trout » 

Red  Trout 

Reef  Bass,  Dame  for  Red-fish. 


Page. 

396 

504 

487 

372 

Sponge 846 

Trout 488 

Reeks,  Henry,  on  habits  of  Harbor  Seals 58 

on  the  Harbor  Seal 62 

Eegalecus  Banksii 449 

Reina 266 

Remora 446 

family 446 

brachyptera,  parasite  of  Sword-fish 355 

squalipeta,  parasite  of  Sword-fish 355 

Remoras,  fish  parasite 355 

Reiuoropgis  brachyptera 446 

Repkie 839 

Rbachianectes  glaucns 31 

Rhucochilus  toxotes 276 

1 J 1 1  a  1 1 1  phocottus  Richardson! 859 

Rhinobatns  exasperatus 667 

productus 666,677 

triseriatus 667 

Rhomb  hiie 177 

Rhombochirus  osteochir 446 

parasite  of  Spear-fish...  355 

Rhomboplites  aurornbens 396,397 

Rhombus  maximns 199 

Rhynchobolus  Americanis 833 

dibranchiatus 833 

Rhynchonella  psittacns 703 

Rhytina 123 

causes  of  extinction 135,136 

extinction  of 134 

use  to  survivors  of  Northern  Expedition.  129 

gigas 129 

Ribbon  Seal 67 

general  history  of 67 

geographical  distribution  of 67 

habits  of 67 

Richardson,  on  biography  of  the  Pike 462 

Sir  John,  on  discovery  of  Thymallus 

signifer 605 

on  distri bu'ion  of  Cod 202 

distribution  of  the  Sea  Cat-fish..  248 

the  Lump-fish 254 

reproduction  of  the  Burbot 238 

Right  Whale  Porpoise 16 

Whales 824 

distribution  of  affinities  of 24 

movements  of 25 

reproduction  of 25 

sizes  and  yield  of  oil  of 26 

Ringed  Perch 414 

Seal 56,63,65 

geographical  distribution 65 

habits,  products,  and  hunting 66 

history  and  nomenclature 65 

Rink,  on  annual  catch  of  Harp  Seals  in  Green- 
land   64 

distribution  of  Halibut 191 

geographical  distribution  of  Hooded  Seal  69 

Greenland  Turbot 198 

Rio  Grande  Trout ...                        476 


Rip  Sack 

Risso,  on  distribution  of  Sword-fish. 
River  Chub 

Herrings 

Perch 

Rhinoptera  quadriloba 

Roach,  name  for  Fall- fish 

Spot 

Robin 

Sea 

Round 

name  for  Goose  Fish.. 


Page. 

31 

340 

617 

579 

279 

665 

617 

370 

393 

255 

324 

173 

Roccus  americanus 424,431 

similar  to  Surf-fish 276 

chrysops 424, 428 

interruptus 424,431 

labrax 424 

lineatus 424,425 

Roohefort,  on  the  habits  of  Antillean  Manatee. ..        120 
products  of  South  American  Man- 
atee         127 

RockBarnacle 828 

Bass 404,413 

Black-fish 410 

Rock-cod 200 

distribution  of 262 

names  of 262 

of  Pacific 262 

spawning  of 262,263 

Red 265 

RockCrab 766 

economic  value  of 767 

development  of 767 

distribution  and  habits  of 766 

external  characters  of 766, 767 

of  Pacific  coast 771,772 

Rock-fish 412,417,424 

name  for  Pacific  Rock-cod 262 

Black-banded 263 

Brown 264 

Grass  264 

Green 265,266 

Red 265 

Yellow 265 

Yellow-backed 264 

Yellow-tail 266 

Rock  Lobster 780,783 

Salmon 228 

Pensacola 331 

Seal 62 

Rock  Toad-fish 258 

KockTrout 267 

Green 267 

Spotted 267 

Rockling. 201 

Rocky  Mountain  White-fish 54i 

Roe  Mullet 451 

Roding Wl 

Roncador 379 

Black 379 

Little 379 

Red 379 

Stearnsi 379 

Yellow-Anned 379- 


IXDEX. 


888 


361 

Fact 
....469,470 

378 

....473,474 

24 

471 

260 

418 

food  of 

261 

365 

261 

470,471 

262 

471,472 

66 

472 

K'.i-v     Sur  f  tUh 

278 

Black          

618 

Blue-back  

477 

257 

California  

479 

197 

479 

184 

Doc  .. 

476 

324 

Dwarf  

470 

173 

470 

Plain 

708 

Grilse  

472 

fiuh 

541 

476 

327 

Kelp  .. 

413 

329 

Kelt*  

471 

27 

Killer  

458 

334 

King  ..                    

479 

332 

Lake    

487 

Banded 

331 

Land-locked  

470 

332 

Lost  

476 

197 

Parr  

472 

Q 

331 

Ryder,  John  A.,  on  the  Life-history  of  the  Oyster.711-758 

230 

Rock  

228 

o     T  i  **                    r> 

407 

Sea      

230 

466 

Silver         

477 

405 

tribe  

468 

Pike 

616-617 

Trout  

....474,485 

63 

name  for  Dolly  Vardon  Trout. 
White  

604 
....331,477 

62 

479 

Salmon  idae,  families  related  to  

....547,548 

500 

Salpa  

259 

and  Oqnaasa,  resemblance  between 
Sail-fish 

503 

356 

Salt  Pickerel                             

418 

Sal  ter-  water  Bream  

393 

357 

Chub  

269 

615 

152 

Bone-Shark 

667 

Trout,  name  for  Squeteague  

362 

Salve  Bug           

827 

393 

Salvelinns  font  inalin  485, 

486,497,498 
604 

398 

R  filth 

231 

485 

Saithe                              .           .............. 

228 

namaycnsh,  enemy  of  Alewives.  .  . 

692 

501 

496 

480 

486 

Clarkii 

568 

Sand  Bug       

779 

487 

Crab  

774 

499 

cask  family  

243 

463  474 

dab             

197 

468  475 

dollar       

839,840 

475 

Eel                             

244 

480 

fleas  

824 

237 

Mullet                    

449 

496 

Pike  

424 

475 

Piper                        

468  476 

Shark                     

670,671 

487 

Smelts                          ................. 

466,457 

487 

456,457 

Salmon            .       ...         .......             ... 

468 

Sangnisuga,  parasite  of  Sword-fish  

354 

469 

319 

distribution  of... 

..468.4(59 

Mediterranea... 

316 

884 


INDEX. 


Simla  pelamys,  similar  to  Frigate  Mackerel . 

Sardine,  name  for  Anchovy 

Gulf  Menhaden 

California 

Sargo  . 
Sarpo  . 


Page. 
306 
611 
576 
569 
400 
251 

Sars,  G.  O.,  on  Codfish  schools 205 

development  and  spawning  habits 

of  European  Lobster 802,803 

habits  of  the  Pollock 229 

natural  history  of  Norwegian  Lob- 
ster  810,811 

process  of  shedding  of  European 

Lobster 793 

reproduction  of  Codfish 214, 215 

Sauer  on  extinction  of  Bhytina 135 

Sauger 424 

Saury 460 

Savanilla 611 

Savega 569 

Saw-belly 582 

Saw-fish 667 

Sawyer 658 

Saxidomns  aratus 708 

gracilis 708 

Say,  on  food  and  habits  of  Blue  Crab 776 

Sayrus  Camperii 461 

Scabbard-fish 335 

Scads 326 

Scalaria  Groenlandica 693 

No  vangline 693 

Scale  Carp 619 

Scallop 709 

Scammon,  C.  M.,  on  abundance  California  Gray 

Whale 31,32 

antics  of  Humpback  Whale  26, 27 

Blackfish 18 

Bowheads . 21 

California  Sea  Lions 45-48 

Porpoise 14 

destrnctiveness     of     Killer 

Whalea. 17 

distribution  California  Sea 

Elephant 72 

Right  Whales.  25 
Sulphur  -  bot- 
tom Whales.  27 

figures  of  Fur  Seals 54 

habitsofCaliforniaGrampug  14 
California  Sea  Ele- 
phant   73 

the  Leopard  Seal 59,60 

motion  of  Cachalot 10 

movements  of  Right  Whales  25 

Northern  Fur  Seals 49-53 

Pacific  Finback 30 

reproduction       of       Right 

Whales.. 25 

the  Scrag  Right  Whale 31 

size  of  California  Sea  Ele- 
phant   72 

Humpback  Whale . .  26 

Sperm  Whale 9 

Scamp 413 


Page 

Scaphirhynchus  platyrhynchus 662 

Schellfisch 224 

Scherer,  on  extinction  of  Rhytina 135 

Schizotbferus  uiittalli 708 

Schlegel,  on  distribution  of  the  Cat-fish 248 

on  spawning  of  the  Cat-fish 249 

Schoodic  Trout 470 

School  Bass,  name  for  Red  Fish 372 

Cod 201 

Lobster 783 

Schroder,  on  pannacitty 11 

Sciaena  aquila 368 

ocellata 362-371 

Scistnidte 362 

Scomber  Colias 303 

diego 303 

gladius 356 

grex 303 

pneumatophorns 303 

scombrns 281 

Scomberesocidaa 459 

Scomberesox  sanrus 460 

Scomberomorus 307 

caballa 307,316 

concolor 316 

maculatns 307 

regalis 307,316 

Scombrolucins  brevirostris 460 

Scoodled  Skulljoe 228 

Scopelidie 547 

Scopelus  family 547 

Scores  by  on  habits  of  Nurse  Shark 674 

Seal  killing 64 

Scorpsena  dactyloptera 260 

gnttata 263 

marinus 261 

nor  wegicus 261 

porous 263 

regulns 261 

scrofa 263 

Stearnsi 260 

viviparus 261 

Soorpsenichthys  marmoratus 259 

Scorpene 263 

Scorpina 263 

Scorpion . 259,263 

Scorpis  californiensis 395 

Scotch  Dutch  Herring 551 

Scott,  G.  C.,  on  abundance  of  the  Bonito 318 

Spanish  Mackerel..  308 
the  best  fishing  ground  forSheeps- 

heads 383 

the  Grouper,  as  a  dinner-fish 411 

habits  of  the  Bonito 318 

reproduction  of  Spanish  Mackerel  313 

Scrag  Whale 30 

Whale,  history  of 30 

Scrod 201 

Scrode 201 

Sculpin 258 

Daddy 258 

Pigmy 258 

tribe 258 

Sculping  of  Atlantic  coast 258 


INDEX. 


885 


Scnlpins,  food  of  Goose  Flab... 

of  Pacific  coast 

Soup 

abundance  of 

enemies  of 

food  of 

increasing  abundance  of  . 

movements  of 


173 

259 

386 

399 

391 

388 

392 

390 

spawning  of 389 

value  of 392 

Soappang 386 

Scylliorhinus  ventrioeus 676 

Sc.vtalina  cerdale 843 

Sea-arrow 690 

Sea  Baas 407 

breeding  of 409 

geographical  range  of 406 

movements  and  habits  of 409 

name  for  Red-fish 372 

size  and  value  of 409,410 

White 378 

Sea-bat 173 

Sea-boat 701 

8e»-Bear 49 

Sea-bug 701 

Sea,  Cat 627 

name  for  Northern  Fur  Seals 51 

SeaCat-fishes 248 

Sea-caterpillar 701 

Sea-Clam 708 

Sea-Cow 114-116 

Arctic 128 

Sea  Crab 775 

Sea-craws 783 

Sea  Cucumbers 838 

Sea  Devil 173 

Sea-dog 55 

Sea-ears 700 

SeaEel : 655 

Sea  Elephant 49 

California 72 

Sea-fans 841 

Sea-feathera 841 

Sea  Ginger 841 

Sea-hare 18 

Sea-Horse  family 172 

geographical  distribution 172 

strange  shapes— interesting  habits 172 

Sea  Lawyer 397 

Sea  Lion 37,38 

general  history  of 39 

geographical  distribution 38, 39 

California 44 

Sea  Mantis 823 

SeaMullet 453 

Sea-needle 458 

Sea-owl 254 

Sea-perch 273 

Sea-pike 458 

Sea-ravens,  food  of  Goose  Fish 173 

name  for  Scnlpin 258 

Sea-robin 251 

distribution  of 256 

spawning  of 256 


Sea  Salmon 230 

Sea-serpent 449 

Sea-snails 253,693 

Sea-snakes 688 

Sea-snipe,  name  for  Silver  Gar-fish 488 

Sword-fish 338 

Sea-star 840 

Sea-toad 258 

Sea  Trout 267 

Sea  Trout,  name  for  Sqneteague 362 

White  Sea  Bass 378 

Sea  Urchin 838,839 

Seal,  Bay 62-65 

Bearded 63 

Common 55 

Crested 62,63,68 

Fjord 62 

Fresh- water 59 

Fur 37,75-113 

Northern  Fur 49,54 

Hair.. 37 

Harbor 55 

Harp 62,65 

Hooded 65,68 

Leopard 59,73 

Native 58,65 

Ribbon  67 

Ringed 56,63,65 

Rook 62 

Square  Flipper 65 

tribe, in  general 32,33 

Westlndian 67 

Sebago  Trout 470 

Sebastes  mat-inns 260 

Sebastiohthys  atrovirens 265 

auricnlatns ...'.        264 

carnatus 264 

canrinns  vexillaris 264 

chlorostictns 264 

chrysomelas 264 

ciliutns 26ft 

congtellatns 265 

elongatus 266 

entomelas 2G& 

flavidus 264,266 

maliger 264 

melanops 266 

miniatns 265 

mystinns 263,266 

nebnlosns 263 

nigrocinctns 263 

ovalis 266 

pinniger 264,265 

proriger 266 

rastrelliger 264,265,266 

rhodochloris 264-265 

rosaceus 264,265 

rnber 265 

rnbrivinctns 265 

serriceps 263 

umbiosus 265 

Sebastodes  paucispinis 266 

See-catch 77,81 

See-vitcbie ..  40 


886 


INDEX. 


Sei 

Selene  argentea 

setipinnia 

Semele  decisa 

Semotilus  bull  aris 

corporalis 

Sennet 

Senorita-fish  of  California . 

Seoinga 

Sergeant-fish 

Sergeant  Major 

Seriola  carolinensis 

dorsalis 

falcata 

fasciata  

Lalandii 

zonata 

Seriphns  politne 

Serranoid  fishes 

Serranus  at rari  us 

clathratns 

fascicnlaris 

macnlofasciatus .. 

nebulifer 

trifurcus  

Sesarma  rut  iculat a 

Sethe  

Sey 

Sey  Pollack 

Shad.. 


Page. 

228 

323 

322 

708 

617 

617 

448 

275 

474 

444 

276 

331 

331 

331 

331 

331 

331 

380 

413 

407 

413 

410 

414 

413 

410 

763 

228 

228 

228 

594 

causes  influencing  rate  of  movement  np 

rivers 605 

effects  of  water  temperatures  on  migrations .  598-599 

food  of 606-607 

geographical  distribution  of 594-596 

hereditary  instinct  of  locality  in 597, 598 

migrations  of 596-597-598 

name  for  Gulf  Menhaden 576 

Mobarra 279 

names  of 694 

observations  of,  on  Saint  John's  River,  Fla.  599 

period  of  river  life  of 603-606 

reproduction  of 605-606 

size  of 606 

young,  observations  of  movements  in  Po- 
tomac   603 

Gizzard 610 

Hard-head,  name  for  Menhaden 569 

Hickory  ..., 607 

Long- boned,  name  for  Moharra 279 

Mnd 610 

School 201 

Stink 610 

Tailor 608 

Trout,  name  for Squeteagne 362 

Waiter  641 

White-eyed 610 

Winter 610 

Yellow-tail,  name  for  Menhaden 669 

Shark,  Basking 667 

Black-finned 672 

Bine 669,671 

Bone 667 

Bonnet-headed 671 


Shark,  Cat 

Dog-fish 

Ducky 

Fox 

Ground 

Gurry 

Hammer-head. 

Mackerel 

Man-eater... 


Page. 

675 

670 

671 

G71 

674 

674 

671 

669 

, 669 

Nurse C72.674 

Sand  .. 670 

Shovel-nosed 670 

Thrasher 671 

Tiger 672 

Sharks, 667-674 

of  Pacific  coast 674-676 

Sharp-headed  Finner 30 

Sharp-nosed  Ray 665 

Shedders 776 

Sheepshead 380 

distribution  of 380 

family 380 

name  for  Butter-fish 333 

Parrot-fish 275 

Porgy  394 

Three-tailed 445 

Sheepswool  Sponge 848 

Shiner 617,618 

name  for  Menhaden 569 

Surf-fish 278 

Blunt-nosed 322 

Golden 616 

Pug-nosed 322 

Shiners 616 

Ship-worm 704 

Shoal-water  Cod 201 

Trout 488 

Shoemaker 332 

Shoemaker-fish 326 

Shore  Cod V01 

Shore-crab,  Purple,  of  Pacific  coast 765 

Yellow,  of  Pacific  coast 765 

Shore  Pompano,  distribution  of 329 

Short-nosed  Gar-pike 663 

Shovel-nosed  Shark 670,674 

Sturgeon 662 

Shrimp,  California 818 

Common 816-818 

Mantis 883 

Shrimps  and  Prawns 816-823 

Southern 821-823 

Shrimps,  River 819 

Shriver,  W.  W.,  letter  from,  claiming  first  trans- 
portation of  Black  Bass 4C4 

Sibbald,  on  Sperm  Whale  in  England 9 

Sibbaldius  borealis 27 

si  1 1  in  ic  us y 

tectiroslris 28 

tuberosus 28, 29 

Sidera  mordax 628 

ocellata 628 

Sifo -  337 

Silicioidea 844 

Siliqua  patnla 707 


INDEX. 


8H7 


Sill 

Sillkung,  similar  to  Deal-fish  . .. 

Billock 

Siliiridio 

Silver  Bans,  name  for  Moon-eye  . 

Eel 

Silver-fish 

Silver  Gar-fishes 


Puge. 

650 

449 

228 

626 

612 

335 

611 

458 

240 

distribution  of 240 

habits  of 242 

migrations  and  movements  of 241 

uses  of 242 

Lunge 487 

Moon-fishee 322 

Mullet 449 

Perch  .  375 

Salmon 477 

Sides 456 

Silver-spotted  Tunny 320 

Silver  Sqneteagne 367 

Surf-fish 278 

Trout 475 

SiniiiH. mis,  on  gastronomic  value  of  the  Cuttlefish.  692 
Simpson,  A.  W.,  on  geographical  distribution  of 

Mackerel 281 

Singing-fish 253 

Sirenia 3:5 

Sin-iiia  us. . ........ 114 

food  of 118 

Siscowet 485,486 

Siskawitz 486,496 

Skarp  Herring 550 

Skate,  Barn-door 666 

Skates 666 

Skeponopodus  guebucu 357 

typns 357 

Skip  Mackerel,  name  for  Bluefish 433 

Skipjack 460 

name  for  Bluefish 433 

Butter-fish 333 

Cutlass-fish 335 

Inland  Alewife 594 

the  Jurel 324 

Leather-jacket 332 

PacificBonito 319 

Runner 332 

Skipper 460 

Skopster 460 

Skowitz 477 

Skrae-fish 228 

Skulljoe 228 

Skunk  porpoise 16 

Sleeper  Shark 674 

Slider 155 

Slime  Eel 680 

Slimskin 73 

Slippery  Dick 274 

Sole 188 

Small  Hi-rring 550 

Small-month  Black  Ban 401 

Smelt 543 

family 543 

name  for  Lant 244 


Page. 

Smelt,  name  for  Pacific  Tom  Cod 223 

Alaska 544 

California 457,544 

Cittle 457 

Oreeu 456 

Little 457 

Surf 544 

Smelta,  Sand 456 

Smith,  on  different  varieties  of  Mackerel 308 

John  on  size  of  Mackerel  (1622) 299 

Capt.  J.  B.,  on  spawning  of  Sand  Smelts..  457 

J.  V.  C.,  on  abundance  of  Chub  Mackerel.  304 

Turbots  in  America 176 

8. 1. ,  on  development  of  the  Shrimp 817 

young  Lobster. 799, 802 
distribution  and  coloration  of  com- 
mon Shrimp 816 

growth  and  development  of  Rock 

Cod 767-769 

habits  and  distribution  of  lonali 

Crab 769,770 

Smolt 468 

Smooth  Black-fish 269 

Dog-fish 672 

Flounder 183 

Smyth  Si  Lowe,  on  size  of  South  American  Mana- 
tee   117 

Snail-borers 696 

Snails 696 

Sea 253 

Snake-fish  family 548 

Snapper  family 395 

name  for  Rose-fish 260 

Alligator 153 

Bastard 397 

Black 397 

Brown,  name  for  Red  Grouper 410 

Gray 397 

Mangrove 396, 397 

Peusacola 396 

Red-bellied,  name  for  Red  Grouper 410 

Snappers,  food  of  Mackerel 291 

name  for  Bluefish 433 

Black,  name  for  Cod-fish 201 

Blue,  name  for  Blnefish 433 

Snapping'  Mackerel,  name  for  Bluefish 433 

Turtles 152,153 

breeding  seasons  and  habits  of  153 

economic  value  of 153, 154 

sizeof 153 

North  American  species 153 

Snooks 444 

Snnfling  pig 14 

Snuffer 14 

Social  Whale 11 

Soft  Clam 707 

Crab 776 

Soft-shelled  Tortoises,  range  of 152 

Soft-shell  Lobster 783 

Turtles,  economic  value  of 152 

foodof 152 

Soglia 187 

Soldier  Crabs 779 

Sole 182,186,187 


888 


INDEX. 


Sole,  American.. . 

California!! . . 

Long-finned  . 

Slippery 

Solea  vulgaris 

Soleidae 

Solenocoucba 


Page. 

175 

185 

188 

188 

175 

175 

703 

Soiuniosus  microcephalus 674,675 

Sookli 703 

Southern  Eed-fish 372 

Spade-fish 445 

Spanish  Flag 265 

Leech 837 

Mackerel 303 

and  its  allies 307-316 

reproduction  of 313 

Sparad 278 

Sparada 276,278 

Sparidie 380 

Sparling 543 

Sparoids 394 

California!! 394 

Sparus,  auratus 393 

pagrus 393 

Spawn  Pike 421 

Spear-fish 336,337,357 

movements  of 358 

name  for  Carp  Sucker 615 

pugnacity  of 358 

Mediterranean 337 

Spearing 612 

Spearling 543 

Speckled  Garrnpa 263 

Hound-fish 308,435 

Moray 628 

Trout 497,475,504 

culture  of 500 

distribution  of 498 

hahitsof 498,499 

size  and  food  of 500- 

spawning  season  and  habits  of  . .  499 

Turtle 158 

Sperling 550 

Sperm  Whale 7-11 

in  California 9 

distribution  of 7 

in  Europe 9 

food  of 10 

former  abundance  of 8 

habits  of  association,  motion,  blow- 
ing, &c 9 

reproduction  of 10 

size  and  color  of 9 

useful  products  of 11 

Porpoise 18 

capture  of  two,  in  England  18 

Sphyrcena  argentna 448 

borealis 448 

picnda 448 

spet 448 

SphyranidtB   448 

Spliyrna  tiburo 671 

zygrena 671,675 

Spiced  Herring 550 


Pago. 

Spicer,  Capt.  William,  on  pugnacity   of  Spear- 
fishes  358,359 

Spider  Crabs 778 

Spiering 543 

Spikes  298 

Spiny  Lobster 780,781 

Spirialis  Gouldii,  food  of  Mackerel 290 

Spisula  ovalis 703 

solidissima 708 

Split-mouth  Sucker 614 

Split-tail   817 

American,  commercial 846 

Sponge,  Bath 845 

Boring 850 

general  considerations  of 843 

Gherbis 848 

Glove 845,847 

Grass  848,849 

Hard  Head 845 

Horse 845,848 

injurious 850 

Reef 846 

Sheepswool 848 

Velvet 848 

Venetian  Bath 848 

Wool 845 

Yellow 845,849 

Zimocca 845 

Sponges 843-846 

Spongia,  the  genus 846 

agaricina 845 

agaricina,  sub-sps.  Corlosia  and  dura..  -  849 

equina 845 

equina,  sub-sp.  cerebriformis 849 

equina,  sub-sp.  gossypina 848 

equina,  sub-sp.  meandriniformis 848,849 

graminea 848 

officinalis 845 

officinalis,  sub-sp.  tnbulifera 847 

Spot 376 

Spotted  Bass,  name  for  Red- fish 372 

Black  Rock-fish 266 

Cabrilla 414 

Cat-fish 249 

Cero 307,316 

Corsair 265 

Hind 412 

Rock  Trout 267 

Sand  Flounder 199 

Squeteague '     365 

Tortoise 158 

Trout 475 

Trout,  name  for  Sqneteagne 365 

Turbot 177 

Sprat 277 

Herring 579 

Spring  Herring 579 

Squall 667 

Squalius  gibbosus 616 

niger 616 

obesns 616 

pandora 616 

purpureus 616 

rhomalens 616 


1NDKX. 


Sqnalusacanthia* 672,674,675 

americanus 204 

Square  Flipper  Seal 65 

Sqnat 674 

SquatiDa 171 

angelng 674 

Sqneteagne 3C2 

abundance  of :... 363-364 

grout  catch  of,  off  Eockaway,  1881 ...  363 

names  of 362 

Silver 367 

Spotted 365 

Squid  School 201 

Common 687 

Squid-fish 11 

Squid-hound 425 

Squids,  enemies  of  the  Lant 345 

Squilladnbia 823 

enipnga 823 

Squirrel-fish 410 

name  for  Sailor's  Choice 393 

Bermuda 361 

SquirrelHake 234 

gquit 362 

Sqnitee 362 

Stag-horn  Corals 841 

Stannard.R.  II.,  on  destructive-ness  of  the  Jelly- 
fish   842 

Star  Corals 841 

Star-fish,  name  for  Butter-fish 333 

Star-fishes 840,841 

Starbuck,  Alexander,  on  former    abundance   of 

Sperm  Whale 8 

Starling 267 

Starry  Flounder 184 

Stay-ships,  fish-parasites 355 

Stearns,  Silas,  on  abundance  and  babita  of  Com- 
mon Pompano 328,329 

on  abundance  and  habits  of  the 

Grouper 410,411 

on  abundance  and  habits  of  the 

Sailor's  Choice 394 

on  abundance  of  Sheepshead 380 

and  size  of  the  Plaice.  179 
of  Striped  Bass  in  Gnlf 

of  Mexico 425 

Alligator  Gar 664 

Angel-fish 280 

Black  Grouper 411 

Bluefish  in  Gnlf  of  Mexico 442-443 

theCrevalll 324 

destrnctiveness  of  the  Drum  —  368 

distribution  of  Banner  Pompano.  329 

theCobia 444 

Florida  Manatees.  114 
and  habits  of  Red 

Snappers 395 

of  Plaice 179 

feeding  habits  of  Toad-fish 252 

Gray  Snapper 397 

Gnlf  Menhaden 575,577 

habits  of  Amber-fish 331 

Blue  Crab 777,778 

the  Jurel..  325 


Stearns,  Silas,  on  feeding  lml.it  *  of  Margate  fish ...        394 

Silver  Gar-fish. ...458, 459 

Spade-fish 44.1,446 

Spotted  Hind 412 

Spotted          Si  |  in- - 

teagne 366, 367 

Sting  Ray 664 

history  and  habits  of  Southern 

Red-fish 371,373 

the  King-fish 316 

Mangrove  Snapper 397 

manner  of  capture  and  value  of 

the  Drum 369 

migrations  of  Spanish  Mackerel 

in  Gulf  of  Mexico 311,312 

movements  of  Red-fish 373 

Mullet  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ....  454-456 

names  of  Banded  Groupers 413 

Plaice 178 

Red-mouth  Grunt 398 

reproduction  of  Spanish  Mack- 
erel         315 

size  and  habits  of  the  Pig-fish. .  .399, 400 

spawning  of  Red  Snappers 396 

season  of  Sea  Bass 409 

of  Sheepshead 385,386 

Toad-fish 252 

Sucking-fish 446 

Sarpnm 611  _ 

Shread-fish 279 

Whipparee 665 

Stedman  on  size  of  South  American  Manatee 117 

Steel-head 474 

Steen-Kobbe 62 

Steindachner  on  size  of  Sword-fish  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean          347 

Steinbutt 199 

Steller,  G.  W.,  on  habits  of  Northern  Fur  Seal 51, 52 

Rhytina 130 

misfortunes  of 130 

on  natural  history  of  Sea  Ccw  ...  130-134 

Stenlock 228 

Stenotomns  caprinui 386 

chrysops 386 

Gardeni 386 

Stereolepis  gigas 413 

Stickleback  family 457,458 

four-spined 457 

ten-spined 457 

two-spined 457 

Stimpson  on  the  Kelp  Crab 778 

range  of  Southern  Shrimps 822 

Sting  Ray 664 

Stingaree 664 

Stink-pot 154 

Stink  Shad 610 

Stint 543 

Stizostedinm  canadense 417,424 

vitrenm 417 

Stoasodou  narineri 665 

Stockfisch 200 

Stokvisch 242 

Stolephorus  Browni 611 

compressus —        612 


890 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Stolephorns  delicatissimns 612 

Mitchilli 611 

ringens 612 

Stone  Cat 627 

Stone  Crab 772,774 

distribution  of 773 

Stone-biter 249 

Stone  Livingston  on  the  California  Salmon 479-485 

Stone-roller  Sucker 615 

Storer,  H.  E. ,  on  abundance  of  the  Bonito 317 

Chub  Mackerel....        304 

Cuimers 274 

Squeteague 362 

amount   of    oil   obtained    from 

Mackerel  Shark 669 

distribution  of  Halibut 192 

the  Scnppaug  . .        387 

Tantog 269 

economic  value  of  Cat-fish 250 

Snapping  Tur- 
tle         154 

Toad-fish....        253 

Plat-fish 182,183 

gastronomic  value  of  the  Tau- 

tog 271 

the  habits  of  the  Lant 245 

movements  of  Haddock 224 

Mutton-fish 247 

names  of  Sea  Bass 407, 408 

spawning  of  Mackerel 296 

Toad-fish 252 

uses  of  the  Silver  Hake 242, 243 

Strawberry  Bass 406 

Striped  Bass 424,425 

abundance  of 427, 428 

American  and  European,  similarity 

of 1 424 

family 424 

fishing  clubs 426,427 

food  of 425,426 

geographical  distribution  of 425 

habits  of 425 

manner  of  capture,  size  and  ship- 
ment of  426 

reproduction  and  growth  of 426 

uses  of 426 

Bonito 316,319 

Drum 367 

Fish 368 

Lake  Bass 424 

Mullet ' 449 

Perch 417 

StromateidsB 332 

Stromateoid  fishes 332 

Stromateus  alepidotus 333 

simillimus 334 

triacanthns 333 

food  of  Sword-fish 349 

Strombas  gigas 699 

Stromming 550 

Strongy locentrotus  drobachiensis 838, 839 

franciscanns 838,839 

lividns 839 

Sturgeon 659 


Sturgeon,  Green 

Lake 

Shovel-nosed 
White... 


Page. 

662 

660 

662 

662 

Sturgeons,  Atlantic  coast 659-662 

California 662 

Succoteagne 362 

Sucker,  Brook 614 

Carp 615 

Chub 614 

Gourd-seed 615 

Hammer-head 615 

May 614 

Missouri 615 

Mud 615 

name  for  the  Bagre 379 

Rabbit-mouth 614 

Stone-roller 615 

Sweet 614 

Sword-  fish,  name  for  Remora 446 

White 614 

Suckerel 615 

Suckers 614 

name  for  Remora 446 

Sucking-fishes — 446 

Sudis  ringens 548 

Suk-kegh 477 

Sulphur-bottom  Whales 27,  29 

distribution   and   move- 
ments of 27 

Summer  Flounder 178 

Herring 579 

Sun-fish 405 

name  for  Blunt-nosed  Shiner 322 

name  for  Bone  Shark 667 

Blue 406 

Common 405 

Long-eared 406 

Sun-fishes,  name  for  Jelly-fish 841 

Ocean 169,170 

Sun-squalls 169 

Sun  Trout,  name  for  Squeteagne 362 

Snndevall,  Carl  J.,  on  reproduction  of  European 

Burbot 238,239 

Sunny 405 

Surf  Clam 708 

Surf-fish 277 

family 276 

habits  of 276,277 

names  of 276 

Black 278 

Blue 277 

Rosy 278 

Silver 278 

Wall-eye 278 

Surf  Smelt "44 

Whiting 

Surgeon-fish  family 279 

Sutherland,  P.  C.,  on  abundance  of  Halibut 192 

Svine-hval 

Swedish  Leech 

Sweet  Sucker 614 

Swellfishes 170 

Toad "0 


891 


Sweeny,  R.  O.,  on  dissimilarity  of  Siscowot  and 

Namacush 497,498 

Swine-fish v.'U» 

Swingle  Tail 671 

Sword-fish 3:16-338 

abundance  in  the  past,  probability  of 

future  decrease.... 3-18 

abundance  of  at  present 348 

absence  uf  ordinury  habit  s  of  breeding 

season  uinong 350 

in  America,  allusions  by  early  writers.  339, 340 

as  an  article  of  food 355,356 

distribution  on  coast  of  United  States       340 

distribution  in  Eastern  Atlantic 340 

effects  of  overfisbing  for  in  the  Medi- 
terranean   .'. .        348 

enemies  of 354 

entering  rivers :n.' 

family 33G 

geographical  distribution  and  move- 
ments of 338 

influence  of  temperatures  on   move- 
ments of 344, 345 

invertebrate  parasites  of 354 

large  painting  of,  in  Bremen 342 

movements  of  individuals 345 

name  for  Cutlass-fish 335 

name  for  Gar-pike 662 

names  of 337 

nature  of  food  of 349 

occurrence    in    Pacific    and    Indian 

Oceans 341 

Parasites,  Suckers,  or  Bemoras 355 

periodical  movements  of 342,343,344 

probable  winter  habitat  of 345 

pugnacity  of 351,352,353,354 

rate  of  growth  of 347 

reasons  of  coming  of,  on  our  coast 344 

reproduction  of 349,350 

size  of,  in  the  Mediterranean 347 

times  of  arrival  and  departure  of 343,344 

American,    maximum,    and    average 

sizeof 346 

American,  minimum  size  of 346-347 

Sucker   446 

Sycotyphus  canaliculate 694 

Syngnathidee 172 

Synodont  ida> 548 

Synodns  fcetens 548 

lucioceps 548 

Syrski,  discovery  of  male  eel  by 638-640 

on  the  ovaries  of  the  eel 641-644 

Tailorshad 608 

Talorchestia  longicoruis 825 

mcgalophtbalma 825 

Tambor 265 

Tarpon 611 

Tarpum 610 

Tartaruga  150 

Tauna 322 

Tantaug 268 

Tautog 268,269 

abundance  of 271 

distribution  of 269 


Taut  nit  fishery 271,272 

food  of 270 

habits  of 270 

reproduction  of 270,271 

Tautogaonitis 268 

Tchawytcha 479 

Tellens 708 

Tender  Herring 551 

I.  n-liratulina  aeptentrioualis 703 

Teredo,  destructiveness  of 706 

dilatata  704 

megotara 704 

navalis    704 

norvegica 704 

Thompson! 704 

Terrapin,  Diamond-back 155-157 

Pine-barren 158 

Red-bellied 154 

Salt-water 156 

Yellow-bellied 155 

Terrapins,  Fresh- water 154 

Tetrapturus  albidus 337,358 

albidus,  enemy  of  Swordfish   354 

belone 337 

imperator 357 

indicus 336,358 

Tetrodon  turgidus 170 

Tetrodontidffl 170 

Tetn,  D.  H.,  on  uses  of  White  Whale 19 

Thalassochelys  caretta 147 

Kempii 147 

Thalassophryne  maculosa,  closely  related  to  Toad- 

Ush 251 

Thaleichthys  pacificus 547 

Thiinble-eye  Mackerel 303 

Thompson,  on  capture  of  Harbor  Seal 57 

Sperm  Whale  in  England 9 

J.   H. ,  on  periodical  movements  of 

Sword-fish 343 

Thrasher  Shark  671 

Thread-fish  320 

family 279 

Thread  Herring 610 

Thresher  Shark 675 

Three- tail  Porgee 445 

Sheepshead.. 445 

Thunder-pumper 370 

Thutinameg 173 

Thy  null  Ins  mi  in  tan  us 505 

signifer 505 

tricolor 505 

vulgaris 506 

Thysanopoda,  food  of  Mackerel 290 

Tibrie 228 

Tiger  Shark 672 

Tile-fish 

family 360 

Tiina  formosa 

TimbiTello 

Tinker  Mackerel 290,304 

Tinkers 

1    TinyHerring  579 

Toad-fish 251 

food  of 252 


892 


INDEX. 


Toad-fish, name  for  Goose  Fish, 
name  for  Swell  Fish  . . 

Tobias-fish 

Togue  

Tom-cod,  name  for  King-fish . . . 
name  for  Rock-fish. .. 

Atlantic 

Ton 

Tonicella  marinora 

Tonnina 

Toothed  Herring 

Torgoch 

Torpedo 

californica 

occidentals 

Torek 

Tortoise,  Bell's 

Chicken 

Gopher  


P»ge. 

173 

170 

244 

486 

375 

267 

223 

230 

693 

322 

612 

501 

666 

667 

666 

200 

157 

157 

158 

Musk 152,154 

shell  Turtles 149 

Spotted 158 

Wood 153 

Tortoises,  Geographic 152 

Pond  152,154,157 

Soft-shelled,  food  of 152 

and  Turtles,  Marine 147 

mode  of  life  of 147 

distribution  of 147 

Tortue  franche 150 

Trachurns  picturatua 326 

sanrus 326 

Trachydermon  albus 693 

ruber 693 

Trachynotns  carolinus 326 

fasciatns 392 

glancns 327,329 

goreensis 327,329 

ovatus 327,329 

TrachypteridiB 449 

Trachypterns  altivelis 449 

Tree-fish 263 

Trepang 838 

TriaciB  Heiilei C75 

semifasciatns 675 

Trichechns  latirostris 114,118 

manatns 114,115 

senegalensis  119 

Trichinrna  haumela 335 

lepturus 335,337 

Trichodon  Stelleri 253 

Trichotropis  borealis 693 

Triforig  nigrocinctus 693 

Trigger-fish 172 

Trigla  256 

cuculus 256,257 

gunardus  256 

hirundo 256,257 

lyra 257 

Triglidie 255 

Triglopsis  Thompson!,  food  of  Burbot 239 

Trionychida 152 

Triple-tail 444 

Black..  445 


Tritia 

trivittata . 
Trophon  clathratus . 


Page. 

696 

693 

693 

scalariformis 693 

Trout 486 

in  the  Great  Lakes 493--49G 

Bistard,  name  for  Silver  Squeteague 367 

Bear 497 

Black  Spotted 475 

Brook 475 

Bull 504 

Deep-water 488 

name  for  Squeteagno 364 

DollyVarden  504 

Gray 487 

Grey,  name  for  Squeteague 362 

Golden 475 

Lake 485 

name  for  Dolly  Varden  Trout 504 

Mackinaw 488 

Mountain 475 

name  for  Black  Bass 401 

Pot-bellie 488 

Rainbow 475 

Red 487 

spotted 504 

Reef 488 

Rio  Grande 476 

Rock 267 

Salmon 474,485 

name  for  Dolly  Varden  Trout 504 

Salt- water,  name  for  Squeteague 362 

Sea,  name  for  Green  Rock  Trout 267 

SeaBass 378 

name  for  Squeteagne 362 

Sebago 470 

Schoodic 470 

Shad,  name  for  Squeteagne 362 

Shoal-water 488 

Speckled 497 

name  for  Dolly  Varden  Trout 504 

Rainbow  Trout 475 

Spotted,  name  for  Rainbow  Trout 475 

name  for  Squeteague 365 

Sun,  name  for  Sqneteagno 362 

White,  name  for  Silver  Squeteague 367 

True,  F.  W.,  on  enumeration  of  egga  in  Mackerel .  297 

the  Sirenians 114-136 

useful  Aquatic  Reptiles  and  Batra- 

chians 141-161 

Trnmbull,  J.  H.,  on  abundance  of  the  Bonito 317 

letter  in  the  Dubertus 29, 30 

Trnmpo S> 

Trunk  Fishes 170 

Turtle 147 

Trygon  dipterurus 666 

Tsebarqua 267 

Tub-fish 256,257 

Tuladi 486 

Tuna 319,320 

Tunny 320 

Long-finnod 320 

Silver-spotted 320 

Tnrbot... 177 


INDEX. 


Tnrbot  in  America 

n a i in'  for  Diamond  Flounder 

File  unbes 

Plaice 

skin  used  for  cleansing  purposes. 

valuable  as  food 

Flounder 

Greenland 

Spotted 

Turning  Harps 

Tn nii i-l la  erosa 

Tusk 

Tusk-shells 

Tnrsiops  erebennus 


175 
185 
172 
178 
172 
172 
178 
199 
177 
62 
653 
233 
703 
16 
16 

Turtle,  Alligator 153 

Bastard 147 

Leather 147 

Loggerhead 147,153 

Speckled 158 

Trnnk 147 

Turtles 147 

Box 158 

Green 147,150 

Hawk's  bill 147,149 

Snapping 152,153 

Tortoise-shell 149 

Tyee 479 

Tyler,  I'...  on  abundance  of  Branch  Alewife 591 

movements  of  Branch  Alewife 591, 592 

Tylosnrus  caribb»us 459 

exilis 459 

hians 459 

Jonesii 459 

longirostris 458 

vulgaris 459 

Tyrant  of  the  Lake 487 

Tyrgon  centrura 664 

Uhler  and  Lugger  on  economical  importance  of 

the  Drum 368 

distribution  of  Sword-fish.        341 

Umber 506 

Umbrina  roncador 379 

Unceola  irrorata,  found  in  stomach  of  Sea- robin.        256 

Unio 703 

Unionidas 709,710 

Upeneus  flavovittatns 361 

Uranidea 259 

aspera 259 

gulosa 259 

Urchin,  Sea 838 

Urolophns  halleri 666 

Urosalpinx  cinerea 697 

Ursus  marinus 51 

Vache  marin 116 

Vaginicola 733 

Valenciennes,  on  distribution  of  Sword-fish 340 

Velutinalievigata 693 

zonata 693 

Velvet  Sponge 848 

Venericardia  borealis 703 

Venetian  Bath  Sponge 848 

Venus  uiercenaria 703 

Vermilion-fish -,'i.| 


Verrill  on  the  Amphipods 824,835 

appearance  and  habits  of  Lady  Crab.. 774, 775 

of  Mantes  Shrimp 823 

breeding  habits  of  King  Crab 839 

color  of  Pandalus  borealis 819,820 

destructiveuess  and  distribution  of  the 

Teredo 706,707 

distribution  of  the  Green  Crab 774 

Rock  Crab 706 

habitat  of  common  Prawn 819 

habitats  of  the  common  Barnacle 828,829 

habits  and  appearaace  of  Oyster  Crab.        765 
characteristics    of   Fiddler 

Crabs 763-765 

of  common  Shrimp 816,817 

and    destructiveuess  of  Boring 

Limnoria 820,827 

of  Hermit  Crabs 780 

Marine  Worms 831-833 

the  Sea-arrow 690-692 

Spider  Crab 778 

and  uses  of  Blue  Crab 776 

history  and  breeding  liubits  of  the  com- 
mon Squid 687-690 

of  the  Ship-worm 704,705 

the  Jelly-fishes 841.842 

Mud  Crabs 772 

Ophidinm  marginatnm 243 

reproduction  of  the  Conch 694, 695 

the  Sand-dollar 839,840 

Squids,  enemies  of  Mackerel 299,  :tOO 

structure  of  American  Leech H34 

Venva 206 

Voilier 338 

Volator 459 

Von  Frantzius,  on  abundance  of  South  American 

Manatee 123 

distribution  of  Florida  Manatees  .        115 

Von  Henglin,  on  distribution  of  Hooded  Seal 70 

Ringed  Seals 65 

Von  Schrenck,  on  distribution  of  Ribbon  Seal 67 

Von  sti'iiianii.  on  movements  of  young  Eels 651 

Vorticella 733 

Wagner,  on  distribution  of  Riuged  Seals 65 

Sea-bears 52 

Waiter  Shad 541 

Walker,  8.  T. ,  on  consumption  of  Moss  by  Sheeps- 

head 385 

Wall-eye  Surf-fish 278 

Wall-eyed  Herring 580 

Pike,  abundance  of 418 

in  theGreat  Lakea.418-423 

name  for  Pike  Perch 417 

Walrus,  Atlantic,  distribution  of 34 

Walruses 33,34,35 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  species 34 

Walton,  on  the  habits  of  Salmon 469,470 

marked  Salmon 470 

Warmonth 405 

Black 405 

Warsaw 411 

Water  Flounder 199 

Weak-fish 362 

,    Webb,  Capt.  Henry,  on  spawning  of  Mackerel. ..        296 


894 


INDEX. 


Weesick 

Wells,  on  pugnacity  of  Alligators. 

Welshman 

West  Indian  Seal 

geographical  distribution  of 


Page. 

608 

144 

401 

67 

67 


Whale,  Black 11,25 

Blowing 11 

Bowhead 20 

Bunch 26 

Caing 11 

Finback 28,30 

Grayback 31 

Gray,  California 31,32 

Greenland 20 

Humpback 26,27,29 

Jupiter 30 

Killer 12,17 

Northwest 24 

Pilot 11 

Polar 20 

Right ". 8,24 

Scrag 30 

Social 11 

Sperm 7-11 

Whales,  Sulphur-bottom 27,29 

White ^ 15,18 

Whipparee 665 

White,  on  range  and  habits  of  Mantis  Shrimps..        823 
uses  and  destructiveness  of  the  Green 

Crab 774 

Angel-fish 280 

Bass 424,428 

White-boned  Porgy 394 

White-coats 62 

White-eyed  Shad 610 

White-fish 507 

abundance  of 536-540 

artificial  propagation  of 523-535 

capture  of 535,536 

development  of  eggs  and  embryo 519-521 

diseases  of 535 

embryonic,  food  of 515,516 

enemies  of 512,513 

experiments  in  hatching  eggs  of 528 

food  of 513-516 

habits  of,  at  spawning  season 516-519 

methods  of  shipping  eggs  of..... 528, 529 

migrations  of 509 

name  for  Blnefish 433 

Menhaden 569 

Silver  Salmon 477 

Tile-fish 361 

names  of 507 

rate  of  growth  of 521,522 

size  of 507,508 

spawning  of 516 

Chief  Mountain 542 

Lake 507 

Menomonee 541,542 

Mongrel 541 

Musquaw  River 541 

Rocky  Mountain 542 

Grnnt 399 

Hake..  234 


Page. 

White  Mullet 449 

Perch 431 

Perch,  name  for  Drum 370 

Surf-fish 277 

similar  to  Striped  Bass 424 

Surf-fish 276 

Salmon 477 

name  for  California  Yellow- tail 331 

Sea  Bass 378 

Sturgeon 662 

Sucker 614 

Trout,  name  of  Silver  Squeteague 367 

Whale 15,18 

captures  in  Massachusetts. . . .' 18, 19 

distribution  of 18 

habits  of 18 

historical  note  of 18 

uses  of 19 

Whiting,  name  for  Harvest-fish 333 

King- fish 375 

Musquaw  River  White-fish  ...  541 

TomCod 223 

Bull-head S77 

Deep-water 377 

New  England 240 

Surf 377 

Whitings 376 

Wide  Gap 173 

Gut , 173 

Will  George 269 

Williams,  H.  S.,  on  the  habits  of  the  Cavally 323 

Mullet  season  in  the  In- 
dian River 453,454 

Red-fish  as  a  game-fish. .  .374, 375 

season  for  Sheepshead 385 

Windfish 173 

Window-pane,  name  for  Spotted  Sand  Flounder..  199 

Turbot 177 

Wing-fish 255 

Wing-shells 702,703 

Winkle 694 

Winninish 470 

Winter  Flounder 179,182 

Shad 610 

Wittmack,  Dr.  L.,  on  habits  of  the  Pike  in  Europe.462, 463 

on  the  habits  of  the  Sabling 503,504 

Dr.,  on  movements  of  Haddock 225 

on  reproduction  of  Haddock 226 

Wolf-eel 250 

Wolf-fishes...: 247-249 

Wood,  on  capture  of  American  Manatee 125 

Wood  louse 701 

Wood  Tortoise 158 

Woodward,  on  the  Pholades 707 

Woohoo 387 

Wool  Sponge 845 

Worm  Cod 201 

Worms 831-837 

bait 831 

marine 831 

Wrasses 247 

Wrinkle 604 

Xenistius  californiensis 400 

Xerobates  Agassizi 158- 


INDEX. 


Xerobatoa  Bcrlandieri !."•- 

polyphemna 158 

Xiphias  glndius 336,337 

imperator 357 

Koudelotii 337 

Xiphiidas 336 

Xiphister  chirus 251 

mucosus   250 

Xipliiisura 829,830 

Xylnphaga  dorealis 704 

Xylotrya  fimbrista 704,707 

Xystrourys  liolepis 188 

Yarrell,  on  distribution  of  the  Sea  Cat-fish 248 

economic  value  of  Cat-fish 250 

Yarrow,  H.  C.,on  abundance  and  size  of  Spanish 

Mackerel 312 

distribution  of  Sword-fish 341 

the  Spotted  Squeteagae 365, 366 

Yellow  Angel-fish 280 

Bass 431 

Yellow-bellied  Terrapin 155 

Yellow  Cat 627 

Yellow-flnned  Roncador 379 

Yellow  Fish 268 

Grant 399 

Mackerel 324 

Perch 414 

abundance  of 414,415,416,417 

Pickerel 421 

Pike ..  421 


Yellow  Pike,  name  for  Pike  Perch 417 

Rock-fish 265 

Shore-crab  of  Pacific  Coast 765 

Sponge 846,849 

Yellow-tail 376 

name  for  Menhaden 669 

Runner 332 

California 331 

Rook-fish 206 

Shad,  name  for  Menhaden 660 

Yoldia  limatula 703 

1 1 1  \  ;i  1  i  s „ 703 

sapotilla 703 

thraciformis 703 

Young  Harps 62 

Zalophna ". 37,38 

californianns  39, 44, 45 

Zaniolepis  latipinnis 268 

Zee-enip 338 

Zenidie 335 

Zenopsis  ocellatns •. 335 

Zeusfaber 224 

Zeyl-fisch 338 

Zimocca  Sponge 845 

Zirphiea  crispata 707 

Zoarces  anguillaris , 236,247 

viviparus 247 

Zwaard-fis 337 

Zygodactyla  groenlandioa 842 


x 


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